Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science

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REPORT

OF THE

SIXTY-NINTH MEETING

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

HELD AT

DOVER IN SEPTEMBER 1899.

*
pen! LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1900.

Office of the Association : Burlington House, London, W.
“oe .
ase ¥ :

PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
LONDON

CONTENTS.

eget
Page
OszseEots and Rules of the Association ..2..seeeseeeee veeees psanuress POR aT TREN 9 28 <
‘Places and Times of Meeting, with Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local
Secretaries from COMMENCAMENL ..vscersssesssersescereeecesrereessseceeeeeseces xl
Trustees and General Officers, from 1831 ..........seeeeeees SRLS PE hii
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from 1832... lili
List of Evening Discourses ............ssecsessecserecsssscancssdscocssanersecsecaees Ixxi
Lectures to the Operative Classes ....... Sa Aornonnicl isbn Senyiqodenk, Reduce radar ariopee Ixxv
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Dover Meeting ........... » Ixxvi
Treasurer’s Account ..... AngpaSoRbicoencad cadoLabodUL AdcodousocHetUnEdbpe idosdddenbdeT ad Ixxviii
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings ...... Ixxx
Officers and Council, 1899-1900 ..... ESE Srecb ohcean gocnec sedanesbieaas ears Yelk ees!
Report of the Council to the General Committee ........scseeeseeesetsnneeeeees . Ixxxiii
Committees appointed by the General Committee at the Dover Meet-

Ang in September 1899 ............:ssssecceseseseeeeesscsssssseseeseenaseesese snes a) XCIV
Gemiianications ordered to be printed 4 GHLETAD nogsha Wor ashi aftnasiier tins Sects ciii
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action if

esirable .......:sssseecesssssteesseesteseeesesesseeenereteeeasecneeenesenneseneeeeeens ciii
Change of Hours of Meetings, &C. .....sseeeeeeseeeeeeeeees cbt tte cili
Synopsis of Grants of Money .......sessees sees obpechacoc chon a Someta atin eet caste civ
Places of Meeting in 1900 and 1901........2...ssccosccesseseerccnsesencsevscensscvans evi
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants for
Bae eae AICO SOS igh sero athoadclek hes eat erastawas Sey susgeigy oss cial cha ins he os evil
General MeetingS .......sccceseecsecsesseees Resco na etodoaec SchgoaB warn cceaye case peGX Sl G

apie by the President, Sir Micnann Foster, K.0.B., Sec.R.S.........0066 3
a a AZ

°

lv REPORT—1899,

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

[An asterisk * indicates that the title only is given. The mark t indicates the same,
but a reference is given to the journal or newspaper where it is published in extenso. |

Page
Corresponding Societies Committee.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor R, Mexpota (Chairman), Mr. T. V. Hozmes (Secretary), Mr.
Franois Garton, Mr. G. J. Syxons, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir Joun Evans,
Mr. J. Horxinson, Professor T. G. Bonnny, Mr. W. Wui1taxer, Sir Cutu-
BERT Ppex, Mr. Horace T. Brown, Rev. J. O. Bevan, Professor W. W.
Warrant Rev. P:R, Re Sreppine s2.2ii.2.00.cc.ccstcadsceteuseaest ee stammen’s 27

Radiation from a Source of Light in a Magnetic Field,—Preliminary Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor Grorcr Francis FirzGEratp
(Chairman), THomas Preston (Secretary), Professor A. ScHusTER, Pro-
fessor O. J. Lodge, Professor 8. P. THomprson, Dr. Geratp Moztoy, and
HPS AVY Go), GDENIHY.scwscsevessinsecectiesorteassaesesecevess sos save Orcas eaeuee an CmemmeD . 63

Determining Magnetic Force at Sea.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor A, W, Rtcrpr (Chairman), Dr. C. H. Lees (Secretary), Lord
Ketyin, Professor A. Scouster, Captain E. W. Creax, Professor W,
Srrovup, Mr. C. V. Boys, and Mr. W. Watson, appointed to investigate
the Method of determining Magnetic Force at Sea .........sssesecseeseeeeeeves . 64

Meteorological Observatory, Montreal.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Professor H. L. Catnenpar (Chairman), Professor C. McLzop
(Secretary), Professor F. Apams, and Mr. R. F. Srupart, appointed for the
purpose of establishing a Meteorological Observatory on Mount Royal,
Montreal ORMACA ccc scvecacdedessatcudereeccoves cocuncdeenoneeereanbeat s san seeeenee wpcteee MOD

Tables of the G (7, v)-Integrals.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Rev.
Rozsert Harwey (Chairman), Professor A. R. Forsyru (Secretary), Dr. J.
W. L, GuaiIsHER, Professor A. Lope®, and Professor Kart Prarson. (Drawn

up by Professor KARL PHARSON,) .......cceeeeeeees sopsneostisn@neencselsanke eam 65
APpPENDIX,—Table of F (7, v) and H (7, v) Functions. By Miss Aticp
DSCs coco. tre ccpvecceceueune sate ee eee REET Oo eee 71
Report on the Progress of the Solution of the Problem of Three Bodies,
By EL NV TRACER Cre scesconecarcaversceeccsteascocecsskeassscacr¢sstenenen ape

On Solar Radiation.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. G. Jony-
stoNE Stoney (Chairman), Professor H. McLurop (Secretary), Sir G. G.
Sroxes, Professor A. Scuuster, Sir H. E. Roscozn, Captain W. pp W.
Asney, Dr. C. Cures, Professor G. F. FitzGpratp, Professor H. L.
CaLLENDAR, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. W. E. Witson, and Professor A. A.
RaMBAU‘, appointed to consider the best methods of recording the Direct
HntenbityOMnsOlat MAGIAUION +... ccetss-tec.ccecctnovcereccescecasveseescscsnaes treReaee 159

Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr, W. N. SHaw (Chairman), Mr. E. H. Grirrirus, Rey. T. C. Firz-
patrick, Mr. 8, Skinner, and Mr. W. C. D. Wuernam (Secretary),
appointed to Report on the Present State of our Knowledge in Electrolysis
and Electro-chemistry .,......csece0ee rastaedevees Revecesns isaadedcdateavores donee OD

CONTENTS.

Vv

Page

Tables of Certain Mathematical Functions—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Lorp Ketvin (Chairman), Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN CUNNINGHAM
(Secretary), Dr. J. W. L. GuaisHer, Professor A. G. GREENHILL, Professor
W. M. Hicks, Major P. A. MacManon, and Professor A. Loner, appointed
for calculating Tables of Certain Mathematical Functions, and, if necessary,
for taking steps to carry out the calculations, and to publish the results in
HIMBA CCOSSUDIC LOLM iid, soda waciiscvdsaas ce Ped-ostigdare dest audea dst susedavehaed secs vessbies

Seismological Investigations.—Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor J. W. Jupp (Chairman), Mr. Joun Mine (Secretary), Lord
Ketvi, Professor T. G. Bonney, Sir F. J. BRamwett, Mr. C. V. Boys,
Professor G. H. Darwin, Mr. Horace Darwin, Major L. Darwin,
Professor J. A. Ewine, Professor C. G. Knorr, Professor R. Mretpona,
Mr. R. D. OtpHam, Professor J. Purry, Professor J. H. Poynrrye,
Mr. Crement Rep, Mr. G. J. Symons and Professor H. H. Turner.
(Drawn up by the Secretary, Mr. JOHN MILNE.) ........:ccccsecsceeeseeseweeees

~ I. On Seismological Stations already established. By J. Mrtnz ...
II. Notes respecting Observing Stations and Registers obtained from
THE) SAMO. sy DY Dc MUCLNE yi sanes a cectiocotiaassniiayctesnapteeleseswaiie wats

III. Discussion of the Preceding Registers. By J. MItne ...............
IV. Varieties of Earthquakes and their respective Durations. By
PANETUN Tc seccscnesestosner™ sca pooh inHsticpacppadeucuereucrieNadasoro sere

NV. duarinquake benoes,, By. MILNE 9. csqcsleaccvvaspavesessnacecn «canis
VI. Earthquake Precursors. By J. MILNE ...........cececcesceeceeee sewers
VII. On Certain Disturbances in the Records of Magnetometers and the
Occurrence of Earthquakes. By J, MIrnz........ fens acasoreoetae Sas

Rebbe Worm oke ROpOUES, at.) cacyasscatadery Monde naehy ac eeatetath ads dmematon eene cat

Photographic Meteorology.—Report of the Oommittee, consisting of Mr. G. J.
Symons (Chairman), Mr. A. W. Crayprn (Secretary), Professor R. Mrt-
pota, Mr. Joun Horxrinson, and Mr. H.,N. Dickson, appointed to apply
Photography to the Elucidation of Meteorological Phenomena, (Drawn
TDA CS SECIOLALY )) cc seasons s qosteactgndeneanan4adoeseeritet cctavetaaseeaaants in ves

Experiments for Improving the Construction of Practical Standards for use in

Electrical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord
Rayteien (Chairman), Mr. R. T. Guazesroox (Secretary), Lord Kutyin,

Professors W. E, Ayrton, J. Prrry, W. G. Apams, Oriver J. Lopes, and.

G. Carry Foster, Dr. A. Murruean, Sir W. H. Prec, Professors J. D.
Everetr and A. Scuusrer, Dr. J, A. Fremine, Professors G. F. Frrz-
GERALD and J. J. THomson, Mr. W. N. SHaw, Dr. J. T. Borromtiery,
Rev. T. C. Firzparricx, Professor J. VirtAmu Jones, Dr. G. JoHNSTONE
Stoney, Professor S. P. Tompson, Mr. J. Renniz, Mr. E. H. Grirrirus,
Professor A. W. RickpR, and Professor H. L. CALLENDAR............... Aer

AppenDix I—On the Mutual Induction of Coaxial Helices. By
PL OrAwHVAMUEMUGH: ye evade! <achcatues toed dccdcscaesseeden

7 II.—Proposals for a Standard Scale of Temperature based
on the Platinum Resistance Thermometer. By Pro-
POC Gr CET, E CMETN DAW ieee. tacdsccestssntcsgaeceasercs
1JJ.—A Comparison of Platinum and Gas Thermometers
made at the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures at Sévres. By Dr. P. Cuarrvis and
Mer le 8, PEABO ata et casters ex canh naire so'ec seasons snante

IV.—On the Expansion of Porcelain with Rise of Tempera-

”

160

230

238

243

/ cy ture. By T, G. BEDFORD .......... aig aGlatcheaatttca came 245

vi REPORT—1899.

Page
Heat of Combination of Metals in the Formation of Alloys.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Lord Krtvrn (Chairman), Professor G. F. Frrz-
GERALD, Dr. J. H. GLapstons, Professor O. J. LopeE, and Dr. ALEXANDER
GAUDI (SCEREUATY)) ccd. Sacheew cxsl ts dedekaceacvins 12255006. ab. osacdeonnees age REDE emeMeetae 246

Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Lord McLaregn, Professor A. Crum Brown (Secretary), Sir Jonn
Murray, Professor CoprtaAnp and Dr. ALEXANDER Bucwan. (Drawn
PLM Va PISTONS) ulcasen seaseocsS- bees accs veoses se auneaddandeceee suse 8s eWeeRemeeenene . 250

Water and Sewage Examination Results.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Professor W. Ramsay (Chairman), Dr. R. S. Ripeax (Secretary),
Sir W. Crooxss, Professor F, Crows, Professor P. F. FRANKLAND, and
Professor R, Boycr, appointed to establish a Uniform System of recording
the Results of the Chemical and Bacterial Examination of Water and
SS PMSLO GME Ate Lear von tustvcceee twsatastnercansmsscacassimestsesdsen seGh see ites tune eee 255

Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—Interim Report of the Committeefconsisting
of Professor H. McLxop, Professor Sir W. C. Roprerts-Avsten, Mr. H. G.
Was any; and Mir: Ds Ngee. ccusekee can Spsesteae sv bade ae 256

On Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. HE. Rosco (Chairman), Dr. MAr-
SHALL Warts (Secretary), Sir J. N. Lockynr, Professor J. Dewar, Pro-
fessor G. D. Liverne, Professor A. ScHusteR, Professor W. N. Hartiey,
Professor Woxcott Gisss, and Captain ABNEY ........-..s.csscoscsstenceesonseses 25%

Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances.—In-
terim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W, Nort HaBrLEy
(Chairman and Secretary), Professor F. R. Japp, and Professor J. J.
Dossie£, appointed to investigate the Relation between the Absorption
Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances ...............se000e 316

The Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. J. H. Grapstons (Chairman), Professor H. E. ARMSTRONG
(Secretary), Professor W. R. Dunstan, Mr. Grorcr GLaDsToNE, Sir JoHN
Lussocx, Sir Puttre Maenvs, Sir H. E. Roscoz, Professor A. SMITHELLS.
andy Professor S: P. THOMPSON s.ss52.4.s005.de6ausecaeti ves daad.cacveuceeeseeaae 359

Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor W. A. TrnpEN (Chairman) and Dr. H. E, Armsrrone (Secretary) 362

The Action of Light upon Dyed Colours.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor T. E. THorpx (Chairman), Professor J. J. Hummet (Secretary),
Dr. W. H. Prerxry, Professor W. J. Russett, Captain Anny, Professor
W. Srroup, and Professor R. Metpora. (Drawn up by the Secretary).... 363

Life Zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr, J. KE. Marr (Chairman), Mr. E. J. Garwoop (Secretary),
Mr. F. A. Barner, Mr. G. C. Crick, Mr. A. H. Foorp, Mr. H. Fox,
Dr. WHrEtton Hinp, Dr. G. J. Huype, Professor P. F. Kenpaut, Mr.
J. W. Kirxsy, Mr. R. Kipston, Mr. G. W. Lamprueu, Professor G. A.
Lezovr, Mr. G. H. Morton, the late Professor H. A. NrcHotson, Mr. B. N.
Pracu, Mr. A. Srrawan, and Dr. H. Woopwarp. (Drawn up by the

SCE TEEY) tcc a te SUS ta wal ah bekig Erecesklv va dat « scuainctigud dni nkbNeos bonne 371
AppEenD1x I.—Report on Carboniferous Rocks and Fossils; South
; Pennine District. By Dr. WHrrtron Hinp ...... 371
S II.—Report on Carboniferous Rocks and Fossils; North
Wiles District!) 1354. 18. seek wayees cto cecaaceameae . 375
», 11].—Report on Carboniferous Rocks and Fossils; Isle of
MenDisirich Aesth. 210.308. ssswscsconense wawspecsssamoee 375

Trish Elk Remains.—Report of the Committee, consisting‘of Professor W. Boyp
Dawkins (Chairman), his Honour Desmster Gitr, Rev. Canon SavacE,

CONTENTS. Vili

Page
Mr. G, W. Lametvan, and Mr. P. M.C. Kzrmops (Secretary), appointed to
examine the Conditions under which remains of the Irish Elk are found in
the Isle of Man ............... We ATU T care eee herbi ae eed te abas ha oeadnee dete heaeeteig 376

Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—Tenth Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor Jamms Gutxrte (Chairman),
Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. Tempest AnpErson, Mr. J. E. Brprorp,
Mr. H. Coarns, Mr. C. V. Croox, Mr. E. J. GArwoop, Mr. J. G. Goop-
cHitp, Mr. Witt1aAm Gray, Mr. Ropert Kipston, Mr. A. 8. Rump, Mr. J.
J. H. Teatt, Mr. R. H. Tippeman, Mr. H. B. Woopwarp, Mr. F.
WoounoveH, and Professor W. W. Warts (Secretary). (Drawn up by
GHAI ECE GUAT Y:) tit weusawawains \oateea’) wath Ttectuwanaedt .reaemteevte cavaegurstbaees ek de 377

Erratic Blocks of the British Isles —Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor E. Hurt (Chairman), Mr. P. F. Kunpaut (Secretary), Professor
T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. E. De Rancz, Professor W. J. Sonnas, Mr. R. H.
TrppEMAN, Rey. 8. N. Harrison, Mr. J. Horn, Mr. F. M. Burton, Mr.
J. Lomas, Mr. A. R. DwerryuHovse, Mr. J. W. StatHer, and Mr. R. D.
TucknR, appointed to investigate the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles,
and to take measures for their preservation. (Drawn up by the Secretary). 398

Caves at Uphill.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor O. Lioyp
Morgan (Chairman), Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Mr. W. R. Barxer,
Mr. T. H. Reyyorps, Mr. E. T. Newron and Mr. H. Botton (Secretary),
appointed to excavate the Ossiferous Caves at Uphill, near Weston-super-
IVR weed estat sachs Raa dhe Tolan (cos aes ab Ro hascn ae sa ntnatae ssn eRechspecedc-ireneny tens 402

Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks.—Fifteenth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor T, Wuttsuire (Chairman), Dr. H.
Woopwasprp, and Professor T. Rupert Jonzs (Secretary). (Drawn up by
Professor T. RUPERT JONES.) ........cccescseeceeeseeeeeeees Pestiseetedecesdgestty sacle 403

Registration of Type Specimens of British Fossils.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. H. Woopwarp (Chairman), Rey. G. F. Wippornn, Mr.
R. Kapston, Professor H. G. Spptey, Mr. H. Woops, and Mr. A. 8. Woop-
WARD (ACLOUALY, ice avsvenisct -oarsarostcaneteseaishel@teavens Aalicies beisrinanc atiiane ns wees 405

Ty Newydd Caves.—Report of a Committee, consisting of Dr, H. Hicks
(Chairman), Rev. G. C. H. Potten (Secretary), Mr. A. Strawn, Mr. E. T.
Newton, Mr. G. H. Morton, and Rev. E. R. Hutz, appointed to investi-
gate the Ty Newydd Caves, Tremeirchion, North Wales. (Drawn up
DYAUMONSECIOLATYN tyetetas. ct dat ormericnwiac Motes Sencaiers sez secer ete GahoGe ce cat cuses ae 406

Canadian Pleistocene Flora and Fauna.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Sir J. W. Dawson (Chairman), Professor D. P. Prenuattow, Dr.
Ami, Mr. G. W. Lamptucm and Professor A. P. Coneman (Secretary),
reappointed to continue the investigation of the Canadian Pleistocene Flora
GNOME WOT MEALS A veda ctlcokos eset iahddccadbant eh ods b geUse ite Jnsuh wtebactbeats 411

Drift at Moel Tryfaen—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. Hicks
(Chairman), Mr. E. Greenty (Secretary), Professor J. F. Buaxn, Professor
P. Kenpatt, Mr. G. W. Lamrtuen, Mr. J.‘ Lomas, Mr. T. MELLARD
Reave, Mr. W. SuHone, and Mr. A. StRaAHAN, appointed to make Photo-
graphic and other Records of the Disappearing Drift Section at Moel Try-

faens, Drawn Up by the Secretary.) 2esitied ides aided si eseds Geonsess acess soe 414
5 spilsee A. Notes by President and Members ............cssceceseeeeeees 420)
a B. Foraminifera from the drifts of Moel Tryfaen. By Mr.
T. MeLzarp Ruane ......... Praamees S sense itso cknass rte’ 420
iy C. Diagram at E. side of Alexandra Quarry showing dome-
like arrangement of sand and gravel beneath boulder
CLEGG TAG HII SHCA ECUS.E BORTOTN sak COR DD Rated yes oh neh 8%0% 422

55 D. Bibliography ...... Re eed aren Rena vincaseee a 422

Vili REPORT—1899.

Page

Pedigree Stock Records.—Report of the Committee, consisting of FRANCIS
Gaxton, D.C.L., F.R.S. (Chairman), Professor EK. B. Poutton, F.R.S., and
Professor W. F. R. WEpon, F.R.S. (Secretary), appointed to promote the
Systematic Collection of Photographic and other Records of Pedigree
Stock. “(Drawn up-by the Chairman.) .......5.....:s0ss0tese2 sonnespisweanetnigies

Index Animalium.—Report of a Committee, consisting of Dr. H.Woopwarp,
(Chairman), Mr. P. L. Scrarer, Rev. T. R. R. Srepsrne, Mr. R.
McLacutan, Mr. W. E. Horr, and Mr. F. A. Barner (Secretary), ap-
pointed to superintend the Compilation of an Index Animalium............. “

A Circulatory Apparatus for keeping Aquatic Organisms under definite Physi-
cal Conditions.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. E.
HoyreE (Chairman), Professor 8. J. Hickson, Mr. F. W. Kneste, and Mr.
NN UG AMBI |(SECLOLATY) <asnmse'csriecelt Sdn. Cees vdteneensdseneeds sep nests (ee aeaanane ;

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. Hurpman (Chairman), Pro-
fessor E. Ray Lanxuster, Professor W. I’. R. Wetpon, Professor S. J.
Hickson, Mr. A. Szpewicr, Professor W. C. McIntosu, and Professor G. B.
HETOWIES A(DECKOLATY)) Schl. svssie dees cscaseCebwntesestindeGesalndesstisladencdenetncgde ene

Aprrenpix I, Report on the Occupation of the Table. By Dr. H.
IGYSUER JAMESON "2.0... .ecatccsecseecensecevereareess suaeeneer
es II. List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological

Station from July 1, 1898, to June 30, 1899............. 4

» IL. List of Papers which were published in 1898 by Natu-
ralists who have occupied Tables in the Zoological

424

429

431

432

SSGRGLGIE osc does occek = coecce dees hoses co cube heels ee eee Tene ee 434

» 1V. List of Publications of the Zoological Station during the

Year ending June 30, 1899 ............... sotesesesceneaeeeta 436

The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Ninth Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor Newron (Chairman), Dr. W. TT. BLanrorp,
Professor 8. J. Hickson, Mr. F. Dv Canz Gopman, Mr. P. L. Scrater,
Mr. EH. A. SmirH, and Mr. D. SHarp (Secretary) ..:...........-sceccoereoeccsewns

Investigations made at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. A. Bournz (Chairman), Professor
i. Ray Lanxerstpr (Secretary), Professor S. H. Vinus, Mr. A. SEDGWICK,

Professor W. F. R. WELDON, and Mr. W. GARSTANG ...........sscecscececeeees 437

The Embryology of the Polyzoa.—By T. H. Taytor ............... arene
The Rearing of Larvee of Echinidee.—By Professor E. W. MacBripE

Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands.—Final Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. P. L. Scnarer (Chairman), Mr. W. CARRUTHERS,
Dr. A. C. L. Gtnruer, Dr. D. SHarp, Mr. F. Do Cann Gopman, Professor
NeEwren, Sir GEorer Hampson, and Mr. G. Murray (Secretary), on the
Present State of our Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West
India Isiands, and on taking Steps to investigate ascertained Deficiencies
in the Fauna and Flora................ esare do ceuaenedessis. ceeecndads este hennaamammnema

Zoological and Botanical Publication.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Rey. T. R. R. Sresprne (Chairman), Professor W. A. Hprpman, Mr,
W. E. Hoyts, Dr. P. L. Sctater, Mr. Apam Srepewicr, Dr. D. SHarp,
Mr. ©. D, SHerzorn, Professor W. F. R. Wetpon, Mr. A. OC, Suwarp,

437
438

441

Mr. B. Daypon Jackson, and Mr. F, A. BaTHEr (Secretary)........-.cc00es 444

Plankton and Physical Conditions of the English Channel.— First Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor HE. Ray Lanxkester (Chairman),
Professor W. A. Hmrpman, Mr, H. N. Dicxson, and Mr. W. Garstana
(Secretary), appointed to make Periodic Investigations of the Plankton

and Physical Conditions of the English Channel during 1899........ vs RheeRR 444

CONTENTS, ix

: Page
Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.—Second Interim Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor Newron (Chairman), the late Mr,
Joun Coxpraux (Secretary), Mr. Harvin-Brown, Mr. R. M. Barrineton,
Rev. E. Ponsonsy Knusiey, and Dr. H. O. Forsus, appointed to work
out the details of the Observations of the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses
and Lightships, 1880-87 ............ Se pecan ee ne te aasdertosen se acacacsneavienetacls 447

The Climatology of Africa.—Eighth Report of a Committee consisting of Mr.
E. G. Ravenstern (Chairman), Sir Jon Kirx, Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. H.
R. Mit, and Mr. H. N. Dickson (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Chair-
BTIATO) isateisss suisse eee bactseree vinns pabiapine sietvupissc pa devises aviaeaa emalsttaieae iene aleceaiesessisias 448

Exploration of Sokotra.—Report of the Committee, consisting of J. Scorr
Kertre (Chairman), Professor I. B. Batrour, Professor W. F. R. Wuxpon,
and Dr. H. O. Forses (Secretary), appointed to Explore the Island of
Sokotra. (Drawn up by the Secretary.).........csssceseeeeeeseceeseeneseeeeeeeeaees 460

Small Screw Gauge.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. H.
Preece (Chairman), Lord Kztviy, Sir F. J. Bramwett, Sir H. TRuEMAN
Woop, Major-Gen. Werpper, Col. Warxkin, Messrs. Conrap W. Cooke,

R. E. Crompton, A. Stron, A. Lu Neve Foster, C. J. Hewirt, G. K. B.
Evpuinstone, T. Buckner, E. Riec, C. V. Boys, and W. A. Price (Secre-
tary), appointed to consider means by which Practical Effect can be given
to the Introduction of the Screw Gauge proposed by the Association in 1884 464

APPENDIX I.—Report by Colonel Warxin, R.A., C.B. ......... Peactsre, 200
» IL—Report from Mr. H. J. Cuanzy, Superintendent of the
Standards Department of the Board of Trade......... 468

On the Erection of Alexander III. Bridge in Paris—By M. Amuipiz Axsy... 469

Dover Harbour Works.—By J. C. Coopz, M.Inst.C.E., and W. Marruews,
Min st © Blase cesdeh crctidvchacakounisotaoasnoscaeers aise Maawledads asd sine oases os eeavevtenrd 479

Mental and Physical Deviations from the Normal among Children in Public
Elementary and other Schools.—Report of the Committee, consisting of the
late Sir Doveias Garon (Chairman), Dr. Francis WARNER (Secretary), Mr.
E. W. Brasrookr, Dr. J. G. Garson, and Mr. E. Wuire Watts. (Report
drawn up by the Secretary.) ......ccccececcsscrscnsencensencenscnccaeeseeescovacsteneees 489

Appmnp1x.—Table showing the conditions of 1,120 children requiring
special care and training............... Ss Jucddore sugodauconk

Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom. —Seventh and Final Report ofthe
Committee, consisting of Mr. E. W. Brasroox (Chairman), Mr. E, Sipnzy
Hartianp (Secretary), Mr. Francis Garon, Dr. J. G. Garson, Professor
A. ©. Happon, Dr. JoserH AnprERson, Mr. J. Romrtry Axuen, Dr. J.
Brppor, Mr. W. Crooxe, Professor D. J. Cunnineuam, Professor W.
Boyp Dawxins, Mr. ArtHur J. Evans, Dr. H. O. Forsss, Mr. F. G.
Hitton Price, Sir H. Howorrn, Professor R. Metpora, General Pirr-
Rivers, Mr. E.G. Ravenstein, Mr. George Paynn, Mr. Epwarp Copp,
Mr. G. Laurence Gomme, Mr. Josep Jacoss, Sir C. M. Kennepy, Mr.
Epwarp Laws, the Ven. Archdeacon THomas, Mr. S. W. WILLIAMS,
Professor JoHn Rays, and Dr. C. R. BROWNE ........cccessceeeeeeceeeeneeneneese 493

Silchester Excavation.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. J.
Evans (Chairman), Mr. Joun L. Myrzs (Secretary), and Mr. E. W.
BRABROOK, appointed to co-operate with the Silchester Excavation Fund
Committee in their Excavations ........cscccsscceessecenscennceseeeseeueceueceeneeee 495

Ethnological Survey of Caénada.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor D, P. Penwattow (Chairman), Dr. G. M. Dawson (Secretary),
Mr. E. W. Brasroox, Professor A. C. Happon, Mr. E. 8. Harrianp,
Sir Jonny G. Bourryor, Assi Cvog, Mr, B, Suztn, Assi Tanevay, Mr,

x REPORT—1899.

Page
C. Hirt-Tovr, Mr. Davin Bortz, Rev. Dr. Scappine, Rev. Dr. J.
Macrean, Dr. Merte Breaucuemin, Mr. C. N. Butt, Hon. G. Ross,
Professor J. Mavor, and Mr. A. F. HUNTER .,.......0.csssiscesescssetaecosusseene 497

AprrrennIx I.—Early French Settlers in Canada.—By B. Surre ...... 499

IL.—Notes on the N’tlaka’pamue of British Columbia, a
Branch of the great Salish Stock of North America.
—By ©. Hint-Tovr .......000s).0904s0kh epee ee 500

”

The Anthropology and Natural History of Torres Straits.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Sir Wirr1am Turner (Chairman), Professor
A. C. Happon (Secretary), Sir Micnuarr Foster, Dr. J. Scorr Ketris,

Professor L. C. Mrat, and Professor MARSHALL WARD .........0....ceceeeuee 585
Apprnpix I.—Notes on the Yaraikanna Tribe, Cape York, Queens-
land,—By Dr. A. C. HADDON |....:: se sncsencdencosees 585
, 11—Contributions to Comparative Psychology from Torres
Straits and New Guinea.—By Dr. W. H. R.
Rivers, C. 8. Myrrs, and W. McDoveatr ......... 586

» i11.—The Linguistic Results of the Cambridge Expedition to
Torres Straits and New Guinea.—By Sipnrey H.

RAY eee yadesshdeleldeacdbas ced Auten teen eee 589
» LV.—Seclusion of Girls at Mabuiag, Torres Straits——By

C.. Gi: SHDIGMAIN, 435 ..100.c8spciq0,e%eso0dsBscece ssagneeeee 590
ty V.—Notes on the Club Houses and Dubus of British New

Guinea,— By C, G. SELIGMANN .........ssccseesseseene 691
» W1,—Notes on Savage Music.—By C. S. Mynprs.......... sees ODL

Photographs of Anthropological Interest.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Mr. C. H. Reap (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myrus (Secretary), Dr.
J.G. Garson, Mr. H. Line Roru, Mr. H. Batrour, Mr. E.S. Harrnann,
and Professor Frrnpprs Perris, »ppointed for the Collection, Preservation,
and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Anthropological Interest... 592

The Lake Village at Glastonbury.—Fourth Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Mr. A. Burierp (Secretary), Professor
W. Boyp Dawxt1ns, General Prrt-Rivers, Sir Joun Evans, and Mr. A. J.
Evans. (Drawn up by the Secretary-)) s..-s0-.c0s-seueee-ssencicuhaae nace eae 594

Histology of the Suprarenal Capsules.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor ScHAreR (Chairman), Mr. SwaLe Vincent (Secretary), and
DEO VICTOR FLORSLEY....0.50s0-c0s6se0ds eesHanenesdeueusanan teed bys 5s ena . 598

Electrical Changes accompanying the discharge of the Respiratory Centre.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. A. Water (Chairman), Pro-
fessor KE, Waymourn Rerp (Secretary), Professor F. Gorcu, and Mr, J. 8.
Macponanp. (Drawn up by Mr. J. S. MACDONALD.) ......000...ssseeeereneeees 599

The Comparative Histology of the Cerebral Cortex.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor Gorcu (Chairman), Dr. G@. Mann (Secretary),
SLEMIROB VW MOMT oes atc atatavcsosetese te cctueet ec coe euee tte OSE ene eae anne . 603

The Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors when introduced into
the Circulation. Third Interim Report of a Committee, consisting of
Professor E. A. ScuArer (Chairman), Professor C. S. SHerrineton, Pro-
fessor R. W. Boyce, and Professor W. H. THompson (Secretary).
(Drawn up) by: the Secretary.) ........c:tscbises«-scadereces abeces-ehapte skeen 605

The Influence of Drugs upon the Vascular Nervous System. Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor F. Gorcu (Chairman), Professor HaLtt-
BURTON (Secretary), and Dr. F. W. MOorv ......cccccsssneeeees Fics: dédecovetnee GUS

CONTENTS.

xi

Page

The Micro-chemistry of Cells—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor EK. A. ScHArmR (Chairman), Professor HE. Ray LANnKEsTER,
Professor W. D. Hattrpurton, Mr, G. C. Bourne, and Professor A. B.
iney MAEELMS (SCCEOUALY caren. eadeecrsaghncrs teacsecslecs sneiirasdest oedsacedecaseasiaesawee

Fertilisation in the Pheophycse.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor J. B. Farmer (Chairman), Professor R. W. PHILtirs (Secretary),
Professor F. O. Bowser, and Professor Harvey Gipson, (Drawn up by the
SUCHET) | WagBeepo sob uodaenasacen tac nacbete Gad et acEEEEsboba mata denocericedorcac: MECnouDe es

Assimilation in Plants.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr.
Francis Darwin (Chairman), Professor J. R. GREEN (Secretary), and Pro-
fessor MarsHaLt WARD, appointed to conduct an Experimental Investi-
Pation of Assimilation: in Plants ....<....0.c0-covccersseesondssasesconssecassanaacass

609

610

61}

REPORT—1899.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section A—-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
Page

Address by Professor J. H. Porntrne, D.Sc., F.R.S., President of the Section 615

ike

2.

On the Spectroscopical Examination of Contrast Phenomena. By Groree
RERESUROH MUNG ceig cece cacuss jaroscsestesbbenchadhenseaeevcsey testes ¥amuntes ss et Vet ames 624

Preliminary Note on the Variation of the Specific Heat of Water. By
Professor H. L. Cattenpar, M.A., F.R.S., and H. T. Barnus, M.A.Se.... 624

8. On the Expansion of Porcelain with Rise of Temperature. By T. G.
VED ORD) je serciesieveceives'easaevieesieidde' sae Onarsncmeete Naawen sed sujreaein puateeaet Seaman 632
4, Interim Report on Methods of Determining Magnetic Force at Sea......... 632
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15,
1. Report on Electrolysis and Hlectro-Chemistry .......sscssssseesersssseneesneos 632

. On the Energy per Cubic Centimetre in a Turbulent Liquid when Trans-

mitting Laminar Waves. By Professor G. F. Firzcrraxp, F.RS. ...... 632

. On the Permanence of certain Gases in the Atmospheres of Planets. By

GEL, (BRYAN, Ss Dick SEU tee. cae ceca seeacuue oes vexnsSponchaeses .thagesea an 634

. On some Novel Thermo-Electric Phenomena. By W. I’. Barrert, F.R.S, 635
. Report on the Heat of Combination of Metals in the Formation of Alloys 636
. Report on Radiation from a Source of Light in a Magnetic Field ......... 636
. On the Production, in Rarefied Gases, of Luminous Rings in Rotation

about Lines of Magnetic Force. By C. I. 8. PHIDLIPS .......cccceeeceeeee 686

. Note on Deep-Sea Waves. By Vatauan Cornisu, M.Sc, F.CS.,

TEENA CSS 6 sc dot qnggCCHNct lone nuGcuce NEC AC SDEDDGDoan. TFERCOCKRCCAae ncorur nc. ve 637

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

. tOn the Existence of Masses Smaller than the Atoms. By Professor

Je le eLLOMSON MEG hU. Satis savescay ses cteanscseneseisetosersscosns coaveseases senna 637

. tOn the Controversy concerning the Seat of Volta’s Contact Force. B

Professor OLIVER GODGE EVENS, 6. cscscscessont'tedecsgaseseraqeseeesese casa gaan ». 638

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

DEPARTMENT J,.— MATHEMATICS.

1. Report on Tables of certain Integrals ..........ssccesseeceeenes beeseseneces sespaee 638
2, Report on Tables of certain Mathematical Functions...........cserseeeeeeerees 6388
8, The Median Estimate. By Francis Garton, D.C.L,, PUR S.eccceecseceees 638

CONTENTS. Xill

. A System of Invariants for Parallel Configurations in Space. By Pro-

FESSOLTAY. His, FORSYTH) SCIDs, BRASS: cic cncocsevethectcuasvecesvevecresecendesecs 640

. On the Notation of the Calculus of Differences. By Professor J. D.

PVMRE DD BY ER: Siedsaieadvensseesticgcesses sot cbeset Genenecedsacdwaersclocee suse addeves 645

. On the Partial Differential Equation of the Second Order. By Professor

ha (Oh LOURGXOR EN Hesse Ase nae oi t-te Oi nears ae Sen ria Ae ean Rt re nD Re 646

. On the Fundamental Differential Equations of Geometry. By Dr. Irvine

SBR UNG ARES. ae ee oie se ede int cae wiacnoass Rao acaune connec ees seower snes Moeadacen ses 646

8, Report on Recent Progress in the Problem of Three Bodies. By E. T.
RN PUUM MR YN Asanaavaccussasetarssncsweser astcensSenteatonesterntrese ses suuaoocte ces 647
9. *On Singular Solutions of Ordinary Differential Equations. By Professor
AC SEU ME ORSYTH, SCD ys Hs EUIS) 4. cd coeisvcoet dre fecadaecedee tena cacavwuse ores agcendae 647
10, An Application and Interpretation of Infinitesimal Transformations. By
Peeoredsor Pn Oy MOVE UIt s5¢. .oiees seid sbsueeiWuibadecads. teas. dd dkavmetuepsnecstaneane 648
11, On Fermat’s Numbers. By Lieut.-Col, Anan Cunninenay, R.E. ...... 653
DepaRtMENT IT.--MErEoROLOGY.
1. Interim Report on Solar Radiation ..........s..cccsessessccsessreceveneesensepeces 654
2. On a Connection between Sunspots and Meteorological Phenomena. By
Pe VAN, HIJOKEVORSUD sang cs ack Paget da Keaahawerennaidiha dn eavaasiceny-aaeevelones 654
S. Report on Seismology.........ssesssecessssrssesesserssanerssreeccssssssssesessarsees 654
4, Seismology at Mauritius. By T. F. Craxton, F.RB.AAS, «0.0... cee eeee eee 654
5, Progress in Exploring the Air with Kites. By A. LAwrencz Rortcn,
8. B, ATA aes ele side's civh'a's Uullablelnbe sat Moe nde UaseOt ei ateae doaay coats arene shadadeuse 655
6, Remarks Concerning the First Crossing of the Channel by a Balloon,
By Ay GAWRENCH ROTCH, 82: Ac Mirscasiesasn'sa ss iasestenatencevanersieconssioveun 656
7. The Hydro-Aérograph. By F. Naprer Denison, Victoria, B.C............. 656
8. Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis ..........seceecseeeeeee 658
9. Report on Meteorological Photography .........ccsccseseceeecneceescsseeceeenees 658
10. Report on the Meteorological Observatory, Montreal............sseccesaeeeenee 658
11. The Rainfall of the South-Eastern Counties of England. By Joun

Hoprxinson, F'.R.Met.Soc., Assoc.Inst.C.H......csccsssccsssconsscessccsevgeescens 658

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.

1. ¢On a Gravity Balance. By Professor R. THretratt, F.R.S., and Pro-
PEBBOE Ss Wy OLLOGKeccyarenes .tvnnelecids<habdcauae comp dvaips vughied te naeide pppddveyss 659
Pr hreport On Electrical Standards... ..2.0c.vsevsccoessvosecusvensieccsonsctsebssonesgas 659
8. Discussion on Platinum Thermometry ......ccs.sccsccsesecegecceeetensessesesencs 660
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 20.
1. Recent Magnetic Work imNorth America. By L. A. BAUER ..eeecseese 660
2. The Spectral Sensitiveness of Mergury Vapour in an Atmosphere of

Hydrogen, and its Influence on ‘the Spectrum of the latter. By E.
IPEROIVAT Du WAS, PID fice iek ttc ded bacemace cbavouetevssecies «es soewseaetienstel« 660

. On the Theory of the Electrolytic Solution Pressure, By R, A. Lzu-

TELL eS Asc bbe DE DAC OSCE e SUL CO ES ACUIMAC HE ACE Cerio er Pe AI crn Aas Ss ats La 661

Temperature and the Dispersion in Quartz and Calcite. By Tees
GIFFORD .3,.,....00000% np ayh hes ABCC Tava tie Ganieeh lek Haare PECrG Serer: Goes 661

XIV REPORT—1899.

Page

or ey ae or Form of Resistance Balance. By Professor J. A. FLemine,

6. 4 ae of Making a Half-shadow Field in a Polarimeter by two
inclined Glass Plates. By J. H. Pornrine, Sc.D., F.B.S. ..... B vscvineeaes . 662

ant

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
Address by Horacz T. Brown, LL.D., F.R.S., President of the Section ... 664

1. *The Solidification of Hydrogen. By Professor J. Dewar, F.RS. ...... 683
2, Report on a New Series of Waye-length Tables of the Spectra of the
Milarnenpa rece ns we eee tet cust casertinen: Ooecavcccasaasyasepededbepnehenke ee dtppecumane 685

3. Interim Report on the Continuation of the Bibliography of Spectro-
SCOPY ssvisececccrieovsnvsossenenccccranensesseceesececenseneseccuestsepsnecepenyeness vere 688

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
1. Report on the Relation between the Absorption Spectra and Chemical

Constitution ol Orcvanic Bodias, (..0..0--sscovsc-se-s-evenesssnevconeeaneszosgan peng 683
2. Report on Isomeric Napthalene Derivatives ....... .-ssssesseceeseeeeneeseneeee 683

3, A Discussion on the Laws of Substitution, especially in Benzenoid Com-
pounds, Opened by Professor H. E. ARMSTRONG, FVR.S. .....:seeeee ceeee 683

4, The Relative Orienting Effect of Chlorine and Bromine. By Professor
ENR Ye A BMSTRONG wHUR Dacre sscvsecin~ es sce aces ou ccevesesay saveweetSecmaeed ees 687

5. Isomorphism in Benzenesulphonic Derivatives. By Professor Hunry E.
ENRMGTRONG HU IRAO.. acdcsstacstcuansesstimese ss aemnasbmeneain ns sive big Seg sue sceane ns 687

6. Oxidation in the Presence of Iron. By Henry J. Horstman Fenton,
IMA MB WIRES hot oRar scabs .tutcsenaosacaseh daestereoaaoacen- seed thst sa atts setae 688

7. Condensation of Glycollic Aldehyde. By Henry J. Horstman Fenton,
IMPACT, HRS, and) EaNRY JACKSON, E:t\uy E550: o+e.cneccecsesrcecsensetaseaee 689

8. Some New Silicon Compounds. By Professor J. Emmrson Reynonps,
HENS irate wrote tear teeecttesta ahd ives n ap ewodeneebeehcsr can seeaeat thc ceeReee Enea .. 690

9. Report on recording the Results of the Chemical and Bacterial Examina-
TODVOL NVA LELEANO NSE WALC ocscacescasercetcecsserancencbasosesnmiceseee ees eaneeeee 691

10. Intermittent Bacterial Treatment of Raw Sewage in Coke-beds. By
Professor SE RANK CLOWBSs DNSC. 5) acdevurpce soso ke sepeauas cubes -Weaos coset waeemne 691

Tl. *On the Place of Nitrates in the Biolysis of Sewage. By W. Scorr-
OR CRIBID sec oncpe cee eanrsdornacsconcessrancbAsseeikedl oaldnatacaseinaieate wads toqueleee

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
Joint Meeting with Section K,

1, *The Excretory Products of Plants, By Professor Hanriot ......... vensay 692
2. Discussion on Symbiotic Fermentation :
Symbiosis. By Professor MarsHatt Warp, F.R.S.. ..... sede ohde dase 692
_ Note sur les Fermentations Symbiotiques Industrielles, Par Monsieur
BO MOG CURE A” MCATAUUTE 0c .055;cscrees5acinieessnesrsoseesecs cot ener . 697

Symbiotic Fermentation: its Chemical Aspects. By Professor H. E,
ARMSTRONG, E.RB.S, POeOobenawoereerbenioe FOOOOOOE OOOH Ob dereendodetis chinetbores 699

e€
. Report on the Teaching of Natural Science in Elementary Schools......... 703
. Discussion on Atomic Weights :

CONTENTS. xv
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
Proposed International Committee on Atomic Weights. By Professor

MR MOIR EiGIest BOIS eTaLE SI 0ER Dh eekons visas «Aebsewdars <tpmaPanh Se ave steace 705
Atomic Weights. By Professor W. A. TrnpeEn, F.RS. «2.0.0... 706

. *Development of Chemistry in the last Fifteen Years. By Professor

HCL TTHMDT. ALIA DENBURG \..5ic.ccarootocnccncrtevacescareastensncs tsecocgses 707

. The Chemical Effect on Agricultural Soils of the Salt-water Flood of

November 29, 1897, on the East Coast. By T. 8S. Dymonn, F.LC., and
PEP Eckert teen, ee eae eee aae aka stind as dlons dun suutgapeeeoxtuven seas dtadedee 707
The Influence of Solvents upon the Optical Activity of Organic Com-
pounds. By WILLIAM JACKSON POPD...........ececeseeeseeeseeeeeeeeneeeeena ees 708

6. A° Method for Resolving Racemic Oximes into their Optically Active

Components. By WILLIAM JACKSON, POPE .........seeeeseeeeeeeeeeeneeeeees 709

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.

Phenomena connected with the Drying of Colloids, Mineral and Organic,
By J. H. Grapsrone, ¥.R.S., and WALTER HIBBERT .................. 000008 709

. The Influence of Acids and of some Salts on the Saccharification of Starch

iby, Malt-Dhastase,, By Dr: Ay PHRNBAOH: ....0ca.50cy cane tnddtisistesacedecvasss 709

. Note on the Combined Action of Diastase and Yeast on Starch-granules,

Be. times Monets, PH.D. PLO .1..c ese cecccegedecrnes sater cous seastces 710

. The Action of Acids on Starch. By G. Harris Morris. Ph.D., F.1.C. 711

The Action of Hydrogen Peroxide on Carbohydrates in the Presence of
Ferrous Salts. By R.S. Morret and J. M. Crorts ............... eee 712

. Influence of Substitution on Specific Rotation in the Bornylamine Series.

ae Os Forsran, PhiD.; DiSe: sete. ceccisce cle seeee as eee seed os Bedale tanees 712

. New Derivatives from Camphoroxime. By M. O. ForsvEr, Ph.D., D.Se. 713
. *The Action of Caustic Soda on Benzaldehyde. By Dr. C. A. Kouw

Gti: LD Ta Ay oid LIST Uc iR0 1 ea An boononamnadn inceneeccoopeport eo oaagnsh Poddeseuocd-hansorc vw. 714
On the Action of Light upon Metallic Silver. By Colonel J. Warrrnouse 714

Some Experiments to obtain Definite Alloys, if possible, of Cadmium,
Zinc, and Magnesium with Platinum and Palladium. By Professor
W. R. E. Hopexinson, Captain Warine, R.A., and Captain Dzs-

OBOUGIT EL AGS wr vathttewaest tt, Vaneet ae uaa chs seueasaSaacanen cd eeeMeadaoe adda 2 714
Action of Acetylic and Benzoylic Chlorides on dried Copper Sulphate.
By Professor W. R. E. Hopexinson and Captain Leany, R.A............. 715

. The Reaction between Potassium Cyanide and 1 : 3 Dinitro-benzene. By

Professor W. R. E. Hopexinson and Lieut. W. H. Wesiey-Horr, R.A. 716

. The Presence of Potassium Nitrite in Brown Powder Residue when the

Powder is Burnt in Air under Ordinary hoe duit By Mr. Srron, R.A.,
ay NOME MENS ONS EtAc ccelaseitne as ulcccbebeaobecnde teeta. oskiecbeaeene atediess ace ae

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

Address by Sir AncnibaLp GeIxre, D.C.L., D.Sc., F.R.S., President of the

BOCHOM calissiiigisadencciheccsliecvapderdneccss ‘ bee eeoeeetsesessasers tbscedesane 718

xvi REPORT—1899,
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER i4.
Page
1. On the Relation between the Dover and Franco-Belgian Coal Basins.
By Ropert ETHERIDGE, FURS. ......ccseeessseeeetsenseeeeeeersnereceeseneneees 730
2, On the South-Eastern Coalfield. By Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, M.A.,
PENIS NS arena eth ee te Macias Cancion so arinasinn a csesopesansicsepinatseesssnaaserayn 734
3, Note on a Boring through the Chalk and Gault near Dieppe. By A. J.
JUKES-BROWNE, B.A., F.G.S. .coccceecneeccescceeescneccueeesseentcesaeesncesennes 738
4, Some Recent Work among the Upper fanbouteroas Rocks of North
Staffordshire, and its bearing on concealed Coal-fields.s By Watcor
GIBSON, F.G.S. .....-.-cscossescncceccncsccnesscesesscnsessceeecssesesenencaueeeanenees 738
5. Report on the Drift Sections at Moel Tryfaen...........sseseseersersesreereeey 739
6. Note on Barium Sulphate in the Bunter Sandstone of North Staffordshire.
By ©. B.Wepn, B.A., B.GS. oo... secceceesseeeeeeseeeseseeeeeeneeeerneneesnneetey 740
7. Report on Seismological Investigations..........ssssscsseeeeeereeneersteneeeees 740
8. *Interim Report on the Structure of Crystals ... .....ssesseseeeeererererneenens 740
9. Report on Life-Zones in British Carboniferous Rocks .........::sessseeeee00 740
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 1b.
1. The Photo-micrography of Opaque Objects as applied to the Delineation
of the Minute Structure of Fossils. By Dr. ArntHUR Rows, F.G.S....... 740
2, Water-zones : Their Influence on the Situation and Growth of Canisivttadh
By G. ABBOTT, M.R.C.S. ....ccceeeeesssseeesreteeeeeeeestnaeeeeseeseetaeeererenines 741
2. Tubular and Concentric Concretions. By G. Apporr, M.R.C.S............. 741
4, On Photographs of Sandstone Pipes in the Carboniferous Limestone at
Dwlbau Point, East Anglesey. By EDWARD GREENLY .........0000ee0ee0 742
5. Glaciation of Dwlbau Point, East Anglesey, By Enwarp GREENLY...... 742
6. On the Glacial Drainage of Yorkshire. By Prrcy F. Kunpatt, F.G.S... 748
7, On the Origin of Lateral Moraines and Rock Trains. By J. Lomas,
es GS vores ew ritewnn See cen sbmeatcewespeetelpe nip vavidor suNwder sna Tage 744
8. Note on the Origin of Flint. By Professor W. J. Sortas, FLRS. ......,.. 744
9, Calcareous Confetti and Oolitic Structure. By H. J. Jounston-Lavis,
M.D., D.Ch. F.GiS. ......cscsossscereseseteeneenercsnsccoaunesoassapasessencewenss . 744
10. Report on the Tyn Newydd Caves ......ssssesssessnseeeenseeeneereceeieennansens 746
11. Report on Fossil Phyllopoda .......ccssessessessessesseeeeeeeeeersesseenceneceseeess 746
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The President’s Address ..... aa hiscconcsuent camancseteees savers Oss oi. cidettar sonmeiatame . 718

bo +

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

1. Homotaxy and Contemporaneity. By Professor W. J. Sotmas, F.RS. ... 746

. Note on the Surface of the Mount Sorrel Granite. By W. W. Warts,
Mie Aug By Gass gnceame canner stance cewecepe ron hcneraccrracs es ons véujasicn) ocekaer aval ia, WAT,
3. *On the Origin of Chondritic Risteites, By eee A. RENARD ...... 747
4. On Coast Erosion. By Captain McDAQKIN ........... cc ceee eens paths cee ossaee 747
beOn Oosstirosion, (By G..DowKkER, UGS. \...-..2icsscssssussectnevcss covesbens 747
G. *Preliminary Report on Observations of Coast Erosion by the Coastguard 748
7. On Photographs of Wave Phenomena. By VaueHAn CornisH, M.Sc,
BO Metta) pee eo g RAs Noses nw nn savaxs-cnseeesecacsansyencuss sowesexssperasnvensrie 748
8. The Eruption of Vesuvius of 1898. By TEMprst AwpzRson, M,D., B,Sc. 749

CONTENTS. XVil

Page
9, *Investigation of the Underground Waters of Craven. The Sources of
moerarre,, by PERCY. EF. KENDADT, F.G.S).........cs0cecasceccssecsncecscweacees 750
10, The Recent Eruption of Etna. By Professor GiovaANNI PLATANTA......... 750
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19,
1. The Geological Conditions of a Tunnel under the Straits of Dover. By

Professor W. Bory DAWKINS, M.A., F.RAS. ........0.:ccceccececvceccecss cence 750

. On a Proposed New Classification of the Pliocene deposits of the East of

iemicland. — By H.W. EUARMER HE. GIS acters dectetesseceevesseoens ‘ 751

Cee eeeeeee

3. The Meteorological Conditions of North-Western Europe, during the
Pliocene and Glacial Periods. By F. W. Harmur, F.G.S. ............... 753
4, On Some Paleolithic Implements of North Kent. By the Rev. J. M.
MIG EO rE WAS, WY (te Savadatcierensacs scadse eeaaneacupmetceacn sseeedest tuk ete con ceed dienes 753
5. Report on Photographs of Geological Interest........6....cccceeeeseee eeeeeeece 754
6. Report on Irish Elk Remains in the Isle of Man .....-.....cccesecee eeeee eee 754
7. Report on the Flora and Fauna of the Interglacial Beds in Canada ...... 754
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 20.
1. Sigmoidal Curves. By Marta M. Gorpon, D.Se. ..........cceeececeeseee scenes 754
ee Discussion on Wave Phenomena: .424 75 linac ciddeda cout eas Wae RWeek does 759
3. Report on the Ossiferous Caves at Uphill ............ceeeeceecsececeeeseneeeees 755
4, Report on Erratic Blocks of the British Isles .....................000008 Jicaagte 755

6.

. On the Subdivisions of the Carboniferous System in certain portions of

Seva Scotia... By H. M. Amr, Mod, BiG Sri ces is joctuteootiaectscldestes 755
Report on the Registration of Type Specimens of British Fossils ............ 756

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

Address by ApAm Sepewicr, M.A., F.R.S., President of the Section ......... 757
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

1. Astrosclera Willeyana, the type of a new family of Recent Sponges. By
ick eye] Daeg RG ZS le oe es ee eee Asai adecsenkes 775

2. On the Morphology of the Cartilages of the Monotreme Larynx. By
Professor JOHNSON SYMINGTON; MLD) 200.0.5.6.ic ib cl skccesscanscoeascccsssenvnce 779

3. The Palpebral and Oculomotor Apparatus of Fishes. By N. BisHop
VET TS th Ja I fl ahs pip ae ee Ro I aR RRS 4 OE Se em 780

4. The Pelvic Symphysial Bone of the Indian Elephant. By Professor R.
Meee EON TELA I iceet ner scores aueiee! assests catat Gahioe ane asians nex 781

. “A few Notes on Rhythmic Motion. By Professor R. J. ANDERSON...... 782
. The Crystallisation of Beeswax and its Influence on the Formation of the

Cells of Bees. By Cuartes Dawson, F.G.S., and S. A. WoopHEap,
BSC BO Sie peentcwx aap ahi. cals cages haicbisk Salt <ashotee BiaesOb uel area aeoenses 782

- Report on Photographic Records of Pedigree Stock ........sccccsseeeeeeeeeees 782

1899. a

XVill REPORT—1899.

. First Report on the Plankton and Physical Conditions of the English

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
Page

SP TITITIC PPE RR ere te teas ci ePodccba sce: obec ssedacdnisieciiee scvesdsencaatanach oes emenneae 782

. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples 782
. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Marine Biological Laboratory,

Plymouth

Peer errr rrr rrr err errrrerrrrr reer reer rrr Sir ee eee eee eee eee eee eee ree)

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

. *The Development of Lepidosiren paradoxa. By J. Grama Kerr ...... 782

. Animals in which Nutrition has no Influence in Determining Sex. By

SP Renee, HAGEEMMNTIMN, -.p Fi edeacteehe ecto cout e ede cc heave Seas ce tocaee tps cant eeaxeie 782

. Exhibition of Newly-discovered Remains of Neomylodon from Patagonia.

By F. P. Morzno and A. SuirH Woopwarp

4, Exhibition of and Remarks on a Skull of the extinct Chelonian Miolania
from Patagonia. By F. P. Moreno and A. SurrH Woopwarb............ 783
5. *The Fur Seals of the Behring Sea. By G. E. H. Barrert-Hamitton... 784
6. Report on Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland ................00644 784
7. Report on ‘ Index Animalium’ .........0..........-sessececeesssceccensssseonesences 784
8. Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands ..............::seseeeeeeeeeees . 784
9. Report on Zoological and Botanical Publications ...............::ssseeeeeeeees 784
10. Report on the Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands............... 784
UESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
1

. Experiments on the Artificial Rearing of Sea-Fish. By W.Garstane,M.A. 784
. Plaice Culture in the Limfjord, Denmark. By Dr. C. G. Jou. Perprsen 784

On the Occurrence of the Grey Gurnard (Trigla gurnardus, 1.), and its
Spawning in the Inshore and Offshore Waters. By W. C. McInosn ... 787

. *On the Thames Estuary: its Physico-Biological aspects as bearing upon

sisihisheries,, By Dr. J. MURIG S coc we lore one defo onmnsrawssosietsptpabatcs meee 788

. Report of the Committee for constructing a Circulatory Apparatus for

Experimental Observations on Marine Organisms...........scsecsecseeeesseees 788

. *Exhibition of Dr. Petersen’s Closing Net for Quantitative Estimation of

Plankton. By W. GaARsTANe ...... ssi Bessa ead nee all 788

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

Address by Sir Joun Murray, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc., LL.D., President of the

moh

Section
. On Polar Exploration by means of Icebreakers. By Admiral Maxarorr 802
. *Physical Observations in the Barents Sea. By W.S. Bruwcg............... 802
. Report of the Committee on African Climatology

. Seismology in Relation to the Interior of the Earth. By Jonn Mityz,
F.RS

. CONTENTS. Xix

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

Page
1. On the Voyage of the ‘Southern Cross’ from Hobart to Cape Adare. By
HigGH ROBERT MID, DiSel. FURS Hi. cccaccsccssccccaetescessccessecssocese socnnmtel lls;
2, The Problem of Antarctic Exploration. By Henryk ARCTOWSEL......... 803
3. Notes on the Physical and Chemical Work of an Antarctic Expedition.
eee BU MESUCHANAN,, By ERIS,..0.1, Sedwedws webs WeudedsvmostaevcestsBaiahvaa sedeasenss 804
4, *On Antarctic Exploration with Reference to its Botanical Bearings.
Heng Che MURRAY, JH Wse a<0--cccseseaesornepeececcdose meand Siacenes anne aes Connie £06
5, Report of the Committee on the Exploration of Sokotra ..........s0..seee00 806
6. Travels in East Bokhara. By Mrs, W. Rickwer RIcKMERS ............... 806
7. A Journey in Western Oaxaca, Mexico. By O. H. Howarrn ............ 806

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

1. Qceanographical and Meteorological Results of the German Deep-sea
Expedition in the ‘ Valdivia.’ By Dr, GERHARD SCHON IA. die. 0ie. ee 808

2. On the Mean Temperature of the Surface Waters of the Sea round the
British Coasts, and its Relation to that of the Air. By H. N. Dickson,
aS alarcsoncsnis 0 a= sccande cxeininbiely de Moubtle ma vt thu ace Raa eM Ace palbaie stig casane 809

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
1. *The Bathymetrical Survey of the Scottish Fresh-water Lochs. By Sir

Joun Murray, K.C.B., and F. P. PULLAR............cccecececsceceessceenceeees 809
2. *The Distribution of Nitrogen and Ammonia in Ocean Water. By Sir
JoHN Murray, K.C.B., and ROBERT IRVINE ..........ceccceseseeeneseesenesees . 810
3. Temperature and Salinity of the Surface Water of the North Atlantic
during 1896 and 1897. By H. N. DICKSON ........... ce ceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeenes .. 810
4, On the Terminology of the Forms of Suboceanic Relief. By Hue
IRORBRT Minn): Sct ARIS SBL aca ast deidens dedssecatheee codens ade meet aceacddecthe 810
5. Twelve Years’ Work of the Ordnance Survey. By Colonel Sir Joun
HAROUHARRON KCl 4/ Ma Soe EO ee 811
6. On Sand-dunes bordering the Delta of the Nile. By VaucHan Cor-
MISHA VN SC Hy Et ktis Cys, s bien ietidenonsacencaedsaciicesesMoancecackedsce seas scare > S12

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
‘1. *The Anthropogeography of Certain Places in British New Guinea and

Sarawak.ey by Aq CU, <A DDONG Di SCig: BaluSert soceacsgsrGnscnvcacaqssessene ses 813
2. A Visit to the Karch-Chal Mountains, Transcaucasia. By W. Rrcoxmer
FRICKMERS .........cssseeeees yenonaoe 0 3en n080" paedusauacearinesaueles se iegsdccds saat 812
8. A Journey in King Menelek’s Dominions. / By Captain M.S. Wautrpy ... 814
4, The Discovery of Australia. By Epwarp Hrawoop, M.A...............0005 814
5. *Journey to Wilczek Land and the Problem of Arctic Exploration. By
NVA BEEMAN PO, ASS AA ae oldevecuus Peden ap Wotan slWedabieh otileVacdsvedeeces 814
6. The Relations of Christmas Island to the Neighbouring Lands. By C. W.
ANDREWS, B.Sc., F.GiS. ..ccceesecseeeereeeee Hecaae penaicec Wresdeoe Geaiiecsd sass 815

xx REPORT—1899,

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
Address by Henry Hices, LL.B., F.5.8., President of the Section ............ 816

1. The Mercantile System of Laisser Faire. By Eruet R. Farapay, M.A. 824
2. On Geometrical Illustrations of the Theory of Rent. By Professor J. D.

IVER ETT BCE Ss ccecuiesderesarneslnnegeitnerapieesess Sbiadvcwoasueeses sad csapeaneadpatne 825
3. On the Use of Galtonian and other Curves to represent Statistics. By
rotessor:E'. Y. DGHWOBUH. sc. aadessBeaeccsnconsenscdnesasne ovsxbicanissaps seepage 825

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
1. Some Aspects of American Municipal Finance. By J. H. Hotianprr,

HBA) yc seas taiancte dhicchsiocemmsnisnehines <oagamtee ca tac anelyedeevemtecssstentacs ses ee aeeaeenee 825
2. Municipal Trading and Profits. By Rospert DONALD ...........6...c0ecceee 826
3. The Single Tax. By Professor Witi1am Smarr, M.A., LL.D. ............ 827
4, The State as Investor. By Epwin CANnNAN, M.A, oo... cee eeceeeeeneeeeeee 828
5, The Mercantile System. By Professor G. J. STOKUS............cseceeceeeneeee 828

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16,
i. Agricultural Wages in the United Kingdom from 1770 to 1895. By

PACD: SDOWLEY, NGA. , IS Satire cctstccuweancudatdena css vektal-leisonidsledces sete 829
2, *Note sur la situation agricole d’un canton du Pas-de-Calais. Par un
Membre de la Société d’Economie Sociale de France............sseseeee0e Nimenowe

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

ey Lie Census; 1001... 23y, Miss (COLLET: .:.0..4.cnuercwsnsevapesccereereaveeeeeeraneee 829
2, The Course of Average Wages between 1790 and 1860. By Groner

EGY ANVOOD SES ai hove) aestas ga aemeevcedecmam daetetusesaw sine. samed ee ceneen Sai meen 829
3. The Regulation of Wages by Lists in the Spinning Industry. By S. J.

Re EIAEMUAIN seis piss Tianv sss do Vo jac nan emaengies MAREN uceee hth Ra co ec eey nee eee 830
4, The Teaching University of London and its Faculty of Economics. By

PEGE SULLUP NUAGN US» ..sscspossedespucaeessstesnioraraessss~ ata nossten Sia 831

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
1. Increase in Local Rates in England and Wales, 1891-2 to 1896-7. By

IMTABWEDEWAII: .gsccevccrcnccantemeceecce cee dean eamen erection Sp diineedtan eae nae 832
2, Bank Reserves. By GEORGE H. POWNALL..........ccccecsecscesecceeseneeeceens 833
3. Indian Currency after the Report of the Commission. By HrrMann

SOHMMDL D2. vss cage becouse eeeeeoeeae eon: or aeece ante tee cebtlocct saiiuis Vee Saeaaqhber user 834
4, *The Silver Question in Relation to British Trade. By Joun M.

EVA DON ATID: facia ddetmdasnaidsiassthen's sas decicecbieshe nace splsateaeins ann ckleege seusGaatives 835

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 20.

1. The Results of Recent Poor Law Reform. By Hanroxp E. Moors, F.S.1. 835

2. Old Age Pensions in Denmark: their Influence on Thrift and Pauperism.
ay se COLESHON ANY PLUK, MAD is ccesecsseeagensseness Ride ser ce ee ete tie ee 835

CONTENTS. xxi

Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14,

Page

Address by Sir W. H. Wurtz, K.C.B., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., President
RLMUNENSECHLOMPonearevesscecteeoasacctcececetsocavecmaids tet cadetcagessceceracseecess sete 837

1. The Dover Harbour Works. By J. C. Coonz, M.Inst.C.E., and W.
MiiAcrspermenyes MEE st Cuber a oscatlaseeccccccsceccccswaninccceseccssatendcacesdeacdessts 854

2, On Non-Flammable Wood and its Use on Warships. By H. Marswann
IGS adeédocapaduaptideésaoso.togsdoaaguebab or cabocebobebadanee contoococcasonvenalicctia signe 854

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15,

JV, Report on Small Screw Gauges c.....sevsccesossecsvcccsconscccecsecseorassseoeacs 855

2, *A Short History of the Engineering Works of the Suez Canal to the
Present Time, By Sir CoartEs Hartnny, K.C.M.G......... ccc ceeeeeneeeee 855

3. *Fast Cross-Channel Steamers Driven by!Steam Turbines, By Hon, C. A.
APAREON Ss Be EeSihiecclnseutcseetsleageaieeare et eitaleccstaan ss dea todah sevae eres tetas 855
4, *The Niclausse Water-Tube Boiler. By Marx Rosrnson, M.Inst.C.E..., 855

5

bo

bo

. On the Discharge of Torpedoes below Water. By Captain E, W. Lioyp 855

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

. Erection of the New Alexander III. Bridge in Paris. By M.M. Arsy... 856

! MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
*Electrical Machinery on Board Ship. By A. Sremens, M.Inst.C.E....... 856

. On the Electric Conductivity and Magnetic Properties of an Hxtensive

Series of Alloys of Iron, prepared by R. A. Haprrep. * By Professor
W. F. Barrett, F.R.S., and W. BROWN, B.Sc........ccscecsssencseceesceeeeees 856

. Some Recent Applications of Electro-Metallurgy to Mechanical Engineer-

ing. By SHerarpD Cowrer-Cotss, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E., M.LE.E. 857

. *Signalling without Contact, a New System of Railway Signalling. By

WILFRED S. Bout, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 21... ....cccccesecececerseececcececeonens 858

. Our Lighthouses of the English Channel in 1899. By J. Kenwarp,

a Ma lara oketes 2 /aaapanitesecctet reine dae date cada oe We'd sei Seas wee cakes dd dewees « 858

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.

. Recent Experiences with Steam on Common Roads, By Joun I.

WHOENYCHORT FURS. «.ccciccseneeedarscugisess f REARS AR See iaee colle Sak fe 858

. The Dymchurch Wall and Reclamation of Romney Marsh. By Epwarp

OAsuy Aesoe, Maint O70). FSEIGIS AN TA eae ii vibbe dckcabcitecstaveans 859

. An Instrument for Gauging the Circularity of Boiler Furnaces and

Cylinders, Producing a Diagram. By T. Musseneur, A.M.I.C.E.......... 859

. Experiments on the Thrust and Power of Air-Propellers, By WILLIAM

GEORGE WALKER, M.L.M.E., A.M.LO.E.. ccc cccsseccescesseeerecee soeeeeues 860

XXU REPORT—1899.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

Page

Address by C. H. Reap, President of the Section ...........cceeceeeeesseeeecu eens 861

1. {Report on the New Edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries’...... 868

2, Report on Photographs of Anthropological Interest ...............sseeeeseeeee 868

pis PGE PORIeN ETAL PAAOULORS cc 5c nssedasdcapnneoscesne conn sapcbb spina ake cpadenseematale t 861

4, *The Personal Equation in Anthropometry. By Dr. J. G. Garson ...... 868

5, Finger Prints of Young Children, By Francis Gatton, D.C.L., F.R.S. 868
G. Finger Prints and the Detection of Crime in India, describing the System
of classifying Finger Prints and how all the great Departments in

India have brought Finger Prints into use. By E. R. Henry, C.S.1. .., 869

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

1. Report onthe Expedition to Torres Straits and New Guinea ............... 870
2. The Linguistic Results of the Cambridge Expedition to Torres Straits and

New Guineas, By, SIDNEY, HL IRAY) sock et-soshorterospeatteteava ddeeeeneaeee 870

3. Notes on Savage Music. By C. S. MYERS .............scsceeceeeeeeees ion vindteit 870

4, Seclusion of Girls at Mabuiag, Torres Straits. By C. G. Srniemann...... 871

5. Notes on the Club Houses and Dubus of British New Guinea. By C. G.
STIRS 006s (Soren a5-noberaceiied ae ae area ey Heath Sere te ree sce <aeemtad
6. *Notes on the Otati Tribe, North Queensland. By C. G. Serremann... 871
7. Contributions to Comparative Psychology from Torres Straits and New
GUM Caer arsccetsosces rat. coe spconsescess senda ernertecnediueetecscworesh- (ttt aeeeeeeneamans 871
8. *Exhibition of Photographs from Torres Straits and British New Guinea.
fy Professor HADDON, ECS... ..c.ccsscetecendsssnees sensi sdscnces stay stent 871
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
1. Some New Observations and a Suggestion on Stonehenge. By ALFRED
Eppowes, M.D., M.R.C.P.............008 Ib dete CS oaeas ob ea boots eee ta cee bam 871
2. *Interim Report on Investigations of the Age of Stone Circles ............ 871
3, Notes on the Discovery of Stone Implements in Pitcairn’s Island. By J.
ATDENABBOWN, EGiS.5 cB RAGS... 05: coccdt onescnnsrenslaes ses coos etvaesstenaantpene 871
4, Onthe Occurrence of ‘ Celtic’ Types of Fibula of the Hallstatt and La
Téne Periods in Tunisia and Eastern Algeria. By Arruur J. Evans,
Bre ess HUIS Tice ec tes pe peach oheorcserc scons apeaeeeeeere}eveoricdscers awe apy ame 872
5. On Irish Copper Celts. By GEORGE COFFEY ...........ccceecoeceecceeeeceeeeers 872
G. *Stone Moulds for New Types of Implements from Ireland. By G.
OORT Vs ges viselss aneanno ds casepaatcnne> AAdagsonnbdsappe-.obenagenaare coated agentes. 873
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
1. Final Report on the Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom ...... 874,
2. On Recent Ethnographical Work in Scotland. By J. Gray, B.Sc.......... 874
3. Report on the Mental and Physical Condition of Children in Elementary
Sea Ne OR ao aer nd Po eseaadioet de « ein otaecin Cb « duSp.as dsnnnryt Alona nde Sicenac. eae 875
4, On Recent Anthropometrical Work in Egypt. By D. Maclvrr, B.A. ... 875

So, Oo a

CONTENTS. XYXill

Page

. “Notes ona Collection of 1,000 Egyptian Crania, By Professor A. Mac-

RSE ei enn arenes tc EY. CoS ect ws darcell oot ES Seed t eww, <eenatecddeadvuend (ch 876

. *On a Pre-basi-occipital Bone in a New Hebridean Skull, and an anoma-

lous Atlanto-occipital Joint in a Moriori. By Professor A, MacaListsr,
BEDE Rss sed da evlex 8305 <7] aSPLCMIO LL ACRONIS ING Wisisenide ands denodedabecestive 876

. Notes on Colour Selection in Man. By Dr. Beppox, F.R.S..............26.4. 876
. Report on the Lake Village of Glastonbury ..........cc.ceeseeeeeceeeeeseseeees 876

. Sequences of Prehistoric Remains, By Professor W.M. Frinpers Petrie 876
. On the Sources of the Alphabet. By Professor W. M. Frinpers Perrie 877

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.

1. Notes on the Yaraikanna Tribe, Cape York, North Queensland. By Dr.
Hee ELEN DON EH StS Shh ik heh ey aes Pes hs) bo duth cons cavaccvauseccis feseans 877
2. Report on the Ethnological Survey of Canada .........cceccsessecesseeeeeceees 877
3, Primitive Rites of Disposal of the Dead, as illustrated by Survivals in
Modern India. By Wittiam CRrooxe, B.A. .........000scceseessssecssuseteneee 877
4. Pre-animistic Religion. By R. R. MARETT, M.A. .........s00cseesceeeseeeee 878
5. The Thirty-seven Nats (or Spirits) of the Burmese. By Colonel R. C.

2 EE STC AO ARS Ra et Os eS red ee ROEM OL NT) RAR 878

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 20.

. *The ‘Cero’ of St. Ubaldino: The Relic of a Pagan Spring Festival at

Gubbio in‘ Umbria.; By: Ds Maclwer <:pe20.d i cci2.hes edteceswiteed. cates vals 880

. *Exhibition of Ethnographical Specimens from Somali, Galla, and Shan-

als. 1. loys Darr Hes SOME TE RIT go ase cudbd. Alomm <4 airwmsdayhn wait scyen step peeand ite 880

. “The Ethnography of the Lake Region of Uganda. By Lieut.-Colonel J.

ie Wan MEA CDONATD, Ly Biceg sane er ces om-aee cote oc dasmaneaeecnca ices adephidaddsca sas 880

. *Notes on some West African Tribes north of the Benue. By Lieut. H.

IROPEVEMININESS Youdeyarermasmccn ne ss atntreter cnet re eat eee ee ae 880

Section J.—PHYSIOLOGY, including ExprrimentaL PaTHotocy
and EXPERIMENTAL PsycHOLoGyY.

Address by J. N. Lanetzy, D.Sc., F.R.S., President of the Section ............ 881

\ THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

1. Report on the Influence of Drugs upom the Vascular System ............... 892
2. Report on the Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors when
Derto dicen) inte) bhe CArcW IAGO oo acs seratupisunsinanguvanadasangenestaiee east 892
3. Report on the Electrical Changes accompanying the Discharge of the
Para SEA STN a a a a alan Calalas anpivensnavae 892
4, Report on the Comparative Histology of the Cerebral Cortex ..........+++++ 892
5, *Interim Report on the Histological Changes in the Nerve Cells............ 892

XXIV REPORT—1899.

Page
6. Report on the Micro-chemistry of Cells .............cccseescnneeceuneeeeeeeneeees 892
7. Interim Report on the Histology of the Suprarenal Capsules ..............5 892
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
Rts ESP IEGME PAGEOUS 5330S Sc ctk esis a nevucedsotvesavesssstendscdee sd apap Meno sees 881
1, Autointoxication as the cause of Pancreatic Diabetes. By Ivor L.
SIMUL RGHITETS GNI EAN ear ctetoss.cgs as basincemehbineb san sponeneses cn > on dudsbinad > Sapmuee eames 892
2, The Physiological Effects of Extracts of the Pituitary Body. By Pro-
fessor H. A. SCHAFER and SWALE VINCENT .........cccececseesceesensecceseees 894
3. 7On the Theory of Hearing. By A. A. GRAY ......cccceecseceereeeeect seen 894
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
1. On the Resonance of Nerve and Muscle. By F.C. Buscw ............... w. 894
2. The Propagation of Impulses in the Rabbit’s Heart. By H. KRronEcKER
AHO Ae ESUNCHY socal iecdednoscraesnnsAcsecsrosdeecavereelewec deri eset ese hare eeeaeeee 895
8. Concerning Fibrillation and Pulsation of the Dog’s Heart. By F. C.
NSUSOH. hece Jucssac.cddacoccecsrapecstosnmatee eden Cees sevceeesdeanevpmestegete aomeemmaee 896
4, On the Effects of Successive Stimulation of the Visceromotor and Vaso-
motor Nerves of the Intestine. By J. L. Buncu, D.Sc., M.D. ............ 897
5. On Stimulation and Excitability of the Anemic Brain. By Writiiam J.
CUES! oink. scons evseans svcatenebs so cacuisaesaccseissrcieccisa'<eeetiseccvet ces aieeeeeemmee 897
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
1, On the Innervation of the Thoracic and Abdominal parts of the Gisopha-
gus. By W. MUHLBERG, of Cincinnati .........5.2..0csceceeceececscnseosceecess 898
2. Observations, Physiological and Pharmacological, on the Intestinal Move-
ments of a Dog with a Vella Fistula, By J. E. Esspnmonr ............... 899
5. On Respiration on Mountains. By Dr. EMIL BURGT............0c0.eeceeceeees 900
4. “On Protamines, the Simplest Proteids. By Professor A. Kosstt ......... 901
5. *Protamines and their Cleavage Products: their Physiological Effects.

6.

By Professor W. H. THompson

The Vascular Mechanism of the Testis. By Watrer E. Drxon, M.D.,
B.Sc. London ....... “baspetnoce Saijcsod nnd obsncncagseobabaon asec Sgesscce oss pace eeeeeee 901

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.

. The Dependence of the Tonus of the Muscles of the Bladder in Rabbits

on the Spinal Cord. By Joun P. ARNOmD ............... oo svaesconemmeeneees 902

. Observations on Visual Acuity from Torres Straits. By Dr. W. H. R.
REWER rs ere ate eer aalan tb cneo veces e's deadessdiseee ep oat Ie Qga54108 902

. “Observations on Visual Acuity from New Guinea. By C. G. Setiemann 902

- On a New Instrument for measuring the duration of Persistence of
Vision on the Human Retina. By Erte Srvarr Bruce, M.A. Oxon.,
PMC GON a cvcadie na sip ox «sem ne ohio oh nncenntaeaesebs enh ane av etneeee iene 902

CONTENTS, XXKV

Srecrion K.—BOTANY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14,

Page

Address by Sir Groree Kine, K.C.LE., LL.D., M.B., F.R.S., President of
BPM MPa Sa Mecerose cet inel adducts feace as huatedses dicasianceleivesbealaGasvdedaccoin 904

1. Some Methods for Use in the Culture of Alew. By Professor MarsHaLt
\N Lao OAL a SE Ree aerer Paneer teeta el) Eee ei ets ah de ee OW yen ele ee 919

2. On the Growth of Oscillaria in Hanging Drops of Silica Jelly. By Pro-
Peron MARSHAEE WARD, BR Ga ns... slides ss SHUR. AON ald 920

3. On the Life-history and Cytology of Halidrys Siliquosa. By J. Lroyp-
UAC 0 A a Seiiadelese enreter etek as Jaen sacestascionse thy. dices 920

4, The Sand-Dunes between Deal and Sandwich, with Remarks on the
Flora of the Districts. By G. DowkEr, F.G.S..............cceceeeeceeeeeeeeees 921

5. *The Research Laboratory in the Royal Botanic Garden, Peradeniya,
Per otivc. vis. .Cs, WALLIS, nc WAV kl who k sa censlaatell ace Mune. 21
6. Report on Fertilisation in the Pheophycew ........ Perk epcoee tao nec acre 921
7. Report on Experimental Investigation of Assimilation in Plants............ 921

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

1, On White-Rot, a Bacterial Disease, of the Turnip. By Professor M. C.
IBOUTER) <.s<202. Adngor connie arcana or sstebtuocotsenacbecAbsenocehond, cdotsacodsascne 921
2. *On the Phosphorus-containing Elements in Yeast. By Harotp WaceEr. 922

. On the Influence of the Temperature of Liquid Hydrogen on the Germi-

native Power of Seeds. By Sir Witt1am Tuiserton Dyer, K.C.M.G.,
IRAE aeeec ce hee cecae ott dude neieeinws duvdsccassade sic cesestned ae lenses aleve senei daveeaseres

we)
NS bo

4, *Ona Horn-destroying Fungus. By Professor MarsHatt Warp, F.R.S. 922
5. Bulgaria polymorpha (Wettstein) as a Wood-destroying Fungus. By R.
RPRPEUNIN Vary nolo saaaitd dcuann/atedwcnn cds Asancncl davcetshinsiveen inn’ sieg'uesuaty sAyppeoesHs 923
6. Ona Disease of Tradescantia fluminensis and T. sebrina. By AtBerr _
EVONUARED VEISA' P , ogdetscc ceva caste secedeececests cues etessabesesseacas nerteuencsaanets 923
7. *Demonstration of Vermiform Nuclei in the Fertilised Embryo-Sac of
Lilium Martagon. By Miss ETHEL SARGANT ..........ccccccceceseeceeeeeees 923
8. *On the Sexuality of the Fungi. By HAROLD WAGER....cc....:cceeceeeeees 923
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
Joint Discussion with Section B on Symbiosis ........c.cc.seccesseeecelesueceeesnee 923
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
1, On the Localisation of the Irritability in Geotropic/rgans. By Francis
PPPAR Wiley Unbue Sapceenawanencauaiios ts sacs scces ease rage ence ves ondddlees ae cteloansiececnees 924
2. Studies in Aracee. By Professor Dovaias CAMPBELL ........ceeeeceeeeees 924
8. On the Morphology and Life History of the Indo-Ceylonese Podostemacee.
SN en OWNER SETEE rote a ira Sas fects Cea vos va wel ddadc nad oedeun hei ete daatoa vatTs os 924
4, Note on the Anabena-containing Roots of some Cycads, By W.G. __
HAIMA el deine ales estos fave dady nana a-sfeenny sans duc Vauedmadelaasiddsersissaesaene 925
5, A Mixed Infection in Abutilon Roots. By E. J. Burner, M.B........0005 925

‘XxXvVl1 REPORT—1899.

Page
6. *Remarks on Fern Sporangia and Spores. By Professor F. O. Bowsr,
Ra Soe neat etseereoocccetencesccn:-<cacbeneus-coeesees ieee se tameneetennen Sacceea sce 926
7. The Jurassic Flora of Britain. By A. C. Seward, F.R.S. .............000 . 926
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
1. A New Genus of Paleozoic Plants. By A. C. Sewarp, F.R.S............. 926
2. On the Structure of a Stem of a Ribbed Sigillaria. By Professor C. Ea.
ISERITRAND if osccensona6-2aeapn-coK pears dee packEs ach: ocoeddh ace ectemeat eats aemeen Teme 926
3. On a biserial Halonia belonging to the genus Lepidophloios. By Pro-
Hessoe BE Bry WIRISS.. 2:ckinsa-.cbpidesssscsncisaneodssned ee +n ud emepese beeen seat ae uen ae 927
4. The Maiden-hair Tree (Ginkgo biloba, L.). By A. C. Spwarp, F.R.S.,
amd Mass SD. GOWAN. 1. cterecdencnnt ch sons-boaddusescmeordnb's pcireeet ha teeramemanneee 928
5. Stem-structure in Schizzeacese, Gleicheniacee, and Hymenophyllaces.
By; Ti, CA. PBOODLB cans nes oiniae's dernces as ob se'aeee cima ob pacedecsl geeeemeLeuen ek gmane 928
6. Notes on Indiarubber. By R. H. BIPFEN .......c0....:scceeesescesecseseeeeeees 929
7. Some isolated Observations on the Function of Latex. By J. Parkin,
2
8. Intumescences of Hibiscus yitifolius, Z. By Miss E. Date ............... 930

=); ed Bay y

~ Plan of Dover Harbour,

«
oe .
Ms e “

OBJECTS AND RULES

OF
THE ASSOCIATION.

Set.

OBJECTS.

Tr Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
_Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.

RULES.
Admission of Members and Associates.

All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled
to become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation
to conform to its Rules.

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
General Committee or Council to become Life Members of the Asso-
ciation, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.

Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.

Lire Mempers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association. ;

Annvat Susscripers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds
aud in each following year the sum of OnePound. They shall receive |

XXX REPORT—1899.

gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis ; butthey may resume their Membership and other privileges at any
subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the
sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the offices of the Association
Assoctatss for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.

The Association consists of the following classes :—

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after
intermission of Annual Payment. ]

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. ]

5, Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’)
price, according to the following specification, viz. :—

1. Gratis —Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845
a further sum of Five Pounds. ;

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who have not internvitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

2. At reduced or Members’ Price, viz., two-thirds of the Publication Price.
—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book
Subscription.

Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. |

3, Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up to 1874
of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per volume."

Application to be made at the Office of the Association.

Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.

? A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, at £10 the set.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Xxxi

Meetings.

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee not
less than two years in advance!; and the arrangements for it shall be
entrusted to the Officers of the Association.

General Committee.

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—

Crass A. Permanent MEMBERS.

1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.

2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must be
sent to the Assistant General Secretary at least one month before the Meeting
of the Association. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member
of the Association to be placed on the list of the General Oommittee to be final.

Crass B. TrEmporary Memsers.?

1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the
conditions hereinafter explained. Claims under this Rule to be sent to the
Assistant General Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.

2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.

3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.

4. Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.

Organising Sectional Committees.*

The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries.of the several Sec-
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to exercise the func-
tions of Sectional Committees until their names are submitted to the
General Committee for election.

From the time of their nomination they constitute Organising Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,‘ and of preparing Reports

? Revised by the General Committee, Liverpool, 1896.

2 Revised, Montreal, 1884.

* Passed, Edinburgh, 1871, revised, Dover, 1899.

* Notice to Contributors of Memoirs—Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which

XXxil REPORT—1899.

thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
read. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ex officio members
of the Organising Sectional Committees.’

An Organising Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
2 p.m., to appoint members of the Sectional Committee.”

Constitution of the Sectional Committees.3

On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section, who will be appointed by the
General Committee at 4 P.m., and those previous Presidents and Vice-
Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at 2 P.M.,
in their Committee Rooms, and appoint the Sectional Committees by
selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their
number from day to day.

The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.

Business of the Sectional Committees.

Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday, and on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, for the
objects stated in the Rules of the Association. The Organising Committee
of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours of meeting of the Section
and the Sectional Committee except for Saturday.°

The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—

1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.
2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the

they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organising Committees
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become
necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
several Communications, that each author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
IGELOTC! cv omeatncceccmcasscvesese , addressed to the General Secretaries, at the office of
the Association. ‘For Section......... * If it should be inconvenient to the Author
that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send in-
formation thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors who send in their
MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers are accepted,
will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their Reports and
abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual Volume
unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Assistant General
Secretary before the conclusion of the Meeting.

1 Sheffield, 1879. 2 Swansea, 1880, revised, Dover, 1899.

3 Edinburgh, 1871, revised, Dover, 1899.

4 The meeting on Saturday is optional, Southport,1883. > Nottingham, 1893.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXX1iL

Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly.

&. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organ-
ising Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Committees. !

At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association
and printed in the last volume of the Report. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organising Committee.? The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed. At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday
in the Journal.

On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 4.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.

Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.

Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close.of the
Sectional Meetings, to the Assistant General Secretary.

The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ea officio
temporary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxxi), and will
receive, on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets
entitling them to attend its Meetings.

The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association, and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
Selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge -on the
state and progress of which Reports are wanted ; to name individuals or
Committees for the execution of such Reports or researches ; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.

In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and

1} These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877.

? This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, Edis-
burgh, 1871,

1899. b

XXXIV REPORT—1899.

one of them appointed to act as Chairman, who shall have notified per-
sonally or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Ohairman to have
the responsibility of receiving and disbursing the grant (if any has been made)
and securing the presentation of the Report in due time; and, further, it is
expedient that one of the members should be appointed to act as Secretary, for
ensuring attention to business.

That it is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve on @
Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient working.

That a tabular list of the Committees appointed on the recommendation
of each Section should be sent each year to the Recorders of the several Sec-
tions, to enable them to fill in the statement whether the several Committees
appointed on the recommendation of their respective Sections had presented
their reports.

That on the proposal to recommend the appointment of a Convmittee for a
special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional Committee, the
number of Members of such Committee be then fixed, but that the Members to
serve on such Comnvittee be nominated and selected by the Sectional Com-
mittee at a subsequent meeting.'

Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.

The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries,and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant General Secretary
for presentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be
done, the Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.

N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can
be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the
General Committee.

Notices regarding Grants of Money.?

1. No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of
the British Association without special permission from the General
Committee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended
except in accordance with the Rules of the Association.

2. In grants of money to Committees the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the Members.

3. Committees to which grants of money are entrusted by the Association
for the prosecution of particular Researches in Science are ap-
pointed for one year only. If the work of a Committee cannot be
completed in the year, and if the Sectional Committee desire the
work to be continued, application for the reappointment of the
Committee for another year must be made at the next meeting of
the Association.

4. Hach Committee is required to present a Report, whether final or in-
terim, at the next meeting of the Association after their appoint-
ment or reappointment. Interim Reports must be submitted in
writing, though not necessarily for publication.

3 Revised by the General Committee, Bath, 1888.
2 Revised by the General Committee at Ipswich, 1896.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXV

5. In each Committee the Chairman is the only person entitled to
call on the Treasurer, Professor G. Carey Foster, F.R.S., for
such portion of the sums granted as may from time to time be
required.

6. Grants of money sanctioned at a meeting of the Association expire on
June 30 following. The Treasurer is not authorised after that
date to allow any claims on account of such grants.

7. The Chairman of a Committee must, before the meeting of the Asso-
ciation next following after the appointment or reappointment of
the Committee, forward to the Treasurer a statement of the sums
which have been received and expended, with vouchers. The
Chairman must also return the balance of the grant, if any, which
has been received and not spent ; or, if further expenditure is con-
templated, he must apply for leave to retain the balance.

8. When application is made for a Committee to be reappointed, and to
retain the balance of a former grant which is in the hands of the
Chairman, and also to receive a further grant, the amount of such
farther grant is to be estimated as being additional to, and not
inclusive of, the balance proposed to be retained.

9. The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting
to whom a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the
Committee of Recommendations in every case where no such
report has been received. :

10. Members and Committees who may be entrusted with sums of money
for collecting specimens of Natural History are requested to re-
serve the specimens so obtained to be dealt with by authority of
the Association.

11. Committees are requested to furnish a list of any apparatus which
may have been purchased out of a grant made by the Association,
and to state whether the apparatus will be useful for continuing
the research in question, or for other scientific purposes.

12, All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Asso-
ciation are to be deposited at the Office of the Association when
not employed in scientific inquiries for the Association.

Business of the Sections.

The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation shortly
before the meeting commences. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto
can be used for no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the
Association.

At the time appointed the Chair will be taken,’ and the reading of
communications, in the order previously made public, commenced.

Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.

1 The Organising Committee of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours
of meeting of the Section and of the Sectional Committee, except for Saturday.
b2

XXXVi REPORT—1899.

A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.

Duties of the Doorkeepers.

1. To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.

2. To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Assistant General Secretary.

3. Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.

No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the Programme, p. 1.

Duties of the Messengers.

To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.

Committee of Recommendations.

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures whith
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

The ex officio members of the Committee of Recommendations are the
President and Vice-Presidents of the Meeting, the Genera] and Assistant-
General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents
of the Association in former years.

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations.

All proposals for establishing new Sections, or altering the titles of
Sections, or for any other change in the constitutional forms and funda-
mental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of
Recommendations for a report.!

If the President of a Section is unable to attend a meeting of the
Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Committee shall be
authorised to appoint a Vice-President, or, failing a Vice-President,
some other member of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice
of the appointment being sent to the Assistant General Secretary.?

1 Passed by the General Committee at Birmingham, 1865.
2 Passed by the General Committee at Leeds, 1890.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXVil

Corresponding Societies.'

1. Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga-
tions, and publishes notices of the results.

2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the
List of Corresponding Societies. Applications must be addressed to the
Assistant General Secretary on or before the 1st of June preceding the
Annual Meeting at which it is intended they should be considered, and
must be accompanied by specimens of the publications of the results of
the local scientific investigations recently undertaken by the Society.

3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi-
nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the
purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping
themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers
published by them. This Committee shall make an annuai report to the
General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the
List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable.

4, Every Corresponding Societyshall return each year, on or before the
1st of June, to the Assistant General Secretary of the Association, a
schedule, properly filled up, which will be issued by him, and which will
contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society as may
be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee.

5. There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association
a list, in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre-
sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the
results of the local scientific work conducted by them; those papers only
being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of
one or other of the various Sections of the Association.

6. A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any
one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele-
gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time
a Member of the General Committee.

Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.

7. The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies is em-
powered to send recommendations to the Committee of Recommen-
dations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee.

8. The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con-
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre-
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the
General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding
Societies Committee shall be ex officio members.

9. The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries
to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa-
tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take
part in the meetings.

10. The Secretaries of each Section shall be instructed to transmit to

1 Passed by the General Committee, 1884.

XXXVI1il REPORT—1899.

the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommen-
dations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee of
Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of
Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference
of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend
the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them
carried into effect.

11. It will bethe duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer-
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be
able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear-
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera-
tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of pubiishing results.

Local Committees.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

Officers.

A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.

Council.

In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.

(1) The Council shall consist of !

. The Trustees.

. The past Presidents.

. The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.

. The President and Vice-Presidents elect.

. The past and preseut General Treasurers, General and
Assistant General Secretaries.

. The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing
Meeting.

. Ordinary Members.

“I for) er HO De

(2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the
General Committee.

(3 There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, of

' Passed by the General Committee at Belfast, 1874.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. 6:6:46.¢

whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council,
as Ordinary Members, in the previous year.

(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary

’ Members of the outgoing Council shall at each annual election
be ineligible for nomination :—1st, those who have served on
the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years; and,
2nd, those who, being resident in or near London, have
attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year
—observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by
seniority to two by least attendance.

(5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their
Annual Report the names of the Members of the General
Committee whom they recommend for election as Members of
Council.

(6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the
Officers of the Association.

Papers and Communications.

The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to
reserve his right of property therein.

Accounts.

The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, ky Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.

“beat ‘29180 90110

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—————S> _-§—_—

1899.

REPORT

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secoomonenener rooms snp ennsanre Se E SOM Siem eH Socom, eure
pace eeherrrret roe r ss 3y acs wa ‘ ‘aT ‘B3UIBY ce. *V Tossojoig

1899.

REPORT

lviii

teeeeeeeceseress TONUOT ‘Mnesny, A10ISIH [VINYVN 9} JO 1OQOITIGE
“Spr “S'Z ‘Sd “ST “SU “AIT ‘eMoLT “H “M AOssejorg
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= (0. 0% JO AOTTeouRYH-so1A “q'q ‘oI [ediourrzg *“Aay AIOA OUT,

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sialsia{siaYsin,ajo{aia)s\0/s\n\a/e\oiv(n\6's/e(mm¥jn miai«/etsiaiv e{e/sinsnin}e's 7 le ISR SNOOTY:

“"W'WN ‘alata “) rossejorg
"SOM AN WN “bsg ‘rasvay sunday
"Ww “bsy ‘atquiorp “MA *¢

jo AqIst0ATUQ ayy Jo 10,00 fae TT “WW “bsq ‘ureg sepuexolTy "eset ‘6 Taquieqdag ‘nagauaary

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ssee"* taapraqy JO 4719 049 Jo ysoaorg proqy “bsg ‘Smoygquyy soumve | “q'W°A'O'M ‘UIVAAVId NOAT WIS "NOH LHDIU UL

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“SOU “Sua “GIT “To'a “bsa ‘SNHINAIS “AA ‘0

xlix

PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.

sreeeeessorronsal Ty “S(O “SU “T'O'E “Wea ‘Teg WeIAAVOT “T Ig
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PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.

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Teetes Sey Sot Sa SOTT ary UTM ANC, “TT *4) Tossoyory

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li REPORT—1899.

TRUSTEES AND GENERAL OFFICERS, 1831—1900.

TRUSTEES.

1832-70 Gok R. I. MuRcuIson (Bart.),
BS.

1832-62 aes TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S.
1832-39 C. BABBAGE, Esq., F.R.S.
1839-44 F. BAILy, Esq., FRS.
1844-58 Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S.
1858-82 General E. SABINE, F.R.8.
1862-81 Sir P. EGERTON, Bart., F.R.S.

GENERAL

1831 JONATHAN GRAY, Esq.
1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S.
1862-74 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., F.R.S.

1872 Sir J. LuBgock, Bart., ¥.R.S.

1881-83 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Hsq., Pres.
RS.

1883 Lord RAYLEIGH, F.R.8.

1883-98 Sir Lyon (now Lord) PLAYFAIR,
F.RB.S.

1898 Prof. A. W. RUcKER, F.R.S.

TREASURERS.

1874-91 Prof. A.W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S.
1891-98 Prof. A. W. RUCKER, F-.R.S.
1898 Prof. G. C. FostER, F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

1832-35 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
E.RBS.

1835-36 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
F.R.8., and F. Baty, Esq.,
E.R.S.

1836-37 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
¥.R.S., and R. I. MuRcuHISoN,
Esq., F.R.S.

R. I. Murcuison, Esq., F.R.S.,
and Rey. G. Peacock, F.R.S8.

1839-45 Sir R. I. Murcuison, F.R.S.,

and Major KE. SABINE, F.R. s.

1845-50 Lieut.-Colonel E. SABINE, F.R.S.

1850-52 General E. SABINE, F.R.S., and

J.¥F. ROYLE, Esq., F.R.S.

1852-53 J. F. Roy yy, Esq., F.R.S.

1853-59 General E. SABINE, F.R.S.

1859-61 Prof. R. WALKER, F.R.8.

1861-62 W. HopKIns, Esq., F.R.S.

1862-63 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and

Prof. J. PHILLIPS, F.R.S.

1863-65 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and

F. GALTON, Esa., F.R.S,
1865-66 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S.

1837-39

| 1897

1866-68 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S., and
Dr. T, A. Hirst, F.R.S.

1868-71 Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S., and Dr.
T. THOMSON, F.R.S.

1871-72 Dr.T. THOMSON,F.R.S.,and Capt.
DouGuas GALTON, F.R.S.

1872-76 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.B.S.,
and Dr. MICHAEL FOSTER,
FE.RBS.

1876-81 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.,
and Dr. P. L. SCLATER, F. BS.

1881-82 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.RS.,
and Prof. F. M. BALFOUR,
F.RB.8.

1882-83 Capt. DouUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.

1883-95 Sir DouGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.,
and A. G. VERNON HARCOURT,
Esq., F.B.S.

| 1895-97 A. G. Vans HaRcovuRkt, Esq.,

F.R.S., and Prof. E. A.
ScHArer, F.R.S.

Prof. E. A. ScHAFER, F.R.S., ana
Sir W. C. RoBERTS-AUSTEN,
K.C.B., F.R.S.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES.

1831

JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., Secretary.
1832

Prof. J. D. Fores, Acting
Secretary.

1832-62 Prof. JOHN PHILLIPS, F.R.S.

1862-78 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A.

J878-80 J. E. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A.,
Assistant Secretary.

G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting
Secretary.

1881

1881-85 Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.B.8.,

Secretary.

1885-90 A. T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A.,
Secretary.

1890 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A. Acting
Secretary.

1890 G, GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A.

lili

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.

Date and Place

1832.
1833.
1834.

1835.
1836.
1837.
1838.

Presidents |

Secretaries

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IL—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.

Oxford
Cambridge
Edinburgh

Liverpool...

Newcastle

1839. Birmingham

1840.

1841.
1842.

1843.
1844,

1845.

1846.
1847.
1848.

Glasgow ..

Plymouth
Manchester

Cambridge

Southamp-
ton.
Oxford

Swansea ...

1849. Birmingham

1850.

. Glasgow .

Edinburgh

. Ipswich ...

. Belfast......

eee eeeee

. Liverpool...

. Cheltenham

tenes

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.

tev. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes.
Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Rey. Dr. Robinson

Rev. William Whewell, F.R.8.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,

F.R.S.
Rey. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S....

JProfs Morbes,, WRES we. ve.<ecee

Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S. ......

Very Rey. G. Peacock, D.D.,
F.R.S.

Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.I.A. ...

The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...

The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely.

Sir John F. W. Herschel,
Bart., F.R.S.

Rev. Prof. Powell,
F.R.S.

Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ......

William Hopkins, F.R.S.......

M.A.,

Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S.E.

Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
E.RS.

Prof. W. Thomson, M.A.,
E.RB.S., F.R.S.E.

The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely, F.R.S.

Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
RS.

. Prof. Kelland, M.A.,

F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.

Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,
F.B.S., M.R.LA.

Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstone.

Prof. Forbes, W. S. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard,

W. S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine
Prof. Stevelly.

J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.

Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith.

Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.

J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly,
G. G. Stokes.
John Drew, Dr.
Stokes.

Rey. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.

Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.

Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.

W.J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof.Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
S. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W, J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,

Prof. Steveily, J. Welsh.

J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Frof.

Tyndall.
C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.
Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.

Stevelly, G. G.

Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.

liv

REPORT—1899.

Date and Place

Presidents

1858.

1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford

1861. Manchester

1862. Cambridge

Rev. W. Whewell,
V.P.R.S.

D.D.,

The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,
F.R.S.
Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....

G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

Prof. G. G. Stokes,
F.R.S.

M.A.,

1863. Newcastle |Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.R.S.

1864. Bath......... Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.

1865. Birmingham | W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.

1866. Nottingham /Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

1867. Dundee ...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

1868. Norwich ...|Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,
F.RB.S.

1869, Exeter...... Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
F.R.S.

1879. Liverpool...|J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A.,

1871. Edinburgh

1872. Brighton...

1873. Bradford ...

1874. Belfast......

1875. Bristol

1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymonth...

1878, Dublin

1879. Sheftiela ...

1880. Swansea ..
1881.
1882. Southamp-

1883. Southport

LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. 2. G. Lait, F.RISiH. «..

W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. H. J. §. Smith, F.R.S. .

Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,
M.R.LA.

Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
D.C.L., F.RB.S.

Prof, G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S.,
Pres. Physical Soc.

Rev. Prof. Salmon,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

George Johnstone Stoney,
M.A., F.R.S.

D.D.,

.|Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A.,

F.RB.S.

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LUD) DiC, F-R.S:

Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh,
M.A., F.B.S.

Prof. O. Henrici, Ph.D., F.R.S.

Secretaries

Rev. 8. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,

Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof.
Tyndall.

J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
J.8. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F.
Jenkin, Prof. Stevelly, Rey. C. T.
Whitley.

Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F, Jenkin, G.
8. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8S. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.

Fleeming Jenkin,Prof.H.J.8. Smith,
Rev. 8. N. Swann.

Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.

Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.

Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.

Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,

rof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.

Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.

Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher,
Prof. A. S. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell

Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A. S. Herschel.

J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Rodwell.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.
Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.
A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.

O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.

W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Dr. O. J. Lodge,

D. MacAlister, Rev. -W. Routh.

W. M. Hicks, Dr. O. J. Lodge, D.
MacAlister, Rev. G. Richardson.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lv

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1884. Montreal ...| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,|C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, A. John-
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. son, O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
1885. Aberdeen...|Prof. G. Chrystal, M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof,
F.R.S.E. W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram.
1886. Birmingham|Prof. G. H. Darwin, M.A.,|/R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
LL.D., F.R.S. J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.
1887. Manchester |Prof. Sir R. S. Ball, M.A.,/R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
LL.D., F.R.S. H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw.
1888. Bath......... Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald, M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
F.R.S. Lodge, W. N. Shaw.
1889. Newcastle- |Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
upon-Tyne| R.E., F.R.S. Lodge, W. N. Shaw, H. Stroud.
1890. Leeds ...... J. W. L. Glaisher, Sc.D.,|R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge,
F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S. W. N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud.
1891. Cardiff...... Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc.,)R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
LL.D., F.R.S. Lodge, Prof. A. L. Selby.
1892. Edinburgh |Prof. A. Schuster, Ph.D.,/R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
¥F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.
1893. Nottingham|R.T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S.| W. T. A. Emtage, J. Larmor, Prof.
A. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.
1894. Oxford...... Prof. A. W. Riicker, M.A.,] Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,
F.R.S. J. Walker.
1895. Ipswich ...|Prof. W. M. Hicks, M.A.,| Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,
F.R.S. G. T. Walker, W. Watson.
1896, Liverpool...)Prof. J. J. Thomson, M.A.,)Prof. W. H. Heaton, J. L. Howard,
D.8c., F.2.8. Prof. A. Lodge, G. T. Walker,
W. Watson.
1897. Toronto ...|Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A.,| Prof. W. H. Heaton, J.C.Glashan, J.
F.R.S. L. Howard, Prof. J.C. McLennan.
1898. Bristol...... Prof W. E. Ayrton, F.B.S. ...|Prof. A. P. Chattock, J. L. Howard,
C. H. Lees, Prof, W. Watson, E. T.
Whittaker.
1899. Dover ...... Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.|J. L. Howard, C. H. Lees, Prof. W.
Watson, E. T. Whittaker.
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.
1832. Oxford......|John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. |James F. W. Johnston.
1833. Cambridge |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Prof. Miller.
1834, Edinburgh | Dr. Hope..............cesceecsseees Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison.
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
1835. Dublin...... Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ......| Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.
1836. Bristol...... Rev. Prof. Cumming ......... | Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
ath.
1837. Liverpool...| Michael Faraday, F.R.S....... ‘prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
Reynolds.
1838. Newcastle | Rev. William Whewell,F.R.S. Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.
1839. Birmingham| Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......|Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson.
1840. Glasgow ...| Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S.|Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr, T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.
1841. Plymouth...|Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. ......... J. Prideaux, R. Hunt, W. M. Tweedy.
1842. Manchester |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham,
1843, Cork......... Prof. Apjohn, M.R.I.A......... R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.
1844. York......... Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......| Dr. L. Playfair, B. Solly, T. H. Barker
1845. Cambridge | Rev. Prof. Cumming ......... R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof, Miller,

1846, Southamp- |Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,

ton.

F.R.S

E. Solly.
Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.

lv

_

Date and Place

1847

1848
1849
1850.
1851.
1852.

1853.
1854.

1855.

1856.
1857.

1858.

1859.
1860.

1861.

1862.
1863,
1864.

1865, Birmingham

1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878,
1879,

Oxford......
Swansea
Edinburgh
Ipswich
Belfast

Liverpool

Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

Manchester |
Cambridge

Newcastle

eee eeeeee

Nottingham
Dundee
Norwich ...
Exeter nacade
Liverpool...
Edinburgh

Brighton ...
Bradford ... |
Belfast

se eeee

Bristol......
Glasgow
Plymouth...

Dublin

..-/Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ......
. Birmingham

...|Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S.

. | Prof.

onl Wis Ein Penkans HRS, .cssace

REPORT—1899.

Presidents

Secretaries

Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,
F.R.S.

John Percy, M.D., F.B.S.......
Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. ...

Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.

Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.

Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S.
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...

Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.

Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S.

Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S...... |

Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. W.H. Miller, M.A.,F.R.S.

Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,)
F.R.S.
W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S.......

Prof. W. A. Maller;
V.P.R.S.
H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S.

M.D.,

T. Anderson,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. E. Frankland, F.R.S.

M.D.,

Drs Debus, HRS: <cs.ese

Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,
F.R.S.

Prof. T. Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.

Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....

Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S....

Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.

A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,
F.R.S.

HPA EAE Ls HH hyaWaseresccscecoues

B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly,

T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams,

Rk. Hunt, G. Shaw.

Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.

T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.

Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.

H. 8. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.

Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr.
Price.

Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.

J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.

Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.

Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.

J.S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.

H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.

Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.

A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R.
Biggs.

A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof,
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.

J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.

A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.

Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
sell, F. Sutton.

|Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.
Russell, Dr. Atkinson.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher,
Dr. W. J. Russell.

J.T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
E. Thorpe.

Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.

Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.

Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.

Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler
Roberts, W. A. Tilden.

..|W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,

J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.
Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.

Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,
E.R.S.

Sheffield 2

Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S. ...

W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills.

H. S. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts, J.
M. Thomson.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1880.

1881.
1882.

1883.
1884.
1885.

Swansea ...

Southamp-
ton,

Southport

Montreal ...

Aberdeen...

1886, Birmingham

1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.

1895.

1896.
1897.

1898.
1899.

Manchester

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds ......

Cardiff

Edinburgh

lvii

Presidents

Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,
F.B.S.

Prof. A. W. Williamson, F’..R.8.

Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A.,
F.R.S.

Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...

Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., Sec. C.S.

W. Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.

Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S. ......
Prof. W. A. Tilden,
F.RB.S., V.P.C.S.
Sir I. Lowthian Bell, Bart.,

D.C.L., F.R.S.

Prof. T. E. Thorpe, B.Sc.,
Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas. C.S.
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,

C.B., F.B.S.
Prof. H. McLeod, F.R.S.......

D.S8c.,

Secretaries

P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, W. R. E.
Hodgkinson, J. M. Thomson.

P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, T. Gough,

P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
J. L. Notter.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
H.ForsterMorley,Dr.W.J.Simpson.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley, W. W.
J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster
Morley, W. Thomson.

| Prof. H. B. Dixon, H. Forster Morley,
R. E. Moyle, W. W. J. Nicol.

H, Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel, W.
W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattinson, jun.

C. H. Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

C. H. Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,
W. W. J. Nicol, G. 8. Turpin.

J. Gibson, H. Forster Morley, D. H.
Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

Nottingham) Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds, J. B. Coleman, M. J. R. Dunstan,

Oxford

Ipswich

Liverpool...
Toronto

Bristol

M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Prof. H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S.

D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.
A. Colefax, W. W. Fisher, Arthur
Harden, H. Forster Morley.

SECTION B (continuwed).—-CHEMISTRY.

...| Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S. ......

Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.

.| Prof. W. Ramsay, F.B.S.......

Prof. F. R. Japp, F.B.S. ......
Horace T. Brown, F.B.S.......

E. H. Fison, Arthur Harden, C. A.
Kohn, J. W. Rodger.

Arthur Harden, C. A. Kohn

Prof. W. H. Ellis, A. Harden, C. A.
Kohn, Prof. R. F. Ruttan.

C. A. Kohn, F. W. Stoddart, T. K.
Rose.

|A. D. Hall, C. A. Kohn, T. K. Rose,

| Prof. W. P. Wynne.

GEOLOGICAL (ann, unt 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, ITI.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

1832.
1833.
1834.

1835.
1836.

1837.
1838,

Oxford...... R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......| John Taylor.
Cambridge .|G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. ......| W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
Edinburgh .| Prof. Jameson .........seseeeeee J. Phillips, T. J. Torrie, Rev. J. Yates.

Dublin
Bristol

beens

SECTION
R. J. Griffith

C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.

Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—| William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury,

Geog.,R.I.Murchison,F.R.S.

T. J. Torrie.

Liverpool,..| Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—| Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.— G@eo-

Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S8.

graphy, Capt. H. M. Denham,R.N,

Newcastle.,.|C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—|W. C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—

Geogruphy, Lord Prudhoe,

Geography, Capt. Washington.

lviii

REPORT—1899.

Date and Place

Presidents

1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...

1841, Plymouth...
1842,
1843. Cork

1844. York.........
1845. Cambridge.

seeececee

1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford......

1848. Swansea...
1849. Birmingham

1850. Edinburgh?

1851. Ipswich ...

1852. Belfast......

1853,
1854.

Hull
Liverpool.

1855.
1856.

Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

1857.

1858.

1859.
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle

1864, Bath.........

1865. Birmingham

Manchester |R

.|Sir Charles

1866, Nottingham

Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geoq.,G.B. Greenough, F.R.S.

Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.R.S.

H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...
I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......

Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S....

Henry Warburton, Pres. G. 8.

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.,
FE.R.S:

Leonard Horner, F.R.S. ...

Very Rev. Dr.Buckland,F.R.S.

Sir H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S.

Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S.,
E.G.S.

Sir Roderick I. Murchison,
E.R.S.

Secretaries

George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick-
land, Charles Darwin.

W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. EH. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.

W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D.,
R. Hutton.

E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.

F. M. Jennings, H. E. Strickland.

Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.

Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rev. W. Thorp.

-|Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,

Prof, Oldham, Dr. C. T. Beke.
Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C,
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
§.Benson, Prof.Oldham, Prof.Ramsay.
J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof,
A. C. Ramsay.
A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
Prof. Nicol.

SECTION C (continuwed).—GEOLOGY.

William Hopkins, M.A.,F.B.S.

Lieut.-Col.
F.R.S.
Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.........

-| Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S....
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S...

The Lord Talbot de Malahide

William Hopkins,M.A.,LL.D.,
F.R.S8.

Lyell,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

Rey. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.

LL.D.,

Portlock, R.E.,

Cc. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.

James Bryce, James MacAdam,
Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.

Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
J. Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof. Nicol.

.|Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-

worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.

Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders,
Robert H. Scott.

Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.
Shaw.

Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.

Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
Woodall.

Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T.
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert

Jones, H. C. Sorby.

Prof. Warington W. Smyth,|E. F. Boyd, John ers H.C.

F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. a Phillips,
F.RB.S., F.G.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,
K.C.B.
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,

LL.D.,

Sorby, Themas Sopwith.

W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.
Sorby, W. Pengelly.

Rey. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.

R. ee W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.

' Geography was constituted a separate Section, see page Ixiv.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1867.
1868.

1869.
1870.
1871.

1872.

1873.

1874.

1875.
1876.
1877.

1878.
1879.

1880.
1881.

1882.

1883.

1884,
1885.

1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.

1895.

1896.
1897.

1898.
1899.

Dundee
Norwich ...

Exeter ......
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton..
Bradford ...
Belfast Sarto
Bristol......
Glasgow
Plymouth...
Dublin. ../s.
Sheffield ...

Swansea ..

Southamp-
ton.
Southport

Montreal ...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham
Manchester

see eeeeee

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds

Edinburgh
Nottingham

Oxford

Ipswich ...

Liverpool...
Toronto

Bristol

Dover

teenee

Presidents

.| Archibald Geikie, F.B.5.

R. A. CO. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,
F.G,S.

Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.

.|R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,

F.BS., F.GS.

Prof. J. Phillips, D.C.L.,
F.B.S., F.G.S.

Prof. Hull, M.A. F.B.S.,
F.G.S.

Dr. T. Wright, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.

...| Prof. John Young, M.D. ......

W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S.

John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S.
Prof. P. M. Duncan, F.R.S.

.|H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., F.G.S....

A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof.neWe A Oz
LL.D., F.R.S8.

W. T. Blanford, F.R.S., Sec.
GS.

Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.
G.s

Williamson,

Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Henry Woodward, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. J. Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.RB.S., F.G.S.

Prof. A. H. Green,
E.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

Prof. C. Lapworth, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Oe der lealin MeA., a Reo:
F.G.S.

L. Fletcher, M.A., F.R.S. ...

M.A.,

W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S. ...
J. E. Marr, M.A., F.R.S.......

...|Dr. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G.,

F.RB.S.
W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S.......

lix

Secretaries

E. Hull, W. Pengelly, H. Woodward.
Rev. O, Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
Rey. H. H. Winwood.

W. Pengeliy, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.

R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.

L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.

L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
Topley.

F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R. H. Tiddeman.

L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Topley.

J.Armstrong,F.W.Rudler,W.Topley.

Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.

E. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.

W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.

W. Topley, W. Whitaker.

J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
W. Whitaker.

T. W. Shore, W. Topley, E. West-
lake, W. Whitaker.

R. Betley, C. E. De Rance, W. Top-
ley, W. Whitaker.

¥. Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W.
Topley, W. Whitaker.

C. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H.
Teall, W. Topley.

W. J. Harrison, J. J. H. Teall, W.
Topley, W. W. Watts.

J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top-
ley, W. W. Watts.

Prof. G. A. Lebour, W. Topley, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.

Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
J. E. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J.
E. Marr, W. W. Watts.
W. Galloway, J. E. Marr,
Reid, W. W. Watts.

H. M. Cadell, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

J. W. Carr, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

F. A. Bather, A. Harker, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

F. A. Bather, G. W. Lamplugh, H.
A. Miers, Clement Reid.

J. Lomas, Prof. H. A. Miers, C. Reid.

Prof. A. P. Coleman, G. W. Lamp-
lugh, Prof. H. A. Miers.

G. W. Lamplugh, Prof. H. A. Miers,
H. Pentecost.

ement

Sir Arch. Geikie, F.B.S. ......|J. W. Gregory, G. W. Lamplugh,

Capt. McDakin, Prof. H. A. Miers,

lx

REPORT—1899.

Date and Place

Presidents

Secretaries

1832
1835
1834

1835.
1836.

1837.

1838

1839.

1840

1841.

1842

1843.

1844

1845
1846

1847

. Oxford
. Cambridge!
. Edinburgh.

aeeeee

Dublin
Bristol

Liverpool...
. Newcastle

Birmingham
. Glasgow ...

Plymouth...
. Manchester
Cork

ee eeceeee

fp MORK steers
. Cambridge
. Southamp-
ton.
. Oxford

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.

Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ...
Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S.
ProtGuahamys. @ 0-ceesd.ch «teas |

Rev. Prof. J. S. Henslow.
C. C. Babington, D. Don.
W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

Dr PAUL MIE ee esnsscesscccsensas
Rev. Prof. Henslow

|
se eeeeeeene .

W.S. Macleay........scseseseee
Sir W. Jardine, Bart. .........

Prof. Owen, F.R.S. .......000++|
Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.......

John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.

Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her-
bert, LL.D., F.L.S.

William Thompson, F.L.S..../

Very Rey. the Dean of Man-|
chester.

Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....

Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,
E.RB.S.

H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S.

J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.

J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, 8.
Rootsey.

C. C. Babington, Rev. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson.

J. H. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,
Dr. Richardson,

.|E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.

Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.

J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.

Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
Turner.

G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R.
Patterson.

Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
Dr. Lankester.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
Wooldridge,

Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
Wollaston.

SECTION D (continwed).—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.

[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Sub-
sections and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. Ixiii.]

1848

1849
1850.

1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.

1857.

. Swansea

. Birmingham
. Edinburgh

Tpswich

Belfast

aeeeee

Je hud Ul Agee Ace
Liverpool...
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

...|Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,

L. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S..........

William Spence, F.R.S. ......
Prof. Goodsir, F.R.8. L. & E.

F.R.S.
Wie OSA Naira cetewasteitacWels se cuss
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S...
Rey. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E
Thomas Bell, F.R.8., Pres.L.S.

Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,
F.R.S.

Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-
frey, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.

Lankester.
Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.
Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.
Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.
Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. EH. Steele.

1 At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made 2 separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. Ixiii.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.

1862.
1863,

1864,
1865.

1866.

1867.

1868.

1869.

1870.

1871.

1872.

1873.

Manchester

Cambridge
Newcastle

Birming-
ham !

Nottingham

Dundee

Norwich ...

Exeter

Liverpool...

Edinburgh .

Brighton ..,

Bradford ...

1

lxi

Presidents Secretaries

C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.|Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.
W. S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
...H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.
Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
|Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Dr. HE. P. Wright.

Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E.
Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....
Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S.

Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....

Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S.
T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ...

SECTION D (continued),—BIOLOGY.

Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.—Dep.|Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.
‘of Physiol., Prof. Humphry,| B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B.
¥.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,| Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.
A. R. Wallace.

.| Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.|C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8. Cobbold, Dr.

—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,| M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev.

George Busk, M.D., F.R.S. H. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.

|Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.| Dr. T. 5. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
—Dep. of Physiology, W.| M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H.T.
H. Flower, F.R.S. Stainton, Rey. Dr. H. B. Tristram,

Dr. E. P. Wright.

George Busk, F.RB.S., F.L.8.| Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
—Dep. of Bot. and Zool.) E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—| H. T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
Dep. of Ethno., E. B. Tylor.| tram.

Prof. G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,|Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
F.R.S., F.L.S.—Dep. of| Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
Anat. and Physiol.,Prof.M.| TT. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
Foster, M.D., F.L.S.—Dep.| C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S. kester.

Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,|Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
F.R.S.—Dep. ef Bot. and) . Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,| H.T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,| Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
Prof. W. Turner, M.D. King.

Sir J. Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.—| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,| Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,| Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, HE. Ray
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,| Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.

Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S.

Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof.Ru-| BR. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, EK.
therford, M.D.—Dep.ofAn-| Ray Lankester, F, W. Rudler, J.
thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.! H. Lamprey.

The title of Section D was changed to Biology.

Lxii

REPORT—1899,

Date and Place

1874, Belfast

1875, Bristol

1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...

1878, Dublin

1879. Sheffield ...

1880. Swansea ...

TS8ii Vorks....03.

1882, Southamp-
ton.

1883. Southport!

1884. Montreal ...
1885. Aberdeen...

1886. Birmingham|W. Carruthers, Pres. L.S.,

Presidents

Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.—Dep.of An-
throp., Sir W.R. Wilde, M.D.

P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.—Dep. of
Anat. and Physiol., Prof.
Cleland, F.R.S.—Dep. of
Anthropol., Prof, Rolleston,
F.R.S.

A. Russel Wallace, F.L.S.—
Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. A. Newton, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. J. G. McKendrick.

J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Prof. Macalister.—Dep. of
Anthropol.,F.Galton,F.R.S.

Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.
of Anat. and Physiol., R.
McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S.

Prof. St. George Mivart,
F.R.S.-—Dep. of Anthropol.,
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.

A. C. L. Giinther, M.D., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., F. M. Balfour, M.A.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
F. W. Rudler, F.G.S.

Richard Owen, C.B., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol,
Prof. J. 8. Burdon Sander-
son, F.R.S.

Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S.
— Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. M. A. Lawson, F.L.S8.
—Dep.of Anthropol., Prof.
W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropal.,
W. Pengelly, F.R.S.

Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,
F.RB.S.

Prof. W. C. M‘Intosh, M.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S. F.R.S8.E.

E.R.S., F.G.8.

Secretaries

W.T.Thiselton-Dyer, R. O. Cunning-
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler.

E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof. -
W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr,
W. Spencer.

E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.
Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.
Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
son,

KE. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F. W. Rudler.

Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.

Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
Schiifer.

G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley,
Howard Saunders, Adam Sede-
wick.

G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.
W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
W. North, John Priestley, Howard
Saunders, H. E. Spencer.

G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B.
Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg-
wick, T. W. Shore, jun.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,
W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr.
G. A. Woods.

Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders, A.
Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright.

W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson,
J. Duncan Matthews, Howard
Saunders, H. Marshall Ward.

Prof. T. W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof.
W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof,

H. Marshall Ward.

» Anthropology was made a separate Section, see p. xx.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. xiii

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries

1887. Manchester | Prof. A. Newton, M.A., F.R.S.,|C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, S. F. Har-

E.L.S., V.P.Z.S. mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,

Prof. H. Marshall Ward.
1888: Bath......... W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G.,|F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Harmer, Prof.
FE.R.S., F.L.S. H. Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner,

Prof. W. D. Halliburton.
1889, Newcastle -| Prof. J. 8. Burdon Sanderson,|C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Har-

upon-Tyne| M.A., M.D., F.R.S. mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.
1890. Leeds ...... Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,|S. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman,

M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 8. J. Hickson, F. W. Oliver, H.
Wager, H. Marshall Ward.

1891. Cardiff...... Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B.,|F. E. Beddard, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
F.R.S., F.L.S. Dr. 8. J. Hickson, G. Murray, Prof.
W.N. Parker, H. Wager.

1892. Edinburgh |Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D.,|G. Brook, Prof. W. A. Herdman, G.

E.RB.S., F.R.8.E. Murray, W. Stirling, H. Wager.
1893. Nottingham'; Rev. Canon H. B. Tristram,;G. C. Bourne, J. B. Farmer, Prof.
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. | W. A. Herdman, 8. J. Hickson,

_ | W.B. Ransom, W. L. Sclater.

1894. Oxford? ...| Prof. I. Bayley Balfour, M.A.,)W. W. Benham, Prof. J. B. Farmer,
E.R.S. Prof. W. A. Herdman, Prof. S. J.

Hickson, G. Murray, W. L. Sclater.

SECTION D (continwed).—zOOLOGY.

1895. Ipswich ...|Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S8.|G. C. Bourne, H. Brown, W. E.
Hoyle, W. L. Sclater.
1896. Liverpool.,,| Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. ...|H. O. Forbes, W. Garstang, W. E.

Hoyle.

1897. Toronto ...|Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S. ......|W. Garstang, W. E. Hoyle, Prof.
EH. E. Prince.

1898. Bristol.,.... Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S.| Prof. R. Boyce, W. Garstang, Dr.
A. J. Harrison, W. E. Hoyle.

1899. Dover ...... Adam Sedgwick, F.R.S. ......|W. Garstang, J. Graham Kerr.

ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

1833. Cambridge |Dr.J. Haviland.................. Dr. H. J. H. Bond, Mr. G. EH. Paget.

1834, Edinburgh |Dr. Abercrombie .....-......+.- Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.
SECTION E (UNTIL 1847).—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.

1835. Dublin ...... Dr dee@. eribCOards. Tae sede cece Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.

1836. Bristol ...... Dr. P. M. Roget, F.R.S. ......| Dr. Symonds.

1837. Liverpool...| Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ......... Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,

Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

1838. Newcastle |T. E. Headlam, M.D. ......... T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

1839. Birmingham|John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S....|Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.

1840. Glasgow ...)James Watson, M.D. ......... Dr.J.Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof. Reid.

SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.
1841. Plymouth...|P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. B.S. |Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. S.

Sargent.
1842. Manchester | Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.|Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
S43. COvk, .. 0c. c000 Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. ...|Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
1844. York......... J. C. Pritchard, M.D. ......... I. Erichsen, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
1845, Cambridge |Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ...... Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster.

1 Physiology was made a separate Section, see p. Ixxi.
2 The title of Section D was changed to Zoology.

lxiv

Date and Place

1846

1847. Oxford?

1850.
1855.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.

p- lv

1846.Southampton|Dr. J. C. Pritchard

1847
1848

1849. Birmingham

1850

1851
1852

. Southamp-
ton.

Edinburgh
Glasgow ..
Dublin
Leeds

Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle

- REPORT—1899.

Presidents

Secretaries

Prof, Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......

PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTION
Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.

.|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S.

Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ......
Sir B. Brodie, Bart., F.R.S.
Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.
Prof.G.Rolleston,M.D.,F.
Dr. John Davy, F.R.S. L.& E.
G. E. Paget, M.D..........se000«
Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.
Dr. Edward Smith, F.R.S.
Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S.

B.S.
L.S.

C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-
gent.
‘T, K, Chambers, W. P. Ormerod.

S OF SECTION D.

Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers,

Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.

C. G. Wheelhouse.

Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.

Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith,

Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.

G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.

Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.

J. 8. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.

Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,
Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C,

ii]

SOxtord Ges...
. Swansea

. Edinburgh

. Ipswich
. Belfast

. Liverpool...
. Glasgow ...

. Cheltenham

eeeeee

ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.

Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A.

wee | meee ewer wearer eset reese eee eeseeeseseeee

ance ee eee ee see teense eee meee esses eens

Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm

Dr. King.

Prof. Buckley.

G. Grant Francis.
Dr. R. G. Latham.
Daniel Wilson.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

.. [Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.8.,

Pres. R.G.S.

Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,
F.RB.S.

R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

Sir J. Richardson,
F.R.S.

Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson,
K.C.B.

Rev. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,
Pres. R.IA.

M.D.,

R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.
Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
Shaw.

R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.
Norton Shaw.

Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr.
Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, 8. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.
Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.

1 By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were
incorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Phy-

siolo

gy’ (see |

Geography. ;
2 Vide note on page 1xi.

De Ix.)

Section HE, being then vacant, was assigned in 1851 to

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lxv

Date and Place

Presidents

1858.
1859.

1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.

Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle

se eee eens

1865. Birmingham

1866,

1867.
1868.

1869.
1870.
L871.
1872.
1873.
i874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.

1885.
1886.

Nottingham

Dundee

Norwich ...

19-205) w BAcioce
Liverpool...
Edinburgh

Brighton ...

Bradford ...

Sheffield ...

Swansea ...

Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen...

Birmingham

1899,

Sir R.I. Murchison, G.C.St.8.,
F.R.S.

Rear - Admiral Sir James
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L..
F.R.S.

John Crawfurd, F.R.S..........

Francis Galton, F.R.S..........

Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.

Major-General Sir H. Raw-
linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.

|Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,

LL.D.

..-/Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.

F.R.S.

Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,|

Secretaries

R. Cull, F. Galton, P. O'Callaghan,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.

Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.

Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.

J.W.Clarke, Rey. J.Glover, Dr, Hunt,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.

C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson.

H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.
R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, 8. Evans, G. Jabet,
C. R. Markham, Thomas Wright.

H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R.

Markham, S. J. Mackie, R. Sturrock.

T. Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements R.

Markham, T. Wright.

SECTION E (continued).—GEOGRAPHY.

‘Sir Bartle Frere,
LL.D., F.R.G.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S.
|Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S.

K.C.B.,

Francis Galton, F.R.S..........
Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.

Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S.

Lieut. - General Strachey,
R.E.,C.S8.1., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.

-|Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S.......

Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.

Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-
son, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

Clements R. Markham, C.B.,
F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S.

Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,
C.B., K.C.M.G., B.A., F.R.S.

Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.L.,
C.B., F.R.S.

Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.L.,
F.R.GS.

Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-
Austen, F.R.S.

Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,
K.C.M.G., F.R.S.,V.P.R.G.S.

Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,
LL.D., F.B.8.

Maj.-Gen. Sir. F. J. Goldsmid,
K.C.8.1L., C.B., F.R.G.S.

H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,
J. H. Thomas.

H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
Mott, Clements R. Markham.

A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.

E.G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
Thomas.

H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, F. F.
Tackett.

H. W. Bates, EK. C. Rye, R. O. Wood.

H. W. Bates, F. E. Fox, H. C. Rye.

John Coles, E. C. Rye.

H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C.
Rye.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye.

J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates.
E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye.

John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, E. C.
Rye.

Rev. Abbé Lafiamme, J.S. O'Halloran,
E. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance.

J.S. Keltie, J. $8. O'Halloran, E. G.
Ravenstein, Rev. G. A. Smith.

F. T. S. Houghton, J. 8. Keltie.
E. G. Ravenstein. a

xvi

REPORT—1899.

Date and Place

Presidents

Secretaries

1887. Manchester!
1888. Bath

1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds

1891. Cardiff......
1892. Edinburgh
1893. Nottingham
1894. Oxford......
1895, Ipswich
1896, Liverpool...
1897. Toronto
1898. Bristol

1899. Dover

1833, Cambridge
1834, Edinburgh

1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol

eeeees

1837. Liverpool...

1838. Newcastle
1839, Birmingham

1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842, Manchester

1843, Cork
1844, York

ewerseeee

1845, Cambridge
1846, Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford......
1848, Swansea ...
1849 Birmingham

Sap|iel

.|J. Scott-Keltie, LL.D.

Col. Sir C. Warren, R.E.,
G.C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.

Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, R.E.,
K.C.B., F.R.S., F.B.G.S.

Col. Sir F. de Winton,
K.C.M.G., C.B., F.B.G.S.

Lieut.-Col. Sir R. Lambert
Playfair, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S.

E. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S.,
F.S.8.

Prof, J. Geikie, D.C.L., F.B.S.,
V.P.R.Scot.G.s.

| H. Seebohm, Sec. B.8., F.L.S.,
F.Z.S.

Capt. W.J. L. Wharton, R.N.,

E.RB.S.

. J. Mackinder,

F.R.G.S.

Major L. Darwin, Sec. R.G.S.

M.A.,

Col. G. Earl Church, F.R.G.S.

Sir John Murray, F.R.S.

Rev. L. C. Casartelli, J. S. Keltie,
H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein.

J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E. G.
Ravenstein.

J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, R.
Sulivan, A. Silva White.

A. Barker, John Coles, J. S. Keltie,
A. Silva White.

John Coles, J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mac-
kinder, A. Silva White, Dr. Yeats.

J. G. Bartholomew, John Coles, J. 8.
Keltie, A. Silva White.

Col. F. Bailey, John Coles, H. O.
Forbes, Dr. H. R, Mill.

John Coles, W. S. Dalgleish, H. N.
Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill.

John Coles, H. N. Dickson, Dr. H.
R. Mill, W. A. Taylor.
Col. F. Bailey, H. N. Dickson, Dr.
H. R. Mill, E. C. DuB. Phillips.
Col. F. Bailey, Capt. Deville, Dr.
H. R. Mill, J. B. Tyrrell.

H.N. Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill, H. C.
Trapnell.

H. N. Dickson, Dr. H. O. Forbes,
Dr. H. R. Mill.

STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS.

Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. .........
Sir Charles Lemon, Bart.......

J. E. Drinkwater.
Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.

SECTION F.—STATISTICS,

Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......
Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon.........
Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........
Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........

Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P.,
F.RB.S.
Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S.......

G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...

Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ..

Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S.,
F.L.S.

Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam

G. R. Porter, F.R.S. ........0.0-

Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.

J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ...
Rt. Hon, Lord Lyttelton

teeeee

W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.

Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywood.

W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.

W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood.

F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.

Cc. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
Rawson.

Rey. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.

Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.

.|Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.

J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
cock.

J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.

P. Neison.
J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.
Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F, G, P.

Neison.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Ixvil

Date and Place

Presidents

1850. Edinburgh

1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast

1853. Hull
1854. Liverpool...

1855. Glasgow ...

|Sir John P. Boileau, Bart.

Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. ...

Very Rev. Dr.
V.P.B.S.E.

John Lee,

His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin.
James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.

R. Monckton Milnes, M.P....

Secretaries

Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J,
Stark.

...|J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.

Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
MacAdam, jun.
Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch.

..|E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.

Duncan, W. Newmarch.
|J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.

‘SECTION F (continwed).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
1856. Cheltenham | Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. | Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.

1857. Dublin

1858. Leeds

1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......

1861. Manchester

1862, Cambridge
1863. Newcastle .

1864. Bath
1865, Birmingham

seeeeeeee

1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee .....

1868. Norwich....
1869. Exeter

1870. Liverpool...

1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton...
1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast......
1875. Bristol

1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin

1879. Sheffield ...

1880. Swansea ...
1881. York.........

1882, Southamp-
ton,

His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin, M.R.LA.
Edward Baines

Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ......
Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......
William Newmarch, F.R.S....

Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ........
William Tite, M.P., F.R.S....

W. Farr, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P.

Prof. J. EH. T. Rogers

M. E. Grant-Duff, M.P. .......
Samuel Brown ...........ses0e0.
Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.
Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.

Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves.........
Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....
Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.
Lord O’Hagan

James Heywood, M.A.,F.R.S.,

Pres. 8.8.
Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.1,
M.P

Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue

Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D.,
M.R.LA.

G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.
8.5.

G. W. Hastings, M.P...........

Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant-Duff,
M.A., F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth,
M.P., F.B.S,

W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.

M. Tartt.

Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.

Newmarch.

|T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, §. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.

Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M,
Smith, Dr. John Strang.

Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.

David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
E. Macrory, Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.

H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.

T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Fotts.

|E. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy.

|G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
E. Macrory.

R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.

Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.

Rey. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.

E. Macrory, F. Purdy, C. T. D.
Acland.

Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.

J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.

J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.

J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.

Prof. Donnell, F. P. Fellows, Hans
MacMordie.

F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Macrory.

A. M‘Neel Caird, T.G. P. Hallett, Dr.
W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack.

W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim.

W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.

Prof. Adamson, R. E. Leader, C.
Molloy.

N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.

C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
Moss.

G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H.
well, A. Milnes, C. ae 4 4

S. Fox-

Xviil

REPORT—1899.

Date and Place

1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.

1888.
1889.
1890.

1891.

1892.

1893.

1894.
1895.
1896.

1897.
1898.

1899.

1836.
1837.
1838.

Southport
Montreal ...

Aberdeen...

Birmingham |

Manchester

ee eeeceee

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds

Edinburgh

Nottingham

Oxford......
Ipswich
Liverpool...

Toronto
Bristol

eeeeee

Bristol
Liverpool...

“Newcastle

1839. Birmingham

1840.

1841.
1842,

1843,
1844.
1845.
1846.

1847.

1848.

1850.

Glasgow ....

Plymouth
Manchester

Cambridge
South’mpt’n
Oxford

Edinburgh

...|L. L. Price, M.A.

. | Rev. Prof. Walker, M.A.
1849. Birmingh’m Robt. se arta ag M.P.,

Presidents

R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S.

Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,
G.C.S.L, C.LE., F.R.G.S.
Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D.,

Litt.D.
J. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.S.

Robert Giffen, LL.D.,V.P.S.S.

Rt. Hon. Lord Bramwell,
| LL.D., F.R.S.

| Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, M.A.,
F.S.8,

| Prof, A. Marshall, M.A., F.S.S.

Prof. W. Cunningham, D.D.,
D.S8c., F.8.S.

Hon. Sir C. W. Fremantle,
K.C.B.

Prof. J. 8. Nicholson, D.Sc.,
F.S.8.

Prof. C. F. Bastable, M.A.,
F.S.5.

Pe eeeeeseessees

Rt. Hon. L. Courtney, M.P...

.| Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A.

J. Bonar, M.A., LL.D.

H. Higgs, LL.B.

Secretaries

Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8S.
Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Moloy.

Prof. H. S. Foxwell, J. S. McLennan,
Prof. J. Watson.

Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. S.
Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F. Moss.

F. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,
Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, J. F. Moss.

Rev. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge-
worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes,
J. E. C. Munro, G. H. Sargant.

Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, T. H. Elliott,
H. S. Foxwell, L. L. F. R. Price.

Rev. Dr. Cunningham, T. H. Elliott,
F. B. Jevons, L. L. F. R. Price.

W. A. Brigg, Rev. Dr. Cunningham,
T. H. Elliott, Prof. J. E. C. Munro,
L. L. F. R. Price.

Prof. J. Brough, E. Cannan, Prof.
E. C. K. Gonner, H. Ll. Smith,
Prof. W. R. Sorley.

Prof, J. Brough, J. R. Findlay, Prof.
E. C. K. Gonner, H. Higgs,
L. L. F. R. Price.

Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, H. de B.
Gibbins, J. A. H. Green, H. Higgs,
L. L. F. R. Price.

E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
W. A.S. Hewins, H. Higgs.

KE. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
H. Higgs.

.|E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,

W. A. S. Hewins, H. Higgs.

KE. Cannan, H. Higgs, Prof. A. Shortt.

E. Cannan, Prof. A. W. Flux, H.
Higgs, W. HE. Tanner.

A. L. Bowley, EH. Cannan, Prof. A.
W. Flux, Rev. G. Sarson.

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rev. Dr. Robinsor ............
Charles Babbage, F.R.S.......

Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.
Stephenson.

Sir John Robinson .............

John Taylor, F.R.S.

Rev. Prof. Willis, F. R. =

Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.I.A...
Jonn Taylor, HBS. c.cctvscrese
George Rennie, F.R.S..........
Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A.,
Rev. Prof.Walker, M. A.

F.R.S.
,F.R.S.
sF.R.S.
F.R.S.
Rev. R. Robinson . 30

see a4

T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.

Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.

R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T.
Webster.

W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.
Webster.

J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,
C. Vignoles.

: Bie Chatfield, Thomas Webster.

.|J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J,
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.

.|James Thomson, Robert Mallet.

Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
Rev. W. T. Kingsley.

William Betts, jun., Charles Manby,
J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.

R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé,
Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.

..|Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.

Date and Place

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Presidents

lxix

Secretaries

1851.
1852.

1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.

1858.
1859.

1860.
1861.

1862.
1863.

1864.
1865. Birmingham

1866.
1867.
1868.

1869.
1870.

1871.
1872.

1873,
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.

1880.
1881.

1882,

1883.
1884.

1885.
1886. Birmingham)

Ipswich
Belfast......
Hull
Liverpool...
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
Dublin

seeeereee

Leeds

teeeee

Manchester

Cambridge
Newcastle

Bath

Nottingham

Bxeter ......
Liverpool...

Edinburgh
Brighton ...

Bradford ...
Belfast

Bristol

Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Dublin

Sheffield ...

Swansea ...

Southamp-
ton

Southport

Montreal...

Aberdeen...

William Cubitt, F.R.S..........

John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S.

William Fairbairn, F.R.S.

John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ...

W. J. M. Rankine, F.R.S. ...

George Rennie, F.R.S. ........

Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
F.R.S.

William Fairbairn, F.R.S....

.| Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof.W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.B.S.
J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....

William Fairbairn, F.R.S.
Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S.

Sir W. G. Armstrong, ih D.,
F.R.S.

Thomas Hawksley, V.P. Inst.
C.E., F.G.S.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.

.|G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S.

C. W. Siemens, F.R.S..........

.| Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S

Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, C.E.

W. H. Barlow, F.R.S8.

Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.E., F.R.S.E.
W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.

C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S........
Edward Woods, C.E.

Steer eens

Edward Easton, C.E.

J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech.
Eng.

J. Abernethy, F.R.S.E..........

Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,)
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

John Fowler, C:E., F.G.S. ...

J. Brunlees, Pres. Inst.C.E.

Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.,
V.P.Inst.C.E.

B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .........

Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst.
C.E.

Secret eee

|A.

| John Head, Charles Manby.
|John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,

Charles Manby, James Thomson.
J. Oldham, J. Thomson, W.S. Ward.
J. Grantham, J. Oldham, J. Thomson,
L. Hill, W. Ramsay, J. Thomson.

.|C. Atherton. B. Jones, H, M. Jeffery,

Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.

J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.

R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H,
Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison,
Henry Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,
H. Wright.

W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster.

P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F. Spencer.

.|P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt,

P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea,
W. P. Marshall, Walter May.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M,
O. Tarbotton.

P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, ©,
Manby, W. Smith.

P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.

_H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.

King, J. N. Shoolbred.
H. Bauerman, A. Leslie, J. P. Smith.

‘H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,

J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
_C.Barlow,H.Bauerman. E.H. Carbutt,
J. C. Hawkshaw, J. N. Shoolbred.
A. T. Atchison, J. N.Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.
W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G..
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar,
J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.

|A,. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N..

Shoolbred.
A. T, Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.
A. T, Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson,
H. T. Wood.
T Atchison, F. Churton, H, T.
Wood.
A. T. Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood.

\A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J.

Kennedy, H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, E.
Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred.

C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.

lxx

REPORT—189

oy

Date and Place

Presidents

Secretaries

1887. Manchester
1888. Bath

1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds

1891, Cardiff.....
1892. Edinburgh
1893. Nottingham
1894. Oxford......
1895. Ipswich
1896. Liverpool...
1897. Toronto
1898. Bristol......

1899. Dover

1884. Montreal..
1885. Aberdeen...

1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath

1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds

1891. Cardiff......

1892, Edinburgh
1893. Nottingham

1894. Oxford......
1895. Ipswich
1896. Liverpool...
1897. Toronto

1898. Bristol
1899. Dover

...|Prof. L. F.

...|Sir W. Turner, F.R.S.

Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

at Preece,
M.Inst.C.E.
W. Anderson, M.Inst.C.E. ...

W.

Capt. A. Noble, C.B., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
T. Forster Brown, M.Inst.C.E.

Prof. W. ©. Unwin, F.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.E.

Jeremiah Head, M.Inst.C.E.,
F.C.S.

Prof. A. B. W. Kennedy,
F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.

Vernon-Harcourt,
M.A., M.Inst.C.E.

Sir Douglas Fox, V.P.Inst.C.H.

...|G. F. Deacon, M.Inst.C.E.

Sir J. Wolfe-Barry, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.
Sir W. White, K.C.B., F.RB.S8.

F.RS.,

C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall,
E. Rigg.

C. W. Cooke, W. B.
Rigg, P. K. Stothert.

C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Hon.
C. A. Parsons, E. Rigg.

E. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.

C. W. Cooke, Prof. A. C. Elliott,
W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg.

'C, W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, W. C.
Popplewell, E. Rigg.

C. W. Cooke, W. Bb. Marshall,
Rigg, H. Talbot.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, Rev. F. J. Smith.

| Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, P. G. M. Stoney.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
8. Dunkerley, W. B. Marshall.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, Prof, Callen-
dar, W. A. Price.

|Prof. T. H. Beare, Prof. J. Munro,
H. W. Pearson, W. A. Price.

Prof. T. H. Beare, W. A. Price, H.
E. Stilgoe.

Marshall, E.

E.

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

.|E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.B.S. ...

Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S.

Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S.L.,
M.P., D.C.L., F.B.G.S.
Prof. A. H. Sayce, M.A. ......

Lieut.-General Pitt-Rivers,

D.C.L., F.R.S.

Prof. Sir W. Turner, M.B.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Dr. J. Evans, Treas. RS.,

F.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.
Prof. F. Max Miiller, M.A.

Prof. A. Macalister,
M.D., F.B.S.
Dr. R. Munro, M.A., F.R.8.E.

M.A.,

Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.

...|Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie,

D.C.L.
Arthur J. Evans, F.S.A. ......

Ki. W. Brabrook, C.B. .........
C. H. Read, F.S.A.

G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. A. Macgregor.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. R. Saundby.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr, J. G. Garson, Dr,
A. M. Paterson.

|G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J.

Harris Stone.

iG. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
R. Morison, Dr. R. Howden.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. C. M. Chadwick,
Dr. J. G. Garson.

...|@. W. Bloxam, Prof. R. Howden, H.

Ling Roth, E. Seward.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. D. Hepburn, Prof.
R. Howden, H. Ling Roth.

G. W. Bloxam, Rev. T. W. Davies,
Prof. R. Howden, F. B. Jevons,
J. L. Myres.

H. Balfour, Dr. J. G.Garson, H. Ling
Roth.

J. L. Myres, Rev. J. J. Raven, H.
Ling Roth.

Prof. A. C. Haddon, J. L. Myres,
Prof. A. M. Paterson.

A. F. Chamberlain, H. O. Forbes,
Prof. A. C. Haddon, J. L. Myres.

H. Balfour, J. L. Myres, G. Parker.

H. Balfour, W. H. East, Prof. A. C.
Haddon, J. L. Myres.

LIST OF EVENING LECTURES. Ixxi

Date and Place

1895.
1896.

. Liverpool...| Dr. W. H. Gaskell, F.R.S.
. Toronto -.-| Prof. Michael Foster, F.R.S. | Prof. R. Boyce, Prof. C. 8, Sherring-

Presidents | Secretaries

SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExpertmMenTAL
PATHOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL PsyCHOLoGy).

. Oxford......|Prof. E. A. Schifer, F.R.S.,| Prof. F. Gotch, Dr. J. 8. Haldane,

M.R.C.S.., | M. §. Pembrey.
| Prof. R. Boyce, Prof. C.S. Sherrington.

/ ton, Dr. L. E. Shore.

BEDOVEL)... 2.x J. N. Langley, F.R.S. Dr. Howden, Dr. L. E. Shore, Dr. E.
| H. Starling.
SECTION K.—BOTANY.
Ipswich ...|W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, F.R.S.|A. C. Seward, Prof. I’. E. Weiss.

Liverpool... Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S. ...... Prof. pane’ Gibson, A. C. Seward,
| Prof. F. H. Weiss.

1897. Toronto ... Prof. Marshall Ward, F.R.S. | Prof. J. B. Hares, E. C. Jeffrey,
| A. C. Seward, Prof, F. E. Weiss.
1898. Bristol...... Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S. A.C, Seward, H. Wager, J. W. White.
1899. Dover ...... ‘Sir George King, F.R.S. IG: Dowker, A. C. Seward, H. Wager,
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.
Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Discourse

—

1842. Manchester | Charles Vignoles, F.R.S...... |The Principles and Construction of

Atmospheric Railways.

Sir Ms Te Brunel! .<...0c0..0.<: |The Thames Tunnel.

R. I. Murchison.................. The Geology of Russia.
S43 Cork... eke. Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......|The Dinornis of New Zealand.

Prof. EK. Forbes, F.R.S.......... The Distribution of Animal Life in

the Aigean Sea.

Dra Robinsonies. cc. .c2sstsc6-c00s The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.
1844. York......... Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........|Geology of North America.

Dr. Falconer, F.B.S....... +0006 The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik

Hills in India.

1845. Cambridge | G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron.Royal} Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.

1846.

R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......|Geology of Russia.

Southamp- | Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...| Fossil Mammaliaof the British Isles.
ton, Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........| Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.

W. R. Grove, F.RB.S. ........0006 Properties of the ExplosiveSubstance

discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also

some Researches of his own on the

Decomposition of Water by Heat.

1847. Oxford...... Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S. | Shooting Stars.
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S....... Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.
Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S....| The Dodo (Didus ineptus).
1848. Swansea ...| John Percy, M.D., F.RB.S....... Metallurgical Operations of Swansea
and its Neighbourhood.
W. Carpenter, M.D., F.RB.S....|Recent Microscopical Discoveries.
1849. Birmingham| Dr. Faraday, F.R.S. ............ Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.

Rev. Prof, Willis, M.A., F.R.S.|Transit of different Weights with
varying Velocities on Railways.

Ixxii

Date and Place

1850. Edinburgh

1851. Ipswich

1852.

1853.

1854. Liverpool...

1855. Glasgow ...

. Cheltenham

seeees

Manchester

Cambridge

Newcastle

1864. Bath.........

1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee......

..| Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S8.

seams. |

hRobert: Hunt, Ho BsOsicces.aneens

|Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......

REPORT—1899.

Lecturer

Subject of Discourse

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,

P.n.5.H.

DreMantell, HRS.) v.ncseesen+

G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal

Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.B.S.,
BGS.

Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson

Col. Sir H. Rawlinson

We R. Groves (ER Steer csass
Prof. W. Thomson, F'.R.8. ...
Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L....
Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...

Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.

Prof.W.A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S.

G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron.
Royal.

Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. Odling pH RS. ....sssese

Prof. Williamson, F.R.S.......

James Glaisher, F.R.S..... ses

Prof. Roscoe, H.R.S:....ccccre=.
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. .....
J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S..........

William Huggins, F.B.S.......

Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S.......
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S..

Passage of the Blood through the
minute vesselsof Animals in con-
nection with Nutrition.

Extinct Birds of New Zealand.

| Distinction between Plants and Ani-

mals, and their changes of Form.

Total.Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.

Recent Discoveries in the properties
of Light.

Recent Discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.

Some peculiar Phenomena in the
Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.

The present state of Photography.

Anthropomorphous Apes.

Progress of Researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.

Characters of Species.

.| Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities

and Ethnology.

Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform Research up to the
present time.

Correlation of Physical Forces.

The Atlantic Telegraph.

Recent Discoveries in Africa.

The Ironstones of Yorkshire.

The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.

Geology of the Northern Highlands,

Electrical Discharges in highly
rarefied Media.

Physical Constitution of the Sun.

Arctic Discovery.

Spectrum Analysis.

The late Eclipse of the Sun.

The Forms and Action of Water.

Organic Chemistry.

The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to
Dynamics.

The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.

The Chemical Action of Light.

.|Recent Travels in Africa.

Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.

The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.

Insular Floras.

The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.

Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S.

The present state of Knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.

Date and Place

1868. Norwich ...

1869. Exeter

1870. Liverpool.

1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ..

1873. Bradford

1874. Belfast ......

1875. Bristol ......
1876. Glasgow ...
' 1877. Plymouth..

1878. Dublin .....

1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
SST. York. ..<0.<0.
1882. Southamp-

1883. Southport

1884. Montreal...

1885. Aberdeen...

1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath

LIST OF EVENING LECTURES. ]xxili

Lecturer | Subject of Discourse
J. Fergusson, F.R.S..:.......+6. ae of the early Buddhist
| Monuments.

Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S. . . Reverse Chemical Actions.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., KR. = | Vesuvius.
J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S....,The Physical Constitution of the

As Stars and Nebule.

..|Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.. F.R.S. ‘The Scientific Use of the Imagination,

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine, Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
LL.D., F.R.S. | tion with Naval Architecture.
Tay ale Jallo(ell FMR s ie epries soeceeen Some Recent Investigations and Ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.

E. B. Tylor, F.R.S. . The Relation of Primitive to Modern

weteeee

Civilisation.
.| Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,| amorphosis.
F.R.S. |
Prof. W. K. Clifford............ The Aims and Instruments of Scien-

| tific Thought.

...| Prof. W. C.Williamson, i".R.S. Coaland Coal Plants.

Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S. | Molecules.

Sir John Lubbock,Bart..M.P., Common Wild Flowers considered
F.R.S. | in relation to Insects.

Pref eoxley, Ey RSs) isc. ... The Hypothesis that Animals are

| Automata, and its History.

W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S. The Colours of Polarised Light.

W. J: Bramwell, F.R.N.......... Railway Safety Appliances.

Prof. Tait, F.R.S.E. . Force.

Sir Wyville Thomson, FERS. |The Challenger Expedition.

.|W. Warington Smyth, M.A., Physical Phenomena connected with

F.R.S. ‘| the Mines of Cornwall and

| Devon.

ProfsOdling; HR.S.......000:-8 The New Element, Gallium.

G. J. Romanes, F.L.S.......... Animal Intelligence.

Prot. Dewar RiSsnecs. vases Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
| Chemical Action,

W. Crookes, F.R.S. ............| Radiant Matter.

Prof. H. Ray Lankester, F.1t.S.| Degeneration.

Prof.W.Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. Primeval Man.

Francis Galton, F.B.S.......... Mental Imagery.

Prof. Huxley, Sec. R.S. ...... | |The Rise and Progress of Palzon-
| tology.

W. Spottiswoode, Pres. R.S....| The Electric Discharge, its Forms

and its Functions.

| Prof. Sir Wm. Thomsca, F.R.S. | Tides.

Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S. | Pelagic Life.

Prot ebe pe bale HokiSen aesene Recent Researches on the Distance

of the Sun.

Prof. J. G. McKendrick. ......| Galvanic and Animal Electricity.

Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc. ...... | Dust.

Rey. W. H. Dallinger, ¥.R.S. |The Modern Microscope in Re-

| searches on the Least and Lowest

Forms of Life.
The Electric Light and Atmospherie

Absorption.

John Murray, F.R.S.E.......... The Great Ocean Basins.

A. W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S. | Soap Bubbles.

Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D.... The Sense of Hearing.

Prof. H. B. Dixon, F'.R.S. ... The Rate of Explosions in Gases.

Col. Sir F. de Winton ......... | Explorations in Central Africa.

Prof, W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S....|The [Electrical Transmission of

| Power.

Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.S....

lxxiv

REPORT—1899.

Date and Place

1888.
1889.

1890.

1891.

1892.
1893.

1894.

1895.

1896.
1897.
1898.

1899.

Lecturer

Subject of Discourse

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne

eeeeee

Edinburgh

Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.&c.,
F.R.S.

Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
F.R.S.

Walter Gardiner, M.A.........

E. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S....
Prof. OC. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.
Prof. L. C. Miall, F.L.S., F.G.S.

Prof. A.W. Riicker, M.A.,F.R.S.
Prof. A. M. Marshall, F.R.S.
Prof. J. A. Ewing, M.A., F.R.S.

Nottingham|Prof. A. Smithells, B. Se.

Ipswich

Liverpool...
Toronto ...

Bristol

Prof. Victor Horsley, F.R.S.
J. W. Gregory, D.Sc., F.G.S.

Prof. J.Shield Nicholson, M.A.

.| Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.S.

Prof. Percy F. Frankland,
F.R.S.

Dry Bel ears WHE RiS: vecdeseesrs

Prof. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L.

Prof. Roberts Austen, F.R.S.

J, Min GME RSS coareses.ceaesen

Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.

Herbert Jackson
Prof. Charles Richet............
Prof. J. Fleming, F.R.S. ......

eee eee eereeee

The Foundation Stones of the Earth’s
Crust.

The Hardening and Tempering of
Steel.

How Plants maintain themselves in
the Struggle for Existence.

Mimicry.

Quartz Fibres and their Applications.

Some Diff€culties in the Life of
Aquatic Insects.

Electrical Stress.

Pedigrees.

Magnetic Induction.

Flame.

The Discovery of the Physiology of
the Nervous System.

Experiences and _ Prospects
African Exploration.

Historical Progress and Ideal So-
cialism.

Magnetism in Rotation.

The Work of Pasteur and its various
Developments.

Safety in Ships.

Man before Writing.

Canada’s Metals.

Earthquakes and Volcanoes.

of

.|Funafuti: the Study of a Coral
Island.
Phosphorescence.

La vibration nerveuse.
The Centenary of
Current.

the Electric

lxxv

LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.

Date and Place

Lecturer

Subject of Discourse

1867.
1868.
1869.

1870.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1879.
1880.
1881.

1882.
1883.

1884.
1885.

Norwich ...
Exeter

Liverpool...
Brighton ...
Bradford ..
Belfast
IBTISHOl se...
Glasgow ...
Plymouth..
Sheffield
Swansea ...
York

eeeees

Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen..

1886. Birmingham

1887.
1888.
1889.

1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.

Manchester
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
Cardiff ......
Edinburgh
Nottingham
Oxford......
Ipswich ...
Liverpool...
Toronto
Bristol

.|C. W. Siemens, D.C.L.,

.|W. H. Preece
...|W. EH. Ayrton

.|H. B. Dixon, M.A.

.|Dr. H. O. Forbes

| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. |
Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F. B.S.
Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ...

SirJohn Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S
W.Spottiswoode, LL.D. sf .R.S.
L., F.R.S

Prot.Odling WR Stsccccessecs.
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Commander Cameron, C.B..

see e eee wer eeeeeee

H. Seebohm, F.Z.S8. ............

Prof. Osborne Reynolds,
E.R.S.

John Evans, D.C.L.,Treas. B.S.

Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S. ...

Prof. R. S. Ball, F.R.S.......

Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
FE.R.S.

Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S. ......

SirJohn Lubbock,Bart.,F.R.S.

B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .........

Prof. J. Perry, D.Sc., F.R.S.

Prof. S. P. Thompson, F.R.S.
Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.
Prof. Vivian B. Lewes.........
Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.
Drs eA HWISOM, « sccsesateeans sce
Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S....

rer Prrerrr)

Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S.

Matter and Force.

A Piece of Chalk.

The modes of detecting the Com-
position of the Sun and other
Heavenly Bodies by the Spectrum.

.| Savages.

Sunshine, Sea, and Sk

5.| Fuel.

The Discovery of Oxygen.

A Piece of Limestone.

.|A Journey through Africa.

Telegraphy and the Telephone.

Electricity as a Motive Power.

The North-East Passage.

Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
flakes.

Unwritten History, and how to
read it.

Talking by Electricity—Tclephones.

.| Comets.

The Nature of Explosions.

The Colours of Metals and their
Alloys.

Electric Lighting.

The Customs of Savage Races.

The Forth Bridge.

Spinning Tops.

Electricity in Mining.
Electric Spark Photographs.
Spontaneous Combustion.

...|Geologies and Deluges.

Colour.

The Earth a Great Magnet.

New Guinea.

The ways in which Animals Warn
their enemies and Signal to their
friends.

Ixxvi REPORT—1899.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT
THE DOVER MEETING.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

President.—Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. A. R. Forsyth, F.R.S.; Sir Norman Lockyer,
F.R.S. ; Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S. ; Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S.

Secretaries.—J. L. Howard, D.Sc.; C. H. Lees, D.Se.; Prof. W.
Watson, B.Sc. (Recorder) ; E. T. Whittaker, M.A.

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY.

President.—Horace T. Brown, F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S.; Prof. R. Fittig ;
Prof. F. R. Japp, F.R.S.; Prof. A. Ladenburg ; Prof. G. Lemoine.

Secretaries—A. H. Hall; C, A. Kohn (Recorder); T. K. Rose ;
Prof. W. P. Wynne, F.R.S.

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.
President.—Sir Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.; Prof. C. Lapworth,
F.R.S.; M. Mourlon ; J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S. ; W. Whitaker, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—J. W. Gregory, D.Sc. ; G. W. Lamplugh ; Capt. McDakin ;
Professor H. A. Miers, F.R.S. (Recorder).

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY.
President.—Adam Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S.; Prof. W. C.
MelIntosh, F.R.S. ; Prof. A. Newton, F.R.S.
Secretaries.— Walter Garstang, M.A. (Recorder) ; J. Graham Kerr, M.A.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.
President.—Sir John Murray, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Col. G. Earl Church, F.R.G.S. ; Major L. Darwin ;
Colonel Sir J. Farquharson, K.C.B.; Sir J. D. Hooker, F.R.S. ;
Ll. W. Longstaff ; Sir Erasmus Ommanney.
Secretaries.—H. N. Dickson, F.R.G.S.; H. O. Forbes, LL.D.; H. R.
Mill, D.Sc., F.R.G.S. (Recorder).

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President.—H. Higgs, LL.B., F.S.S.

Vice-Presidents.—J. Bonar, M.A., LL.D. ; Prof. F.;¥. Edgeworth, M.A. ;
Hon. Sir C. W. Fremantle, K.C.B.; Arthur Lee, J.P.

Secretaries. A lL. Bowley; E. Cannan, M.A., F.S.S. (Recorder) ;
Prof. A. W. Flux, M.A., F.S.S. ; Rev. G. Sarson, M.A.

OFFICERS OF THE SECTIONAL COMMITTEES Ixxvil

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Sir William H. White, K.C.B., F-.R.S., Pres. Inst.M.E.

Vice-Presidents.—Sir Frederick Bramwell, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S.; G. F.
Deacon ; E. Easton ; Sir W. H. Preece, K.C.B., F.R.S. ; E. Rigg,
M.A. ; Sir John Wolfe-Barry, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Secretaries.—Prof. T. Hudson Beare, F.R.S.E. (Recorder) ; W. A. Price,
M.A. ; H. E. Stilgoe, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E.

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
President.—C. H. Read, F.S.A.

Vice-Presidents—K. W. Brabrook, C.B., F.S.A.; Sir John Evans,
K.C.B., F.R.S. ; Sebastian Evans, LL.D.

Secretaries—H. Balfour ; W. H. East; Prof. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ;
J. L. Myres, M.A., F.S.A (Recorder).

SECTION I,—PHYSIOLOGY.
President.—J. N. Langley, M.A., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., Sec.R.S. ; Prof. Hugo
Kronecker ; Prof. A. Kossel ; Prof. Charles Richet; P. H. Pye-
Smith, M.D., F.R.S. ; Prof. Sir J. Burdon-Sanderson, Bart., F.R.S. ;
Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S. ; Prof. F. Gotch, F.R.S.

Secretaries.—Dr. Howden ; Dr. L. E. Shore ; Prof. E. H. Starling, F.R.S.

SECTION K,—-BOTANY.

President.—Sir George King, K.C.I.E., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. F. O. Bower, Sc.D., F.R.S.; Francis Darwin,
F.R.S. ; Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.8.1, F.R.S.; Sir W. T. Thiselton-
Dyer, K.C.M.G. F.R.S8.

Secretaries.—G. Dowker ; A. C. Seward, F,R.S. (Recorder); Harold
Wager.

Ixxvili REPORT—1899.

Dr. THS GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT,
1898-99, RECEIPTS,
d.
Balance brought ‘forward’! J. .23..0.05..ceccs..sosesesectudeusebenerde 0
Life Compositions (including Transfers) 0
New Annual Members’ Subscriptions ...........cscseeeeeeeeeeeeeee 0
Azinial SADSCriptious « .:c.t..:.tecsecoestercs cede ceeasusseeeeeeee ema 0
Sale of Associates’ Tickets ............seeeeeeees 0
maleior adies” Tickets! <2.ccccecsseeesenese ces 0
Saleol Publications) cs. .cscsede~s onan nve~-comseoueches eos eee eeteee eee 1
Interest on Deposit at Liverpool and Bristol Banks............ 3114 3
Dividend on‘\Consols <.......0+.-sebesossdeesnoc tan actedeeteeemmenven tes 200 7 4
Dividend on India,3 per; Cents 21... .j.00s sere secendecssew¥udesrcasiees 104 8 O
Unexpended Balances of Grants returned :—
Committee on the Fauna of the Singapore
CAV CS Si acave a sete oandtes ao Maw watatiea Tees cote to eeeee 256090
Corresponding Societies Committee ......... 018 0
Committee on the North-West Tribes of
(ana a... saisessanesess-cessseneseoseeceeneee sere 718 3
Committee on Wave-length Tables ......... 80 30
- 4016 3
J
A
y
£5083 1 121
Investments.
Sie Sg.
Consols ...., Sabeeee sad sence salesseees sheer eeeeeee 7537 3 5
Gas CTICEDUS: wesevecenss0s:0+0eceseteheeneeeee 3600 0 0
£11,187 3 5

G. CAREY FOSTER, General Treasurer.

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. |xxix

from July 1, 1898, to June 30, 1899. Or.
1898-99. EXPENDITURE.
& fs Ge
Expenses of Bristol Meeting, including Grant to Local Fund,

Printing, Advertising, Payment of Clerks, &c. ..... Geos ee aoa) Non lO
Rent and Office Expenses ......ssssssssecsccesseeeeessseeeresseseseeee OD 19 8
SalaTICS Jccscacesscsccewesass sieiesesemedcea Bec canesccaecdoss reece OL) (OF 10.
Printing, Binding, &C. ...seeseeseseeseseeseeeeeeneeees Pyakgubabevecsep ZO. so. 5/0
Payment of Grants made at Bristol:

& s. d.
Electrical Standards........cccerecseecssvace siasiante 1. 225 0.0
Seismological Observations..... fafatay sitdna ielefoin: okeeis ec: 6514 8
Science Abstracts ....0..ccccccccecscececccccscscneces 100 0 O
Heat of Combination of Metals in Alloys ........-.++0s 20 0 0
Radiation in a Magnetic Field ..... Bioatom'a cts uletatateartetets 50 0 0
Calculation of certain Integrals ..........-+5 a aeletetate 10 0 0
Action of Light upon Dyed Colours..........eeeeeeeeee 419 6
Relation between Absorption Spectra and Constitution
of Organic Substances......eeseceeseeccteeeeerceeee 50 0 0
Erratic BIOCKS.. 20 .cececnccsvccdccccsccccccconscsese » wb 6:0
Photographs of Geological Interest ........ Ricldiniaicissintials 10 0 0
: Remains of Irish Elk in the Isle of Man...........0--++ 15 0 0
Pleistocene Flora and Fauna in Canada..........+-0+-- 30 0 0
Records of Disappearing Drift Section at Moel Tryfaen 5 0 0
Ty Newydd Caves....... 4:dieidlyan oie c(eceia’a’e a.a/e ajstuisini aime stale 40 0 0
Ossiferous Caves at Uphill ..... Pie Sivak ceva asain adaenen 30 0 0
Table at the Zoological Station, Naples ....... 100 0 0
Table at the Biological Laboratory, Plymouth... an 2015 O10
Index Generum et Specierum Animalium ..........+++- 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ........-eeeee seeps eeee eee eecees 15 0 0
Apparatus for Keeping Aquatic Organisms under Defi-
nite Physical Conditions..........eeeeeeseeeeereeres 15 0 0
Plankton and Physical Conditions of the English
Channel during 1899..........ceee seen ee enee ee eeeeee 100 0 O
Exploration of Socotra..... 35 0 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury. - 50 0 0
Silchester Excavation ........ ° 10 0 0
Ethnological Survey of Canada ......isseseseeeereesees 35 0 0
New Edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries’ .. 40 0 0
Age of Stone Circles ...... 0.02 eeceeeeeeees ee eeeeeeees 20 0 0
Physiological Effects of Peptone ......-+.+++sseseeeeee 30 0 0
Electrical Changes accompanying Discharge of Respi-
ratory Centres.....ecececesseeceeeesteeeeenereneeses 20 0 0
Influence of Drugs upon the Vascular Nervous System 10 0 0
Histological Changes in Nerve Cells 20 0 0
Micro-chemistry of Cells ........+++++ -oe 400.0
Histology of Suprarenal Capsules.....-.-++++++eeereeee 20 0 0
Comparative Histology of Cerebral Cortex ........++++ 10 0 0
Fertilisation in Pheophycee ..seeeeecseereeecseeeeeee <1 20).0. 0
Assimilation in Plants..........seeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeenees 20 0 0
Zoological and Botanical Publication.......+..++++++++ 5 0 0
Corresponding Societies Committee......-.--ee+++++ -. 25 0 0
1430 14 2
In hands of General Treasurer:
At. Bank of England, Western Branch £342 4 3
Less Cheque not presented .......002 59 19 6
Sete DBO AQ
At Capital and Counties Bank, Bristol......... vos, L254, 2° 1
WASH, Soci cccncceseesess accecseasaneeacsesvact iene onecnansces i3y 16
1549 8 4
Less Petty Cash .....cscscsesscecececsenseoessencuseeoenes Or 7 1
1549 1 3
£5083 1 11
———

I have examined the above Account with the books and vouchers of the Associa-

tion, and certify the same to be correct.
Bankers on Current and Deposit Accounts, and h

ments are duly registered in the names of the Trustees.

Approved—

D. H. Scott,

I have also verified the balances at the
ave ascertained that the Invest-

W. B. KEEN, Chartered Accountant,
J. H. GLADSTONE, 3 3 Church Court, Old Jewry, E.C.
ae July 21, 1899.

Table showing the Attendance and Receipts

Presidents

_.| The Rey. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S.
_.| The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.D.
| The Marquis of Lansdowne ..

ie The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.
.| The Duke of Northumberland ..

“| The Rey. W. Whewell, F.B.S.

.| The Rey. G. Peacock, DD. .....

-| The Marquis of Northampton ,
.| The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D..

Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S.

The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.O.L

The Rey. W. Buckland, F.R.S. .

Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L...

The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt.
The Marquis of Breadalbane

Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart...
Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. .

Sir David Brewster, K.H. .......
G. B, Airy, Astronomer Royal .

Dex REPORT-—1899.
Date of Meeting Where held
1831, Sept. 27...... DYCOT Re oe sue ences ay ae
1832, June 19...... Oxford .....
1833, June 25...... Cambridge
1834, Sept. 8 Edinburgh
1835, Aug. 10..,...) Dublin .....
1836, Aug. 22......| Bristol ...
1837, Sept. 11...... Liverpool .....
1838, Aug. 10...... Newcastle-on-
1839, Aug. 26..,...) Birmingham .........
1840, Sept. 17...... Glasgow........
1841, July 20 .,.... Plymouth 2
1842, June 23......) Manchester ..| The Lord Francis Egerton
1843, Aug. 17...... Cork .3....:. ..| The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ..
1844, Sept. 26 ...... Mork ost. ,
1845, June 19...... Cambridge
1846, Sept.10 . ...) Southampton re]
1847, June 23 ...... Oxford si. .| Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart.
1848, Aug. 9...... Swansea........
1849, Sept. 12...... Birmingham
1850, July 21 ......) Edinburgh
1851, July 2.........
1852, Sept.1 .
1853, Sept. 3

1854, Sept. 20 .
1855, Sept. 12.
1856, Ang. 6 ......

1899, Sept. 13......

1857, Aug. 26 ......| Dublin .....
1858, Sept. 22......| Leeds... ....
1859, Sept. 14......) Aberdeen .,
1860, June 27......) Oxford ........
1861, Sept. 4 Manchester ..
1862, Oct. 1 | Cambridge. ....!...,....
1863, Aug. 26...... Newcastle-on-Tyne..,
1864, Sept.13...... Bath. ccs
1865, Sept.6 ...... Birmingham..
1866, Aug. 22...... Nottingham...
1867, Sept. Dundee ........
1868, Aug. Norwich

1869, Aug. Exeter .....
1870, Sept. Liverpool ..
1871, Aug. Edinburgh
1872, Aug. Brighton .,
1873, Sept. Bradford ..
1874, Aug. Belfast ..
1875, Aug. Bristol .....
1876, Sept.6 ...... Glasgow

1877, Aug. 15...... Plymouth ..
1878, Aug. 14...... Dublin ..

1879, Aug. 20...... Sheffield...

1880, Aug. 25...... Swansea...

1881, Aug. 31...... PV Ones eo.
1882, Aug. 23... Southampton .
1883, Sept. .| Southport ..
1884, Aug. ....| Montreal ..
1885, Sept. 9 ......| Aberdeen .......
1886, Sept. 1 i Birmingham |
1887, Aug. 31...... Manchester ....
1888, Sept. 5 PBRG ee acre 2
1889, Sept. 11...... Newcastle-on-Tyne..,
1890, Sept. 3 Leeds

1891, Aug. pee MOATOIEE 2.78
1892, Aug. .| Edinburgh
1893, Sept. .| Nottingham .
1894, Aug. Oxford ....
1895, Sept. Tpswich

1896, Sept. Liverpool

1897, Aug. Toronto

1898, Sept.7 ...... Bristol

"| William Hopkins, F.RS........., 7
.| The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. .

..| Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D...
..| The Rev. Humphrey Lloyd, D.D..
..| Richard Owen, M.D., D.O.L. ....
..| H.R.H. The Prince Consort ..
..| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A.
.| William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.

“| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D.
"| The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B.
“| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L. ....
.| Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D......

"|| Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S..
..| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., ERS.
.| Sir John Hawkshaw, Fr R.S.
S.
Ss,

| W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.RS. .........
.| Prof. G. J. Allman, M.D., F.R.S
R

| Dr. ©. Wis Semen F.RS. oe
...| Prof. A. Cayley, D.O.L., F. RS...
.| Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F.

‘| Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.B.S. .

alae.

...| The Marquis of Salisbury,K.G..F.R.S.

...| Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., F.R.S.

...| Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres. B.S. . =

...| Sir John Evans, K.O.B., F.RB.S. ..
.| Sir W. Crookes, F.R.S.

The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S.

The Rev. Professor Willis, M.A. .
Sir William G. Armstrong, O.B. .
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A.
William R. Grove, Q.C, F-RS..
Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.8.

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D.
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.

Prof. T. Andrews, MD. ag EL
Prof. A. Thomson, M.D.,

R.
Sir Lyon Playfair. K.C.B., F.
Sir J. W. Dawson, O.M.G. i
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.O.L., F ER i

Prof. W. H. Flower, O.B., F.R.S.
Sir F. A. Abel, O.B., F.R.S.
W. Huggins, ERS. osbaeet
Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S. ............
Prof. J. 8. Burdon Sanderson, ¥.R.S.

Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., Sec.R.S....

Old Life
Members

Ji Mee te ale he

296

New Life
Members

* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843,

+ Tickets of Admission to Sections only.

ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS

at Annual Meetings of the Association.

AT ANNUAL MEETINGS.

Ixxxl

Attended by
Old New
Anntal | Annual aa: Ladies
Members | Members | #°°S
= = = 1100%
= a = ne
46 317 — 60*
75 376 33f 331%
71 185 _— 160
45 190 oF 260
94 22 407 172
65 39 270 196
197 40 495 203
54 25 376 197
93 33 447 237
128 42 510 273
6L 47 244 141
63 60 510 292
56 57 367 236
121 121 765 524
142 101 1094 548
104 48 412 346
156 120 900 569
11 91 710 509
125 179 1206 821
177 59 636 463
184 125 1589 791
150 57 433 242
154 209 1704 1004
182 103 1119 1058
215 149 766 508
218 105 960 771
193 118 1163 771
226 117 720 682
229 107 678 600
303 195 1103 910
311 127 976 754
280 80 937 912
237 99 796 601
232 85 817 630
307 93 884 672
331 185 1265 712
238 59 446 283
290 93 1285 674
239 74 529 349
171 41 389 147
313 176 1230 514
253 79 516 189
330 323 952 841
317 219 826 74
332 122 1053 447
428 179 1067 429
510 244 1985 493
399 100 639 509
412 113 1024 579
368 92 680 334
341 152 672 107
413 141 733 439
328 57 773 268
435 69 941 451
290 3l 493 261
383 139 1384 873
286 125 682 100
327 96 1051 639
324 68 548 120

Foreigners

LISI ser ili tti ti

Sums paid

Amount
received Se Fela
during the f © @ Pens
Total Meeting |'°%) cientific)
= Purposes
353 a —_
900 -- _
1298 — £20 0
— _— 167 0
1350 — 435 0 0
1840 — 922 12 6
2400 — 932 2 2
1438 — 1595 11 0
1353 — 1546 16 4
891 — 1235 10 11
1316 — 1449 17 8
—_ — 1565 10 2
—- — 981 12 8
1079 —_— 831 9 9
857 — 685 16 0
1320 —_— 208 5 4
819 £707 0 O| 275 1 8
1071 963 0 0} 15919 6
1241 1085 0 0 345 18 0
710 620 0 0}. 391 9 7
1108 1085 0 0] 304 6 7
876 903 0 0} 205 0 0
1802 1882 0 0 380 19 7
2133 2311 0 O 480 16 4
1115 1098 0 0 73413 9
2022 2015 0 0 507 15 4
1698 1931, 0 0 61818 2
2564 2782 0 0 684 11 1
1689 1604 0 0 76619 6
3138 3944 0 0/1111 510
1161 1089 0 0} 129316 6
3335 3640 0 0 | 1608 310
2802 2965.0 0); 128915 8
1997 2227 0 0} 1591 710
2303 2469 0 0/|175013 4
2444 2613 0 0| 1739 4 0
2004 2042 0 0] 1940 0 0
1856 1931 0 0O| 1622 0 0
2878 3096 0 0} 1572 0 0
2463 2575 O 0O| 1472 2 6
2533 2649 0 0| 1285 0 0
1983 2120 0 0/] 1685 0 0
1951 1979 0 0} 115116 0
2248 2397 0 0} 960 0 0
2774 3023 0 0} 1092 4 2
1229 1268 0 0| 1128 9 7
2578 2615 0 0 72516 6
1404 1425 0 0 | 1080 11 11
915 899" 0 O°} 731, 7) 7
2557 2689 0 0 476 8 1
1253 1286 0 O| 1126 1 11
2714 3369 0 0/1083 3 3
1777 1855 0 0/1173 4 0
2203 2256 0 0] 1385 O O
2453 2532 0 0 995 0 6
3838 4336 0 0/|] 118618 O
1984 2107.0 0/1611 O 5
2437 2441 0 0/1417 O11
1775 1776 0 O| 78916 8
1497 1664 0 0O| 102910 0
2070 2007 0 O 864 10 0
166L 1653 0 0 907 15 6
2321 2175 0 O 583 15 6
1324 1236 0 0 977 15 5
3181 3228 0 0/1194 6 1
1362 1398 0 0] 105910 8
2446 2399 0 0|1212 0 0
1403 1328 0 0] 143014 2

Year

} Including Ladies. § Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting.

1899,

e

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1899-1900.

PRESIDENT.
ProFEssok SIR MICHAEL FOSTER, K.C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Suc. B.S:

VICE-PRESIDENTS,

His Grace the Lorp ArcHBISHUP OF CANTER- The Right Hon. A. AKERS-DOUGLAS, Mabie
BURY, D.D. The Very Rev. F. W. FARRAR, D.D., F.R.S., Déail
The Most Hon. the Marquis of SatisBury, K.G., of Canterbury.
M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir J: Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S.
The Mayor of Dover. Professor G. H. DARWIN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

The Major-GENERAL ComMANDiING THE SouTH-
HASTERN DISTRICT.

__.. PRESIDENT ELECT.
Professor Sir WiLL1AM TURNER, M.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.

_ VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Right Hon. the EArt or ScAnBOROUGH, Lord- | The Mayor oF BRADFORD.
Lieutenant of the West Riding of 2 Seen The Hon. H. E. Burien, Lord of the Manor,Brad-
..G., D.C.L.
> >

His Grace the DUKE oF DEVONSHIRE, K. ford.
LL.D., F.R.S. : Sir ALEXANDER BINNIE, M.Inst.0.E., F.G.S.
The Most Hon. the Marquis dr Ripon, K.G., | Professor RiickmrR, M.A., D.Sce., Sec.R.S.
G.0.8.1., D.0.L., F-R.8. Dr. T. E. THorpe, Sce.D., F.R.S., Pres.0.8.
The Right Rey. the Lorp BisHor or Ripon, D.D. Dr. N. Bopineron, M.A.
The Right Hon: Lord MASHAM. Professor L. O. MIALL, F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

Professor BH. A. Scudrer, LL.D., F.R.S., the University, Edinburgh.
Professor Sir W. C. RopERTS-AUSTEN, K.C.B., D.O.L., F.R.S., Royal Mint, London, E.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GrirriTH, Esq., M.A., Harrow, Middlesex.

GENERAL TREASURER,
Professor G. CAREY Foster, B.A., F.R.S:, Burlington House, London, W.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BRADFORD.
RAMSDEN Baccuus, Esq. | J. E. FAWCETT, Esq. | FREDERICK STEVENS, Esq.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BRADFORD.
W.C. Lupron, Esq., MAyor OF BRADFORD.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,

ARMSTRONG, Professor H. E., F.R.S. Marr, J. E., Esq., I'.R.S.

Bonak, J., Esq., LL.D. Poutron, Professor H. B., F.R.S.
OnrxEAk, Captain H, W., R.N., F.R.S. PREECE, Sir W. H., K.O.B., F.R.S.
Darwi, F., Esq., F.R.S. Prick, L. L., Hsq., M.A.

Darwin, Major L., Sec.R.G.S. SHAw, W.N., Esq., F.R.S.

FREMANTLE, Hon. Sir C. W., K.0.B, TEALL, J. J. H., Esq., F.R.S.

GASKELL, Dr. W. H., F.R.S. T HISELTON-DykR, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
HALLIBURTON, Professor W. D., F.R.S. THOMSON, Professor J. M., F.R.S,
Harcourt, Professor L. F. VERNON, M.A. TILDEN, Professor W. A., F.R.S,
HERDMAN, Professor W. A., F.R.S. Tyxor, Professor HE. B., F.R.S.

Kettin, J. Scorr, Esq., LL.D. WHITE, Sir W. H., K.O.B., F.B.S.
LonGeE, Professor O. J., F.R.S. WOoLrE-BARRY, Sir JOHN, K.C.B., F.RS,

MacManon, Major P. A., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Sir Joun Lupsock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S., F.L.8.

The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

Professor A, W. RiickEn, M.A., D.Sc., Sec. B.S.

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.

The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T. Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Sir J. S. Burdon Sanderson, Bart.,
Lord Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S, | F.R.S. ; :
Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.1., F.R.S. | Sir F. J. Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S. | The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G.,
Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S. Sir I. A. Abel, Bart., K.0.B., F.R.S.
Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., F'.R.S. F.R.S. Lord Lister, D.O.L., Pres.R.S.

Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. Sir Wm. Huggins, K.O.B., F.R.S. | Sir John Evans, K.O.B., F.R.S.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. | Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D.,F.R.S.| Sir William Crookes, F.R.S.

GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.

F. Galton, Esq., F.R.5. G. Griffith, Esq., M.A. Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.
Prof. Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., | P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. | A. Vernon Harcourt, Esq, I'.R.S.
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.8e., F.R.S. | Prof. A. W. RUCKER, Sec.R,8.

Sec.R,5S.
; AUDITORS.
Dr, D. H. Scott, F.R.S. | Sir H. Trueman Wood, M.A. | Dr. Horace Brown, F.R.S.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxxill

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Report of the Council for the Year 1898-99, presented to the General
Committee at Dover on Wednesday, September 13, 1899.

Tne Meeting this year will be memorable from the fact that for the first
time in the history of the Association the time and place of meeting have
been fixed in conjunction with and in response to an invitation of the
French Association for the Advancement of Science, with the object of
affording an opportunity for the members of the sister Associations to
exchange visits and to participate in scientific discussions in their several
Sections. To carry out this intention, arrangements have been made for
our Association to receive a visit from the members of the French Asso-
ciation on Saturday, September 16, and the Association Frangaise has, on
its part, invited the members of the British Association to pay a return
visit on the following Thursday, and has expressed a desire that some
of our members should join in an excursion to places of interest which has
been planned for the following days.

The Council have to deplore the loss by death of Sir Douglas Galton,
who, for twenty-four years, occupied the responsible office of General
Secretary, a post which he resigned only on becoming President of the
Association in 1895, at the Ipswich Meeting. The Council desire to place
on record their sense of the invaluable services rendered by Sir Douglas
Galton to the Association.

The Council regret to announce that a vacancy has been caused in the
list of Vice-Presidents for this meeting in consequence of the lamented
death of Lord Herschell.

An invitation was received from the Vice-Chancellor of the University
of Cambridge to nominate a delegate to represent the Association at the
Jubilee of Sir George Gabriel Stokes, which was celebrated on June 1
and June 2. The President, Sir William Crookes, was appointed to
represent the Association, and to present the following Address :—

To Str Groree GasrRiet Sroxes, Bart., D.CL., LL.D., ERS,

The Council of the British Association for the Advancement of Science desire to
offer you their cordial congratulations on the completion of fifty years of your tenure of
the Lucasian Professorship in the University of Cambridge.

You have been a Member of the Association for more than half a century, and
have served it in many capacities during that period. You were appointed Secretary
of the Section of Mathematical and Physical Science in 1845, and continued in this
laborious office until 1851. In the two following years you were a Vice-President of
the Section, and became President in 1854 and again in 1862. Many times Vice-
President, you were President of the Association in 1869, at the meeting in Exeter,
and have been a permanent Member of the Council for the last thirty years.

Your services to the Association, and to the cause for which it exists, are far
from being fully told by a mere enumeration of the offices you have held. In 1852
you gave an Evening Lecture to the Members at the Belfast Meeting on a branch of
Optics which has been chiefly elucidated by your own researches ; and from 1845,
the first year of your membership, till the meeting last year at Bristol, the Reports
of the Association have been enriched year by year by your contributions. Your
celebrated reports on ‘Researches in Hydrodynamics,’ published in 1846, and on
‘Double Refraction,’ in 1862, are constantly referred to as classical writings by the
cultivators of those branches of Physics, and have conferred abiding lustre on the
publications of the Association.

Of your other conspicuous services to the cause of Science it is almost needless to

e2

lxxxiv REPORT—1899,

speak, but your association with the Royal Society as Secretary for thirty-one Yeats,
and subsequently as President, has given you a place which is without a parallel
among those who, dutihg the last half-century, have fostered the progress of
Science.

That you may long continue among our leaders in the advance of knowledge is
the earnest desire of the Association.

The following letter has been received from the Secretaries of the
Royal Society :—

The Royal Society, Burlington House, London, W.,
November 29, 1898.

DEAR SrR,—We are directed by the President and Council of the Royal Society
to inform you that a Committee, consisting of Fellows of the Royal Society acting
in conjunction with representatives of the Royal Geograpliical Society, was formed
some time since for considering the steps that should be taken for organising an
expedition to the Antarctic regions.

As you are probably aware, an appeal to H.M. Government to organise such an
expedition has met with no encouragement, and the Royal Geographical Society has
consequently taken steps for raising a fund for the purposes of such an expedition
by private subscription. To this fund the Royal Society hopes to be able to con-
tribute through the medium of the Government Grant for Scientific Research, and at
a recent meeting of the Antarctic Committee the following resolutions were passed,
which we are directed to bring to your notice, and to request you, so far as they
concern the British Association, to lay them before the Council of that body at the
earliest opportunity :

‘(1) That the Treasurer of the Royal Society be requested to apply to the
Government Grant Committee for a grant of 1,0007. (payable in instalments),
in aid of an Antarctic Expedition.

‘(2) That an application be also made to the Council of the British Asso-
Giation for a graht of 1,000/. for the same purpose.’

We remain, very faithfully yours,
M. Foster,
ARTHUR W, RUCKER,

Secretaries, R.S,
The General Secretary of the British Association.

After due consideration the Council have resolved to recommend thé
General Committee to contribute the sum of 1,000/. to the National
Antarctic Expedition, and that the grant be given out of the accumulated
funds of the Association, and not out of the sum allocated to annual
grants.

The following resolutions, referred to the Council by the General
Committee for consideration and action if desirable, have been considered
and acted upon as follows :—

(1) That having regard to the letter of December 15, 1897, from Sir
E. Maunde Thompson, the Council be requested to take further action
with regard to a Bureau of Ethnology, by renewing the correspondence
with the Trustees of the British Museum.

_ The following statement, in response to a letter from the President,
has been received from Sir E. Maunde Thompson :—

British Museum, December 1, 1898.
DEAR Si1rR,—In reply to your letter of the 23rd ultimo, with reference to the
establishment of an Ethnographical Bureau in connection with the British Museum,
I beg to say that unforeseen delays in carrying out certain rearrangements affecting
space within our walls have hitherto prevented the Trustees from taking up the
matter. Now, however, a room has been found which may serve as an office for
making a start with the scheme.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxxv

But while the Trustees have accepted in principle the proposal, I beg to observe
that the desired end would scarcely be obtained without the influential co-operation
of the British Association, upon which I assume the Trustees may rely.

May I then suggest that, as a preliminary step in maturing the scheme, one or
more members of the British Association should be appointed to confer with the
officers of the British Museum as to the most advisable course to follow?

A Committee, consisting of the President, the President-Elect, the
General Officers, Mr. Francis Galton, and Professor Tylor, was accordingly
appointed for the purpose of conferring with the officers of the British
Museum, as proposed by Sir E. Maunde Thompson. The President has
also been in correspondence with the Marquess of Salisbury regarding this
matter, and the Council have the pleasure to announce that satisfactory
arrangements have been made for the establishment of such a Bureau,
and that Lord Salisbury has directed that reports prepared by officers in
the various Protectorates under the administration of the Foreign Office be
forwarded to the British Museum.

(2) That the Council be requested to consider the desirability of
representing to the Colonial Government that the early establishment of
a Magnetic Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope would be of the
highest utility to the Science of Terrestrial Magnetism, especially in view
of the Antarctic Expeditions which are about to leave Europe, and that
the Observatory should be established at such a distance from electric
railways and tramways as to avoid all possibility of disturbance from
them.

The question having been considered, the Council requested the
President to make the necessary representation to the Colonial Govern-
ment, and the following letter was accordingly sent to Sir Alfred Milner,
the High Commissioner and Governor of Cape Colony, for presentation
to the Government :—

British Association for the Advancement of Science,
Burlington House, W., March 1899.

S1r,—I have the honour to inform you that at the Annual Meeting of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, held last September at Bristol, an
International Conference met for the purpose of discussing questions connected with
Terrestrial Magnetism. One of the resolutions, which was adopted by the Conference
in the following terms, was referred to the Council of the Association for further
consideration :—

‘That the Council be requested to consider the desirability of representing
to the Colonial Government that the early establishment of a Magnetic
Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope would be of the highest utility to the
Science of Terrestrial Magnetism, especially in view of the Antarctic Expedi-
tions which are about to leave Europe, and that the Observatory should be
established at such a distance from electric railways and tramways as to avoid
all possibility of disturbance from them.’

I have been requested by the Council to inform you that they have considered
this resolution, and have decided to transmit it to you for your favourable con-
sideration.

If you should require any further information in regard to this proposal, I shall
be glad to furnish it.

I am, your obedient servant,
WILLIAM CROOKES, President.

The Council have received the following minute of the Government of
Cape Colony through the High Commissioner :—

! The correspondence is given in the Appendix, p. Ixxxix,

Ixxxyvi REPORT—1899.

Prime Minister’s Office, Cape Town, May 13, 1899.

Ministers have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of His Excellency the
Governor and High Commissioner's Minute, No. 71, of the 19th ultimo, forwarding
for their consideration a copy of a letter from Sir William Crookes, President of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, urging the establishment of a
Magnetic Observatory at the Cape.

In reply thereto, Ministers have the honour to state that they have much sym-
pathy with the suggestion to establish a Magnetic Observatory, and do not overlook
the scientific and practical aspects of the project, but do not regard as practicable
the immediate provision by this Colony of funds for the carrying out of the scheme.

(Signed) W. P. SCHREINER.

(3) That the Council be requested to consider the advisability of urging
Her Majesty’s Government to place at the disposal of the Seismological
Committee of the British Association a suitable building for the housing
of apparatus for continuous seismological observations.

A Committee, consisting of the President, the President-Elect, the
General Officers, Professor Riicker, Professor Ewing, and Professor Judd,
was appointed to report on this resolution.

The Committee, having received and considered a memorandum,
drawn up by Professor Milne, on the position and requirements of the
Seismological Investigation Committee of the Association, reported that
in their opinion it is desirable that a Central Station should be established,
and recommended the Council to request the Government to place a suit-
able building at the disposal of the Seismological Committee which could
be used as a station for carrying on observations, and would serve as a
centre for the stations (now twenty-three in number) in various parts
of the world which, at the request of the Committee, have been supplied
with seismographic apparatus of the pattern they have recommended.

The Council decided to reappoint the Committee for the purpose
of reporting further on the best situation for the proposed Central
Seismological Station, and on the cost of its maintenance.

(4) That the Council be requested to urge strongly on the Indian
Government the desirability, in the interests both of administration and
of science, to promote an inquiry, under the direction of skilled anthro-
pologists, into the physical and mental characteristics of the various races
throughout the Empire, including their institutions, customs, and tradi-
tions, and a carefully organised photographic survey.

A Committee, consisting of the President, the President-Elect, the
General Officers, Sir John Evans, Professor Tylor, Mr. F. Galton, Mr. C. H.
Read, and Mr. J. L. Myres, which was appointed to consider this question,
reported that in their opinion the resolution in its present form is of too
comprehensive and costly a character to justify the Council in submitting
it to the Indian Government. A more definite and less ambitious scheme
would in their opinion be more likely to be entertained by the Indian
Government.

(5) That the Council be recommended to issue the collected Reports
on the North-Western Tribes of Canada in a single volume at a moderate
price, reprinting so many of the Reports as may be necessary.

The Council, having been informed that a sufficient number of separate
copies of the Fifth and the following Reports of the Committee on the
North-Western Tribes of Canada were in stock for supplying those

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lxxxvii

Libraries, Public Institutions, and persons who required copies for com-
pleting sets, resolved that the Reports be not reprinted.

(6) That the Council be requested to bring under the notice of the
Admiralty the importance of securing systematic observations upon the
Erosion of the Sea-coast of the United Kingdom, and that the co-opera-
tion of the Coastguard might be profitably secured for this purpose.

A Committee, consisting of the President, the President-Elect, the
General Officers, Sir Archibald Geikie, Mr. Whitaker, Captain Creak,
Mr. A. T. Walmisley, and Professor L. Vernon Harcourt, having been
appointed to report on the above resolution, recommended that the Council
inquire whether the Admiralty would be willing to arrange that observa-
tions of a simple character on changes in the sea-coast be recorded and
reported by the Coastguards. The Committee pointed out that if the
Admiralty consented to carry out this proposal it would be necessary to
appoint a committee for the purpose of drawing up a scheme of instruc-
tions for the observers, making arrangements for starting the work, and
subsequently examining from time to time such localities as may seem to
require special attention. This recommendation having been adopted by
the Council, the President was requested to approach the Admiralty upon
the subject, and in response to his letter the following reply has been
received from the Admiralty :—

Admiralty, March 25, 1899.

S1r,—In reply to your letter of the 15th instant, inquiring if instructions can be
given to the Coastguard to watch and report any changes taking place round the
shores of the British Islands, Iam commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the
Admiralty to inform you that they see no objection to this proposal, as the required
observations can be made by the men in the ordinary course of their duty.

On the receipt, therefore, of the instructions referred to in your letter, their
Lordships, if they concur in them, will cause them to be issued accordingly.

Forms on which it is desired that the reports shall be made should also be drawn
up for communication to the Coastguard.

I am, sir, your obedient servant,
EVAN MACGREGOR.

The President of the British Association for the

Advancement of Science.

The following have been appointed a Committee to carry out the
necessary arrangements as to the despatch of forms, the receiving and
tabulating reports, and such inspection of coast erosion or upheaval as
may from time to time appear desirable, viz. :—Sir Archibald Geikie,
Captain Creak, Professor L. Vernon Harcourt, Mr. W. Whitaker, Mr,
A. T. Walmisley, and the General Officers.

(7) That the Council be requested to take into consideration whether
any alterations in the hours of meeting of the Sectional Committees and
of the General Committee on the first day of the Annual Meeting of the
Association are desirable, and to report to the General Committee at the
Dover Meeting.

A Committee, consisting of the President, the President-Elect, the
General Officers, Sir Douglas Galton, Mr. Francis Galton, Mr. A. G. Vernon
Harcourt, Professor Bonney, Professor Riicker, Professor Oliver Lodge,
Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, Professor Herdman, Professor Hudson Beare,
and Dr. H. Forster Morley, was appointed to consider this resolution, and
as a result of their inquiries the Council has resolved to recommend to the

lxxxviii REPORT—1899.

General Committee that the meeting of the General Committee be held
in future at 4 p.m. on the first day of the Annual Meeting, instead of at
1 p.m. as has heretofore been customary, and that the Organising Commit-
tees of the Sections should meet at 2 p.m. on that day instead of at 11 a.m.,
and should, until the Sectional Officers are definitely appointed by the
General Committee, exercise the functions of Sectional Committees, with
power to add to their number.

The Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee for the past
year, together with the list of the Corresponding Societies and the titles
of the more important papers, and especially those referring to Local
Scientific Investigations, published by those societies during the year
ending June 1, 1899, has been received.

The Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis
Galton, Professor R. Meldola (Chairman), Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir J. Evans:
Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. W. Whitaker, Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor T. G.
Bonney, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Sir Cuthbert Peek, Mr. Horace T. Brown,
Rev. J. O. Bevan, Professor W. W. Watts, and Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing,
is hereby nominated for reappointment by the General Committee.

The Council nominate the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, F.R.S., Chairman,
and Mr. T. V. Holmes, Secretary, to the Conference of Delegates of
Corresponding Societies to be held during the Meeting at Dover.

The Council have received Reports from the General Treasurer during
the past year, and his accounts from July 1, 1898, to June 30, 1899,
which have been audited, are presented to the General Committee.

In accordance with the regulations the retiring Members of the
Council will be :—

Boys, C. Vernon, Esq., F.R.S. Thompson, Professor S. P., F.R.S,
Meldola, Professor R., F.B.S. Unwin, Professor W. C., F.R.S.
Reynolds, Professor J. Emerson, M.D.,

F.RB.S.

The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary Members
of the Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are dis-
tinguished by an asterisk in the following list :—

*Armstrong, Professor H. E., F.R.S. Marr, J. E., Esq., F.R.S.

*Bonar, J., Esq., LL.D. Poulton, Professor E. B., F.R.S.
Creak, Captain E. W., R.N., F.R.S. Preece, Sir W. H., K.C.B., F.R.S.
Darwin, F., Esq., F.R.S. Price, L. L., Esq., M.A.
Darwin, Major L., Sec. R.G.S. Shaw, W. N., Esq., F.R.S.
Fremantle, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. Teall, J. J. H., Esq., F.R.S.
Gaskell, Dr. W. H., F.R.S. Thiselton-Dyer, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G.,
Halliburton, Professor W. D., F.R.S. F.R.S.
Harcourt, Professor L. F. Vernon, M.A. Thomson, Professor J. M., F.R.S.
Herdman, Professor W. A., F.R.S. Tilden, Professor W. A., F.R.S.
Keltie, J. Scott, Esq., LL.D. Tylor, Professor EH. B., F.R.S.

*Lodge, Professor Oliver, F.R.S. White, Sir W. H., K.C.B., F.R.S.

MacMahon, Major P. A., F.R.S. *Wolfe-Barry, Sir John, K,C.B., F.R.S,

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lxxxix

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE COUNCIL
Bureau of Ethnology for Greater Britain

Foreign Office: May 24, 1899.

S1r,—I am directed by the Marquess of Salisbury to transmit to you the annexed
correspondence which has passed between this Department and the British Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, respecting the establishment of a Bureau of
Ethnology for Greater Britain in connection with the British Museum, and the desire
of the Association to obtain from Her Majesty’s Officers in the various Protectorates
under the administration of the Foreign Office information of an ethnological
character with respect to the numerous uncivilised races with whom they come in
contact.

Lord Salisbury is of opinion that Her Majesty’s Officers should be encouraged to
furnish information desired by the Bureau, so far as their duties will allow of their
doing so, and I am to request you to inform Officers under your administration
accordingly.

All reports which may be drawn up in answer to questions forwarded by the
Bureau should be forwarded under flying seal through the Foreign Office.

I am, sir, your most obedient, humble servant,
(Signed) MARTIN GOSSELIN,

H.M.’s Commissioners in the Uganda and Hast and
Central Africa Protectorates,
H.M,’s Consul-General in the Somali Coast Pro-
tectorate.

Foreign Office: May 24, 1899.
S1z,—I am directed by the Marquess of Salisbury to transmit to you for your
information, and for such effect as you may be able to give to the instructions ccn-
tained in it, a copy of a despatch which has been addressed to Her Majesty’s Com-
missioners in the Uganda, and East and Central Africa Protectorates, and Her
Majesty’s Consul-General in the Somali Coast Protectorate, on the subject of pro-
curing information for the Bureau of Ethnology which is about to be established in
connection with the British Museum.
I am, sir, your most obedient, humble servant,
(Signed) MARTIN GOSSELIN.
H,M.’s Acting Agent at Zanzibar.
H.M.’s Consul at Brunei.

INcLOSURE 1,

Letter from the President of the British Association to the Marquess
of Salisbury :—

Burlington House: March 30, 1599.

My Lorp,—I have the honour to inform you that a proposal to establish a Bureau
of Ethnology for Greater Britain has been discussed at several recent meetings of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, and that the Council of the
Association were subsequently requested to consider the possibility of establishing
such a Bureau.

The Council appointed a Committee to consider the proposal, and having adopted
the report of the Committee, requested the Trustees of the British Museum to allow
the proposed Bureau to be established in connection with that Institution. The
Trustees have expressed their willingness to undertake the working of the Bureau,
oud the necessary space for its establishment has now been provided at Blooms-

ury.

In forwarding to your Lordship copies of the report of the Committee appointed
by the Council, I would desire to call special attention to the following paragraph

xe REPORT—1899:;

viz.: ‘The collecting of the necessary information for the Bureau could be done with
but little expense and with avery small staff only, if the scheme were recognised and
forwarded by the Government. If instructions were issued, for instance, by the
Colonial Office, the Foreign Office, the Admiralty, and the Intelligence Branch of the
War Office, to the officers acting under each of these departments, not only that they
were at liberty to conduct these inquiries, but that credit would be given to them
officially for good work in this direction, there is little doubt that many observers
qualified by their previous training would at once put themselves and their leisure at
the disposal of the Bureau.’

If the proposed Bureau is to work successfully, it is necessary to have the ap-
proval and co-operation of the several Departments of the Government concerned
with the primitive races to be dealt with. The Council have reason to believe that
a large proportionjof the officers now employed in dealing with these savage people
would gladly undertake scientific work of the character required by the Report, if
only they could be assured that such work would not be regarded unfavourably by
the authorities at home. There is reason to believe that such an impression exists,
but itis probably the result of some misunderstanding ; and,in order to make the
matter quite clear, I would venture to ask from your Lordship an expression of
opinion favourable to the terms of the paragraph above quoted.

The Report itself gives in concise form a statement of the benefit likely to accrue
from the establishment of such a Bureau, as to the general principle of which I feel
sure the British Association may count upon your Lordship’s entire sympathy.

I am, my Lord, your obedient servant,
(Signed) WILLIAM CROOKES, President.

INCLOSURE 2.

Report of the Committee appointed by the Council to consider the
Sollowing Resolution :—

‘That it is of urgent importance to press upon the Government the
necessity of establishing a Bureau of Ethnology for Greater Britain,
which, by collecting information with regard to the native races within,
and on the borders of, the Empire, will prove of immense value to science
and to the Government itself.’

A central establishment in England, to which would come information
with regard to the habits, beliefs, and methods of government of the
primitive peoples now existing would be of great service to science, and
of no inconsiderable utility to the Government.

1. The efforts of the various societies which have during the last
twenty years devoted themselves to collecting and publishing ethnological
information have necessarily produced somewhat unequal, and therefore
unsatisfactory, results. Such societies had, of course, to depend upon the
reports of explorers, who usually travelled for another purpose than that
in which the societies were interested ; and such reports were naturally
unsystematic, the observers being mostly untrained in the science. Again,
whole regions would be unrepresented in the transactions of the societies,
perhaps from the absence of the usual attractions of travellers, e.g. big
game or mineral riches. This has been to some extent corrected, at least
as to the systematic nature of the reports, by the publication of ‘ Anthro-
pological Notes and Queries’ by the Anthropological Institute, with the
help of the British Association.

If it be admitted that the study of the human race is an important
branch of science, no further argument is needed to commend the
gathering of facts with regard to the conditions under which aboriginal
races now live, and, if this work is worth doing, it should be done without

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xc

delay. With the exception, perhaps, of the negro it would seem that
none of the lower races are capable of living side by side with whites.
The usual result of such contact is demoralisation, physical decline, and
steady diminution of numbers ; in the case of the Tasmanians, entire dis-
appearance. Such will probably soon be the fate of the Maories, the
Andamanese, the North American Indians, and the, blacks of Australia.
While these exist it is possible to preserve their traditions and folk-lore,
and to record their habits of life, their arts, and the like, and such direct
evidence is necessarily more valuable than accounts filtered through the
recollection of the most intelligent white man.

It is scarcely necessary to enlarge upon this point, as no one will
seriously question the value to science of such information. But it does
seem necessary to urge that no time be lost.

2. As to the benefit to the Government of these inquiries, the history
of our relations with native tribes in India and the Colonies is rich in
examples. No one who has read of the ways of the African can doubt
that a thorough study of his character, his beliefs and superstitions, is a
necessity for those who have to deal with him. And what is true of the
natives of Africa is also true, in a greater or less degree, of all uncivilised
races. Their ideas of common things and common acts are so radically
different from those of civilised man that it is impossible for him to
understand them without a special training.

Even in dealing with the highly civilised natives of India it is most
necessary that an inquirer should be familiar with their religion, and
with the racial prejudices which the natives of India possess in common
with other civilised nations.

A training in knowledge of native habits is now gone through by our
officers, traders, and missionaries on the spot ; and by experience—some-
times dearly bought—they, after many failures, learn how te deal with
the natives. By the establishment of such a Bureau as is here advocated
much might be done to train our officers before they go out, as is now
done by the Dutch Government, who have a handbook and a regular
course of instruction as to the life, laws, religion, &c., of the inhabitants
of the Dutch Indies. The experience thus gained would then mature
rapidly, and they would become valuable servants to the State more
quickly.

The collecting of the necessary information for the Bureau could be
done with but little expense und with a very small staff only, if the
scheme were recognised and forwarded by the Government. If instruc-
tions were issued, for instance, by the Colonial Office, the Foreign Cflfice,
the Admiralty, and the Intelligence Branch of the War Office, to the
officers acting under each of these departments, not only that they were
at liberty to conduct these inquiries, but that credit would be given to
them officially for good work in this direction, there is little doubt that
many observers qualified by their previous training would at once put
themselves and their leisure at the disposal of the Bureau.

The Bureau itself, the central office, would be of necessity in London
—in no other place could it properly serve its purpose—and preferably,
for the sake of economy and official control, it should be under the
administration of some existing Government office. But the various
interests involved make it somewhat difficult to recommend where it
should be placed. The Colonial Office would obviously present some
advantages. The British Museum has been suggested, with good reason,

Xcll REPORT—1899.

and there appears to be no insuperable difficulty if the trustees are willing
to undertake the responsibility of controlling such a department.

The staff would not be numerous. A director accustomed to deal
with ethnological matter would necessarily direct the conduct of the
inquiries, and until the material assumed large proportions two or three
clerks would probably suffice. If the value of the results were considered
to justify it, the increase of the area of operations over the world would
probably call for additional assistance after the Bureau had been at work
for a few years.

The Bureau of Ethnology in the United States aims chiefly at pub-
lishing its reports, but its area is limited to America. The scope of the
present proposal is so much wider that the Committee think it better not
to deal with the question of publication at present.

INCLOSURE 3,

Letter from the Foreign Office to the British Association —

Foreign Office, April 7, 1899.

S1r,—I am directed by the Marquess of Salisbury to acknowledge the receipt of
your letter of the 30th ult, on the subject of the establishment of a Bureau of
Ethnology for Greater Britain; and I am to request that you will inform his lord-
ship whether it is correctly understood that what the British Association for the
Advancement of Science desires, so far as this Department is concerned, is that Her
Majesty’s officers in the various Protectorates administered under the Foreign Office
should report on occasion to the best of their ability on the ethnology of the various
native races in those Protectorates,

If this be the correct interpretation of the wishes of the British Association,
Lord Salisbury would be obliged if some more precise definition can be furnished as
to the points to which attention should be directed, with a view to framing instruc-
tions for the guidance of the officers concerned.

I am, sir, your most obedient, humble servant,
(Signed) MARTIN GOSSELIN,

The President of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science.

INCLOSURE 4,

Letter from the British Association to the Foreign Office :—

Burlington House, London, May 3, 1899,

S1z,— I have to acknowledge the receipt of the letter from Sir Martin Gosselin
of April 7, with regard to the proposed establishment of a Bureau of Ethnology for
Greater Britain in connection with the British Museum.

The purpose of the British Association in applying to the Foreign Office has been
correctly understood so far that it is desired to obtain from the agents and officers
of the Foreign Office information of an ethnological character with respect to the
numerous uncivilised races with whom they come into daily contact.

But it is not contemplated to give the Foreign Office any trouble in conducting
these inquiries, The officers of the Bureau will prepare the questions and forward
them to the various officers, who, it is hoped, may be willing to furnish the answers.
All the material thus gathered will be systematically arranged in the British
Museum, so as to be available both for scientific research and for the purposes of
the Government.

The Council of the British Association felt, however, that before entering into
communication with those officers it would be wise to ask for Lord Salisbury’s
approval of the scheme, in order that the gentlemen who were disposed to undertake
such work as is contemplated by the Bureau might be assured that the work would
be favourably regarded by their Department.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xtill

In the event, therefore, of the scheme meeting with the approval of Lord
Salisbury I would venture to ask his lordship to be good enough to express this
approval in such terms that the letter can be used in opening the correspondence
with the agents of the Foreign Office.

I am, sir, your obedient servant,
(Signed) WILLIAM CROOKES, President.

The Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.

Inctosure 5.

Letter from Foreign Office to the British Association, May 24, 1899 :—

Foreign Office, May 24, 1899.
S1r,—With reference to your letter of the 3rd instant, I am directed by the Mar-
quess of Salisbury to transmit to you for your information, copies of despatches which
have been addressed to Her Majesty’s Commissioners in the Uganda and East and
Central Africa Protectorates, Her Majesty’s Consul-General in the Somali Coast
Protectorate, Her Majesty’s Acting Agent at Zanzibar, and Her Majesty’s Consul at
Brunei, on the subject of procuring information for the Bureau of Ethnology which

is about to be established in connection with the British Museum.
I am, sir, your most obedient, humble servant,
(Signed) MARTIN GOSSELIN.

The President of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, Burlington House, W.

xciv

REPORT—1899.

CoMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL CoMMITTEE AT THE
DovER MEETING IN SEPTEMBER 1899.

1. Receiving Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Making Experiments for improv-
ing the Construction of Practical
Standards for use in Hlectrical
Measurements.

[And 3002, in hand.]

Seismological Observations.

Members of the Committee

Chai¢man.—Lord Rayleigh.

Seerctary.—My. R. T. Glazebrook.

Lord Kelvin, Professors W. HE.
Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Adams,
Oliver J. Lodge,

Sir W. H. Preece, Profes-
sors J. D. Everett and A.

Schuster, Dr. J. A. Fleming, |

Professors G. F. FitzGerald and
J.J. Thomson, Mr. W.N. Shaw,
Dr. J. YT. Bottomley, Rev.
T. C. Fitzpatrick, Professor J.
Viriamu Jones, Dr. G. John-
stone Stoney, Professor 8. P.
Thompson, Mr. J. Rennie, Mr.
E. H. Griffiths, Professor A. W.
Riicker, Professor H. L. Callen-
dar, Sir W. C. Roberts-Austen,
and Mr. G. Matthey.

Chairman.—Prof. J. W. Judd.

Secrctary.—Professor J. Milne.

Lord Kelvin, Sir F. J. Bramwell,
Professor G. H. Darwin, Mr.
Horace Darwin, Major L. Dar-
win, Professor J. A. Ewing,
Professor C. G. Knott, Professor
R. Meldola, Professor J. Perry,

Professor J. H. Poynting, Pro- |
fessor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. V. |
Boys, Professor H. H. Turner, |
Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr, Clement |

Reid, Mr. R. D. Oldham, and
Mr. W. E. Plummer.

Radiation from a Source of Light | Chairman.——Professor G. F. Fitz-

in a Magnetic Field.

Gerald.
Secretary.—Professor T, Preston.
Professor A. Schuster, Professor
O. J. Lodge, Professor 8. P.
Thompson, Dr. Gerald Molloy,
and Dr. W. E. Adeney.

and G. |}
Carey Foster, Dr. A. Muirhead, |

|

60

bo
or

(=
on

00;

00

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

XCV

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

To consider the most suitable
Method of Determining the
Components of the Magnetic
Force on board Ship.

To establish a Meteorological
Observatory on Mount Royal,
Montreal.

For calculating Tables of certain
Mathematical Functions, and,
if necessary, for taking steps to
carry out the Calculations, and
to publish the results in an
accessible form.

The relation between the Absorp-
tion Spectra and Chemical Con-
stitution of Organic Substances.

Preparing a new Series of Wave-
length Tables of the Spectra
of the Elements.

The Electrolytic Methods of Quan-
titative Analysis.

The Study of Isomorphous Sul-
phonic Derivatives of Benzene.

The Nature of Alloys.

Members of the Committee

Grants

Chairman. — Professor A.
Riicker.

Secretary.—Dr. C. H. Lees.

Lord Kelvin, Professor A. Schuster,
Captain Creak, Professor W.
Stroud, Mr. C. V. Boys, and Mr.
W. Watson.

Chairman.—Professor H. L. Cal-
lendar.

Secretary.—Professor C.H.McLeod.

Professor F, Adams, and Mr. R. F.
Stupart.

Chairman.—Lord Kelvin.

Secretary.—Lieut.-Colonel Allan
Cunningham.

Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher, Professor A.
G. Greenhill, Professor W. M.
Hicks, Major P. A. MacMahon,
and Professor A. Lodge.

Chairman and Secretary.—Pro-
fessor W. Noel Hartley,

Professor F. R. Japp, and Professor
J. J. Dobbie.

Chairman.—Sir H. E. Roscoe.
Secretary.—Dr. Marshall Watts.
Sir J. N. Lockyer, Professors J.

Dewar, G. D. Liveing, A. Schus- |

ter, W. N. Hartley, and Wol-
cott Gibbs, and Captain Abney.

Chairman.—Professor J. Emerson
Reynolds.

Secretary.—Dr. C. A. Kohn.

Professor Frankland, Professor F.
Clowes, Dr. Hugh Marshall, Mr.
A.E. Fletcher, and Professor W.
Carleton Williams.

Chairman.—Professor H. A. Miers.

Secretary.—Professor H. E. Arm-
strong.

Dr. W. P. Wynne.

Chairman. and Secretary.—- Mr.
F. H. Neville.

Mr. C. T. Heycock, and Mr, E. H.
Griffiths.

W.

eee
10 0

00

00

30 90

00

ou

20 00

d,
0

30 C0

:

XOVi

REPORT—1899.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

To investigate the Erratic Blocks
of the British Isles, and to take
measures for their preservation.

[67. in hand. ]

The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration of
Photographs of Geological In-
terest.

To examine the Conditions under
which remains of the Irish Elk
are found in the Isle of Man.

To further investigate the Fauna
and Flora of the Pleistocene
Beds in Canada.

The Excavation of the Ossiferous
Caves at Uphill, near Weston-
super-Mare.

(87. in hand. ]

The movements of Underground
Waters of Craven.

To explore Irish Caves.

[Collections to be placed in the
Science and Art Museum, Dub-
lin.]

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Professor E. Hull.

Secrctary.—Prof, P. F. Kendall.

Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. E.
De Rance, Professor W. J. Sollas,
Mr. R. H. Tiddeman, Rev. S. N.
Harrison, Mr. J. Horne, Mr.
Dugald Bell, Mr. F. M. Burton,
Mr. J. Lomas, Mr. A. R. Dwerry-
house, Mr. J. W. Stather, and
Mr. R. D. Tucker.

Chairman.—Professor J. Geilkie.

Seoretary.—ProfessorW.W. Watts.

Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. T. An-
derson, and Messrs. A. S. Reid,
EH. J. Garwood, W. Gray, H. B.
Woodward, R. Kidston, J. J.
H. Teall, J. G. Goodchild, H.
Coates, C. V. Crook, G. Bingley,
and R. Welch.

Chairman.—Professor W. Boyd
Dawkins.

Secretary.— My. P. M. C. Kermode.

His Honour Deemster Gill, Mr.
G. W. Lamplugh, and Canon
E. B. Savage.

Chairman.—Sir J. W. Dawson.

Secretary.—Professor A, P. Cole-
man.

Professor D. P. Penhallow, Dr. H.
Ami, and Mr. G. W. Lamplugh.

Chairman.—Professor C. Lloyd
Morgan.
Secretary.—Mr. H. Bolton.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Mr.

W.R. Barker, Mr.8. H. Reynolds,
and Mr. E. T. Newton.

Chairman.—ProfessorW.W. Watts.

Secretary.—Captain A. R. Dwerry-
house.

Professor A. Smithells, Rev. E.
Jones, Mr. Walter Morrison,
M.P., Mr. G. Bray, Mr. W. L.
Carter, Mr. W. Fairley, Pro-
fessor P. ¥. Kendall, and Mr.
J. EH. Marr.

Chairman.—Dr. RB. F. Scharff.

Secretary.—Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger.

Mr. G. Coffey, Professor Grenville
Cole, Dr. Cunningham, Mr. A.
McHenry, and Mr. R. J. Ussher.

10

10

10

40

00

00

00

00

00

00

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

xevil

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

To enable Mr. H. M. Kyle and
Professor Herdman, or, failing
them, some other competent
investigator, to carry on definite
pieces of work at the Zoological
Station at Naples.

To enable Mr. Martin T. Wood-
ward to study the Embryology of
the Mollusca; Mr. 8. D. Scott to
investigate the Excretory Organs
of the Tunicata; and Mr. G.
Brebner to continue his studies
on the Reproduction of Marine
Algze, and to enable other com-
petent Naturalists to perform
definite pieces of work at the
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.

Compilation of an Index Generum
et Specierum Animalium,

To work out the details of the
Observations on the Migration
of Birds at Lighthouses and
Lightships, 1880-87.

The Periodic Investigation of the
Plankton and Physical Con-
ditions of the English Channel.

To continue the investigation of
the Zoology of the Sandwich
Islands, with powerto co-operate
with the Committee appointed
for the purpose by the Royal
Society, and to avail themselves
of such assistance in their in-
vestigations as may be offered
by the Hawaiian Government

or the Trustees of the Museum |

at Honolulu. The Committee to
have power to dispose of speci-
mens where advisable.

1899.

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Professor W. A.
Herdman,

Secretary.—Professor G. B. Howes.

Professor E. Ray Lankester, Pro-
fessor W. F. R. Weldon, Pro-
fessor S. J. Hickson, Mr. A.
Sedgewick, and Professor W. C.

McIntosh.

Chairman.—Mr. G. C. Bourne.

Secretary. — Professor E, Ray
Lankester.

Professor Sydney H. Vines, Mr.
A. Sedgwick, Professor W. F. R.
Weldon, and Mr. W. Garstang.

Chairman.—Dr. H. Woodward.

Secretary.—Mr. F. A. Bather.

Dr. P. L. Sclater, Rev. T. R. R.
Stebbing, Mr. R. McLachlan,
and Mr. W. E. Hoyle.

Chairman.—Professor A. Newton.

Secretary.—Rev. E. P. Knubley.

Mr. John A. Harvie-Brown, Mr.
R. M. Barrington, Mr. A. H.
Evans, and Dr. H. O. Forbes,

Chairman.—Professor E. Ray
Lankester.

Secretary.—Mr. Walter Garstang.

Professor W. A. Herdman, and Mr.

H. N. Dickson.

Chair man.—Professor A. Newton.

Secretary.—Dr. David Sharp.

Dr. W. T. Blanford, Professor §. J.
Hickson, Dr. P. L. Sclater, Mr.
¥. Du Cane Godman, and Mr.
Edgar A, Smith.

Q
Led
b~]
=}
>
w

40

100

00

00

00

00;

xXcviil

REPORT—1899.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

To investigate the structure, for-
mation, and growth of the Coral
Reefs of the Indian Region, with
special observations on the
inter-relationship of the reef
organisms, the depths at which
they grow, the food of corals,
effects of currents and character
of the ocean bottom, &c. The
land flora and fauna will be
collected, and it is intended that
observations shall be made on
the manners, &c., of the natives
in the different parts of the
Maldive group.

The revision of the Physical and
Chemical Constants of Sea-
water.

Future dealings in Raw Produce,

State Monopolies in other
Countries.
[Balance of grant unexpended,

132. 138. 6d.]

To consider whether the British
Association form of Thread for
Small Screws should be modi-
fied, and, if so, in what direc-
tion.

[Balance of grant unexpended,
171. 1s, 2d.]

{

| To co-operate with the Silchester
Excavation Fund Committee in
their explorations,

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Mr. A. Sedgwick.

Secretary.—J. Graham Kerr.

Professor J. W. Judd, Mr. J. J.
Lister, and Mr. §. F. Harmer.

Chairman.—Sir John Murray.

Secretary.—Mr. H, N. Dickson.

Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, and Dr. H. R.
Mill.

Chairman.—Mz. L. L. Price.

Secretary.—Prof. A. W. Flux.

Major P. G. Craigie, Professor
W. Cunningham, Professor
Edgeworth, Professor Gonner,
Mr. R. H. Hooker, and Mr. H.
R. Rathbone.

Chairman.—Professor H. Sidg-
wick.

Secretary.—Mr. H. Higgs.

Mr. W. M. Acworth, the Rt. Hon.
L. H. Courtney, and Professor
H. 8. Foxwell.

Chatrman.—Sir W. H. Preece.

Secretary.—Mr. W. A. Price.

Lord Kelvin, Sir F. J. Bramwell,
Sir H. Trueman Wood, Maj.-
Gen. Webber, Mr. R. E. Cromp-
ton, Mr, A. Stroh, Mr. A. Le
Neve Foster, Mr. C. J. Hewitt,
Mr. G. K, B. Elphinstone, Mr.
T. Buckney, Col. Watkin, Mr.
E. Rigg, Mr. Conrad W. Cooke,
and Mr. Vernon Boys.

Chairman.—Mz. A, J. Evans.
Secretary.—Mr. John L. Myres.
Mr. E. W. Brabrook.

10

100 00

00

00

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

To organise an Ethnological Sur-
vey of Canada.

Preparing a new edition of ‘Notes
and Queries on Anthropology.’

To conduct Explorations with the
object of ascertaining the age of
Stone Circles.

[Balance in hand. ]

The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration of Pho-
tographs of Anthropological
Interest.

To co-operate with the Committee
appointed by the International
Congress of Hygiene and Demo-
graphy in the investigation of
the Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children.

To examine the Natural History
and Ethnography of the Malay
Peninsula.

The Physiological Effects of Pep-
tone and its Precursors when
introduced into the circulation.

{
Comparative Histology of Supra-
renal Capsules.

Secretary.—Dr. George Dawson.
Mr. EK. W. Brabrook, Professor

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Professor D. P. Pen-
hallow.

A. C. Haddon, Mr. E. 8. Hart-
land, Sir J. G. Bourinot, Abbé
Cuoq, Mr. B. Sulte, Abbé Tan-
quay, Mr. C. Hill-Tout, Mr.
David Boyle, Rev. Dr. Scad-
ding, Rev. Dr. J. Maclean,
Dr. Merée Beauchemin, Rev.
Dr. G. Patterson, Mr. C. N. Bell,
Professor E, B. Tylor, Hon.G. W.
Ross, Professor J. Mavor, Mr.
A. F. Hunter, and Dr. W. F.
Ganong.

Chairman.—Professor HE. B. Tylor.

Secretary.—Dr. J. G. Garson.

General Pitt-Rivers, Mr. C. H.
Read, and Mr, J. L. Myres.

Chairman.—Dr. J. G. Garson.

Secretary.—Mr. H. Balfour.

Gen. Pitt-Rivers, Sir John Evans,
Mr. C. H. Read, Professor Mel-
dola, Mr. A. J. Evans, Dr. R.
Munro, and Professor Boyd-
Dawkins.

Chairman.—Mr. C. H. Read.

Secretary.—Mr. J. L. Myres.

Dr. J. G. Garson, Mr. H. Ling Roth,
Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. E. 8S. Hart-
land, and Professor Flinders
Petrie.

Chairman.—Mr. HE. W. Brabrook.

Secretary.—Dr. Francis Warner.

Dr. J.G. Garson, Mr. White Wallis,
and Dr. W. H. R. Rivers.

Chairman.—Mr. C. H. Read.

Secretary.—Mr. W. Crooke.

Professor A. Macalister, and Pro-
fessor W. Ridgeway.

Chaiyman. — Professor E. A.
Schiéifer.

Secretary. — Professor W. H.
Thompson.

Professor R. Boyce and Professor
C. 8. Sherrington.
Chairman.—Professor HH. A.

Schafer.
Secretary—Mr. Swale Vincent.

Mr. Victor Horsley.

xcin
3

Grants

£
50

40

10

bo
ou

20

20

s. d.
00

00

00

00

00

00

00

REPORT—1899.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Comparative Histology of Cerebral
Cortex.

The Electrical Changes in Mam-
malian Nerve.

Vascular Supply of Secreting
Glands.

Experimental Investigation of
Assimilation in Plants.
(62. 6s. 8d. in hand. ]

Fertilisation in Pheophycez.

Cortesponding Societies Com-
mittee for the preparation of
their Report.

Members of the Committee Gratits
& 8. oe

Chairman.—Professor F. Gotch. 5 00
Secretary.—Dr. G. Mann.
Professor H. H. Starling.
Chairman.—Professor F. Gotch. 20 00
Secretary.—Mr. J. 8. Macdonald.
Professor E. H. Starling.
Chairman.—Prof. KE. H. Starling. | 10 0 0
Secretary.—Dr. J. L. Bunch.
Dr. L, E. Shore.
Chairman.—Mr. F. Darwin. —
Secretary.—Professor J. R. Green.
Professor Marshall Ward.
Chairman.—ProfessorJ.B.Farmer.| 20 0 0
Secretary.—ProfessorR.W .Phillips.
Professor F. O. Bower, and Pro-

fessor Harvey Gibson.
Chairman.—Professor R. Meldola.| 20 00

Secretary.—Mr. T. V. Holmes.

Mr. Francis Galton, Mr. G, J.
Symons, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir
John Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson,
Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. W.
Whitaker, Sir Cuthbert EH. Peek,
Mr. Horace T. Brown, Rev. J. O.
Bevan, Professor W. W. Watts,
and Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

To confer with British and Foreign
Societies publishing Mathematical
and Physical Papers as to the desir-
ability of securing Uniformity in the
size of the pages of their Transactions
and Proceedings.

Co-operating with the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society in making Meteoro-
logical Observations on Ben Nevis.

To confer with the Astronomer Royal
and the Superintendents of other
Observatories with reference to the
Comparison of Magnetic Standards
with a view of carrying out such
comparison,

Chairman.—Professor 8. P. Thompson.

Secretary.—Mr. J. Swinburne.

Prof. G. H. Bryan, Mr. C. V. Burton, Mr.
R. T. Glazebrook, Professor A, W.
Riicker, and Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney.

Chairman.—Lord McLaren.

Secretary.—Professor Crum Browh,

Sir John Murray, Dr. A. Buchan, and
Professor R, Copeland.

Chairman.—Professor A. W. Ricker.

Secretavy.—Professor W. Watson.

Professor A. Schuster, and Professor H.
H. Turner. :

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE,

ci

2, Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose.

Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Ob-

servations,

The Present State of our Knowledge
in Electrolysis and Electro-che-
-mnistry.

The Rate of Increase of Underground
Temperature downwards in various
Localities of Dry Land and under
Water.

The Application of Photography to the
' Elucidation of Meteorological Phe-
nomena,

Considering the best Methods of Re-
cording the Direct Intensity of Solar
Radiation.

That Miss Hardcastle be requested to
draw up a Report on the present
state of the Theory of Point-Groups.

The Continuation of the Bibliography
of Spectroscopy.

The Teaching of Natural Science in
Elementary Schools,

Members of the Committee,

Chairman. —Professor W. G. Adams.

Secretary.—Dr. C. Chree.

Lord Kelvin, Professor G. H. Darwin,
Professor G. Chrystal, Professor A.
Schuster, Captain E. W. Creak, the
Astronomer Royal, Mr. William Ellis,
and Professor A. W. Riicker.

Chairman.—Mr. W. N. Shaw.

Secretary.— Mr. W. C. D. Whetham.

Rev. T. C. Fitzpatrick, Mr. E. H.
Griffiths, and Mr. 8. Skinner.

Chairman.—Professor J. D. Everett.

Secretary.—Professor J. D. Everett.

Lord Kelvin, Mr. G. J. Symons, Sir Archi-
bald Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Professor
Edward Hull, Dr. C. Le Neve Foster,
Professor A. §. Herschel, Professor
G. A Lebour, Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr,
W. Galloway, Mr. Joseph Dickinson,
Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. E. Wethered,
Mr. A. Strahan, Professor Michie
Smith, and Professor H. L. Callendar.,

Chairman.—Mr. G. J. Symons.

Secretary.—Mr. A. W. Clayden.

Professor R. Meldola, Mr. John Hopkin-
son, and Mr. H. N. Dickson.

Chaivman.—Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney.

Secretary.—Professor H. McLeod.

Sir G. G. Stokes, Professor A. Schuster,
Sir H. E. Roscoe, Captain W. de W.
Abney, Dr. C. Chree, Professor G. F.
FitzGerald, Professor H. L. Callendar,
Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. W. E. Wilson,
and Professor A. A. Rambaut.

Chairyman.—Professor H. McLeod.
Secretary.—Sir W. C. Roberts-Austen.
Mr. H. G. Madan, and Mr, D. H. Nagel.

Chairman.—Dr. J. H. Gladstone.

Secretary.—Professor H. E, Armstrong.

Mr. George Gladstone, Mr. W. R, Dun-
stan, Sir J. Lubbock, Sir Philip
Magnus, Sir H. E. Roscoe, Dr. Sil-
vanus P, Thompson, and Professor A.
Smithells,

REPORT—1899,

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

The Promotion of Agriculture: to re-
port on the means by which in various
Countries Agriculture is advanced by
research, by special Educational Insti-
tutions, and by the dissemination of
information and advice among Agri-
culturists.

Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.

To establish a Uniform System of Re-
cording the Results of the Chemical
and Bacterial Examination of Water
and Sewage.

To consider the best Methods for the
Registration of all Type Specimens
of Fossils in the British Isles, and
to report on the same.

The Collection, Preservation, and Sys-
tematic Registration of Canadian
Photographs of Geological Interest.

To report upon the Present State of
our Knowledge of the Structure of
Crystals.

To study Life-zones in the British Car-
boniferous Rocks.

To promote the Systematic Collection
of Photographic and other Records
of Pedigree Stock.

Climatology of Tropical Africa.

Chairman —Sir John Evans.

Secretary.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.

Sir Michael Foster, Professor Marshall
Ward, Sir J. H. Gilbert, Right Hon. J.
Bryce, Professor J. W. Robertson,
Dr. W. Saunders, Professor Mills,
Professor J. Mavor, Professor Poulton,
and Mr. §, U. Pickering.

Chairman.—Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.—Professor H. HE. Armstrong.

Chairman.—-Professor W. Ramsay.

Secretary.—Dr. 8, Rideal.

Professor F. Clowes, Professor P. F.
Frankland, Professor R. Boyce, and
Mr. W. J. Dibdin.

Chairman.—Dr. H. Woodward.

Secretary.—Mr. A. Smith Woodward,

Rev. G. F. Whidborne, Mr. R. Kidston, Pro-
fessor H. G. Seeley, and Mr. H. Woods.

Chairman.—Professor A. P. Coleman.

Secretary.—Mr. Parks,

Professor A. B. Willmott, Professor F.
D. Adams, Mr. J. B. Tyrrell, and
Professor W. W. Watts.

Chairman.—Frofessor N. Story Maske-
lyne.

Seeretary.—Professor H. A. Miers.

Mr. L. Fletcher, Professor W. J. Sollas,
Mr. W. Barlow, Mr. G. F. H. Smith,
and the Earl of Berkeley.

Chairman.—Mz. J. E. Marr.

Secretary.—Dr. Wheelton Hind.

Mr. F. A. Bather, Mr. G. C. Crick, Mr.
A. H. Foord, Mr. H. Fox, Mr. E. J.
Garwood, Dr. G. J. Hinde, Professor
P. F. Kendall, Mr. J. W. Kirkby, Mr.
R. Kidston, Mr. G. W. Lamplugh,
Professor G. A. Lebour, Mr. G. H.
Morton, Mr. B. N. Peach, Mr. A.
Strahan, and Dr. H. Woodward.

Chairman.—My. Francis Galton.
Seeretary.—Professor W. F. R. Weldon.

Chairman.—Mr. EK. G. Ravenstein.

Secretary.—Mr. H. N. Dickson.

Sir John Kirk, Dr. H, R. Mill, and
Mr. G. J. Symons.

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE,

cili

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.
ee ae

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

The Present State of Anthropological

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—FProfessor E. B. Tylor.

Teaching in the United Kingdom and | Secretary.—Mr. H. Ling Roth.

Elsewhere.

The Lake Village at Glastonbury.

To enquire into the Effectiveness of the
System of Identification by Finger-
prints now in use throughout India,
and on the Probable Limits of its
Applicability.

Professor A. Macalister, Professor A. C.
Haddon, Mr. C. H. Read, Mr. H. Bal-
four, Mr. F. W. Rudler, Dr. R. Munro,
and Professor Flinders Petrie.

Chairvman.—Dr. R. Munro.

Secretary.—Mr. A. Bulleid.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, General Pitt-
Rivers, Sir John Evans, Mr. Arthur J.
Evans, and Mr. C. H. Read.

Chairman.—Mr. Francis Galton.

Seeretary.— Mr. L. Gomme.

Colonel R. C. Temple, Mr. C. H. Read,
Mr. W. Crooke, Professor Karl Pear-
son, and Professor W. F. R. Weldon.

Chairman.—Professor E. A. Schiifer.

Secretary.—Professor A. B, Macallum.

Professor E. Ray Lankester, Professor
W. D. Halliburton, and Mr. G. C.
Bourne.

The Micro-chemistry of Cells.

Communications ordered to be printed in extenso,

‘The new Alexander III. Bridge in Paris,’ by M. Amédée Alby.
‘The Dover Harbour Works,’ by J. C. Coode and W. Matthews.

Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action

af desirable.

That in view of the opportunities of ethnographical inquiry which will be
presented by the Indian Census, the Council of the Association be requested to urge
the Government of India to make use of the Census Officers for the purposes enume-
tated below, and to place photographers at the service of the Census Officers.

That the Council be requested to represent to Her Majesty’s Government the
Bee ance of giving more prominence to Botany in the training of Indian Forest

cers.

That the attention of the Council be called to the wording of the rule regarding
specimens collected by Committees appointed by the Association, with a view to its
revision.

That the complete investigation of the Ichthyology of the West African rivers
promises extremely important scientific results, and that the Council of the Associa-
tion be requested to take such means as may seem to it advisable to bring the matter
to the notice of the Trustees of the British Museum.

Change of Howrs of Meetings, &c.

That the Organising Committees meet at 2 P.M. instead of at 11 A.M.; and shall,
until the Sectional Officers are definitely appointed by the General Committee, exer-
cise the functions of Sectional Committees, with power to appoint members of the
Sectional Committees.

: That the first meeting of the General Committee be held at 4 p.m. instead of at
P.M.

That the proceedings of the opening meeting begin at 8,30 P.M, instead of at

8 P.M. as heretofore, Be

civ REPORT—1899.

Synopsis of Gr cite of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by the
General Committee at the Dover Meeting, September, 1899.
Names of the Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer

for the respective Grants are prefixed.
Mathematics.

*Rayleigh, Lord—Electrical Standards (and £300 in hand)...
*Judd, Professor J. W.—Seismological Observations...
"FitzGerald, Professor G. F. ST Redation 2 in a Magnetic Field
* Rucker, Brotsssor A. W.—Magnetic Force on ee Ship ...
*Callendar, Professor H. L.— Meteorological Observatory,
AVMOYNET Ga fea. eer oe cect < ieasniee costes vols hice eainc.c cet REE REE
*Kelvin, Lord—Tables of Mathematical Functions ............

Chemistry.

*Hartley, Professor W. N.—Relation between pe a
. Spectra and Constitution of Organic Bodies
*Roscoe, Sir H. E.—Wave-length Tables .......

*Reynolds, Professor J. E. — Electrolytic Quantitative Analysis

Miers, Professor H. A.—Isomorphous age Derivatives

of Benzene ..... as stee pobh oeccherane

Neville, Mr. F. H. —The Nature of Alloys Hiv ovsaesenbesranene
freology.

*Hull, Professor E.—Erratic Blocks (#6 in hand)...............

*Geikie, Professor J.—Photographs of Geological Interest .

“Dawkins, Professor W. B.—Remains of Elk in the Isle of
Man ....

* Dawson, Sir 7 W. "Pleistocene Fauna and Flora i in i Canada

*Lloyd-Morgan, Professor C. —Ossiferous Caves at Uphill

(OME HATE) Tee. conc ase pavers phuseresnslea'neirsnate Rca yee ae meneame
Watts, Professor W. W.—Movements of Underground
IW atersmol Ora VEIL 5 is orn bu nen -dnitp sabwaen pinpigueshashw emmeE eee
Scharff, Dr.—-Exploration of Irish Caves .........ccccecene eens
Zoology.

*Herdman, Professor W. A.—Table at the Zoological Station,
BU EILGS Ds oon daisats’naWeinslonlnp sn ponidvelosohons ca kidpes aerate sea ee meeeen
*Bourne, Mr. G. C.—Table at the Biological Laboratory,
EL ATLOMUEED pci eniot pats sesisiamtre nee sae ewlales a Ct Wats a serail
*Woodward, Dr. H.—Index Generum et Specierum Ani-
ANALIVITA orc eee tastsincaes cies tacetewsiot vise olen sie vali ciet lois eave cee smeatets
*Newton, Professor A.—Migration of Birds .................005

*Lankester, Professor E. Ray—Plankton and Physical Condi-
tions of the English Channel.. Sere reed
*Newton, Professor—Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.........
Sedgwick, Mr. A.—Coral Reefs of the Indian Regions ..... é

OREPICG HOT AINL Cus caniiaaic sina osistuacateeneaahiee cngasiwuy's
* Reappointed,

The

oo Soreros

oo ooo

o;ooeo oo j=) oO

Co ocooos

oo oO (Se) 1s) oo ooo

o!looce oo i=) is!

SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY,

Brought forward .recissscisnssesevavceve ds erdonecvesescnees

Geography.
Murray, Sir John—Physical and Chemical Constants of Sea
RNMRAE Nhs a0 /ae acizianldeesa A cies « ogoua civaiy's Ueea ska Saas ajah vlawa\genieais «ne
Economic Science and Statistics.

*Price, Mr. L. L.—Future Dealings in Raw Produce :

*Sedgwick, Professor H.—State Monopolies in other Countries

(218 138. Gd. ie hard)! v.20... siesceeedies sce deeensenerstan ees
Mechanical Science.

*Preece, Sir W. H.—Small Screw Gauge (£17 1s, 2d. in hand)

Anthropology.
*Eyvans, Mr. A. J.—Silchester Excavation ...........cccsseeeenes
*Penhallow, Professor D. P.—Ethnological Survey of Canada
*Tylor, Professor E. B——New Edition of ‘ Anthropological
MOLES AMOR OUCTICSS dx .c5 schvad ae cites Fo wrest dacs ogemaaennas daantines
*Garson, Dr. J. G.—Age of Stone Circles (balance in hand)...
*Read, Mr. C. H.—Photographs of Anthropological Interest
*Brabrook, Mr. E. W.—Mental and Physical Condition of
PRICE a, oe choko «sinus andicssmasugnidoute sevice utsendpeoranen Ges oi
Read, Mr. C. H.—Ethnography of the Malay Peninsula......
Physiology.

*Schafer, Professor E. A.—Physiological Effects of Peptone...
*Schifer, Professor E. A.—Comparative Histology of Supra-

ANOS UES SE RS ip i co a REM er er Merrie ert 4
*Gotch, Professor F.—Comparative Histology of Cerebral
aR 2 state eh cheie dca apoah Shy hilo eto ne bins ana se telcaen) <aeieem eee
Gotch, Professor F.—Electrical Changes in Mammalian
BRR ede er creraaintinie de Voti betas Arak Dei owe adhe ate Aetna TERE eee ewe
Starling, Dr.—Vascular Supply of Secreting Glands .........
Botany.
*Darwin, Mr. F.—Assimilation in Plants (£6 6s. 8d. in hand)
*Farmer, Professor J. B,—Fertilisation in Pheophycee ......
Corresponding Sosieties.
*Meldola, Professor R.—Preparation of Report .......sssseeseeee

* Reappointed.

£ 8s
fone O
100 0
5PO
10 0
50 O
40 0O
10 0
5 0
95° 0
205,,0
2050
He O)
20 O
10 0
20° 0
20 0

£1,115 0

co (=) (=) oO oo (=) j=) mS}

oOo: oO

evi REPORT—1899.

The Annual Meeting in 1900.
The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1900 will be held at Brad-
ford, commencing on September 5,
. The Annual Meeting in 1901.

The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1901 will be held at
Glasgow.

GENERAL STATEMENT, evil

General Statement of Sums which have Bean paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes

1834.

£ os. a.
Tide Discussions ..,...sesssees 20 0 0

1835.
Tide Discussions ....cespeeeeees 62 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology .. . 105 0 0
£167 O O

1836.
Tide Discussions .........s00+5+ 163 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0

Thermometric Observations,

LCs A ORSRPROCE EERE CCE CE ECTORIE 50 0 0
Experiments on Long-con-

tinued! Heat ........-00s-<9008 Lin by O,
Rain-Gauges ....cccccscccseseeees 913 0
Refraction Experiments ...... 45.70. 0
Emnar Nutationin. ccccccccsessese 60 0 0
Thermometers ....... Reiadcodes 1b. :6) 0

£435 0 O

1837.

Tide Discussions ........sces00s 284 1 0
Chemical Constants ............ 2413 6
Lunar Nutation.............000« 70 0 0
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 O
Tides at Bristol secicecessas..eces 150 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature..........++ 93 3 0
Vitrification Experiments ... 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ............ 8 4 6
Barometric Observations ...... 30 0 0
IBALOMCUCTS «haces cae vcisete ve v8 eng ehh) 18-6

£922 12 6
1838.
Tide Discussions .........ssee0s 29 9 0
British Fossil Fishes............ 100 ov O
Meteorological Observations

and Anemometer (construc-

HAOIL eR eces scat e cota. sa ces cts 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Sub-

stances (Preservation of)... 19 1 10
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10
Bristol Tides ............0006 Seiad D 10
Growth of Plants ............0 75, 0.50
WIE ITIBEEVETS” to .c...ccccccassest 3,6, 16
Education Committee ......... 50 0 O
Heart Experiments ....... swe 5 3 0
Land and Sea Level.......... i267 8. 7
Steam-vessels..,..... pucaviddy ssbue 100 0 O
Meteorological Committee ... 31 9 5

2 2

1839.

£ 8 d.
Fossil Ichthyology ..........0+ HOF (0,0

Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth, &C. ....scsceeee 63 10 0
Mechanism of Waves ......... 144 2 0
Bristol! ANGeS cf ssccsncs ceveeasus 35 18 6

Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature.,.........- 424i 11. 6
Vitvification Experiments ... 9 4 0
Cast-iron Experiments......... 108 0 7
Railway Constants ........0... 28 7 G
Land and Sea Level...,........ 274 1 2
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 4
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 171 18 0
Stars in Lacaille ......,sccse«s i On iG
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue ... 16616 0
Animal Secretions............. 1010 6
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 O
Atmospheric PATA aeleny dunsaptce 16 oh -@
Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 O
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3. .0, 0
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0 0

Hourly Meteorological Ob-

servations, Inverness and
IGINSSBICN Voces -sdandacaseen<= 49 7 8
Hossil Reptiles ~..:2s0sseccesvases Hs 2 9
Mining Statistics .........cs00s- 50 0 0
£1595 11 0

1840.

Bristol Tides ciasecsacascennsnvess 100 0 0
Subterranean Temperature... 1313 6
Heart Experiments .........+0. 18 19 0
Lungs Experiments ............ 813 0
Tide Discussions ............006 50 0 0
Land and Sea Level....... eae ce OL dae EL
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10 0
Stars! (bacailie)eiccrtdsoxesses 415 0
Stars (Catalogue) .......ecsese0s 264 0 0
Atmospheric Air ..........0005 1515 0
Wiaher lon ITOm Stacccc:ccscenes 10 0 O
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... Tle 0
Meteorological Observations. 5217 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population ............ 100 0 O
School Statistics ..............- 50 0 O
Forms of Vessels ..........00... 184 7 0

Chemical and ‘Electrical Phe-
OMEN, .tessgeesttcssecectes cece 40 0 0

Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth .3.......ses.ss00e 80 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 9
£1546 16 4

eviii
1841.
£ 8. Ga.
Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature.........+ 8 8 Q
ACHINOMETETS .....0..0cecceeeresce 10 0 O
Harthquake Shocks ............ 17 7 0
ACTIAME OISONS seve vesessecsSeceses 6 0 0
Veins and Absorbents ......... 3 0 0
Mraciiin FRIVeETS 4 iieiecsvwssscacesse 5 00
Marine Zoology .......sssesseseee 1512 8
Skeleton Maps ........s.seseeees 20 0 0
Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 18 0 0
Stars (Lacaille).............06 Sep ali ee lana)
Stars (Nomenclature of) ...... 1719 6
Stars (Catalogue of) ..........05 40 0 0
WeaterOm TON isvsemccssssescs 50 0 0
Meteorological Observations

UUMITLVETNESS “'.2.ccenseesscssnce 20 0 0
Meteorological Observations

(reduction of) .....2.....000 25 0 0
Fossil Reptiles .........cccssseee 50 0 0
Foreign Memoirs ........ sss... 62 0 6
Railway Sections ..........055 Shewareh yale)
Forms of Vessels .......ssse000s 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations

AbmblyMOUtA: "ses ecesceceece coop 10) 10
Magnetical Observations...... 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-

AEOMEC a ieeeacetraresaamrantased asa 100 0 0
Tides at Leith ..........cscecer 50 0 O
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations ...... DGS
Races Of Men........cscssesscers so Db) OF AG
Radiate Animals .......scsse» 20 0

£1235 10 11

1842.

Dynamometric Instruments.. 113 11 2
Anoplura Britanniz ............ 5212 0
Tides at Bristol ...............08. 59 8 O
Gases on Light ..............0000 30 14 7
Chronometers.......+2......00+ one 26,17 6
Marine Zoology..........ssseeee PRAT ON)
British Fossil Mammailia...... 100 0 0
Statistics of Education......... 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-

CANES ME seer sass peas cern snes a 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59) O40
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0
Railway Sections ............005 i61 10 0
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 O
Fossil Reptiles (publication

OL REPOT:) sscessesceossony>osae 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels ......seesseees 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on

PROCESS ete nantbesencceasen<ceeaten 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments

at Plymouth .........scecceres 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dyna-

mometric Instruments...,.. 90 0 0

REPORT—1899.

d.

= eae
Force of Wind ...,..sse000. 10 0 0
Light on Growth of Seeds ... 8 O O
Vital Statistics ............... “ve 00, 7O)R0)
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 111
Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O
£1449 17 8
1843,
Revision of the Nomenclature
OLIStaTS: sosaccasseeeeseeaeeeenss 2 10n-0
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue ...... 25 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Firth of
Horthy .cscsscsasseecadives eeetee 120 0 @
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
IMVENTleSS! “sweosseasemecewten cd 7712 8
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth. -sc.cceessuws- see 55 0 (0
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth ...... 10 070
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply-
INGUUI css avsacventaabereoneseers 20 0 0
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations ........c.ssseeees 30 0 6
Meteorological Instruments
and Gratuities ...... hsesteste 39 6 O
Construction of Anemometer
at Inverness .......4 iescvepes 5612 2
Magnetic Co-operation......... 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory ......ss0++ 50 0 0
Action of Gases on Light...... 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries... 133 4 7
Experiments by Captive Bal-
ROONS) Giaccnceesseacepasesmecaees i) SO)
Oxidation of the Rails of
Rail WayS.esscscsvenecscetsdes ses 20 0 0
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles ..........00.. 40 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections .........sescssees 147 18 3
Registration of Earthquake
SHOCKS®. scacuppesuvasaerseteteace 30 0 0
Report on Zoological Nomen-
CIAUHTCre..ssaneseasenaeecened 10° OO
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester...... 4 4 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10 0 0
Marine Zoology .....seeceesesees LO) AED.
Marine Zoology .....s..ss00e-2. 2 14 12
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 0 0
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents ........... . 20 0-0
Vital Statistics .....ceoee 36 5 8

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£ ss d
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 70 0 0
Additional Experiments oh
the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0
Reduction of Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0
Morin’s Instrument and Con-
stant Indicator .......csceses 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength
ME MAtCTIGIS:. ccvsccecedvcvscses 60 0 0
£1565 10 2

1844,
Meteorological Observations
at Kingussie and Inverness 12
Completing Observations at

FMV IMOMEAT crscsarcesensnsess 35
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-operation .......cccsceeeee 25
Publication of the British
Association Catalogue of
SV DANGE eseeeceatcs stots rest ates 35
Observations on Tides on ‘the
Hast Coast of Scotland 100
Revision of the Nomenclature
GE SLATS) wereewovececeseets 1842 2
Maintaining the Hstablish-
ment at Kew Observa-
EIB econ: Goshen aocBececoet ce eonee 117
Instruments for ‘Kew Obser-
WALOTY, oars ccnesccccsessccvccepee 56
Influence of Light on Plants 10
Subterraneous Temperature
Tin URGING OSE Rae aa rpeee eens 5
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections ...........0:00006 15
Investigation of Fossil Fishes
ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata 100
Registering the Shocks of
Earthquakes ............ 1842 23
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20
Radiata and Mollusca of the
Aigean and Red Seas 1842 100
Geographical Distributions of
Marine Zoology......... 1842 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and
Worn Wall eds emcsercsconegeneors a)
Marine Zoology of Corfu...... 10
Experiments on the Vitality
Gis SRCOKiiacec:ccnencsssccessaeee 9
Experiments on the Vitality
GEMb Osc cecstes wenqsiacns 1842 8
Exotic Anoplura ..........ce00e 15
Strength of Materials ......... 100
Completing Experiments on
the Forms of Ships ......... 100
Inquiries into Asphyxia ...... 10
Investigations on the Internal
Constitution of Metals...... 50
Constant Indicator and Mo-
rin’s Instrument ......1842 10

£981

Bloe o-soo icom "6 > soo

a

ow ww

gia ooo. Crow oN ecm ONO oo =o a oO

C1x
1845,
6) 8. ds
Publication of the British As-

sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6
Meteorological Observations

BUMMNVEIMESS ee cdossccesnscudes 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological

Co-operation .......seeesseeeee 1616 8
Meteorological Instruments

ab Hdinburghi...s:.sescrrrseees Lees
Reduction of Anemometrical

Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0
Electrical Experiments at

Kew Observatory .........00 43 17 8
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 149 15 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0
Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50 0 O
The Actinograph ...........s006 15 0 0
Microscopic Structure of

Shell Syseececeuvscesescetasoseets 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1843 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... LSS OP ZO 7
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall. 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-

CINCS es Sicecrasscaveamtesse renee 20 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and

| Mortality in York............ 20 0 0
| Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 1514 8
£831 9 9
1846.
British Association Catalogue
OL ShAlSh ness sacanecedese 1844 21115 0
Fossil Fishes of the London
Clayeaecccnenccdecataenatecoeeesacs 100 0 0
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 ......... 50 0 0
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 146 16 7
Strength of Materials ......... 60 0 0
Researches in Asphyxia ...... 616 2
Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 2 15 10
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1845 712 3
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844 25 0 0
Expenses attending Anemo-
TMCLGES seacseseicamatsenerastcsrs Ls ide 6
Anemometers’ Repairs......... 2 3 6
Atmospheric Waves ............ 3.3 3
Captive Balloons ......... 1844 819 8
Varieties of the Human Race
1844 7 6 3

Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York............ 12 0 0
£685 16 0

Cx
1847,
£ 8. da.
Computation of the Gaussian

Constants for 1829.........+«+ 50 0 0
Habits of Marine Animals... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-

CHES) Gessachecncanmpiecs naan »ar% 20 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Atmospheric Waves .....+..++++ 6 9 8
Vitality of Seeds ...........005+ 400 Te
Maintaining the Hstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6

£208 5 4
1848.
Maintaining the Hstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 11
Atmospheric Waves ......-.+.++ 310 9
Vitality of Seeds ............+6- 915 0
Completion of Catalogue of

DUES else da dakoni’a<saeme'>serinnes 40, 0 0
On Colouring Matters ......... b 0. 0
On Growth of Plants ......... 1b 0; 0

£275 1 8
1849.
Electrical Observations at

Kew Observatory ........... 50 0 0
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at GittO..........0...+6. 76 2 5
Vitality of Seeds ............... yxy AL
On Growth of Plants ......... 5 0 0
Registration of Periodical

PHeENOMENA......;..005reedeeeee 10 0 0
Bill on Account of Anemo-

metrical Observations ...... 13°" 9h--O

£1 £159 19 6
1850,
Maintaining the Hstablish-

mhent at Kew Observatory 255 18 0
Transit of Harthquake Waves 50 0 O
Periodical Phenomena......... 15 0 0
Meteorological Instruments,

PAUAONE re aeidelsispieh el hiciaa'e Hels ele es 25 0 0

£345 18 0
1851.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

(ineludes part of grant in

TOG) Se eee 309 2 2
Theory of Heat .................- 0 As gl
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-

mals and Plants............... De) ID
Witaliny iol Reeds. ec... ..c.6s 5 6 4
Infinence of Solar Radiation 30 0 O
Ethuological Inquiries......... 12 0 0
Researches on Annelida .,.... 10 0 0

3919 7

REPORT—1899.

1852.
s. a
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

(including balance of grant

for L850) s5,-seareatsptews sce - =» 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduc-

tion Of Heat ........sseeseeree 5 2 9
Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland... 15 0 0
Researches on the British An-

NENG) so cces--scccvevcenscsosnerss 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ....ccscseeeees 10 6 2
Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10 0 0

£304 6 7
1853.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 0
Experiments on the Influence

of Solar Radiation ......... 15 0 0
Researches on the British

Ammnelidantc-payapagseasietiar's 10. 0: 10
Dredging on the Hast Coast

Of Scotland, ...-.cspspascs-sese0 10 0 0
Ethnological Queries ........+ 5 0 0

£205 0 0
1854,
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

(including balance of

former STaNt),......ccaseoceere . 33015 4
Investigations on Flax......... 11 0 0
Effects of Temperature on

Wrought Iron.......0000+se000 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical

PHENOMENA. .....0seerssereree 10 0 0
British Annelida .......s.s008 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ..........00008 5 2 3
Conduction of Heat ............ 420

£380 19 7
1855,
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ...... 10" "OSD
Physical Aspect ofthe Moon 11 8 5
Vitality of Seeds ...,........+2. TO ig:
Map of the World............... 15 0 0
Ethnological Queries ..,,..... 5 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 4 0 0

£480 16 4
1856.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-

tory :— }
1854, ciae £75 0 0 ee
CM ee

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£ 3. a

Strickland’s Ornithological
SYNONYMS ......cssesereersenee 100 0 0

Dredging and Dredging
PUMITUMaRet at scica'ssicebeveeclecacos 9 13° ‘0
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10 0 0

Registration of Periodical
Phenomena....seccscsssesseeees LO} 0.0
Propagation of Salmon......... 10 0 O
£734 13 9

1857.

Maintaining the LEstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory 350 0 0
Karthquake Wave Experi-

MACTIES, << Secvsecaciscevdesrssaccers 40 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 10 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast

Of Scotland .....0.......0000006 10 0 0
Investigations into the Mol-

lusca of California ......... 10 0 0
Experiments on Flax ......... 5 0 0
Watural History of Mada-

ACAT ya senea ersestassodcacnesse 20 0 0

esearches on British Anne-

LOGIE, SRBgs dade de udnceconebacdsorec 25 0 0
Report on Natural Products

imported into Liverpool... 10 0 0
Artificial Propagation of Sal-

SONI) cob eee Ce DeDrcnee Corieee 10 0 O
Temperature of Mines......... 7 8 0
Thermometers for Subterra-

nean Observations...........+ bay 4
Life-boats ..... qnenSConp bance 570) 0

£507 15 4
1858,
Maintaining the Hstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave LExperi-

BROMUS cnctecacdesssslboccdesces ay 2banO) 0
Dredging on the West Coast

GF Scotland ......1:.ceccsevcsees 10 0 O
Dredging near Dublin......... 5 0 O
Vitality of Seed ............008 5 5 O
Dredging near Belfast......... 1813 2
Report on the British Anne-

MUG gen vese sunt seseranedencvescds 25 0 0

' Experiments on the produc-

tion of Heat by Motion in

RULUMOS 9550s Badin, Gacveverss lls 20 0 0}
Report on the Natural Pro-

ducts imported into Scot-

MAME veesssssiseses BOddonELRpBOOAE 10 0 O

£618 18 2

1859.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Dublin.,........ 15 0 O

CX1

£ 8. d.
Osteology of Birds .........066 50 0 0
Trish PN CALA yd acdtcecaness cee 5 0.0
Manure Experiments ......... 20 0 0
British Medusidee ............+0+ 5 0.0
Dredging Committee ......... 5 0 0
Steam-vessels’Performance... 5 O O

Marine Fauna of South and
West of Ireland..........0.00. 10 0 O
Photographic Chemistry ...... 10 0 0
Lanarkshire Fossils ..........++ 20 0 1
Balloon Ascents.......ccecccesees 39 11 O
£684 11 1

1860.

Maintaining the Hstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... lis G 0
Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 16 0 0
Inquiry into the Performance

of Steam-vessels .......0..06 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow

Sandstone of Dura Den ... 20 0 0
Chemico-mechanical Analysis

of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0 0
Researches on the Growth of

PIRI! . iisemoeseicwasehdseveerces 10 0 0
Researches on the Solubility

OF (Salts inc ccevemecacesteaedlece 30 0 0
Researches on theConstituents

Ob Manned! ce .ccerescecensntae 25 0° 0
Balance of Captive Balloon

ACCOUNES re wsnses dates Reakveieer 113 6

£766 19 6
1861.
Maintaining the Hstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 500 0 0
EKarthquake Experiments...... 25 0 0
Dredging North and East

Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0 O
Dredging Committee :—

1860...... £50 0 0
LSU CERAM MIGSA tas ©
Excavations at Dura Den....., 20 0.0
.Solubility of Salts ............ 20 0 0
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 0
Fossils of Lesmahagow ...... 15 0 O
Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 0
Chemical Alloys .......sseeess 20.0 0
Classified Index to the Trans-

BCIIONS a asesvsaessecesrrssnaseee 100 0 O
Dredging in the Mersey and

Deer aeecrsessanueatwereonieabis 5 0 0
Dip Circle rie, awecesesceee see seans 30 0 0
Photoheliographic Observa-

(OMS er so pos cdacanbenstattnn. «a3 50 0 O
PIBSONMDICL. <seoscupoeshicecsseess- 20 0 0
Gauging of Water............00« 10 0 0
AlpiIneVASGANES .5ssc.ce.sscce0ns Gutd 10
Constituents of Manures.,.... 25 0 0

£1111 5 10

exil
1862,
8. da.
Maintaining the Hstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Patent Wuaws! sieccscsccccoevccscne 21 6 0
Molluscaof N.-W. of America 10 0 0O
Natural History by Mercantile

Wistritie areeseeswecrecessesecacrss 50 *0
Tidal Observations ..........+ 25 0 0
Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40 0 0
Photographic Pictures of the

mSG.00) Geponen doo so oda LOnonooe ead 150 0 O
Rocks of Donegal............++ 25 0 0
Dredging Durham and North-

umberland Coasts ........+.+. 25 0 0
Connection of Storms ......... 20°40)"
Dredging North-east Coast

Gis SCUMBAG cccacisevercsnesis 6 9 6
Ravages of Teredo .........+0+ 3.4 710
Standards of Electrical Re-

BISLAGe UU enesesespa ta iescsocesve 50 0 0
Railway Accidents ...........+ 10) 20 10
Balloon Committee ...........- 200 0 0
Dredging Dublin Bay ........ LOO OD
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 0 0
PRISOM DICh tercsateedeacteeunes « 20 0 0
Gauging of Water.............. 1210 0
Steamships’ Performance...... 150 0 0
Thermo-electric Currents 5 0 0

£1293 16 6
1863.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory... 600 0 0
Balloon Committee deficiency 70 0 0
Balloon Ascents (other ex-

HSCS) impencasckcecschereecese ce 25 0 0
HPI IZO Ameaccossistemanacssheecees: 25 0 0
WaalGHOssilSamess-cccwesccocevescce 20 0 0
FEV CTATHETS calasstevess conse patenses 20,0 0
Granites of Donegal............ 5 0 0
PAIS DO GICtE Waxwsascoeatnosesercs 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

TENVEIENS) Gopened gency pce loa ooc Pee 1S Oro
Dredging Shetland ............ 50 0 0
Dredging North-east Coast of

DEOUATIC ceeconstttwevwece centers 25 0 O
Dredging Northumberland

BUCO UNAM. pos. cvessewescaws gene)
Dredging Committee superin-

(EDACHCE ness aadecraccecsvessss 10°30; 0
Steamship Performance ...... 100 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure......... 10 0 0
Volcanic Temperature ......... 100 0 0
Bromide of Ammonium ...... 5.100
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 O
Electrical Construction and

LOWES) Sel) opyhn hosel po haan end 40 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ imOs 10
Kew Additional Buildings for

Photoheliograph ...... cic 100 0 0

REPORT—1899.

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 100 0 O
ELV ATOM ascessseseestneroncceseeeeen 13 0 0
Ral -SAUSeS— ass rabdsssteravacebes 30 0 0
Tidal Observations in the

Rumer) scpeseancbewaces's arenes G48 0
Hexylic Compounds ............ 20 0 0
Amyl Compounds ,........+-..++ 20 0 0
Irish“ Hloraissacss<ties see dstee sates 25 0 0

| American Mollusca ........s00» 3.9 0
Organic Acids ja yipecscs sawcus 20 0 0

| Lingula Flags Excavation... 10 0 0
ULY PEELS | 2... cenicnntbas = dane 50 0 O
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0
Malta Caves Researches ...... 50 0 O
Oyster Breeding .......s.ssc000 25 0 0
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150 0 0
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100 0 O
Moon’s Surface Observations 35 0 0
Marine Waunayy casvessssursacoces 25 0 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire...... 25 0 0
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50 0 O
Zoological Nomenclature...... 5b 100
Resistance of Floating Bodies

in Waller sersestamisubemes<.sce 100 0 O
Bath Waters Analysis ......... 8 10 10
Luminous Meteors .........0++ 40 0 O

£1591 710

& 8. jae
Thermo-electricity .....s..066 ‘Lb O oh)
Analysis of Rocks ............ 8 0 0
Hy droidayvecscssersseten ice cesses 10 0 0
£1608 3 10
1864.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Coal Fossils ..... APOC ERO SIEE 20 0 0

| Vertical Atmospheric Move-

MEDES. scncaveseoaseenan census eae 20 0 0
Dredging, Shetland ............ 75 0 0
Dredging, Northumberland... 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ...... 10 0 0
Standards of Electric Re-

SistaNnce lssncnessuety sates oeera 100 0 0
Analysis of Rocks _.......0.02. 10 0 0
iydroida. 5 parts sssseeevseace-seeue 10 ja:0} 0
Askhames' Gitltre soraseeas tecdecse 50 0 O
Nitrite of Amyle ...,........... LO. 0. <0
Nomenclature Committee ... 5 0 9
Rain-Sauges ....2-ccc-cssescspers 1915 8
Cast-iron Investigation ...... 20 0 0
Tidal Observations in the

FUIEM b Cr as eaqtnedese seaseres ters 50 0 0
Spectral Rays...cassecossssecesses 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors .........+4- 20 0 0

£1289 15 8
1865.

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1866.

WRIANGS © sissscaccssssoecesessess 50
Typical Crania Researches ... 30
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100

£1750 1

£.8. a.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Lunar Committee............... 6413 4
Balloon Committee ............ 50 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 50 0 O
British Rainfall...............006 50 0 0
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... LG OnsG
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 15 0 0
Luminous Meteors ..........+5 50 0 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20 0 0
Chemical Constitution of

Cast Tron .....csssseceesseeees 50 0 O
Amyl Compounds ..........0.04+ 25 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 O
Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30 0 O
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200 0 0
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon

and Cornwall ..........eceseee. 25 0 0

. Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25 0 0
Dredging Hebrides Coast ... 50 0 0
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 0 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies

In Water ....ccscceeccesceseeeees 50 0 0
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-

CBS cavreccsvcnvcsosersecerscccces 29 0 0
Rigor Mortis .....sccsceecseeeeees 10 0 0
Trish Annelida \.........ceccesees 15 0 0
Catalogue of Crania............ 50 0 0
Didine Birds of Mascarene ri

0 0
0 0
3 4

1867.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Meteorological Instruments,

IBAIESLING vuccuscecseusapecsencene 50 0 0
Lunar Committee ............08. 120 0 0
Metrical Committee .......... ». 30 0 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 100 0 0
Palestine Explorations......... 50 0 O
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30 0 0
British Haintall. ic... ccceccases 770) O10
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25 0 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 25 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 50 0 O
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-beds 30 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 75 0 0
Steamship Reports Condensa-

HMO etetncedscsccedssciucddosscess 100 0 0
Hlectrical Standards.......... + 100 0 0
Ethyl and Methyl Series...... 25 0 0
Fossil Crustacea ..........00008 25 0 O
Sound under Water ............ 24 4 0
North Greenland Fauna ...... 7 0 0

Do. Plant Beds 100 0 0
Iron and Steel Manufacture... 25 0 0
Patent LAWS -i.ccscorsssvesraeeee 30 0 O

£1739 4 0
——$___

1899,

1868,
r

| Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. €00

Lunar Committee ............... 120
Metrical Committee............ 50
Zoological Record.......+..0.00. 100
| Kent’s Hole Explorations ,.. 150
| Steamship Performances.. ... 100
British) Rainfall... ..:.0secsscce 50
Luminous Meteors...........0065 50
OreaniGPAGids) <apmeveds «c2seoore 60
Fossil Crustacea........ssccseeees 25
Methyl Series.........sssssesssees 25
Mercury and Bile ............... 25

| Organic Remains in Lime-
SUONE OGHS) yo ausecainaesen cnt 2h
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. 30
British Fossil Corals ......... £0
Bagshot Leaf-beds .......-... . 50
Greenland Explorations ...... 100
WOSSIL WlOTah ee esac tne Shane 25
Tidal Observations ............ 100

Underground Temperature.., 50
Spectroscopic Investigations

exill

&

coocococo

~
Q

cio coo cocoococoo oooo

da.

o'!o oo oooceceocoo ocoseocecoceqcocso

of Animal Substances ...... 5
Secondary Reptiles, &c. ...... 30
British Marine Invertebrate

FAUNA wecscccees cdedandcut eScor 100

£1940
1869.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory... 600

Lunar Committee.......csecsccsees 50
Metrical Committee............06+ 25
Zoological Record .........see0+ 100
Committee on Gases in Deep-

well Water ........scecscseses no A
British Rainfall..............0006 50
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,

RE Groncomneneo ae eeeOo Ca: tenanaceos eat!)
Kent’s Hole Explorations...... 150
Steamship Performances ...... 30
Chemical Constitution of

Castirontiwecnscesstseaeencdesce 80
Tron and Steel Manufacture 100
Methyl Series........:.......00008 30
Organic Remains in Lime-

SHONEHHOCKS see cemaseeescnesnsess 10
Earthquakes in Scotland..... a LO
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds ........... 30
Ossie WOTat macsde Nacsa ts stecde. 25
Tidal Observations ..........6. 100

Underground Temperature... 30
Spectroscopic Investigations

of Animal Substances ...... 5
Organic AcidS ......sssseseeeeee 12
Kiltorcan Fossils ....,..:0008+ 20

See NOS. OOo! Loo 2S Sie, OO. O65.

eco oococoooco ooo ooo 990 COS 9o

Cxiv
£ 3. d.
Chemical Constitution and

Physiological Action Rela-

HUDTISID Rp cecetesenddsvscsmnc costs 15 0 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilisation of Sewage ........- 10 0 0
Products of Digestion ........- 10 0 O

£1622 0 0
1870.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 600

0 0
Metrical Committee............ 25 0 0
Zoological Record...........+4 5/100 0. 0
Committee on Marine Fauna 20 0 O
MATE AN WISNES, ccscoscs-cepeseese 10 070

Chemical Nature of Cast
EOE Fon, cucscccresecssyssueeaces 80 0 0
Luminous Meteors ..,.......65 30 0 0
Heat in the Blood.............+6 15 0 0
Bripish Rainiall..........esesss0s 100 0 0

Thermal Conductivity of
NUTT ANCC Concesistesswctoseces sicker onwte 20 0 O
British Fossil Corals............ 50 0 O
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150 0 0
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 4 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-beds ............ 145 0 0
MIOSSUGHIGEA oncsccnsscusveccseocar 25 0 0
Tidal Observations ............ 100 0 O
Underground Temperature... 50 0 0
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20 0 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 50 0 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 30 0 0
Onny River Sediment ......... 3.0 «0

Mechanical Equivalent of
HAA areas strecaaseses. geckbeny an FDO» OO
£1572 0 O

1871.

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 600
Monthly Reports of Progress

INMOHENUSUEY: ac-ssara05cs0eeee 100
Metrical Committee............ 25
Zoological Record............6+ 100
Thermal Equivalents of the

Oxides of Chlorine ......... 10
Tidal Observations ............ 100
MV ORSULHIOUD ccacvessenvees<capxpe 25
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
British Fossil Corals ......... 25
Heat in the Blood............... 7
British Raintall =. .ccases0sth=e 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150
Fossil Crustacea swesvensus ac? 226
Methyl Compounds ............ 25
Lunar Objects .....cccssessovsse. 20

uw

eooocoownooooo ooo oO

eoooeceonoocoooo ooo o

REPORT—1899.

£ 3. d.
Fossil Coral Sections, for

Photographing .......... wee 20 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-beds ...... toebes 20 0 0
Moab Explorations ........... - 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants .........++ 40 0 0

£1472 2 6
a
1872.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 300 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 75 0 0
Zoological Record............0+6 100 0 0
Tidal Committee .....,.......05 200 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0 O
Organic Chemical Compounds 25 0 0
Exploration of Moab............ 100 0 0
Terato-embryological Inqui-

TIES 's.c-.ccusssoReaeus de Paskaveeny 10 0 O
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 0
Heat in the Blood............... 15 0 0
Fossil Crustacea .........se008 25 9 0
Fossil Elephants of Malta... 25 0 0
Gonar Objects, tevaresssesspeeees 20 0 0
Inverse Wave-lengths......... 20 0 0
British Rainfall....... conserves 100 0.0
Poisonous Substances Anta-

G@OMISMY....nasasdsosessgesepeseys 10 0 0
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-

stitution, &e. . ssveverens’, 40:0, 0
Mathematical Tables. Beetanees 50 0 O
Thermal Conductivity of Me-

tals civsescascssassrcssspaneveetanmee oan) CO

£1285 0 O

(Geen

1873.

Zoological Record ........0+++ ». 100 0 0
Chemistry Record........... ww. 200 0 O
Tidal Committee ...........066 400 0 0
Sewage Committee ............ 100 0 O
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants .........-+.++ 25 0 0
Wave-lengths .........006 gence ORO GO
British Rainfall......... .....+0 100 0 O
Essential Oils............0+0+ piven ty eel
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants ......... coe 10570) oO
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Underground Temperature... 150 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20 0 0
Timber Denudation and Rain-

falls cecebespanap'ds che + SE 20 0 0
Luminous Meteors............... 30 0 0

£1685 0 0

|

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1874.

£ 8, da.
Zoological Record........sess00 100 0 O
Chemistry Record..........+.... 100 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 O
Elliptic Functions............++. 100 0 0
Lightning Conductors ......... 10," 0.10
Thermal Conductivity of

TOBA connstsesonvnacacsen teases 1d 0; 0
Anthropological Instructions 50 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 O
British Rainfall.................. 100 0 0
Essential Oils...........0.:eeeeeee 10 0 O
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Mauritius Meteorology ...... 100 0 0
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20 0 0
Marine Organisms.............+. 30 0 0
Fossils, North-West of Scot-

LETS! Cogs opserncace ho Bopecunenee 210 0
Physiological Actionof Light 20 0 0
Trades UNions® .2..cececscseveces 25 0 0
Mountain Limestone-corals 25 0 0
PMIMbIC BLOCKS! weedecwsssueos sass 10 0 O
Dredging, Durham and York-

Shire CoastS ........sssseerees 28 5 0
High Temperature of Bodies 30 0 0
Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... 3.6 =«(0
Labyrinthodonts of Coal-

TMNEASUTES, (cccseceecdscseseseress 715 0

£1151 16 0

1875.

Elliptic Functions ............ 100 0 0

‘Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20 0 0
British Rainfall.............c0006 0 0

Luminous Meteors 0 0

Chemistry Record 0 0

Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0

Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid.............4. 10 0 0
Isometric Cresols ..............5 20 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 15 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Development of Myxinoid

HBISHES 5 caw etsiozceaecacs cos geeutes 20 0 0
Zoological Record.............55 100 0 0
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 20 0 0
Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 0

£960 0 0

1876.
Printing MathematicalTables 159 4 2
British Rainfall.................. 100 0 O
Ohi’ silaiyr se -eekcevesssiteeceos 915 0
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0

CXV

£ 8. ds

Tsomeric Cresols .........0+0006 10 0) oO
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-

BCOLALC siedencccsnscacesvcecceue 5 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid..........0+++ 13 0 0
Exploration of Victoria Cave 100 0 0
Geological Record...........++0: 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivities of

ROCKS) . chet ccnssessvecenssaeeuees 10150} 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 110 0
Zoological Record........ee00 100 0 O
Close) Times iccc.vecssasseeettace 5 0 0
Physiological Action of

SOUNG! seetececuaetestucedicesces 25 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 75 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0
Physical Characters of Inha-

bitants of British Isles...... 1315 0
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0
Effect of Propeller on turning

of Steam-vessels .........+0+ 5 0 0

£1092 4 2
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acid in

INN Gralsr.cecccsecesvcrscetence 20 0 0
Elliptic Functions ............ 250 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

TED GHEY <censcseancredesceecione ee Delle ae
Zoological Record.............0« 100 0 O
Kent’s Cavern ....cssess-percssns 100 0 O
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
Luminous Meteors ..... npr 30 0 0
Elasticity of Wires ........... - 100 0 0
Dipterocarpez, Reporton ... 20 0 0
Mechanical Equivalent of

Le icennicenensoe ncn Peet cere 35 0 0
Double Compounds of Cobalt

amd Nickell ee. casctevceses tens 8 0 0
Underground Temperature... 50 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 100 0 0
Underground Waters in New

Red Sandstone .......,....... 100) 40
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-

ABEUALC) cecaancccsehanidsehpes tee 10 0 0
British Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
Atmospheric Electricity in

ING aR Measatspattet ppenatasetey e 15 0 0
Development of Light from

Coalseas! iiss sccteepaacaaseyots- 20 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid,.....,......«+ 118 0
Geological Record............+ 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee 34 0 0
Physiological Action of Phos-

PHOric Acid; &C..5.0ce0s..n00 15 0 0

£1128 9 7
ne

g2

exvl

1878.

REPORT—-1899,

£ -s. d.
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 0
Geological Record........sss01+ 100 0 0
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Siphon
RRECOLGET ........20cerencsceseces 10510550
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
Investigation of Underground
WAaiteIS,.....s.ccecvesecvsseessros 15 -60).30
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
Structure..........00e anger oasis 30 0 0
Calculation of Factor Table
for 4th Million ........,.0006 100 0 O
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 0
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0
Zoological Record .......-++++ = 100! 50 30
Fermanagh Caves Explora-
GEMOU eden copecawaias ce aan asivass 15 0 0
Thermal. Conductivity of
IROCKS' saasabeeasseanapessner sss, 416 6
Luminous Meteors.........s0000+ 100 0
Ancient Harthworks .........++ 25 0 0
£725 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples ............... 75 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland 20 0 0
Illustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth ............ 700
Record of Zoological Litera-
HERE Teepe ronsseeareansesch estar 100 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 O
Exploration of Caves in
IBOTMECOW Geseasees sass sess sarees 50 0 O
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Record of the Progress of
(CEOLORY cewenscssesesrcse tens resie 100 0 0
Fermanagh CavesExploration 5 O O
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts.............0+ 25 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0O
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions... 150 0 0
Underground Waters........-... 10 0 0
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0 0
Improvements in Astrono-
ANT CAIMCLOCKS Seestseecssstncess 30 0 0
Marine Zoology of South
DEVON eesmneareiamse ss ssssenrss -20 0 0
Determination of Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat ......... 12 15 6

ed,
Specific Inductive Capacity

of Sprengel Vacuum......... 40 0 0
Tables of Sun-heat Co-

CfiClents Serpeereniressscccess 30 0 0
Datum Level of the Ordnance

SULVEY:cccdaesascetacetcctccseec. 10 0 O
Tables of Fundamental In-

variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-

servations in Madeira ...... 15) 70) 20
Instrument for Detecting

Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22 0 0
Instruments for Measuring

the Speed of Ships ......... Lie eles
Tidal Observations in the

English Channel ............ 10 0 O

£1080 11 11
ee
1880.
New Form of High Insulation

Key Gcesssceaeeneeenerete erates 10 0 0
Underground Temperature... 10 0 0
Determination of the Me-

chanical Equivalent of

ICAU Wann on wenccnsaceasceaewenpny B. 2b: 20
Elasticity of Wires ............ 50 0 0
Luminous Meteors. ............ 30 0 0
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Fundamental Invariants ...... Smo 40
Laws of Water Friction ...... 20 0 0
Specific Inductive Capacity

of Sprengel Vacuum......... 20 0 0
Completion of Tables of Sun-

heat Coefficients ............ 50 0 0
Instrument for Detection of

Fire-damp in Mines......... 10 0 0
Inductive Capacity of Crystals

and ParaffineS ..c.sscecss.s0. A1T G7
Report on Carboniferous

(POLYZ09)enesec=spes-n essen sass | LOS HOw a0)
Caves of South Ireland ...... 10 0 0
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-

SAULUS| pe enire a seeeoerhaessnenee 10 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50 0 0
Geological Record...........0:0. 100 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt

of North Ireland ............ 15 0 0
Underground Waters of Per-

mian Formations ............ 5 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-

UTC en ne ness sabe tesnaeaisilasn sso 100 0 0
Table at Zoological Station

ap Naples: (ostonesrcsiecndscess 75. O30
Investigation of the Geology

and Zoology of Mexico...... 50 0 0
Anthropometry .......se000. osen0) WOO) (OmmO
Patient LAWS) scsssecsscsvevcereres 5 0 0

£731 7 7
Shee

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1881,
£ 3. ad.
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Underground Temperature... 20 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
High Insulation Key............ 5 0 0
Tidal Observations ............ 10" O10
Specific Refractions ............ a, 3. 2
MRGSAUILEOLYZOR, ......ccccccereses 105 050
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Japan ......... 25 0 0
PREPGIAYY BYOTA ....cscocesesecses 20 0 0
Scottish Zoological Station... 50 0 O
Naples Zoological Station 75 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 50 0 0
Anthropological Notes and
ORIGRION. (oo -cscecncdauadeeseascsts 975060
Zoological Record............4 100 0 0
Weights and Heights of
Fimman Beings) ..iicsces.e.sss 3005.0
£476 3 1
1882.
Exploration of Central Africa 100 0 0
Fundamental Invariants of
Algebraical Forms ....,.... fer ead
Standards for Electrical
Measurements: .........seee 100 0 0
Calibration of Mercurial Ther-
PHERMGLENS sc cscccdausscasaqaqn. 20 0 0
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
tra of Elements..............5 50 0 0
Photographing Ultra-violet
PAL SPCCtT a, vce.sseccscscce 25° 0 0
Geological Record............+6+ 100 0 0
Earthquake Phenomena of
BISDANUNES vesicansecescanasa viele ene 25 0 0
Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic
HICK Signe scsiesaatsckeedosevce sta 10 0 0
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 145 0 0
Geological Map of Europe ... 25 0 0
Circulation of Underground
ENUCHOR. sudevaastes vee «besders ¢a2 15 0 0
Tertiary Flora of North of
PEREIANG So. 55. ccseaneana<deecsece 20 0 0
British Polyzoa ............. ue lO J0L.0
Exploration of Caves of South
APNE] ANG |... caccent ede stac tries s 10 0 0
Explorationof RaygillFissure 20 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 80 0 0
Albuminzid Substances of
SICHUT ines se faeces nabsde2pavess ie. 10 0 0
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise............... 50 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 15.0. 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Natural History of Timor-laut 100 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-
DULG. iene sauay vanesaahaaitae ses 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0
£1126 1 11

exvii

=

oo So = T= i — aa — ae]

ooo o w oooco

Oe Soo se icc S&S CO -OGCo o .o =

1883.
£
Meteorological Observations
On) Bert NeViS icc. ssccscnecccess 50
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
WolbLVGSses@astsceacatesccessesstes 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
apatites snestaserecncrseacsteseee 50
Fossil Plants of Halifax...... 20
British Fossil Polyzoa ......... 10
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
ZOIC LOCKS)! scccuscescancscane see 25
Erosion of Sea-coast of Eng-
land and Wales ........0...+0+ 10
Circulation of Underground
WIdLOrsssvcreseceueeseerdceanccres 16
Geological Record..........2+++. 50
Exploration of Caves in South
Of TrelanG)ccsaveseserster sens: 10
Zoological Literature Record 100
Migration of Birds ............ 20
Zoological Station at Naples 80
Scottish Zoological Station... 25
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise............s 58
Exploration of Mount Kili-
Ma-Njaro......05 CoQnodADI GAC OMe 500
Investigation of Loughton
Camper. wcccscuteceshesccas estes 10
Natural History of Timor-laut 50
Screw Gauges....e..sscevee AB Late
£1083
1884.

Meteorological Observations

00) Ben NCVIS) js ccizscsecsse sexe 50
Collecting and Investigating

Meteoric Dust..........--«s0s 20
Meteorological Observatory at

CHEPStOWls.<cceessstensteneesss . 25
Tidal Observations............... 10
Ultra Violet Spark Spectra... 8

Earthquake Phenomena of

OAPAMA. corerarscoddeccaeteacsemns 75
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15
Hossil) POlyZOal..<cvascexceversvcese 10
Erratic Blocks of England ... 10
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-

ZOIG LOCKS ecoseudbecsunsc ss Jee 15
Circulation of Underground

IWALETSS.: cases ccteseccesaaekcs 5
International Geological Map 20
Bibliography of Groups of

Invertebrata .....cc..sesesees 50
Natura] History of Timor-laut 50
Naples Zoological Station ... 80
Exploration of Mount Kili-

ma-njaro, Hast Africa ...... 500
Migration of Birds............... 20
Coagulation of Blood........... 100
Zoological Literature Record 100
Anthropometric Committee... 10

£1173

ZRoOoo oo o

riOoOoocoo oco coo (=) coco

0

cS o ecoo oso

oo eco ooo o

exviil
1885.
£
Synoptic Chart of Indian
WECAIIG. ccccncccectseseccercnreen 50
Reduction of Tidal Observa-
GHG Risascnestessaess-sneesare ss 10
Calculating Tables in Theory
ORIN TIADETS s2cscrcccaresece oes 100
Meteorological Observations
On Ben NevVIS .....0s05.s0e0sse0 50
Meteoric Dust ...........eseeeee 70
Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt
OlUGIONS woxseeh- sca dupedarses' 25
Physical Constants of Solu-
IOUS, scsucasenbecvendavectegss gute 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
SAIS) oc Rigen pdsaasoneenenocedua ts 25
Raygill Fissure ......<cecsessvees 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
APA) yt castesenaeesevesbameabtete 70
Fossil Phyllopoda of Paleozoic
LOCKS) |Jctratsenate seen cavnehuas 25
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds . 50
Geological Record ............+6+ 50
Circulation of Underground
WVALORS as ser so ness sou vecensssoss 10
Naples Zoological Station 100
Zoological Literature Record. 100
Migration of Birds ............ 30
Exploration of Mount Kilima-
TIJALO phessch-Covask@esxecessescees 25
Recent Polyzoa .......s.sseeeeee 10
Granton Biological Station ... 100
Biological Stations on Coasts
of United Kingdom ........, 150

Exploration of New Guinea... 200
Exploration of Mount Roraima 100

£1385

o|/ooo OOO Seo '1O= 10 'O- Oso (Oo so o> oa oS oS eS

S

olsoo CoOoy Cloico. cor oS So oS "So oo, oo o mS

1886.
Electrical Standards...........+ 40 0
DolariRadiaiWOnicssusteckeees suk 9 10
Tidal Observations ............ 50 0
Magnetic Observations......... 10 10
Observations on Ben Nevis... 100 0
Physical and Chemical Bear-

ings of Electrolysis ......... 20 0
Chemical Nomenclature ...... 5*0
Fossil Plants of British Ter-

tiary and Secondary Beds... 20 0
Caves in North Wales ......... 25 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VETS ities sss Bote ceebureretsseucnee 30 0
Geological Record............... 100 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 15 0
Zoological Literature Record. 100 0
Granton Biological Station... 75 0
Naples Zoological Station...... 50 0
Researches in Food-Fishes and

InvertebrataatSt. Andrews 75 0

o eoocooo so co scooonso

REPORT—1899.

£ 8. d.
Migration of Birds ........... 30 0 0
Secretion of Urine............. «« 10) 70710
Exploration of New Guinea... 150 0 0
Regulation of Wages under
Sliding’ Scales *<.:..,..2...... 10 0 0
Prehistoric Race in Greek
ISIANGS? Scchevescverseeoccscccvecs 20) 00
North-Western Tribes of Ca-
ra70 Fe ase eee rees canes 0s Orr
£995 0 6
1887.
Solar Radiation ......ses.ssseesss 18 10
Hlectrolysisiteces;scsaseseun. carer 30°

Ben Nevis Observatory.........

Standards of Light (1886
STAND) <.cccerecneseuben ties see 20
Standards of Light (1887
OUAN Ui ackekeerantseeeeseseraesae 10
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal
Observations .....2secesc+ons~ne 15
Magnetic Observations......... 26
Electrical Standards ............ 50
Silent Discharge of Electricity 20
Absorption Spectra ............ 40
Nature of Solution ............ 20
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
VIUS) nocsecacsvdesee< tees enwadedss 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(1886 grant) ..,....s.ssecceeee 50
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(USS 7 eranih) ceoccsstseee sweeps 50
Cae Gwyn Cave, N. Wales ... 20
Erratic BlOCKS— .\..scsssessssose 10
Fossil Phyllopoda ............00+ 20
Coal Plants of Halifax........- 25
Microscopic Structure of the
Rocks of Anglesey............ 10
Exploration of the Eocene
Beds of the Isleof Wight... 20
Underground Waters ......... 5
‘Manure’ Gravelsof Wexford 10
Provincial Museums Reports 5
Lymphatic System ............ 25
Naples Biological Station 100
Plymouth Biological Station 50
Granton Biological Station... 75
Zoological Record ........+.000+. 100
Bora (of @hingy wii sc..cceeseseces 75
Flora and Fauna of the
Cameroons .........+ suaecsveous 75
Migration of Birds ............ 30

Bathy-hypsographical Map of

IBTIDISHUISIOS: Gitevsssevcssctste 7
Regulation of Wages ......,.. 10
Prehistoric Race of Greek

Tslands.......« Rieditscchacenestve 20

Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20

£1186 18

lo Io So (OSC OoomoooSoeo & eonseo’ Sc eo -Seooesoco oso ec ices

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1888.

£ 8. da.
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 150 0 0
Electrical Standards...........» 2 6 4
Magnetic Observations......... 15 0 0
Standards of Light ............ (eae a
Blectrolysis .......ssseeceereeees 30 0 0
Uniform Nomenclature in

Mechanics .......cscesseerscere 10 0 0
Silent Discharge of LElec-

HIORELUVN aespssacccsssteoacvbtere ee 9 11 10
Properties of Solutions ..... o0 25) 0) 0
Influence of Silicon on Steel 20 0 O
Methods of Teaching Chemis-

GDM te ht ocess sscascuiatnrss s*e5" 10 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-

GAVOMateeasescecesesqsausars Herren 25 0 0
Action of Light on Hydracids 20 0 0
Sea Beach near Bridlington... 20 0 0
Geological Record ........++++++ 50, 0°20
Manure Gravels of Wexford... 10 0 0
Erosion of Sea Coasts ......... 10 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 5.0 0
Paleontographical Society ... 50 0 0
Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth... 50 0 0
Carboniferous Flora of Lan-

cashire and West Yorkshire 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

MILI ese . or an sind ao'gansice ers anid. 20 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West

AGLUIGH | Sccenerspcesesceseeues-baee 100 0 0
Flora of Bahamas ....... “pepe 100 0 O
Development of Fishes—St.

PARTE CWS) « ncn dde-ansvsviacdessnens 50 0 0
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0.0
Mora, Of Obing <....... ssscerse 76 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Lymphatic System ............ 25 0 0
Biological Station at Granton 50 0 0
Peradeniya Botanical Station 50 0 0
Development of Teleostei 5 10> (0
Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar

REGIONS) .oiccccecescescscaeez ers 5 0 0
Precious Metals in Circulation 20 0 O
Value of Monetary Standard 10 0 O
Effect of Occupations on Phy-

sical Development............ 25 0 0
North-Western ‘Tribes of

MIAO <n ecicusnns caneneneenss 100 0 O
Prehistoric Race in Greek

estes riGhter ea Wacsaaetaneane taascans= 20 0 0

£1511 0 5
1889,

Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50 0 0
Electrical Standards..,.......++ 75 0 0
Electrolysis...... Seaigeia she) este e ss 20 0:0
Surface Water Temperature... 30 0 0

Silent Discharge of Electricity
OD OXVSEN iy ccrscieceseccsaesa en karo

e
CX1X

8 as
Methods of teaching Chemis-

TTY DF ca setieeanseeernacscdessesens 10 0 0
Action of Lighton Hydracids 10 0 0
Geological Record......sssseeeee 80 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena ofJapan 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VAUS) s0cesdespnastevencuastnaacaes 20 0 0
Palzozoic Phyllopoda ......... 20 0 0
Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of

WAght |<. .ccecncshancensessn0ae pews One O
West Indian Explorations ... 100 0 0
Flora of Chima ........sesseeseee 2b. 0.0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 O
Physiology of Lymphatic

System ....eceeeceeeesescerees 25 0 O
Experiments with a Tow-net 516 3
Natural History of Friendly

Tslamds...:.cscccccceceurquesscens 100 0 0
Geology and Geography of

Atlas Range... .......essseer 100 0 0
Action of Waves and Currents

in Hstuaries ......s0ceeeseees 100 0 0
North-Western Tribes of

CANA, cecswemnsneepesonmetsess 150).0)..0
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 30 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0 O
Marine Biological Association 200 0 0
‘ Baths Committee,’ Bath...... 100 0 0

£1417 O11
1890.
Electrical Standards,..........+ 1217 0
Electrolysis ....eseecessseseeeere 5 0 0
Hlectro-Optics....,..ssseressreree . 50 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 0
Volcanic and Seismological

Phenomena of Japan ...... 75, 10750
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 15 0 0
Properties of Solutions ...... 10 0 0
International Standard forthe

Analysis of Iron and Steel 10 0 0
Influence of the Silent Dis-

charge of Electricity on

ORV CCM casapedseb atone see sere Bie D
Methods ofteachingChemistry 10 0 0
Recording Results of Water

ATALVISIS capacs aur eheretededs eee 4 1 0
Oxidation of Hydracids in

SUDVCHG Swsy came =sareaace< pen 1b 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

ViUlS\<.sccschsnecpesaesbandavsessss 20 0 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 10 0 0
Circulation of Underground

WALGIS.--s-geresppepeebet crs> ss 5 0 0
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 15 0 0
Cretaceous Polyzoa ..,......+.- 10 0 0
Geological Photographs ...... 71411
Lias Beds of Northampton... 25 0 0
Botanical Station at Perade-

TVA cocescsactsncececonsecedpsacs 25 0.0

CXX

coe 1S:
Experiments with a Tow-

TIED pusevs-canccsecovennsseosneee 4 3
Naples Zoological Station pe 00) 40
Zoology and Botany of the

West India Islands ......... 100 0
Marine Biological Association 380 0
Action of Waves and Currents

in Estuaries ..........s.ec00 150 0
Graphic Methods in Mechani-

GAISCICNCC see.ccvsseesessesh=cs LIOKO
Anthropometric Calculations 5 0
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 25 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0

‘£799 16
1891.
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50 O
Electrical Standards............ 100 0O
LC CETONY SIS. \naseeascecesssasbencee 5 0
Seismological Phenomena of

Mcp Mees ons senensescnsaseseys sh 10 0
Temperatures of Lakes......... 20 0
Photographs of Meteorological

PHENOMENA... .00...c0sesese se. 5 0
Discharge of Electricity from

GUNS eaprecmmecsliesrmenasccee ne 10 0
Ultra Violet Rays of Solar

MPCCLLUMNS nsascdsosasaane ress 50.0
International. Standard for

Analysis of Ironand Steel... 10 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-

LIVES wavnecstibaccansessectesessess 25 0
Formation of Haloids ......... 25-10
Action of Light on Dyes ...... 17 10
Geological Record............... 100 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

WINS letecccaddtactoccssosecsn raise 10 0
Fossil Phyllopoda............... 10 0
Photographs of Geological

AMGEN ES bie wensteae ante tnsentes acc’ 9 5
Lias of Northamptonshire ... 25 0
Registration of ‘l'ype-Speci-

mens of British Fossils...... 5 5
Investigation of ElboltonCave 25 0
Botanical Station at Pera-

OMI acc setae eseascnnerescvases 50 0
Experiments with a Tow-net 40 0
Marine Biological Association 12 10
Disappearance of Native

DIATIES peaecseeere=sesensatesce tee 5 0
Action of Waves and Currents

Ai SHISHUALICS 152 feo. sale sinesstea'e 125 0
Anthropometric Calculations 10 0
New Edition of ‘ Anthropo-

logical Notes and Queries’ 50 0
North - Western Tribes of

Canad anmnuaherestnccecwassses 200 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0

#1, £1,029 10

dad.
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0

8

o!1oo fo] oo oS Soo, sO oe o'o 29) OO'1aiS

o (=) ro) =) oo ooo

REPORT—1899.

Co alo Oo) £6 aoe ies

1892.
Zea
Observations on Ben Nevis... 50 0
Photographs of Meteorological

PHeNOMENS,,..cesesevsocessscese 15 0
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 10 0
Discharge of Electricity from

Points’ ..sqdsaeeeet senator cceteees 50 0
Seismological Phenomena of

JAPAN \ ic seaaesbateneecncecesevess 10 0
Formation of Haloids ......... 12 0
Properties of Solutions ...... 10 0
Action of Light on Dyed

Colours ~cc.deetsyereweress eves 10 0
Erratic BIOCKS. <..cccsseccsess ses 15 0

. Photographs of Geological

Interest, isesasssagerensodend se 20.*0' 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Investigation of Elbolton

Cave. seins. stdue damceeveress ne 25 0 90
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 10 0 0
Cretaceous Polyzoa ........+0+ 10 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 1710 0
Deep-sea Tow-net ............... 40 0 0
Fauna of Sandwich Islands... 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West

India Tslandsisccsesserseessn 100 0 0
Climatology and Hydrography

of Tropical Africa ......... «. 50 0 0
Anthropometric Laboratory... 5 0 0
Anthropological Notes and

Queries ....... GMb eo teeaee 20 00
Prehistoric Remains in Ma-

Shonaland! tin scosecctececessces 50 0 0
North-Western ‘Tribes of

Canada. camsecves se: bine «on csl 100 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 250h40

£864 10 O
1893.
Electrical Standards.......,.... 25 0
Observations on Ben Nevis... 150 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 16 0
Intensity of Solar Radiation 2 8
Magnetic Work at the Fal-

mouth Observatory ......... 25 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-

WADIV.ESir osteehesieeeseaisceiensicot? 20 0
HITTAGIC IBIOCKS wasecerscscos en's 10 0
Fossil Phyllopoda.............++ 5 0
Underground Waters ......... 5 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at

Clava, Chapelhall, &c. ...... 20 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland

TG Sites eeaten vier snmeess cataape os 10 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0
Marine Biological Association 30 0
Fauna of Sandwich Islands 100 0
Zoology and Botany of West

India Fslands..ss.ys0000 e200: 500

oso coco © CcoocKe | Oo aceo

& 8. d.
Exploration of Irish Sea ...... 30 0 0
Physiological Action of

Oxygen in Asphyxia......... 20 0 0
Index of Genera and Species

OPPATIUMAIS \ewenesseslecesep eis 20 0 0
Exploration of Karakoram

IVIGHNUAINS) .6.025202csecasec seve 50 0 0
Scottish Place-names ......... (Tn)
Climatology and MHydro-

graphy of Tropical Africa 50 0 0
Economic Training ............ er 0)
Anthropometric Laboratory 5 0 0
Exploration in Abyssinia...... 25 0 0
North-Western ‘Tribes of

WAVIACA Iss sohavace (ocsasesnenecas 100 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 30 0 0

“907 1b) 6
1894,
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Photographs of Meteorological

PHENOMENA. fcc. .sedeccsccoces 10 0 0
Tables of Mathematical Func-

UTOTIE! » eel oo dacrOt BEQuOADECDASBSTe 15 0 0
Intensity of Solar Radiation 5 5 6
Wave-length Tables............ 10 OG
Action of Light upon Dyed

MEDIGUIS! Cascccessecesttessvce ssa 5 0 0
Hrratic BIoCKS .......s0.ssseeees 15 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda............... 5 0 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at

RUA Van COs cece, tes caseee tases « 20 0 O
Eurypterids of the Pentland

esiltecenedsttnccasecsscsenss esse 5 0 0
New Sections of Stonesfield

SID THE) pootengacticonpevodacadasen 14 0 0
Observations on Earth-tre-

LENGTWE Goéranoorpacodceneneadnee 50 0 0
Exploration of Calf- Hole

SEI ESGe CSc COUORUOL AE SeEREERER ATE 5 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Marine BiologicalAssociation 5 0 0
Zoology of the Sandwich

LISTER [te ha erecesoneace Anpee 100 0 0
Zoology of the Irish Sea ...... 40 0 0
Structure and Function of the

Mammalian Heart............ TO OO
Exploration in Abyssinia 30 0 0
Heonomic Training ............ 910 0
Anthropometric Laboratory

PA DISEICSIL ts cocess tsncesorceck ae. 0) O
Ethnographical Survey ...... LOTOESO
The Lake Village at Glaston-

PUNY irer nent toed secscnscoasa of as 40 0 0
Anthropometrical Measure-

ments in Schools ............ 5 0 0
Mental and Physical Condi-

tion of Children............... 20 0 0
Corresponding Societies ..,... 25 0 0

£583 15 6

GENERAL STATEMENT.

CXXi

1895.
£ 8. d.
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Photographs of Meteorological

PHENOMENA cs ssccesseiesc sence 10 0 0
Haxth) TremoOrsie wctevccedeectse 75 0 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 0
Reduction of Magnetic Obser-

vations made at Falmouth

Observatory. secc.ccscecdsias 50 0 0
Comparison of Magnetic Stan-

GATOR vocaswvesractevedehesckewes 25 0° 0
Meteorological Observations

OM Ben NGVIStrcvssses~cpecee se 50 0 0

| Wave-length Tables of the

Spectra of the Elements... 10 0 O
Action of Light upon Dyed

COlOUTS NM eecwewssemes see ccbecireee secGH
Formation of Haloids from

Pure Materials ............... 20 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-

VAULVES! ssusseesesaceetoteecedrens 30 0 0
Electrolytic Quantitative An-

HIMES) ocotigdqoccdoccoutocapbedr oc 30 0 0
Hrrabic BlOCES) cresscscssvesas ses 10) 40> ©:
Palzeozoic Phylopoda ......... 5 0 0
Photographs of Geological In-

LSE Un apercecoscssoocooesbtsesor 10 0 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at

Clava, (SoCs ergs tMedccaue ates 10 0 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland

Ven OU Fe remocorrigdcuncancr tadker osc 3.0 0
New Sections of Stonesfield

SS] ERE) Wang er bocstaccsecesceonc ce 50 0 0
Exploration of Calf Hole Cave 10 0 O
Nature and Probable Age of

High-level Flint-drifts...... 10 0 0
Table atthe Zoological Station

at Naplestissccccesasecsccoseas 100 0 0
Table at the Biological Labo-

ratory, Plymouth ............ 15 0 0
Zoology, Botany, and Geology

of the Trish Sea............+0« 35 9 4
Zoology and Botany of the

West India Islands ......... 50 0 0
Index of Genera and Species

Of Animals) .<sitedecussenesansee 50 0 0
Climatology of Tropical Africa 5 O O
Exploration of Hadramut 50 0 O
Calibration and Comparison of

Measuring Instruments 25 0 0
Anthropometric Measure-

ments in Schools ........... ap mond? O
Lake Village at Glastonbury 30 0 0
Exploration of a Kitchen-

midden at Hastings ......... 10 0 0
Ethnographical Survey ...... 10 0 0
Physiological Applications of

the Phonograph............0+ 25 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 30 0 0

£977 15 5
ae

CXxl
1896.
£
Photographs of Meteorologi-
cal Phenomena .........secee8 15
Seismological Observations... 80
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100
Calculation of Certain Inte-
ALS pai one aaa tee ceiee estsiels Sie 10
Uniformity of Size of Pages of
Transactions, KC. ..ssessseaee 5
Wave-length Tables of the
Spectra of the Elements... 10
Action of Light upon Dyed
AU GIOUCR eer ccirssscesory osieetens 2
Electrolytic Quantitative Ana-
4 SS a5 anaqedengener eases ceene 10
The Carbohydrates of Barley
SHUM Waites nites cise slebeesisss css ene 50
Reprinting Discussion on the
Relation of Agriculture to
SIOUSMANCEY sonouecoeddaouseeaod diac 5
Erratic Blocks .....s.ssseneseeee 10
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 5
Shell-bearing Deposits at
ONE VAMOCCsn ucccescsevcssssedeass 10
Eurypterids of the Pentland
TEIN segge nd aneonteg soubor ine ee 2
Investigation of a Coral Reef
by Boring and Sounding... 10

Examination of Locality where
the Cetiosaurus in the Ox-
ford Museum was found... 25

Paleolithic Deposits at Hoxne 25
Fauna of Singapore Caves ... 40
Age and Relation of Rocks
near Moreseat, Aberdeen 10
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion at Naples .....s..sss00+e 100
Table at the Biological Labo-
ratory, Plymouth .......,..+. 15
Zoology, Botany, and Geology
of the Irish Sea ..........0008 50
Zoology of the Sandwich Is-
[eva6|S) | S56nocr.capscadeeehsecpoce a 100
African Lake Fauna............ 100
Oysters under Normal and »
Abnormal Environment ... 40
Climatology of Tropical Africa 10
Calibration and Comparison of
Measuring Instruments...... 20
Small Screw Gauge ............ 10
North-Western ‘Tribes of
(Camiadar Sisccasedseaeso-teencs bees 100
Lake Village at Glastonbury. 30
Ethnographical Survey......... 40
Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children............+5- 10
Physiological Applications of
the Phonograph.............++ 25
Uorresponding Societies Com-
MITER ...s,ss0000e sdb sdass000000 30
£1,104

o o So ooo

oo. © ooo

alo oO (SS) Sah) oo oo oo f=) Oe See eas OLS

So SS ooo

Py Se) Sse} peE 1= k=) oo co.) 5 Gao aites Sa ore

REPORT—1899.

1897.
easier.
Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 0
Seismological Observations... 100 0 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 0
Calculation of Certain In-

tegrals...tarsedeeerenees eees.es 10 0 0
Electrolysis and Electro-

Chemibinyseeespanthtrers eateve 50 0 0
Electrolytic Quantitative An-

allysise <.Seadeetredeees ces cea sccs LOMOFO
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-

VALLVES.. serdcnesuetceeensaitei ene 50 0 0
Erratic Blocks ...........csse00+ 10 0 0
Photographs of Geological

Inberest’ sasns.enenntsscassaveess 15 0 0
Remains of the Irish Elk in

the Isle of Man............... 15 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion; Naples <ipectesssaseesses 100 0 0
Table at the Biological La-

boratory, Plymouth ......... 910 8
Zoological Bibliography and

Pub GatON sen sneeesss pentane See KS)
Index Generum et Specierum

ANIMALIUMY. wees eastecesmeanass 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of the

West India Islands ......... 40 0 0
The Details of Observa-

tions on the Migration of

Bits Penescessseeeapeneeese nies 40 0 0
Climatology of Tropical

ATrICa caasees mekcasssoseseraeee 20 0 0
Ethnographical Survey......... 40 0 0
Mental and Physical Condi-

tion of Children............... 10 0 0
Silchester Excavation ......... 20 0 0
Investigation of Changes as-

sociated with the Func-

tional Activity of Nerve

Cells and their Peripheral

EXXteDSIONS .......-..sseeseveee 180 0 0
Oysters and Typhoid ......... 30 0 0
Physiological Applications of

the Phonograph.............++ 15 0 0
Physiological Effects of Pep-

tone and its Precursors...... 20 0 0
Fertilisation in Phzophycez 20 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

MMILLCC/sseaeae sens envi vins aiewspes 25 0 0

£1,059 10 8
1898.
Electrical Standards............ To 10 0)
Seismological Observations... 75 0 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 0
Calculation of Certain In-

DEP tal Saeieeeememene man seep ess 10 0 0
Electrolysisand Electro-chem-

ISU peta eeeheeeseestvasincs ce cress 35 0 0
Meteorological Observatory at

Montreal.......... Srossnoosate. 50 0 O

Wave-leneth Tables of the

GENERAL

&

SS

&

Spectra of the Elements ... 20 0
Action of Light upon Dyed

NUCH GEIST AE: site's oes shines o000%0'0 8 0
MIRTRUIGPENOGES .....0c.sececsoese 5 0
Investigation of a Coral Reef 40 0
Photographs of Geological

PRIUGTOSH 1.55. ce onsseesbcaceceess 10 0
Life-zones in British Carbon-

iferous Rocks............s000s 15 0
Pleistocene Fauna and Flora

MIONOMNAAR | <.ccccccasevsenteo ces 20 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion, Naples ......-1-...eseeee 100 O
Table at the Biological La-

boratory, Plymouth ......... 14 0
Index Generum et Specierum

PAT AMIANLIE MN ors cecvapcwaeweces sss 100 O
Healthy and Unhealthy Oys-

GUE) Ab opceooe Pe scbecen cescacooan 30 0
Climatology of Tropical Africa 10 0
State Monopolies in other

ROGUHETICS Wes esencsecet nesses 15 0
Small Screw Gauge ............ 20 0
North-Western Tribes of

Canada....... Acne OC ERO 3, AION 75 (0
Lake Village at Glastonbury 37 10
Silchester Excavation ......... 7 10
EthnologicalSurveyof Canada 75 0
Anthropology and Natural

History of Torres Straits... 125 0
Investigation of Changes asso-

ciated with the Functional

Activity of Nerve Cells and

their Peripheral Extensions 100 0 0
Fertilisation in Pheophycer 15 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

PPAGUEC aeveverscecseresetsssedvads 25 0 0

£1,212 0 0
1899.
Electrical Standards............ 225 0 0
Seismological Observations... 6514 8
Science Abstracts ............... 100 0 0
Heat of Combination of Metals

EBBALOYS\o.e:i(sccsecescssocuveess 20 0 O
Radiation ina Magnetic Field 50 0 0
Calculation of Certain In-

oO tel Mperetcersenacerecenecassastss 10 0 0
Action of Light upon Dyed

OLOUTS! “costs scccessssieassaness 419 6
Relation between Absorption

Spectra and Constitution of

Organic Substances ......... 50 0 0

So oooo oo oo So. 7S i=) o i SS ooo o

£1430 14

CXxiii

STATEMENT,
Cs ap
Trae BIOCKS © ..60c5cscceccccnes 15 0
Photographs of Geological
ISGEKEBH sank everibt -tensseecencss 10 0
Remains of Irish Elk in the
TSC Of MENecdssnensccsssses soe 15 0
Pleistocene Flora and Fauna
In) Canad aie. Hiivecstveewan ace 30 0
Records of Disappearing Drift
Section at Moel Tryfaen ... 5 0
Ty Newydd Caves.. 40 0
Ossiferous Caves at Uphill .. 30 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion; Naples? siv.c ate uectihe 100 0
Table at the Biological La-
boratory, Plymouth ......... 20 0
Index Generum et Specierum
ADIMGLION Ns. cassncteteesccedses 100 0
Migration of Birds ............ 15 0
Apparatus for Keeping Aqua-
ticOrganisms under Definite
Physical Conditions ......... 15 0
Plankton and Physical Con-
ditions of the English Chan-
nel during’ 1899). ....i5...c.. 100 0
Exploration of Sokotra ...... 35 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury 50 0
Silchester Excavation ......... 10 0
EthnologicalSurvey ofCanada 35 0
New Edition of ‘ a
gical Notes and Queries’... 40 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 20 0
Physiological Effects of Pep- ;
WONG /.ajensceanarececeaceeeeateeeats 30 0
Electrical Changes accom-
panying Discharge of Res-
piratory Centres.............6. 20 0
Influence of Drugs upon the
Vascular Nervous System... 10 0
Histological Changes in Nerve
Cell sty: cccccscsereeieacderntes 20 0
Micro-chemistry of Cells ...... 40 0
Histology of Suprarenal Cap-
BUlCSie/ Foi sececscmisescasteweaste ¢ 20 0
Comparative Histology of
Cerebral Cortex............... 10 0
Fertilisation in Phyeophycese 20 0
Assimilation in Plants......... 20 0
Zoological and Botanical Pub-
TicAtION: Voscsveen oye iabeed ones 5 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
TNIDLC CT ee searic cays deeen ate nees 25 0

Sey, OS S TO SOG Co Ten co 6

oO

o ocS& cSsocEes

1Nio LO Ones BO ee SS

CXXiV REPORT—1899,

General Meetings.

On Wednesday, September 13, at 8 p.m.,in the Connaught Hall, Dover,
Sir William Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S., resigned the office of President to
Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., Sec.R.S., who took the Chair, and delivered
an Address, for which see page 3.

On Thursday, September 14, at 8.30 p.m., a Soirée took place in the
School of Art.

On Friday, September 15, at 8.30 p.m.,in the Connaught Hall, Pro-
fessor Charles Richet delivered a discourse on ‘ La Vibration Nerveuse.’

On Saturday, September 16, members of the Association Frangaise
pour l’Avancement des Sciences visited the British Association at Dover.

On Monday, September 18, at 8.30 p.m., in the Connaught Hall,
Professor Fleming, F'.R.S,, delivered a discourse on ‘The Centenary of
the Electric Current.’

On Tuesday, September 19, at 8.30 p.m., a Soirée took place in the
Granville Gardens.

On Wednesday, September 20, at 11 a.m., in the Connaught Hall, the
concluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings of the
General Committee and the Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes were
explained to the Members.

The Meeting was then adjourned to Bradford. [The Meeting is
appointed to commence on Wednesday, September 5, 1900.]

On Thursday, September 21, members of the Association visited the
Association Francaise at Boulogne.

- ,
~~ as on) A
al . ;
¥ oot a
7
(

-

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

ADDRESS

BY

Proressor SIR MICHAEL FOSTER, K.C.B., Sc.R.S.

' PRESIDENT.

He who until a few minutes ago was your President said somewhere at
the meeting at Bristol, and said with truth, that among the qualifications
needed for the high honour of Presidency of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science, that of being old was becoming more and
more dominant. He who is now attempting to speak to you feels that he
is rapidly earning that distinction. But the Association itself is older
than its President ; it has seen pass away the men who, wise in their gene-
ration, met at York on September 27, 1851, to found it ; it has seen other
great men who in bygone years served it as Presidents, or otherwise helped
» it on, sink one after another into the grave. Each year, indeed, when it
plants its flag as a signal of its yearly meeting, that flag floats half-mast
high in token of the great losses which the passing year has brought.
This year is no exception ; the losses, indeed, are perhaps unwontedly |
heavy. I will not attempt to call over the sad roll-call ; but I must say a
word about one who was above most others a faithful and zealous friend of
the Association. Sir Douglas Galton joined the Association in 1860. From
1871 to 1895, as one of the General Secretaries, he bore, and bore to the great
good of the Association, a large share of the burden of the Association’s
work. How great that share was is perhaps especially known to the
many men, among whom I am proud to count myself, who during his long
term of office served in succession with him as brother General Secretary.
In 1895, at Ipswich, he left the post of General Secretary, but only to
become TPresident. So long and so constantly did he labour for the good of
the Association that he seemed to be an integral part of it, and meeting as
we do to-day, and as we henceforward must do, without Douglas Galton,
we feel something greatly missing. This year, perhaps even more than in
other years, we could have wished him to be among us ; for to-day the
Association may look with joy, not unmixed with pride, on the realisation
of a project in forwarding which it has had a conspicuous share, on the

B2

4 REPORT—1899.

commencement of an undertaking which is not only a great thing in itself,
but which, we trust, is the beginning of still greater things tocome. And
the share which the Association has had in this was largely Sir Douglas
Galton’s doing. In his Address as President of Section A, at the meeting of
the Association at Cardiff in 1891, Professor Oliver Lodge expounded with
pregnant words how urgently, not pure science only, but industry and the
constructive arts—for the interests of these are ever at bottom the same
—needed the aid of some national establishment for the prosecution of
prolonged and costly physical researches, which private enterprise could
carry out in a lame fashion only, if at all. Lodge’s words found an echo
in many men’s minds ; but the response was for a long while in men’s
minds only. In 1895, Sir Douglas Galton, having previously made a
personal study of an institution analogous to the one desired—namely, the
Reichsanstalt at Berlin—seized the opportunity offered to him as President
of the Association at Ipswich to insist, with the authority not only of the
head for the time being of a great scientific body, but also of one who
himself knew the ways and wants at once of science and of practical life,
that the thing which Lodge and others had hoped for was a thing which
could be done, and ought to be done at once. And now to-day we can
say it hasbeendone. The National Physical Laboratory has been founded.
The Address at Ipswich marked the beginning of an organised effort which
has at last been crowned with success. A feeling of sadness cannot but
come over us when we think that Sir Douglas Galton was not spared to
see the formal completion of the scheme whose birth he did so much to
help, and which, to his last days, he aided in more ways than one, It is
the old story—the good which men do tives after them.

Still older than the Association is this nineteenth century, now swiftly
’ drawing to its close. Though the century itself has yet some sixteen
months to run, this.is the last meeting of the British Association which
will use the numbers eighteen hundred to mark its date.

The eyes of the young look ever forward ; they take little heed of the
short though ever-lengthening fragment of life which lies behind them ;
they are wholly bent on that which is to come. The eyes of the aged
turn wistfully again and again to the past; as the old glide down the
inevitable slope their present becomes a living over again the life which
has gone before, and the future takes on the shape of a brief lengthening
of the past. May I this evening venture to give rein to the impulses of
advancing years? May I, at this last meeting of the Association in the
eighteen hundreds, dare to dwell for a while upon the past, and to call to
mind a few of the changes which have taken place in the world since those
autumn days in which men were saying to each other that the last of the
seventeen hundreds was drawing towards its end ?

Dover in the year of our Lord seventeen hundred and ninety-nine
was in many ways unlike the Dover of to-day. On moonless nights men
groped their way in its narrow streets by the help of swinging lanterns

ADDRESS. 5

and smoky torches, for no lamps lit the ways. By day the light of the
sun struggled into the houses through narrow panes of blurred glass.
Though the town then, as now, was one of the chief portals to and from
the countries beyond the seas, the means of travel were scanty and dear,
available for the most part to the rich alone, and, for all, beset with dis-
comfort and risk. Slow and uncertain was the carriage of goods, and the
news of the world outside came to the town—though it from its position
learnt more than most towns—tardily, fitfully, and often falsely. The
people of Dover sat then much in dimness, if not in darkness, and lived
in large measure on themselves. They who study the phenomena of living
beings tell us that light is the great stimulus of life, and that the fulness
of the life of a being or of any of its members may be measured by the
variety, the swiftness, and the certainty of the means by which it is in
touch with its surroundings. Judged from this standpoint life at Dover
then, as indeed elsewhere, must have fallen far short of the life of to-day.

The same study of living beings, however, teaches us that while from
one point of view the environment seems to mould the organism, from
another point the organism seems to be master of its environment. Going
behind the change of circumstances, we may raise the question, the old
question, Was life in its essence worth more then than now? Has there
been a real advance ?

Let me at once relieve your minds by saying that I propose to leave
this question in the main unanswered. It may be, or it may not be, that
man’s grasp of the beautiful and of the good, if not looser, is not firmer
than it was a hundred years ago. It may be, or it may not be, that man
is no nearer to absolute truth, to seeing things as they really are, than he
was then. I will merely ask you to consider with me for a few minutes
how far, and in what ways, man’s laying hold of that aspect of or part of
truth which we call natural knowledge, or sometimes science, differed in
1799 from what it is to-day, and whether that change must not be
accounted a real advance, a real improvement in man.

I do not propose to weary you by what in my hands would be the rash
effort of attempting a survey of all the scientific results of the nineteenth
century. It will be enough if for a little while I dwell on some few of
the salient features distinguishing the way in which we nowadays look upon,
and during the coming week shall speak of, the works of Nature around
us—though those works themselves, save for the slight shifting involved in
a secular change, remain exactly the same—from the way in which they
were looked upon and might have been spoken of at a gathering of
philosophers at Dover in 1799. And I ask your leave to do so.

In the philosophy of the ancients, earth, fire, air, and water were
called ‘the elements.’ It was thought, and rightly thought, that a know-
ledge of them and of their attributes was a necessary basis of a knowledge
of the ways of Nature. Translated into modern language, a knowledge of

6 REPORT—1899.

these ‘elements of old means a knowledge of the composition of the
atmosphere, of water, and of all the other things which we call matter, as
well as a knowledge of the general properties of gases, liquids, and solids,
and of the nature and effects of combustion. Of all these things our
knowledge to-day is large and exact, and, though ever enlarging, in some
respects complete. When did that knowledge begin to become exact ?

To-day the children in our schools know that the air which
wraps round the globe is not a single thing, but is made up of two
things, oxygen and nitrogen,! mingled together. They know, again,
that water is not a single thing, but the product of two things,
oxygen and hydrogen, joined together. They know that when the air
makes the fire burn and gives the animal life, it is the oxygen in
it which does the work. They know that all round them things are
undergoing that union with oxygen which we call oxidation, and that
oxidation is the ordinary source of heat and light. Let me ask you to
picture to yourselves what confusion there would be to-morrow, not only
in the discussions at the sectional meetings of our Association, but in
the world at large, if it should happen that in the coming night some
destroying touch should wither up certain tender structures in all our
brains, and wipe out from our memories all traces of the ideas which
cluster in our minds around the verbal tokens, oxygen and oxidation.
How could any of us, not the so-called man of science alone, but even
the man of business and the man of pleasure, go about his ways lacking
those ideas? Yet those ideas were in 1799 lacking to all but a few.

Although in the third quarter of the seventeenth century the light of
truth about oxidation and combustion had flashed out in the writings of
John Mayow, it came as a flash only, and died away as soon as it
had come. For the rest of that century, and for the greater part of
the next, philosophers stumbled about in darkness, misled for the most of
the time by the phantom conception which they called phlogiston. It was
not until the end of the third quarter of the eighteenth century that the new
light, which has burned steadily ever since, lit up the minds of the men
of science. The light came at nearly the same time from England and
from France. Rounding off the sharp corners of controversy, and joining,
as we may fitly do to-day, the two countries as twin bearers of a common
crown, we may say that we owe the truth to Priestley, to Lavoisier, and to
Cavendish. If it was Priestley who was the first to demonstrate the exist-
ence of what we now call oxygen, it is to Lavoisier we owe the true
conception of the nature of oxidation and the clear exposition of the full
meaning of Priestley’s discovery, while the knowledge of the composi-
tion of water, the necessary complement of the knowledge of oxygen, came
to us through Cavendish and, we may perhaps add, through Watt.

The date of Priestley’s discovery of oxygen is 1774, Lavoisier’s classic
memoir ‘on the nature of the principle which enters into combination

* Some may already know that there is at least a third thing, argon.

ADDRESS. 7
with metals during calcination’ appeared in 1775, and Cavendish’s paper
on the composition of water did not see the light until 1784.

During the last quarter of the eighteenth century this new idea of
oxygen and oxidation was struggling into existence. How new was the
idea is illustrated by the fact that Lavoisier himself at first spoke of that
which he was afterwards, namely in 1778, led to call oxygen, the name by
which it has since been known, as ‘the principle which enters into combina-
tion.’ What difficulties its acceptance met with is illustrated by the
fact that Priestley himself refused to the end of his life to grasp the
true bearings of the discovery which he had made. In the year
1799 the knowledge of oxygen, of the nature of water and of air, and
indeed the true conception of chemical composition and chemical
change, was hardly more than beginning to be, and the century had to
pass wholly away before the next great chemical idea, which we know by the
name of the Atomic Theory of John Dalton, was made known. We have
only to read the scientific literature of the time to recognise that a truth
which is now not only wovenas a master-thread into all our scientific con-
ceptions, but even enters largely into the everyday talk and thoughts of
educated people, was a hundred years ago struggling into existence
among the philosophers themselves. It was all but absolutely unknown to
the large world outside those select few.

If there be one word of science which is writ large on the life of the
present time, it is the word ‘electricity’ ; it is, I take it, writ larger than
any other word. The knowledge which it denotes has carried its practical
results far and wide into our daily life, while the theoretical conceptions
which it signifies pierce deep into the nature of things. We are to-day
proud, and justly proud, both of the material triumphs and of the intel-
lectual gains which it has brought us, and we are full of even larger
hopes of it in the future.

At what time did this bright child of the nineteenth century have its
birth ?

He who listened to the small group of philosophers of Dover, who in
1799 might have discoursed of natural knowledge, would perhaps have
heard much of electric machines, of electric sparks, of the electric fluid,
and even of positive and negative electricity ; for frictional electricity had
long been known and even carefully studied. Probably one or more of
the group, dwelling on the observations which Galvani, an Italian, had
made known some twenty years before, developed views on the connection
of electricity with the phenomena of living bodies. Possibly one of them
was exciting the rest by telling how he had just heard that a professor
at Pavia, one Volta, had discovered that electricity could be produced,
not only by rubbing together particular bodies, but by the simple contact
of two metals, and had thereby explained Galvani’s remarkable results.
For, indeed, as we shall hear from Professor Fleming, it was in that

8 REPORT—1899.

very year, 1799, that electricity as we now know it took its birth.
It was then that Volta brought to light the apparently simple truths
out of which so much has sprung. The world, it is true, had to wait
for yet some twenty years before both the practical and the theoretic
worth of Volta’s discovery became truly pregnant, under the fertilising
influence of another discovery. The loadstone and magnetic virtues
had, like the electrifying power of rubbed amber, long been an old
story. But, save for the compass, not much had come from it. And
even Volta’s discovery might have long remained relatively barren had
it been left to itself. When, however, in 1819, Oersted made known his
remarkable observations on the relations of electricity to magnetism, he
made the contact needed for the flow of a new current of ideas. And it
is perhaps not too much to say that those ideas, developing during the
years of the rest of the century with an ever-accelerating swiftness, have
wholly changed man’s material relations to the circumstances of life, and
at the same time carried him far in his knowledge of the nature of
things.

Of all the various branches of science, none perhaps is to-day, none
for these many years past has been, so well known to, even if not under-
standed by, most people as that of geology. Its practical lessons have
brought wealth to many ; its fairy tales have brought delight to more ;
and round it hovers the charm of danger, for the conclusions to which it
leads touch on the nature of man’s beginning.

In 1799, the science of geology, as we now know it, was struggling
into birth. There had been from of old cosmogonies, theories as to how
the world had taken shape out of primeval chaos. In that fresh spirit
which marked the zealous search after natural knowledge pursued in the
middle and latter part of the seventeenth century, the brilliant Stenson,
in Italy, and Hooke, in our own country, had laid hold of some of the
problems presented by fossil remains ; and Woodward, with others, had
laboured in the same field. In the eighteenth century, especially in its
latter half, men’s minds were busy about the physical agencies determining
or modifying the features of the earth’s crust ; water and fire, subsidence
from a primeval ocean and transformation by outbursts of the central
heat, Neptune and Pluto, were being appealed to, by Werner on the one
hand, and by Desmarest on the other, in explanation of the earth’s pheno-
mena. The way was being prepared, theories and views were abundant,
and many sound observations had been made ; and yet the science of
geology, properly so called, the exact and proved knowledge of the suc-
cessive phases of the world’s life, may be said to date from the closing
years of the eighteenth century.

In 1783, James Hutton put forward in a brief memoir his ‘Theory of
the Earth,’ which in 1795, two years before his death, he expanded into a
book ; but his ideas failed to lay hold of men’s minds until the century had

ADDRESS. 9

passed away, when, in 1802, they found an able expositor in John Playfair.
The very same year that Hutton published his theory, Cuvier came to
Paris and almost forthwith began, with Brongniart, his immortal researches
into the fossils of Paris and its neighbourhood. And four years later, in
the year 1799 itself, William Smith’s tabular list of strata and fossils
saw the light. It is, I believe, not too much to say that out of these
geology, as we now know it, sprang. It was thus in the closing years of
the eighteenth century that was begun the work which the nineteenth
century has carried forward to such great results. But at that time only
the select few had grasped the truth, and even they only the beginning of
it. Outside.a narrow circle the thoughts, even of the educated, about the
history of the globe were bounded by the story of the Deluge—though the
story was often told in a strange fashion—or were guided by fantastic
views of the plastic forces of a sportive Nature.

In another branch of science, in that which deals with the problems
presented by living beings, the thoughts of men in 1799 were also very
different from the thoughts of men to-day. It is a very old quest,
the quest after the knowledge of the nature of living beings, one of the
earliest on which man set out ; for it promised to lead him toa knowledge
of himself, a promise which perhaps is still before us, but the fulfilment
of which is as yet far off. As time has gone on, the pursuit of natural
knowledge has seemed to lead man away from himself into the further-
most parts of the universe, and into secret workings of Nature in which
he appears to be of little or no account ; and his knowledge of the nature
of living things, and so of his own nature, has advanced slowly, waiting
till the progress of other branches of natural knowledge can bring it aid.
Yet in the past hundred years, the biologic sciences, as we now call them,
have marched rapidly onward.

We may look upon a living body as a machine doing work in accord-
ance with certain laws, and may seek to trace out the working of the inner
wheels, how these raise up the lifeless dust into living matter, and let the
living matter fall away again into dust, giving rise to movement and heat.
Or we may look upon the individual life as a link in a long chain, joining
something which went before to something about to come, a chain whose
beginning lies hid in the farthest past, and may seek -to know the ties
which bind one life to another. As we call up to view the long series of
living forms, living now or flitting like shadows on the screen of the past,
we may strive to lay hold of the influences which fashion the garment of
life. Whether the problems of life are looked upon from the one point
of view or the other, we to-day, not biologists only, but all of us, have
gained a knowledge hidden even from the philosophers a hundred years
ago.

Of the problems presented by the living body viewed as a machine,
some may be spoken of as mechanical, others as physical, and yet others

10 REPORT—1899.

as chemical, while some are, apparently at least, none of these. In the
seventeenth century William Harvey, laying hold of the central mechanism
of the blood stream, opened up a path of inquiry which his own age and
the century which followed trod with marked success. The knowledge of the
mechanics of the animal and of the plant advanced apace ; but the physical
and chemical problems had yet to wait. The eighteenth century, it is
true, had its physics and its chemistry ; but, in relation at least to the
problems of the living being, a chemistry which knew not oxygen and a
physics which knew not the electricity of chemical action were of little
avail. The philosopher of 1799, when he discussed the functions of the
animal or of the plant involving chemical changes, was fain for the most
part, as were his predecessors in the century before, to have recourse to
such vague terms as ‘ fermentation’ and the like ; to-day our treatises on
physiology are largely made up of precise and exact expositions of the
play of physical agencies and chemical bodies in the living organism, He
made use of the words ‘vital force’ or ‘vital principle’ not as an occasional,
but as a common, explanation of the phenomena of the living body. During
the present century, especially during its latter half, the idea embodied
in those words has been driven away from one seat after another ; if we
use it now when we are dealing with the chemical and physical events of
life we use it with reluctance, as a dews ex machina to be appealed to
only when everything else has failed.

Some of the problems—and those, perhaps, the chief problems—of the
living body have to be solved neither by physical nor by chemical methods,
but by methods of their own. Such are the problems of the nervous
system. In respect to these the men of 1799 were on the threshold of
a pregnant discovery. During the latter part of the present century,
and especially during its last quarter, the analysis of the mysterious
processes in the nervous system, which issue as feeling, thought,
and power to move, has been pushed forward with a success conspicuous
in its practical, and full of promise in its theoretical, gains. That
analysis may be briefly described as a following up of threads. We
now know that what takes place along a tiny thread which we call a
nerve-fibre differs from that which takes place along its fellow-threads,
that differing nervous impulses travel along different nerve-fibres, and that
nervous and psychical events are the outcome of the clashing of nervous
impulses as they sweep along the closely-woven web of living threads of
which the brain is made. We have learnt by experiment and by observa-
tion that the pattern of the web determines the play of the impulses, and
we can already explain many of the obscure problems not only of nervous
disease, but of nervous life, by an analysis which is a tracking out the
devious and linked paths of nervous threads. The very beginning of this
analysis was unknown in 1799. Men knew that nerves were the agents of
feeling and of the movements of muscles ; they had learnt much about what
this part or that part of the brain could do ; but they did not know that

ADDRESS. iil

one nerve-fibre differed from another in the very essence of its work. It was
just about the end of the past century, or the beginning of the present
one, that an English surgeon began to ponder over a conception which,
however, he did not make known until some years later, and which did
not gain complete demonstration and full acceptance until still more years
had passed away. It wasin 1811, in a tiny pamphlet published privately,
that Charles Bell put forward his ‘New Idea’ that the nervous system was
constructed on the principle that ‘the nerves are not single nerves possess-
ing various powers, but bundles of different nerves, whose filaments are
united for the convenience of distribution, but which are distinct in oftice
as they are in origin from the brain.’

Our present knowledge of the nervous system is to a large extent only
an exemplification and expansion of Charies Bell’s ‘New Idea,’ and has
its origin in that.

If we pass from the problems of the living organism viewed as a
machine to those presented by the varied features of the different crea-
tures who have lived or who still live on the earth, we at once call to
mind that the middle years of the present century mark an epoch in
biologic thought such as never came before, for it was then that Charles
Darwin gave to the world the ‘ Origin of Species.’

That work, however, with all the far-reaching effects which it has had,
could have had little or no effect, or, rather, could not have come into
existence, had not the earlier half of the century been in travail preparing
for its coming. For the germinal idea of Darwin appeals, as to witnesses,
to the results of two lines of biologic investigation which were almost
unknown to the men of the eighteenth century.

To one of these lines I have already referred. Darwin, as we know,
appealed to the geological record ; and we also know how that record,
imperfect as it was then, and imperfect as it must always remain, has
since his time yielded the most striking proofs of at least one part of his
general conception. In 1799 there was, as we have seen, no geological
record at all.

Of the other line I must say a few words.

To-day the merest beginner in biologic study, or even that exemplar
of acquaintance without knowledge, the general reader, is aware that
every living being, even man himself, begins its independent existence as
a tiny ball, of which we can, even acknowledging to the full the limits
of the optical analysis at our command, assert with confidence that in
structure, using that word in its ordinary sense, it is in all cases absolutely
simple. It is equally well known that the features of form which supply
the characters of a grown-up living being, all the many and varied features
of even the most complex organism, are reached as the goal of a road, at
times a long road, of successive changes ; that the life of every being, from
the ovum to its full estate, is a series of shifting scenes, which come and
go, sometimes changing abruptly, ‘sometimes melting the one into the

12 REPORT—1899.

other, like dissolving views, all so ordained that often the final shape
with which the creature seems to begin, or is said to begin, its life in the
world is the outcome of many shapes, clothed with which it has in turn
lived many lives before its seeming birth.

All or nearly all the exact, knowledge of the laboured way in which each
living creature puts on its proper shape and structure is the heritage of
the present century. Although the way in which the chick is moulded in
the egg was not wholly unknown even to the ancients, and in later years
had been told, first in the sixteenth century by Fabricius, then in the seven-
teenth century in a more clear and striking manner by the great Italian
naturalist Malpighi, the teaching thus offered had been neglected or
misinterpreted. At the close of the eighteenth century the dominant
view was that in the making of a creature out of the egg there was no
putting on of wholly new parts, no epigenesis. It was taught that the
entire creature lay hidden in the egg, hidden by reason of the very trans-
parency of its substance, lay ready-made but folded up, as it were, and
that the process of development within the egg or within the womb was
a mere unfolding, a simple evolution. Nor did men shrink from accepting
the logical outcome of such a view—namely, that within the unborn
creature itself lay in like manner, hidden and folded up, its offspring also,
and within that again its offspring in turn, after the fashion of a
cluster of ivory balls carved by Chinese hands, one within the other.
This was no fantastic view put forward by an imaginative dreamer ; it
was sericusly held by sober men, even by men like the illustrious Haller,
in spite of their recognising that as the chick grew in the egg some
changes of form took place. Though so early as the middle of the
eighteenth century Friedrich Caspar Wolff and, later on, others had
strenuously opposed such a view, it held its own not only to the close
of the century, but far on into the next. It was not until a quarter
of the present century had been added to the past that Von Baer made
known the results of researches which once and for all swept away the
old view. He and others working after him made it clear that each
individual puts on its final form and structure not by an unfolding of
pre-existing hidden features, but by the formation of new parts through
the continued differentiation of a primitively simple material. It was
also made clear that the successive changes which the embryo undergoes
in its progress from the ovum to maturity are the expression of
morphologic laws, that the progress is one from the general to the special,
and that the shifting scenes cf embryonic life are hints and tokens of lives
lived by ancestors in times long past.

If we wish to measure how far off in biologic thought the end of the
last century stands, not only from the end but even from the middle of
this one, we may imagine Darwin striving to write the ‘Origin of
Species’ in 1799. We may fancy him being told by philosophers that one
group of living beings differed from another group because all its members

ADDRESS. 18

and all their ancestors came into existence at one stroke when the first-
born progenitor of the race, within which all the rest were folded up,
stood forth as the result of a creative act. We may fancy him listening to
a debate between the philosopher who maintained that all the fossils strewn
in the earth were the remains of animals or plants churned up in the
turmoil of a violent universal flood, and dropped in their places as the
waters went away, and him who argued that such were not really the
‘spoils of living creatures,’ but the products of some playful plastic
power which out of the superabundance of its energy fashioned here
and there the lifeless earth into forms which imitated, but only imitated,
those of living things. Could he amid such surroundings by any flight
of genius have beat his way to the conception for which his name will ever
be known ?

Here I may well turn away from the past. It is not my purpose, nor,
as I have said, am I fitted, nor is this perhaps the place, to tell even in
outline the tale of the work of science in the nineteenth century. Iam
content to have pointed out that the two great sciences of chemistry and
geology took their birth, or at least began to stand alone, at the close of
the last century, and have grown to be what we know them now within
about a hundred years, and that the study of living beings has within
the same time been so transformed as to be to-day something wholly
different from what it was in 1799. And, indeed, to say more would be
to repeat almost the same story about other things. If our present know-
ledge of electricity is essentially the child of the nineteenth century, so
also is our present knowledge of many other branches of physics. And
those most ancient forms of exact knowledge, the knowledge of numbers
and of the heavens, whose beginning is lost in the remote past, have, with
all other kinds of natural knowledge, moved onward during the whole of
the hundred years with a speed which is ever increasing. I have said, I
trust, enough to justify the statement that in respect to natural knowledge
a great gulf lies between 1799 and 1899. That gulf, moreover, is a two-
fold one: not only has natural knowledge been increased, but men have
run to and fro spreading it as they go. Not only have the few driven
far back round the full circle of natural knowledge the dark clouds of the
unknown which wrap us all about, but also the many walk in the zone of
light thus increasingly gained. If it be true that the few to-day are, in re-
spect to natural knowledge, far removed from the few of those days, it is also
true that nearly all which the few alone knew then, and much which even
they did not know, has now become the common knowledge of the many.

What, however, I may venture to insist upon here is that the difference
in respect to natural knowledge, whatever be the case with other differ-
ences between then and now, is undoubtedly a difference which means
progress. The span between the science of that time and the science of
to-day is beyond all question a great stride onwards,

14 REPORT—1899.

We may say this, but we must say it without boasting. For the very
story of the past which tells of the triumphs of science bids the man of
science put away from him all thoughts of vainglory. And that by many
tokens.

Whoever, working at any scientific problem, has occasion to study the
inquiries into the same problem made by some fellow-worker in the years
long gone by, comes away from that study humbled by one or other of
two different thoughts. On the one hand he may find, when he has
translated the language of the past into the phraseology of to-day, how
near was his forerunner of old to the conception which he thought, with
pride, was all his own, not only so true but so new. On the other hand,
if the ideas of the investigator of old, viewed in the light of modern know-
ledge, are found to be so wide of the mark as to seem absurd, the smile
which begins to play upon the lips of the modern is checked by the thought,
Will the ideas which I am now putting forth, and which I think explain
so clearly, so fully, the problem in hand, seem to some worker in the far
future as wrong and as fantastic as do these of my forerunner tome? In
either case his personal pride is checked. Further, there is written clearly
on each page of the history of science, in characters which cannot be
overlooked, the lesson that no scientific truth is born anew, coming by
itself and of itself. Each new truth is always the offspring of something
which has gone before, becoming in turn the parent of something
coming after. In this aspect the man of science is unlike, or seems to be
unlike, the poet and the artist. The poet is born, not made : he rises up,
no man knowing his beginnings ; when he goes away, though men after
him may sing his songs for centuries, he himself goes away wholly, having
taken with him his mantle, for this he can give to none other. The man
of science is not thus creative ; he is created. His work, however great it
be, is not wholly his own ; it is in part the outcome of the work of men
who have gone before. Again and again a conception which has made
a name great has come not so much by the man’s own effort as out of the
fulness of time. Again and again we may read in the words of some man
of old the outlines of an idea which in later days has shone forth as a great
acknowledged truth. From the mouth of the man of old the idea dropped
barren, fruitless ; the world was not ready for it, and heeded it not; the
concomitant and abutting truths which could give it power to work were
wanting. Coming back again in later days, the same idea found the world
awaiting it ; things were in travail preparing for it ; and someone, seizing
the right moment to put it forth again, leapt into fame. It isnot so much
the men of science who make science, as some spirit which, born of the
truths already won, drives the man of science onward and uses him to
win new truths in turn.

It is because each man of science is not his own master, but one of
many obedient servants of an impulse which was at work long before him,
and will work long after him, that in science there is no falling back. In

ADDRESS. 15

respect to other things there may be times of darkness and times of light,
there may be risings, decadences, and revivals. In science there is only
progress. The path may not be always a straight line, there may be
swerving to this side and to that, ideas may seem to return again and
again to the same point of the intellectual compass ; but it will always be
found that they have reached a higher level—they have moved, not in a
circle, but in a spiral. Moreover science is not fashioned as is a house,
by putting brick to brick, that which is once put remaining as it was put
to the end. The growth of science is that of a living being. As in the
embryo phase follows phase, and each member of the body puts on in
succession different appearances, though all the while the same member,
So a scientific conception of one age seems to differ from that of a follow-
ing age, though it is the same one in the process of being made ; and as
the dim outlines of the early embryo, as the being grows, become more
distinct and sharp, like a picture on a screen brought more and more into
focus, so the dim gropings and searchings of the men of science of old are
by repeated approximations wrought into the clear and exact conclusions
of later times.

The story of natural knowledge, of science, in the nineteenth century,
as, indeed, in preceding centuries, is, I repeat, a story of continued progress.
There is in it not so much as a hint of falling back, not even of standing
still. What is gained by scientific inquiry is gained for ever ; it may be
added to, it may seem to be covered up, but it can never be taken away.
Confident that the progress will go on, we cannot help peering into the
years to come and straining our eyes to foresee what science will become
and what it will do as they roll on. While we do so, the thought must
come to us, Will all the increasing knowledge of Nature avail only to
change the ways of man—will it have no effect on man himself ?

The material good which mankind has gained and is gaining through
the advance of science is so imposing as to be obvious to everyone, and
the praises of this aspect of science are to be found in the mouths of all.
Beyond all doubt science has greatly lessened and has markedly narrowed
hardship and suffering ; beyond all doubt science has largely increased
and has widely diffused ease and comfort. The appliances of science have,
as it were, covered with a soft cushion the rough places of life, and that
not for the rich only, but also for the poor. So abundant and so promi-
nent are the material benefits of science that in the eyes of many these
seem to be the only benefits which she brings. She is often spoken of as
if she were useful and nothing more, as if her work were only to administer
to the material wants of man,

Is this so ?

We may begin to doubt it when we reflect that the triumphs of science
which bring these material advantages are in their very nature intellec-
tual triumphs. The increasing benefits brought by science are the results

16 REPORT—1899.

of man’s increasing mastery over Nature, and that mastery is increasingly
a mastery of mind ; it is an increasing power to use the forces of what
we call inanimate nature in place of the force of his own or other creatures’
bodies ; it is an increasing use of mind in place of muscle.

Ts it to be thought that that which has brought the mind so greatly
into play has had no effect on the mind itself? Is that part of the mind
which works out scientific truths a mere slavish machine producing results
it knows not how, having no part in the good which in its working it
brings forth ?

What are the qualities, the features of that scientific mind which has
wrought, and is working, such great changes in man’s relation to Nature ?
In seeking an answer to this question we have not to inquire into the
attributes of genius. Though much of the progress of science seems to
take on the form of a series of great steps, each made by some great man,
the distinction in science between the great discoverer and the humble
worker is one of degree only, not of kind. As I was urging just now, the
greatness of many great names in science is often, in large part, the great-
ness of occasion, not of absolute power. The qualities which guide one
man to asmall truth silently taking its place among its fellows, as these go
to make up progress, are at bottom the same as those by which another
man is led to something of which the whole world rings.

The features of the fruitful scientific mind are in the main three.

In the first place, above all other things, his nature must be one which
vibrates in unison with that of which he is in search ; the seeker after
truth must himself be truthful, truthful with the truthfulness of Nature.
For the truthfulness of Nature is not wholly the same as that which man
sometimes calls truthfulness. It is far more imperious, far more exacting.
Man, unscientific man, is often content with ‘the nearly ’ and ‘ the almost.’
Nature never is. It is not her way to call the same two things which
differ, though the difference may be measured by less than the thousandth
of a milligramme or of a millimetre, or by any other like standard of minute-
ness. And the man who, carrying the ways of the world into the domain
of science, thinks that he may treat Nature’s differences in any other way
than she treats them herself, will find that she resents his conduct ; if he in
carelessness or in disdain overlooks the minute difference which she holds
out to him as a signal to guide him in his search, the projecting tip, as it
were, of some buried treasure, he is bound to go astray, and the more strenu-
ously he struggles on, the farther will he find himself from his true goal.

In the second place, he must be alert of mind. Nature is ever making
signs to us, she is ever whispering to us the beginnings of her secrets ; the
scientific man must be ever on the watch, ready at once to lay hold of
Nature’s hint, however small, to listen to her whisper, however low.

In the third place, scientific inquiry, though it be pre-eminently an
intellectual effort, has need of the moral quality of courage—not so much
the courage which helps a man to face a sudden difficulty as the courage

ADDRESS. 17

of steadfast endurance. Almost every inquiry, certainly every prolonged
inquiry, sooner or later goes wrong. The path, at first so straight and
clear, grows crooked and gets blocked ; the hope and enthusiasm, or even
the jaunty ease, with which the inquirer set out leave him and he falls
into a slough of despond. That is the critical moment calling for courage.
Struggling through the slough he will find on the other side the wicket-
gate opening up the real path ; losing heart he will turn back and add
one more stone to the great cairn of the unaccomplished.

But, I hear someone say, these qualities are not the peculiar attributes
of the man of science, they may be recognised as belonging to almost every-
one who has commanded or deserved success, whatever may have been his
walk of life. Thatisso. That is exactly what I would desire to insist,
that the men of science have no peculiar virtues, no special powers. They
are ordinary men, their characters are common, even commonplace.
Science, as Huxley said, is organised common sense, and men of science
are common men, drilled in the ways of common sense.

For their life has this feature. Though in themselves they are no
stronger, no better than other men, they possess a strength which, as I
just now urged, is not their own but is that of the science whose servants
they are. Even in his apprenticeship, the scientific inquirer, while learn-
ing what has been done before his time, if he learns it aright, so learns it
that what is known may serve him not only as a vantage ground whence
to push off into the unknown, but also as a compass to guide him in his
course. And when fitted for his work he enters on inquiry itself, what a
zealous anxious guide, what a strict and, because strict, helpful school-
mistress does Nature make herself tohim ! Under her care every inquiry,
whether it bring the inquirer to a happy issue or seem to end in nought,
trains him for the next effort. She so orders her ways that each act
of obedience to her makes the next act easier for him, and step by step
she leads him on towards that perfect obedience which is complete mastery.

Indeed, when we reflect on the potency of the discipline of scientific
inquiry we cease to wonder at the progress of scientific knowledge. The
results actually gained seem to fall so far short of what under such guid-
ance might have been expected to have been gathered in that we are fain
to conclude that science has called to follow her, for the most part, the
poor in intellect and the wayward in spirit. Had she called to her service
the many acute minds who have wasted their strength struggling in vain
to solve hopeless problems, or who have turned their energies to things
other than the increase of knowledge ; had she called to her service the
many just men who have walked straight without the need of a rod
to guide them, how much greater than it has been would have been
the progress of science, and how many false teachings would the world
have been.spared! 'To men of science themselves, when they consider
their favoured lot, the achievements of the past should serve not as a
boast, but as a reproach.

1899,

18 REPORT—1899.,

If there be any truth in what I have been urging, that the pursuit of
scientific inquiry is itself a training of special potency, giving strength to
the feeble and keeping in the path those who are inclined to stray, it is
obvious that the material gains of science, great as they may be, do not
make up all the good which science brings or may bring to man. We
especially, perhaps, in these later days, through the rapid development of
the physical sciences, are too apt to dwell on the material gains alone.
As a child in its infancy looks upon its mother only as a giver of good
things, and does not learn till in after days how she was also showing her
love by carefully training it in the way it should go, so we, too, have
thought too much of the gifts of science, overlooking her power to
guide.

Man does not live by bread alone, and science brings him more than
bread. It is a great thing to make two blades of grass grow where before
one alone grew ; but it is no less great a thing to help a man to come toa
just conclusion on the questions with which he has to deal. We may
claim for science that while she is doing the one she may be so used as
to do the other also. The dictum just quoted, that science is organised
common sense, may be read as meaning that the common problems of life
which common people have to solve are to be solved by the same methods
by which the man of science solves his special problems. It follows that
the training which does so much for him may be looked to as promising
to do much for them. Such aid can come from science on two conditions
only. In the first place, this her influence must be acknowledged ;
she must be duly recognised as a teacher no less than as a hewer of wood
and a drawer of water. And the pursuit of science must be followed not
by the professional few only, but, at least in such measure as will ensure
the influence of example, by the many. But this latter point I need not
urge before this great Association, whose chief object during more than
half a century has been to bring within the fold of science all who would
answer to the call. In the second place, it must be understood that the
training to be looked for from science is the outcome not of the accumula-
tion of scientific knowledge, but of the practice of scientific inquiry.
Man may have at his fingers’ ends all the accomplished results and all
the current opinions of any one or of all the branches of science, and yet
remain wholly unscientific in mind ; but no one can have carried out even
the humblest research without the spirit of science in’ some measure
resting upon him. And that spirit may in part be caught even without
entering upon an actual investigation in search of a new truth. The
learner may be led to old truths, even the oldest, in more ways than one.
He may be brought abruptly to a truth in its finished form, coming straight
toit like a thief climbing over the wall ; and the hurry and press of modern
life tempt many to adopt this quicker way. Or he may be more slowly
guided along the path by which the truth was reached by him who first
laid hold of it. It is by this latter way of learning the truth, and by this

ADDRESS. 19

alone, that the learner may hope to catch something at least of the spirit
of the scientific inquirer.

This is not the place, nor have I the wish, to plunge into the turmoil
of controversy ; but, if there be any truth in what I have been urging,
then they are wrong who think that in the schooling of the young science
can be used with profit only to train those for whom science will be the
means of earning their bread. It may be that from the point of view of
the pedagogic art the experience of generations has fashioned out of the
older studies of literature an instrument of discipline of unusual power,
and that the teaching of science is as yet but a rough tool in unpractised
hands. That, however, is not an adequate reason why scope should not
be given for science to show the value which we claim for it as an intel-
lectual training fitted for all sorts and conditions of men. Nor need the
studies of humanity and literature fear her presence in the schools, for if
her friends maintain that that teaching is one-sided, and therefore mis-
leading, which deals with the doings of man only, and is silent about the
works of Nature, in the sight of which he and _ his doings shrink
almost to nothing, she herself would be the first to admit that that
teaching is equally wrong which deals only with the works of Nature and
says nothing about the doings of man, who is, to us at least, Nature’s
centre.

There is yet another general aspect of science on which I would crave
leave to say a word. In that broad field of human life which we call
politics, in the struggle not of man with man, but of race with race,
science works for good. If we look only on the surface it may at first
sight seem otherwise. In no branch of science has there during these
later years been greater activity and more rapid progress than in that
which furnishes the means by which man brings death, suffering, and
disaster on his fellow-men, If the healer can look with pride on the
increased power which science has given him to alleviate human suffering
and ward off the miseries of disease, the destroyer can look with still
greater pride on the power which science has given him to sweep away
lives and to work desolation and ruin; while the one has slowly been
learning to save units, the other has quickly learnt to slay thousands.
But, happily, the very greatness of the modern power of destruction is
already becoming a bar to its use, and bids fair—may we hope before
long ?—wholly to put an end to it; in the words of Tacitus, though in
another sense, the very preparations for war, through the character which
science gives them, make for peace.

Moreover, not in one branch of science only, but in all, there is a deep
undercurrent of influence sapping the very foundations of all war. As I
have already urged, no feature of scientific inquiry is more marked than
the dependence of each step forward on other steps which have been made
before. The man of science cannot sit by himself in his own cave weaving

C2

20 REPORT—1899.

out results by his own efforts, unaided by others, heedless of what
others have done and are doing. He is but a bit of a great system, a
joint in a great machine, and he can only work aright when he is in due
touch with his fellow-workers. If his labour is to be what it ought to be,
and is to have the weight which it ought to have, he must know what
is being done, not by himself, but by others, and by others not of his own
land and speaking his tongue only, but also of other lands and of other
speech. Hence it comes about that to the man of science the barriers of
manners and of speech which pen men into nations become more and more
unreal and indistinct. He recognises his fellow-worker, wherever he may
live and whatever tongue he may speak, as one who is pushing forward
shoulder to shoulder with him towards a common goal, as one whom he
is helping and who is helping him. The touch of science makes the whole
world kin.

The history of the past gives us many examples of this brotherhood of
science. In the revival of learning throughout the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries, and some way on into the eighteenth century, the
common use of the Latin tongue made intercourse easy. In some respects
in those earlier days science was more cosmopolitan than it afterwards
became. In spite of the difficulties and hardships of travel, the men of
science of different lands again and again met each other face to face,
heard with their ears, and saw with their eyes what their brethren had to
say or toshow. The Englishman took the long journey to Italy to study
there ; the Italian, the Frenchman, and the German wandered from one
seat of learning to another ; and many a man held a chair in a country
not his own. There was help, too, as well as intercourse. The Royal
Society of London took upon itself the task of publishing nearly all the
works of the great Italian Malpighi, and the brilliant Lavoisier, two years
before his own countrymen in their blind fury slew him, received from
the same body the highest token which it could give of its esteem.

In these closing years of the nineteenth century this great need of
mutual knowledge and of common action felt by men of science of different
lands is being manifested in a special way. Though nowadays what is
done anywhere is soon known everywhere, the news of a discovery being
often flashed over the globe by telegraph, there is an increasing activity in
the direction of organisation to promote international meetings and inter-
national co-operation. In almost every science inquirers from many lands
now gather together at stated intervals in international congresses to
discuss matters which they have in common at heart, and go away each
one feeling strengthened by having met his brother. The desire that in the
struggle to lay bare the secrets of Nature the least waste of human energy
should be incurred is leading more and more to the concerted action of
nations combining to attack problems the solution of which is difficult
and costly. The determination of standards of measurement, magnetic
surveys, the solution of great geodetic problems, the mapping of the

ADDRESS. ra |

heavens and of the earth—all these are being carried on by international
organisations.

In this and in other countries men’s minds have this long while past
heen greatly moved by the desire to make fresh efforts to pierce the dark
secrets of the forbidding Antarctic regions. Belgium has just made a
brave single-handed attempt; a private enterprise sailing from these
shores is struggling there now, lost for the present to our view ; and this
year we in England and our brethren in Germany are, thanks to the
promised aid of the respective Governments, and no less to private
liberality, in which this Association takes its share, able to begin the
preparation of carefully organised expeditions. That international amity
of which I am speaking is illustrated by the fact that in this country and in
that there is not only a great desire, but a firm purpose, to secure the
fullest co-operation between the expeditions which will leave the two
shores. If in this momentous attempt any rivalry be shown between the
two nations, it will be for each a rivalry, not in forestalling, but in assist-
ing the other. May I add that if the story of the past may seem to give
our nation some claim to the seas as more peculiarly our own, that claim
bespeaks a duty likewise peculiarly our own to leave no effort untried by
which we may plumb the seas’ yet unknown depths and trace their yet
unknown shores? That claim, if it means anything, means that when
nations are joining hands in the dangerous work of exploring the un-
known South, the larger burden of the task should fall to Britain’s share ;
it means that we in this country should see to it, and see to it at once,
that the concerted Antarctic expedition which in some two years or so
will leave the shores of Germany, of England, and, perhaps, of other lands,
should, so far as we are concerned, be so equipped and so sustained that
the risk of failure and disaster may be made as small, and the hope of
being able not merely to snatch a hurried glimpse of lands not yet seen,
but to gather in with full hands a rich harvest of the facts which men not
of one science only, but of many, long to know, as great as possible.

Another international scientific effort demands a word of notice. The
need which every inquirer in science feels to know, and to know quickly,
what his fellow-worker, wherever on the globe he may be carrying on his

work or making known his results, has done or is doing, led some four
years back to a proposal for carrying out by international co-operation
a complete current index, issued promptly, of the scientific literature
of the world. Though much labour in many lands has been spent
upon the undertaking, the project is not yet an accomplished fact. Nor
can this, perhaps, be wondered at, when the difficulties of the task are
weighed. Difficulties of language, difficulties of driving in one team all
the several sciences which, like young horses, wish each to have its head
free with leave to go its own way, difficulties mechanical and financial of
press and post, difficulties raised by existing interests—these and yet
other difficulties are obstacles not easy to be overcome. The most striking

99, REPORT—1899.

and the most encouraging features of the deliberations which have now
been going on for three years have been the repeated expressions, coming
not from this or that quarter only, but from almost all quarters, of an
earnest desire that the effort should succeed, of a sincere belief in the
good of international co-operation, and of a willingness to sink as far as
possible individual interests for the sake of the common cause. In the
face of such a spirit we may surely hope that the many difficulties will
ultimately pass out of sight.

Perhaps, however, not the least notable fact of international co-opera-
tion in science is the proposal which has been made within the last two years
that the leading academies of the world should, by representatives, meet
at intervals to discuss questions in which the learned of all lands are
interested. A month hence a preliminary meeting of this kind will be
held at Wiesbaden ; and it is at least probable that the closing year of
that nineteenth century in which science has played so great a part may
at Paris, during the great World’s Fair—which every friend, not of
science only, but of humanity, trusts may not be put aside or even injured
through any untoward event, and which promises to be an occasion not
of pleasurable sight-seeing only, but also, by its many international con-
gresses, of international communing in the search for truth—witness the
first select Witenagemote of the science of the world.

I make no apology for having thus touched on international co-
operation. I should have been wanting, had I not done so, to the memorable
occasion of this meeting. A hundred years ago two great nations were
grappling with each other in a fierce struggle, which had lasted, with
pauses, for many years, and was to last for many years to come ; war was
on every lip and in almost every heart. To-day this meeting has, by a
common wish, been so arranged that those two nations should, in the
persons of their men of science, draw as near together as they can, with
nothing but the narrow streak of the Channel between them, in order
that they may take counsel together on matters in which they have one
interest and a common hope. May we not look upon this brotherly
meeting as one of many signs that science, though she works in a silent
manner and in ways unseen by many, is steadily making for peace ?

Looking back, then, in this last year of the eighteen hundreds, on the
century which is drawing to its close, while we may see in the history of
scientific inquiry much which, telling the man of science of his short-
comings and his weakness, bids him be humble, we also see much, perhaps
more, which gives him hope. Hope is indeed one of the watchwords of
science. In the latter-day writings of some who know not science, much
may be read which shows that the writer is losing or has lost hope in the
future of mankind. There are not a few of these ; their repeated utter-
ances make a sign of the times. Seeing in matters lying outside science
few marks of progress and many tokens of decline or of decay, recognising

ADDRESS, 23

in science its material benefits only, such men have thoughts of despair
when they look forward to the times to come. But if there be any truth
in what I have attempted to urge to-night, if the intellectual, if the moral
influences of science are no less marked than her material benefits, if, more-
over, that which she has done is but the earnest of that which she shall do,
such men may pluck up courage and gather strength by laying hold of her
garment. We men of science at least need not share their views or their
fears. Our feet are set, not on the shifting sands of the opinions and of the
fancies of the day, but ona solid foundation of verified truth, which by the
labours of each succeeding age is made broader and more firm. To us the
past is a thing to look back upon, not with regret, not as something which
has been lost never to be regained, but with content, as something whose
influence is with us still, helping us on our further way. With us, indeed,
the past points not to itself, but to the future ; the golden age is in front
of us, not behind us ; that which we do know is a lamp whose brightest
beams are shed into the unknown before us, showing us how much there
is ahead and lighting up the way to reach it. We are confident in the
advance because, as each one of us feels that any step forward which he
may make is not ordered by himself alone and is not the result of his own
sole efforts in the present, but is, and that in large measure, the out-
come of the labours of others in the past, so each one of us has the sure
and certain hope that as the past has helped him, so his efforts, be they
great or be they small, will be a help to those to come.

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REPORTS

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STATH OF SCIENCE.

Corresponding Societies’ Committee.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor R. MELpoLA (Chairman), Mr. T. V. HOLMES
(Secretary), Mr. Francis Gatton, Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. J. G.
Garson, Sir Jonn Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor T. G.
Bonney, Mr. W. WaiTaker, Sir CUTHBERT PEEK, Mr. Horace T.
Brown, Rev. J. O. Bevan, Professor W. W. Watts, and Rev.
T. R. R. STEBBING.

Tue Corresponding Societies’ Committee of the British Association
beg leave to submit to the General Committee the following Report.

The Committee have pleasure in being able to state that the resolution
passed at the Bristol Conference of Delegates last year, respecting the
desirability of securing the co-operation of the Coastguard for carrying on
systematic observations on Coast Erosion, having been adopted by the
British Association, has been favourably received by the Admiralty. The
Committee were informed that the Council of the British Association
appointed a Committee to consider and report on the proposal. The
Committee having reported favourably, the Council approached the
Admiralty, and in their Report give an account of their application.

The necessary forms, prepared by the Committee of the Council, have
been issued by the Admiralty. Many have already been returned, filled
in by the Coastguard. As a knowledge of their nature may be useful to
the Corresponding Societies, and may tend to promote uniformity in the
Observations made by such of their members as are interested in Coast
Erosion, copies of Forms I. and IT. are appended.

The Committee regret to have to report that the East of Scotland
Union of Naturalists’ Societies (which was founded in 1884) has ceased to
exist. The Secretary of the Union, in reply to inquiries as to the cause
of its dissolution, replied :—‘I think that the chief reason of the downfall
of this Union is that the majority of those men who originally founded
it and who took an active part in its work are now deaa, and that those
left do not see the same necessity for combined work.’ He added that
many of the smaller societies which belonged to the Union perished
through the decease of the older members and the want of a supply of
new ones from the younger people.

28 REPORT—1899.

Form No. I.—Observations of Coast Changes. To be filled in and

returned as soon as convenient.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
Burlington House, London, W.

Instructions to Observers in regard to Changes that are taking place along the
Coast-line of the British Isles.

1. Mention the part of the coast on which you report, and give its limits.

2. State whether the coast is cliffy or low; whether rocky, sandy, gravelly, or
muddy. If it is cliffy, give the average height of the cliffs, and, if possible, the
nature of the material of which they consist, especially whether hard rock, chalk,
clay, &c. State also the nature of the beach.

3. What is the vertical range of ordinary spring-tides ?

4. Is the sea encroaching on the coast? If so, state briefly the proofs of this
change.

5. Is the land gaining on the sea? If so, give shortly the evidence of such
advance.

6. Are there any artificial causes which tend to increase or retard the natural
changes on the coast? For instance,are there any groynes along the shore, and if
so, what effect have they on the travelling shingle or sand? Are the shingle, sand,
or slabs of stone, removed for industrial or other purposes ?

>»: ue ST ____ Signature of person reporting.

{3 Sse Coast Guard Station.

(Additional Copies of this Form can be had on application.]

Form No. I1.—Observations of Coast Changes. To be retained until there
are some actual changes to be reported, after which the form should b
filled up and returned without delay, in order that if needful a more
careful survey of the changes reported on may be made by the Com-
mittee of the British Association.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
Burlington House, London, W.

Instructions to Observers in regard to Changes that may take place
along the Coast-line of the British Isles.

A. When changes are actually observed to be taking place on the coast, either as
to advance or retreat of the sea, it is very desirable that information regarding them
should he forwarded as soon as possible. For example, when any fall of a portion of
shore cliff occurs, note of the circumstances should be taken, with measurements
(if that be found practicable) or estimates of the area or amount of material that
has been dislodged. When any groynes or other artificial protections of the coast
are washed away, this should also be reported, and likewise when any new groynes
or other works on the coast are constructed.

B. The Council of the British Association will be glad to receive any other
information of which the observer may be in possession, bearing upon the changes
that are taking place along the shore.

[The answers to these two paragraphs A and B can be written below,
or if necessary on other sheets of foolscap paper.]

Signature of person reporting.

__ Coast Guard Station.
{Additional Copies of this Form can be had on application.]

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 29

Report of the Proceedings of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding
Societies held at Dover.

The Council nominated the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, Chairman, and
Mr. T. V. Holmes, Secretary, to the Dover Conference. These nomina-
tions were confirmed by the General Committee at a meeting held at
Dover on Wednesday, September 13. The meetings of the Conference
were held in the Mayor's Parlour at the Town Hall on Thursday,
September 14, and Tuesday, September 19, at 3 p.m. The following
Corresponding Societies nominated as delegates to represent them at the
Dover meeting :—

Andersonian Naturalists’ Society
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club . ;
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical
Society
Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club . 5
Birmingham Natural History and Philoso-
phical Society
Buchan Field Club:
Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club
Chester Society of Natural Science, Litera-
ture, and Art
Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian
Field Club
East Kent Scientific and Natural History
Society
Essex Field Club
Glasgow Geological Society
Glasgow Natural History Society
Hampshire Field Club
Hertiordshire Natural History Society
Hull Geological Society
Institution of Mining Engineers :
Isle of Man Natural History and Anti-
quarian Society
Leeds Geological Association
Liverpool Geographical Society .
Liverpool Geol gical Society
Malton Field Naturalists’ and Scientific
Society
Manchester Geographical Society
Manchester Geological Society .
Manchester Microscopical Society
Midland Institute of Mining, Civil,
Mechanical Engineers
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society .
North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club
North of England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers
Nottingham Naturalists’ Society
Perthshire Society of Natural Science
Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society .
Scotland, Mining Institute of
South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies
South Staffordshire and East Worcester-
shire Institute of Mining Engineers
Warwickshire Naturalists’ and Archzolo-
gists’ Field Club
Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic
Society
Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union .

and

Professor M. Laurie, D.Sc.
William Gray, M.R.1.A.
T. Workman.

G. P. Hughes, J.P.
Professor T. W. Bridge, D.Sc.

John Gray, B.Sc.
Professor W. W. Watts, F.G.S.
A. O. Walker, F.L.S.

Vaughan Cornish, B.Se.
A. 8. Reid, F.G.S.

T. V. Holmes, F.G.S.

J. B. Murdoch.

J. R. Gemmill, M.B.

T. W. Shore, F.G.S.

W. Whitaker, F.R.S.

J. W. Stather.

Professor Henry Louis, M.A.
P. M. C. Kermode.

Professor P. F. Kendall, F.G:S.
Captain Phillips, R.N.
J. Lomas, F.G.S.

M. B. Slater, F.L.S.

Eli Sowerbutts, F.R.G.S.
Mark Stirrup, F.G.S,

F. W. Hembry, F.R.M.S.
Professor Henry Louis, M.A.

J. 1. Hotblack.
Dr. Wheelton Hind, F.G.S.
J. H. Merivale, M.A.

Professor J. W. Carr, F.L.S.
A. M. Rodger.

James Ogden.

James Barrowman.

Dr. G. Abbott.

Professor Henry Louis, M.A.

Wi. Andrews, F.S.A.

Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A
Wm. Gregson, F.G.S

Harold Wager, F.1.S.

ag) REPORT-—1899.

First Conference, Dover, September 14, 1899.

The Corresponding Societies Committee were represented by Rev.
T. R. R. Stebbing (Chairman), Rev. J. O. Bevan, Mr. G. J. Symons,
Professor W. W. Watts, and Mr. T. V. Holmes (Secretary).

The Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee (see p. 27), a
copy of which was in the hands of every delegate present, was taken as read.

After briefly calling attention to the forms for recording observations
of coast changes, a result of the discussion on Coast Erosion at the Bristol
Conference, the Chairman delivered the following Address :

The Living Subterranean Fauna of Great Britain and Ireland.

It would have been easy to enlarge the subject of this address and
extend its interest by omission of the word ‘living,’ and joining the flora
to thefauna. All the province of the paleontologist would thus have been
included, and we should have been free to discuss the distribution of truffles
and pignuts. But better results may be hoped for from a more restricted
ambition. The cave-bear must be passed over witha fond regret. Weare
concerned only with animals still living. If among vertebrates we have to
content ourselves with birds and bats and rats, with badgers and foxes and
rabbits and moles, and in general a group of creatures not prominent for
size or ferocity, there are compensations which none but a very ardent
sportsman will despise. Our country is too much overrun by that digging,
delving, and destructive species, homo sapiens, to allow us any hope of
turning upa Veomylodon (or Gilossotheriwm), or even a mudfish. The
animals above-mentioned are of course only in a modified sense subter-
ranean. They seek their shelters or make them in caves or holes of the
earth, but are still both free and forced to come abroad for various pur-
poses into the light of day or beneath the nocturnal sky.

Like so many other terms applied to natural knowledge, the word
‘subterranean’ is highly indefinite. How much earth must I put on my
head, and how long must I keep it there to make me truly a Troglodyte ?
There is the giant Enceladus, whose uneasy turnings cause, as you know,
the eruptions of Mount Etna, under which he is permanently imprisoned.
From him, then, the conception of an underground animal may vary to
Virgil’s angry bees lulled for a few moments by the sprinkling of a hand-
ful of dust. Under loose stones a crowd of creatures take refuge, frame
their dwellings, lay snares, and in various ways make themselves at home.
Among these are vipers and lizards, ants and bees and beetles, centipedes,
spiders, and woodlice, with slugs and other slimy and seductive specimens
to suit almost every imaginable taste. Of burrowing spiders, none in Great
Britain has yet been found making a door to its trap. Whether the dis-
credit attaches to the British spider’s want of ingenuity or to the British
arachnologist’s want of research is still an open question. As to the dis-
tribution of the mole cricket, of the bee that burrows in footpaths, and
the history of mining insects in general within our islands, there may still
be information worth gleaning. The soils they favour, the temperatures
they can endure, their modes of working, their means of subsistence, the
good and the evil they do to mankind are among the obvious points of
interest connected with them. One has, however, to remember that
entomology is a science with innumerable students, a boundless literature,
and an infinite subject. There is, therefore, always a risk that in suing for

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Sl

its assistance one may suffer the fate of the husbandman who, in a drought,
incautiously prayed to Jupiter for rain, without specifying the quantity
required, and presently had to swim for his life from his flooded farm.

There isthe same chance of a surplus, of having, so to speak, rather too
much of a good thing, were we to take into our survey all those marine
species which on the shore or in the sea hide under stones or bury them-
selves in sand and ooze—sea-anemones and sand-eels, annelids and amphi-
pods, sea-urchins and starfishes, cockles and razor-shells, friends and foes,
the blind and the seeing, the brilliant and the dull, the agile and the slow—
a list that might be extended into details of inexhaustible interest, but
interminable length.

From these fields of research, so well known and so bewilderingly wide,
I turn to one which is by comparison exceedingly small and obscure, to
one which has certainly not been overworked or exhausted in this country
to one, moreover, in which the organisation of afliliated societies might
easily render essential service. The animals which are born and bred and
pass their lives in wells and caverns may be regarded as the true under-
ground fauna. Though in wells they may have no ground actually overhead,
still they live far below the surface, and, whether in well or cave, they are
the permanent occupants, distinct from thosecreatures which scuttle in and
out, and do most of their fighting, feeding, and foregathering in the external
world.

The first undoubted mention of an underground crustacean seems to be
that of an amphipod found in London, and named by Dr. Leach of the
British Museum in 1813, nor in earlier times do any important researches
appear to have been made as to the subterranean fauna of any part of the
globe. But, whatever the novelty and narrowness of the subject may be,
there are now scores of valuable treatises upon it, in a variety of European
languages, Polish and others. In the long list of authors one may note
in passing the names of Fries and Gustav Joseph, Wrzednigowski and
Vejdovski and Moniez, leaving the majority to be discovered in two admir-
able works, of which the English student will be well advised to make
himself master. One of these is ‘The Cave Fauna of North America,’ by
Dr. Alpheus Spring Packard, published in the ‘Memoirs of the National
Academy of Sciences,’ vol. iv., Washington, 1888. The other is ‘The
Subterranean Crustacea of New Zealand,’ by Dr. Charles Chilton, pub-
lished in the ‘Transactions of the Linnean Society of London for 1894.’

Packard enumerates 308 European cave animals and 102 American.
This total of 410 includes a few Protozoa, a sponge, two hydras, a few
worms, one mollusc, several Crustacea and myriapods, numerous arachnids,
and a host of Coleoptera, the other insects being chiefly Thysanura. The
vertebrates are limited to four American fishes and one European
batrachian, the celebrated Protews anguineus. In the specific names of
these animals there are, as might be expected, abundant references to
their peculiar choice of residence, as in the designations cavaticus, cavicola,
cavicolens, cavernarum, speluncarum, and, with more particularity,
wyandottensis, nickajackensis, mammothia, not to speak of the blood-
curdling stygius, orcinus, and infernalis. To the colouring, or, rather,
want of colouring in many of them, the epithets albus, pallidus, niveus,
pellucidus, bear their testimony. To the feature, or, rather, want of feature,
which in cave animals has attracted more attention than anything else,
notice is called in several of the generic as well as the specific names, as in
T'yphlichthys and Amblyopsis, the blind fishes, in Adelovs, Aphenops, and

on REPORT—1899.

Anophthalmus, eyeless genera of beetles. To the locality, or, rather,

want of locality, which in these lists more immediately concerns ourselves,
attention is directed only by a single name. As our inquiring eyes
scrutinise the European assemblage, and take note of the famous caverns
and countries through which this fauna‘is distributed, we find mention of.
France and Germany, of Hungary and Spain, of Italy and Sicily, but
never a word of England. Only a veiled allusion occurs in the entry,
without specified locality, of the name Miphargus subterraneus (Leach).
So far as Dr. Packard’s list is concerned, the explanation is simple, in that
the species in question has not been recorded from any English cavern,
though it belongs to the speleean fauna of the Continent. To puta better
face upon the affair, it may be stated that the well fauna of England and
Yreland includes four species of Amphipoda, though even this quartette
was audaciously reduced to a single species by De Rougemont. From the
deep recesses of a disused coal mine near Glasgow TZinea ustella was
recorded by John Scott in 1850. A copepod has been described by Dr.
G. 8. Brady from a Northumbrian coal mine. Whether coal mines any
more than coal cellars can properly be included among caverns, we need
not now pause to inquire. Unless the entomologists can come to the
rescue with a goodly supply of cave-dwelling beetles and spring-tails, the
subterranean fauna of Great Britain and Ireland will perhaps never prove
to be rich in numbers. Still, when records are collected and investiga-
tions extended, we may reasonably hope that the balance of over three
hundred against us in the European catalogue will be seriously diminished.
Since the scientific history of life below ground may be said to have begun
in England, it should be our pride to take what share we can in the
sequel. In the last fifty years, and more especially in the last twenty, a
series of remarkable forms have been discovered in subterranean waters
in various parts of the world. Even since Dr. Chilton’s paper appeared
in 1894 many curious additions have been made to the well fauna
of North America, such as the woodlouse, Haplophthalmus puteus,
described by Mr. P. Hay, from an old well in Indiana, and the
Spheroma thermophilum, described by Miss Harriet Richardson, from
a warm spring in New Mexico, the one genus belonging to the Jand
and the other to the sea, and neither of them having till recently been
thought of in connection with fresh water, either hot or cold. In
1896 ‘the United States Fish Commission completed an artesian
well at San Marcos, Texas. The depth of the well is 188 feet. The flow
of water obtained amounts to more than 1,000 gallons per minute. The
water is pure and of excellent quality, and has a temperature of 73°
Fahrenheit.’ To these interesting particulars Mr. James E. Benedict, of
the U.S. National Museum, adds information which reminds one of the
two girls in the fairy tale, with pearls and rubies falling from the lips of
the one, and toads and lizards from the lips of the other, only that here
the rewards are not distributed but combined. For not only is the water
pure and excellent, but it delights the zoologist by sending up from the
bowels of the earth isopods, amphipods, prawns, and salamanders. The
species are all blind. The species are all new. The specimens are
plentiful. The salamander has oddities of its own. The isopod has
almost no excuse for not being marine. The prawn has eye-stalks, but
they are totally devoid of ocular pigment. There is a theory that at-one
time the globe was overspread with a blind fauna, the remnants of which
have been preserved in deep waters and dark holes, whither creatures

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. oo

endowed with sight have asa rule not cared to follow them, It would
be interesting to know how that theory explains the eye-stalks of a sight-
less prawn. But this is verging on the controversial, and it will be more
encouraging to research, if you will believe, to begin with, that, whether
you are Darwinians or Neolamarckians or advocates of special creation,
you will find support for your several opinions in the prizes and surprises
that the subterranean fauna of every land, continental or insular, is
capable of yielding.

The research suggested is not without difficulties, but they are not
such as need daunt the brave explorers of British caverns, who have
hunted down the sabre-toothed tiger and the prehistoric hyena with
eandle and torch and pick-axe. The difficulties in searching for speci-
mens of well fauna are partly moral and partly physical. Many wells in
our country have, for sound reasons, been entirely closed. That in itself
is a barrier to collecting specimens from them, but, according to my
experience, the closure of some has indirectly barred the investigation of
others. The distribution of the well shrimp (Viphargus) is known for
the neighbourhood of Dublin and for the whole south of England from
Devonshire to Kent. Yet for years I inquired for it in vain, though
using a pertinacity something like that imputed to the fair Saracen, who,
in the story, by constantly asking for London and for Gilbert, found her
way all across Europe to her affianced lover, and, marrying Gilbert a
Becket, became the mother of St. Thomas of Canterbury. Like hers,
my perseverance was in the end rewarded ; but, in the meantime, some
met my inquiry with smiles, and some with frowns. I am inclined to
suspect that the smiling ones were under a real incapacity of understand-
ing what sort of object was being asked for, but that the frowning set
understood pretty well, and that they took me for an inspector in dis-
guise, seeking, under pretence of an idiotic enthusiasm, for evidence out
of their own mouths on which to order the closing of their favourite
spring. It is obvious that, if such was their point of view, they com-
pletely misjudged my motives, for evidence, so far as it goes, all favours
the belief that the springs in which crustaceans are found living supply
water that is wholesome.

In some introductory remarks I assumed that our Conference, though
not a Section of the Association, was in fact an epitome of the whole.
If now I conclude by inviting the members of the Conference to go
shrimping with a bucket and a string, it may appear to be a terrible
example of bathos. Bathos has ever been exposed to derision in connec-
tion with poetry and eloquence. But bathos has been otherwise called
the art of sinking, and that art is profoundly essential in connection
with wells.

It will be indeed extraordinary if the caverns and springs and artesian
borings in Great Britain and Ireland do not yield, to a united effort of
investigation, a fauna in some degree comparable in interest with that
which, under similar circumstances, has been and is being found in other
perts of the globe. It will be extraordinary if the research, whatever its
direct results, does not stimulate, in many of those who pursue it, highly
pleasurable and profitable activities both of body and mind. At the
worst, if the old proverb may be trusted, while groping for creatures at
the bottom of a well, you will always have the chance of combining two
ae cage fishing for amphipods and finding Truth.

1899. D

o4 REPORT—1899.

On the conclusion of his Address, the Chairman, in answer to a question
as to the best way of catching the well shrimp, replied that it was best to
wait till the well was almost empty, and then to let down a bucket and
withdraw it as quickly as possible, lest the creatures, being scared, should
have time to get away. Sometimes well shrimps were brought up when
pumping was going on.

Rey. J. O. Bevan said that he had visited the Mammoth Cave of
Kentucky, where he saw a great many bats which had apparently passed
the whole of their lives within the cavern.

The Chairman felt inclined to agree with the late Mr. Cordeaux, who
had stated that in many caverns bats and birds alternated—the birds
going out when the day came and the bats going in. It was, however, a
matter of opinion.

Mr. T. Workman had never seen birds in the Mammoth Cave of Ken-
tucky, though he had caught bats there by day, and he thought they lived
in the cave only in the daytime. They were not found in the depths of
the cave, though they were in great numbers near the mouth. He asked
the Chairman if the eyeless fishes found in caves belonged to any special
species ; also if the wells mentioned in connection with well shrimps
were open wells ?

The Chairman replied that all the blind species were special. There
was a blind fish in caverns in Cuba. He included wells of all kinds. All
along the south of England, in Dublin, and, he believed, in Jersey, there
were records of these amphipods. Four species of well shrimps could be
obtained, and he thought that if England were searched more thoroughly
a greater number of species would be found.

Mr. Hotblack thought that there was no evidence then existing of
bats which spent all their time in caverns. Consequently they should
not be classed as subterranean fauna. A member of the Society he repre-
sented not long ago brought to one of their meetings a well shrimp
obtained at Norwich. All would probably agree with him in believing
that these well shrimps did not get into a well from its mouth, but from
underground water percolating into the well.

Mr. Mark Stirrup said that some few years ago a society was started
in Yorkshire for cavern exploration, with which the search for subter-
ranean fauna might well be combined. The subject appeared to have
attracted more attention in America than in England, perhaps because
the underground waters in the great caverns of America had been more
productive. The Chairman doubtless wished the delegates to bring the
subject before the Societies they represented. He had certainly opened
out for them a new field of research.

The Chairman remarked that two gentlemen had written to him on
this subject, Mr. E. 8. Goodrich, of ‘the Department of Comparative
Anatomy, Oxford, who would be glad to liave any specimens of blind
crustacea from wells and caves for experimental purposes, and Dr. Charles
Chilton (to whose work on the underground fauna of New Zealand he
had referred in his paper), who was living in Edinburgh. Dr. Chilton
was collecting particulars of the English well amphipods, and would be
glad of specimens.

Mr. Hotblack asked whether either of the gentlemen mentioned would
name specimens and return them.

The Chairman thought that they would be only too glad to do it.

Mr. William Gray expressed the hope that in the Report of the Con-

‘
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 3o

ference the Chairman’s addréss would be printed in full. And Mr.
Hotblack suggested that proof copies should be supplied to the delegates,
so that they might bring the subject before their Societies at an early
date. Both propositions received the unanimous support of the meeting.

Second Meeting of the Conference, September 19.

The Corresponding Societies Committee were represented by Rev. T.
Rt. R. Stebbing (Chairman), Dr. Garson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor W.
W. Watts, and Mr. T. V. Holmes (Secretary).

The Chairman opened the proceedings by reading the following letter,
which he had received since their last meeting :

Reception Room, British Association: September 18, 1899.
Sir,—A feeling by quite a number of those interested in the work of
Delegates at our British Association Meetings, exists, that the interchange
of ideas regarding the organisation and development of the Local Societies
is not offered an opportunity of being discussed at the Conference of
Delegates at yearly meetings of the British Association. i should feel
much obliged if, as Chairman of our Conference, you could set aside a few
minutes for a discussion on ‘the working by sections of large scientific
Societies, whether in Exact or Natural History Science’ at our meeting

on Tuesday the 19th inst.
I am, yours faithfully,

(Signed) G. P. Hughes, F.R.G.S.,

Representing the Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club.

A long and desultory debate then followed, in which many delegates
present took part, as to the best ways of making the meetings of the
Conference more useful than they now are. While it was proceeding
Mr. Stebbing was obliged to leave, and Professor W. W. Watts became
Chairman. At length it was decided that the best course would be for
individual delegates to send their views to the Corresponding Societies
Committee not later than the first week in November. Letters received
by that date would be considered by the Committee when they met later
in that month. And, as some delegates were not present, it was thought
desirable that the Secretary should write, stating that this discussion had
taken place, and that any recommendations from delegates must be sent
in by the date mentioned.

Mr. Hugh Blakiston, the Secretary of the ‘ National Trust for Places
of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty,’ then read a paper on the aims
and work of the Trust.

Mr. Blakiston remarked that the National Trust was founded in the
year 1894 by the Duke of Westminster, the Earl of Carlisle, Lord
Hobhouse, the Right Hon. James Bryce, Sir Robert Hunter, Miss
Octavia Hill and others, and was incorporated as a Limited Liability
Company ‘to promote the permanent preservation, for the benefit of the
nation, of lands and tenements (including buildings) of beauty or historic
interest ; and as regards lands, to preserve (so far as practicable) their
natural aspect, features, and animal and plant life ; and for this purpose
to accept, from private owners of property, gifts of places of interest or

D2

36 REPORT—1899.

beauty, and to hold the lands, houses, and other property thus acquired,
in trust for the use and enjoyment of the nation.’ The Memorandum of
Association also declares that no property thus acquired shall be dealt
with, in the event of the dissolution of the Trust, in a manner inconsistent
with the objects of the Trust.

Mr. Blakiston then touched upon the wealth of the British Isles in
buildings of historic interest, and on the non-existence here of a Minister of
State one of whose functions was their preservation, though a Minister
for this purpose existed in Austria, France, and Italy. The extraordinary
growth in size of our towns during the reign of Queen Victoria had made
the last fifty years a peculiarly disastrous period as regards the destruction
of ancient monuments, apart from such destruction as altered circum-
stances had made inevitable. And our larger cities tended more and
more to be divided into a central more ancient part, made up chiefly of
shops, offices, and eating-houses, thronged only by day, and monotonous
modern suburbs in which the bulk of the inhabitants slept and passed
their leisure time. Children, therefore, to a much greater degree than in
earlier periods, were brought up with little or nothing around them to
stimulate their imaginations, or to help them to realise the history of the
past. And these islands were looked upon as ‘home’ by millions of
people scattered over the face of the earth, who might fairly expect to
find that the ancient monuments existing only in the centre of the British
Empire were carefully preserved by those dwelling around them.

Mr. Blakiston then referred to some of the work already done by the
National Trust during its short life. It had purchased Barras Head
opposite Tintagel Castle, and a most beautiful cliff overlooking Barmouth
had been presented by a lady to the Trust. Toys’ Hill near Oxted,
Kent, and Ide Hill in the same district had also been acquired. The
purchase and restoration of the old Clergy House at Alfriston, Sussex,
and of Joiner’s Hall, Salisbury, had secured to the nation two fine speci-
mens of medieval domestic architecture. The Falkland monument on the
battlefield at Newbury was also under the care of the Trust. And it had
recently purchased in Wicker Fen, Cambridgeshire, a piece of the primi-
tive fenland, which will remain for ever undrained and untouched, with
its original plant and animal life.

Turning to the question of further developments, he remarked that
the task before them was one which could not be achieved either by a
national society acting by itself or by local societies acting by themselves.
No central society could possess the full and complete information in a
given case which some local society possessed, nor could it influence local
feeling to the same degree. On the other hand, no local society is so
fully in touch with Parliament, or can appeal to so large a public as a
great central society. Coming to practical details, the two important
points were the creation of local committees to watch over the ancient
monuments of each county or district, and the formation of a central
fund. The Trust experienced much difficulty in obtaining timely informa-
tion, and thought that a federation of local. societies would provide
machinery to obviate this difficulty. The creation of a central fund
would enormously strengthen the hands of the federated societies, by
enabling their representatives to purchase, or make grants towards the
purchase of properties of national interest. With a small subscription
and a large membership a very considerable sum might be raised, from
which erants could be made in local cases as occasion arose, The details

~*~

eo

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. of

of the scheme would, of course, require careful consideration, and he
would be glad to receive any suggestions regarding them from members
of the Conference.

Mr. Gray said that in Belfast they had endeavoured to prevent a
syndicate from enclosing the Giant’s Causeway. The syndicate, however,
prevailed, and railed in the Causeway. On appealing to the National
Trust they received a grant of 5/.,and were now 1,500/. in debt. = sae

Mr. Blakiston remarked that his society was a very young one, and
not in a position to make a large grant. Had they possessed sufficient
funds they would have bought the Causeway.

Mr. Gray rejoined that he had mentioned the matter to show the
desirability of giving more adequate support to the Trust.

Dr. Abbott hoped that every delegate present would mention the use-
fulness of the Trust to his society, and that it would gain many addi-
tional supporters. He wished, also, that people would get into the way of
leaving money to the Trust.

Mr. Blakiston remarked that the authorities of the Trust were going
to make a proposal for federation to the natural history and archzologi-
cal societies of the country, probably during next month.

Rev. H. H. Winwood inquired what constituted membership of the
Trust, and Mr. Vaughan Cornish asked to what extent the aims and
objects of the National Trust were those of the other societies.

Mr. Blakiston replied that there was another society for the protection
of ancient buildings, which was almost entirely composed of architects.
It had no power to hold buildings, as the National Trust could, and could
intervene only when an ancient building was in danger of being injured.
The National Trust’ was in close touch with the society, also with the
Commons Preservation Society, the Selborne and other societies. He did
not think there was any fear of overlapping as regards the work of these
societies.

The Chairman proposed a hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Blakiston for
his paper. He regretted that the discussion at the beginning of the
meeting had occupied so much time, and was sure that they had since
found out that it would have been better spent in listening to Mr.
Blakiston, who had put before them things which might profitably engage
the attention of all local societies.

A vote of thanks having been heartily accorded to Mr. Blakiston, the
Chairman inquired if there were any representatives of the various
Sections present wishing to bring some subject before the delegates.

Section A.

Mr. G. J. Symons, representing Section A, said that the Committee
for Seismological Observations were badly in want of a home, and
would be-very glad if some ancient building could be allotted to them.

SEecTIon C.

The Chairman, representing Section C, could mention two investi-
gations in which the local societies had been of much assistance. The
Committee to investigate the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles presented
a Report this year. The Committee for the Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration of Photographs of Geological Interest, of which

f

PS te} : REPORT—1899.

he was secretary, would be glad to receive any contributions of such
photographs. The Committee hoped to be able to undertake the publica-
tion of typical geological photographs in such a way as to render them
easily obtainable by those who could make good use of them. It would
greatly help the Committee if local societies would agree to purchase a
series of these photographs. There was also a duplicate collection ot
prints and lantern slides which could be sent to any local society
wishing to exhibit them and to see what kind of work was being done,
the only expense incurred by the society being that of carriage. They
proposed, when publishing the photographs, to add letterpress descrip-
tions.

Section D.

Rey. T. R. R. Stebbing, representing Section D, said that the secretary
of that Section recommended the study of the fauna of wells and caverns
by the Corresponding Societies,

Section K.

Mr. H. Wager, representing Section K, had to inform the delegates
of the Corresponding Societies that the Section had appointed a Com-
mittee to consider the geographical distribution of mosses, a matter of
interest to all the local societies.

Mr. Vaughan Cornish thought that the Corresponding Societies
might congratulate themselves on the result of the discussion, at the
Conference of Delegates last year, on Coast Erosion, initiated by Mr.
Whitaker. Seldom, if ever, had the Admiralty been induced to act so
promptly as in their consent to the co-operation of the Coastguard as
observers of Coast Erosion.

Dr. Garson hoped that the delegates would come to Bradford next
year well primed with any scheme of work they might wish should be
taken up the following year at Glasgow. The meeting then came to
an end,

SOCIETIES.

CORRESPONDING

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te _—

1899.

REPORT

40

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4.2, REPORT—1899.

List of the more important Papers, and especially those referring to
Local Scientific Investigations, published by the Corresponding
Societies during the year ending June 1, 1899.

*,* This list contains only the titles of papers published in the volumes or parts
of the publications of the Corresponding Societies sent to the Secretary of the
Committee in accordance with Rule 2.

Section A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

Anpson, Rev. Wu. The Meteorology of Dumfries for 1897. ‘Trans.
Dum. Gal. N. H. A. Soe.’ No. 14, 89-47, 1898.

Baupocn, J. H. Photography in relation to Science. ‘Trans. 5.-E.
Union,’ m1. 81-86, 1898.

Baurour, C. B. Meteorological Observations at Newton Don, 1893-
1897. ‘History Berwickshire Nat. Club,’ xvi. 87-88, 1898.

Buacx, W. G. Ocean Rainfall by Rain-gauge Observations at Sea,
1864-75-81. General and Special Oceans. ‘Journ. Manch.
Geog. Soc.’ xiv. 86-56, 1898.

Buapven, W. Wewus. Report of the Meteorological Section. *‘ Trans.
N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxir. 76-80, 1899.

Branson, F. W. On a Method of Measuring the Intensity of the X
Rays. ‘Trans. Leeds Nat. C. Sci. Assoc.’ rv. 8, 1899.

CAMPBELL-BayArp, F. Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee
for 1897. ‘Trans. Croydon M. N. H. C.’ 1897-98, 273-275 and
Appendices, 1898.

CARADOC AND SEVERN VatLey Firup Cuus. Meteorological Notes, 1898.
‘ Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 8, 24-80, 1899.

Cotuins, J. R. Correction for ‘Schaeberle Aberration’ in Gregorian
and Cassegrain Telescopes. ‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Phys. Soe.’ rx.
143-146, 1899.

Craw, H. Hewat. Rainfall and Temperature at West Foulden and
Rawburn during 1896. ‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xvr. 180,
1898.

Crossman, Major-Gen. Sir Wm. Meteorological Observations at Cheswick,
1895 and 1897. ‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xvi. 234-235, 1898.

Denison, Napier. Our Astronomical Ocean. ‘Trans. Toronto Astr.
Phys. Soe.’ rx. 42-48, 1899.

Dixon, H. N. The Divining Rod. ‘Journ. N’ton N. H. Soe.’ x. 85-
104, 1898.

Karon, H. §. Returns of Rainfall, &c., in Dorset in 1897. ‘ Proc.
Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xrx. 161-171, 1898.

Enyins, ANDREW. The Great Sun Spot of September 4-15, 1898.
‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Phys. Soc.’ rx. 78-79, 1899.

GREENWOOD, Capt. W. Neuson. Unification of Time at Sea. ‘Journ.
Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xrv. 24-35, 1898.

Harvey, Artaur. The Meteor of July 5,1898. ‘Trans. Toronto Astr.
Phys. Soe.’ 1x. 71-78, 1899.

——_ Recent Developments in the By-ways of Astronomy and Physics.

(Presidential Address). ‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Phys. Soc.’ 1x. 112-
140, 1899.

»

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 43

Heywoop, H. The Rainfall in the Society’s District in 1897. ‘Trans.
Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxx. 16-26, 1899.

Horxtinson, Jonn. Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in the Year
1897. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ x. 23-82, 1898.

— Meteorological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the Year
1897. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ x. 49-60, 1898.

Hurnarp, 8. F., and others. Rainfall and Temperature in Essex in
1898. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x. 412-416, 1899.

Linpsay, Tsomas. Historical Sketch of the Greenwich Nautical
Almanac, Chapters v.-vi. ‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Phys. Soc.’ rx.
2-10, 27-39, 1899.

Lopva8, Prof. Oniver J. Telegraphy by Electric Waves Across Space.
‘Trans. Liverpool I. Soc.’ xix. 141-143, 1898.

Lumspen, Grorce E. A Popular Astronomical Observatory. ‘ Trans.
Toronto Astr. Phys. Soc.’ rx. 44-60, 1899.

Macnean, Dr. Macnus. Lord Kelvin’s Patents. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil.
Soe.’ xxx. 145-192, 1898.

MANTELL, Surgeon-Major A. A. On some supposed Electrical Pheno-
mena in Water-finding. ‘Proc. Bath N. H. A. F.C.’ rx. 101-109,
1899.

Marxuam, C. A., and F. Coventry. Meteorological Reports, January
to September 1898. ‘Journal N’ton. N. H. Soe.’ x. 35-48, 77-83,
118-127, 159-165, 1898.

MarisoroucH CoLtteGE Natura History Society. Meteorological
Report. ‘ Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 47, 77-103, 1899.

MAskELYNE, Epmunp §. On the Purpose, the Age, and the Builders
of Stonehenge. ‘ Proc. Bath N. H. A. F. C.’ rx. 1-39, 1898.

Merepiry, Dr. EK. A. The Expected Meteors of November 1898.
‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Phys. Soc.’ rx. 95-104, 1899.

Moorz, A. W. Report of Meteorological Section, with Summary of Ten
Years’ Observations. ‘Yn Lioar Manninagh,’ 11. 387-394, 1898.
Moore, H. Crcin, Ropert Cuarke, and ALFRED Watkins. The Earth-
quake of December 17, 1896. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C. 1895-97,’

228-235, 1898.

Musson, W. B. A Visit to the Yerkes Observatory. ‘Trans. Toronto
Astr. Phys. Soc.’ 1x. 63-68, 1899.

— Some Ancient Theories regarding Motion and the Cosmos.
‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Phys. Soc.’ rx. 79-88, 1899.

Paterson, Joun A. The Muskoka Skies. ‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Phys.
Soe.’ rx. 90-92, 1899.

Puituirs, R. C. The Musical Philosophy of Ancient Greece. ‘Journal
Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xiv. 57-80, 1898.

Preston, A. W. Meteorological Notes, 1897. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat.
Soe.’ vi. 393-401, 1898.

Stoan, Dr. Samuen. Faradimeter, for measuring Alternating Currents
for Therapeutic Use. ‘Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxrx. 230-257,
1898.

SourHann, H. On the Remarkable Deficiency of Rainfall in Hereford-
shire for nearly Ten Years ending Midsummer, 1896. ‘ Trans.
Woolhope N. F. C. 1895-97,’ 181-184, 1898.

—— On the late Extraordinary Season, 1894-95, including Frosts,
Winds, and Effects on Vegetation. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. I. C.
1895-97,’ 185-188, 1898.

44, REPORT—-1899.

THompson, Bersy. Rainbows. ‘Journ. N’ton. N. H. Soe.’ x. 65-67,
1898.

-—— The Divining Rod. ‘Journ. N’ton. N. H. Soe.’ x. 105-111, 1898.

Wurtetry, J. Meteorological Table for the Year 1898 (Halifax).
‘Halifax Naturalist,’ m1. 122-123, 1899.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

Ackroyp, Wm. On Halifax Waters. .‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ m1. 120-121,
1899.

Anperson, W. Carrick. A Contribution to the Chemistry of Coal, with
special reference to the Coals of the Clyde Basin. ‘ Proc. Glasgow
Phil. Soe.’ xxrx. 72-96, 1898 ; ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 335-357,
1899.

Benson, Prof. P. Paruuirs (N. Eng. Inst.). Results of the Analysis of
Samples of New Zealand Coal and Ambrite, and of Barbados Manjak.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvr. 888-390, 1898.

BreakeE cL, J. EK. Treatment of Refractory Silver-ores by Chlorination
and Lixiviation. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvr. 316-330, 1899.

Burrewn, B. A. The Composition of the Spar occurring in Mothe
Shipton’s Cave, Knaresborough. ‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ x11.
284-285, 1898.

GoupiIneG, JoHN. Notes from some of the Technical Laboratories in
Copenhagen. ‘Report Nott. Nat. Soc.’ 1897-8 ; 31-32, 1899.

Haupane, Dr. Jonn §., and F. G. Mnacuam (8. Staff. Inst. Min. Eng.).
Observations on the Relation of Underground Temperature and
Spontaneous Fires in the Coal to Oxidation and to the Causes which
favour it. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvr. 457-492, 1899.

Hetsz and Turem, Messrs. Experiments on the Ignition of Fire-damp
and Coal-dust by Electricity. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xv. 88-116,
1899. ;

Orsman, Wm. JAs. Safety Explosives. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvu.
54-59, 1899.

Picarp, Hueu K. The Direct Treatment of Auriferous Mispickel-ore by
the Bromo-Cyanide Process at Deloro, Ontario, Canada. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xv. 417-4838, 1898.

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

Bain, H. Foster (N. Eng. Inst.). The Western Interior Coal-field of
America. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 185-210, 1898.

Barxe, F. Report of the Geological Section. ‘Trans. N. Staff. F.C.’
XXxIII. 65-66, 1899.

Barron, T. On a new British Rock containing Nepheline and Riebeckite
[1896]. ‘Hist. Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xvr. 92-100, 1898.

Bares, J. I. The Geology of Swanage and Neighbouring District.
‘Proc. Warw. N. A. F. C.’ 48, 14-32, 1899.

Brastey, H.C. Notes on Examples of Footprints, &c., from the Trias
in some Provincial Museums. ‘Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ virt. 233—
237, 1898.

—— A Section of the Trias recently Exposed on Prenton Hill. ‘ Proc.
Liverpool Geol. Soe.’ vir. 288-241, 1898.

Brecuer, 8. J. (N. Eng. Inst.). The Nullagine District, Pilbarra Gold-
field, Western Australia. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvr. 44-51, 1898.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 45

Brewer, Wm. M. Mining in British Columbia. ‘Trans. Inst. Min,
Eng.’ xv. 455-459, 1898.

Briart, A. The Mining Industry of Belgium. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xv. 470-490.

Burton, F.M. Boulders at Brigg. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 257-258,
1898. Lincolnshire Coast Boulders. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’
105-111, 1899.

Capre~i, Henry M. On an Ash Neck in the Broxburn Shale Workings
at Philpstoun. With an Appendix by J. 8. Frerr. ‘Trans. Edinb.
Geol. Soc.’ vit. 477-481, 1899.

Cuurcuitt, Frank F. Notes on the Geology of the Drakensbergen,
Natal. ‘Trans. §. African Phil. Soc.’ x. 419-426, 1899. ,

CrARK, Percy. The Encroaching Sea on the Kast Coast. ‘Essex Natu-
ralist,’ x. 297-299, 1898.

Crovuen, C. T., and ALFRED Harker. Ona Coarsely Spherulitic (‘ Vario-
litic’) Basalt in Skye. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ viz. 381-389,
1899.

Couurins, J. H. Notes on Cornish Fossils in the Penzance Museum.
‘Trans. Cornw. R. Geol. Soc.’ x11. 283-240, 1899.

CornisH, VAUGHAN. On the Grading of the Chesil Beach Shingle.
‘Proce. Dorset. N. H. A. F. C.’ xrx. 113-121, 1898.

CurRig£E, JAMES. Note on the Feldspars of Canisp. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol.
Soe.’ vit. 494-496, 1899.

Curtriss, 8. W. Notes on the Caves of Yorkshire. ‘ Proc. Yorks. Geol.
Poly. Soe.’ x1. 811-3824, 1898.

Dawson, Cuarues. Natural Gas in Sussex. ‘Trans. §.-E. Union,’ m1.
73-80, 1898.

Der Rance, C. E. The Occurrence of Anhydrite in the North of England,
&e. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 75-84, 1899.

Dickinson, JoserH. Subsidence caused by Colliery Workings. ‘Trans.
Manch. Geol. Soe.’ xxv. 583-612, 1898.

Huwen, T. L. (N. Eng. Inst.). Notes on the Glacial Deposit or ‘ Wash’
of the Dearness Valley. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 226-229,
1899.

Fuert, Jonn §. On Phenocrysts of Micropegmatite. ‘Trans. Edinb.
Geol. Soe.’ vit. 482-487, 1899. ,

Foorp, Dr. Artuur H. (Dublin N. F.C.). The Brachiopoda and Mollusca
of the Carboniferous Rocks of Ireland: Irish Fossil Shells, and their
Modern Representatives. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ vi11. 68-86, 1899.

Pox, Howarp. Supplementary Notes on the Cornish Radiolarian Cherts
and Devonian Fossils. ‘Trans. Cornw. R. Geol. Soe.’ x11. 278-282,
1899.

Pox-Strancrways, C. Filey Bay and Brigg. ‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly.
Soe.’ xt. 838-345, 1898.

—_ Notes on the Coast Sections between Hayburn Wyke and Filey.
‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ x11. 356-357, 1898.

Gascoyne, Rownanp, and G. Buaxe WALKER (Midland Inst. Eng). The
ee of Chili. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xv. 234-242, 244-249,
1898.

GREEN, Uprinnp. On some New and Peculiar Fossils from the Lower
Devonians of the South Coast of Cornwall. ‘Trans. Cornw. R. Geol.
Soc.’ x1t. 227-228, 1899.

GRERNLY Epwarp. The Hereford Earthquake of December 17, 1896,

AG REPORT—1899.

considered in relation to Geological Structure in the Bangor-Anglesey
Region. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vi. 469-476, 1899.

Gunn, WintrAM. Notes on the Correlation of the Lower Carboniferous
Rocks of England and Scotland. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vu.
361-367, 1899.

Harker, Aurrep. Chemical Notes on Lake District Rocks: I. The
Ordovician Volcanic Series. II. Intrusive and Sedimentary Rocks.
‘The Naturalist for 1899,’ 53-58, 149-154, 1899.

— The Southward Movement of Beach Material across the Humber
Gap. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’ 155-156, 1899.

——— Norwegian Rhomb-Porphyries in the Holderness Boulder Clays.
‘Proc Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ x11. 279-281, 1898.

Harrison, Rev. S.N. Some remarkable Boulders noticed in 1897. ‘Yn
Lioar Manninagh,’ 111. 823-324, 1898.

Hepptp, Prof. M.F. The Minerals of the Storr [1856]. ‘Trans. Edinb.
Geol. Soc.’ vir. 828-831, 1899.

Herpman, Prof. W. A., and J. Lomas. On the Floor Deposits of the
Trish Sea. ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ vit. 205-232, 1898.

Hewitt, W. Notes on some Sections Exposed by Excavations on the
Site of the New Technical Schools, Byrom Street, Liverpool. ‘ Proc.
Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ vit. 268-278, 1898.

Hit, C. Bastian. The Lower Paleozoic Rocks of the South of Scot-
land, viewed in connection with the Lower Paleozoic Rocks of
Cornwall. ‘Trans. Cornw. R. Geol. Soc.’ x11. 258-277, 1899.

Hinp, Dr. WHEELTON. The Subdivisions of the Carboniferous Series in
Great Britain and some of their European Equivalents. ‘Tyrans.
Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ vit. 3382-860, 1899.

— On the Correlation of the British and European Carboniferous
Rocks. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxv1. 96-112, 1899.

—— What are the Real Equivalents of the Yoredale Rocks of Wensley-
dale in the Midlands? ‘ ‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxir. 67-71, 1899.

Hotroyp, W. F., and J. Barnes. On the Superposition of Quartz
Crystals on Calcite in the Igneous Rocks oceurring in the Carboniferous
Limestone of Derbyshire. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvi. 46-49,
1899.

Hopxtnson, JoHN. The Chadwell Spring and the Hertfordshire Bourne.
‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ x. 69-88, 1899.

Howarp, F. T. The Geology of the Cowbridge District. ‘Trans.
Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxx. 36-46, 1899.

— Notes on the Geology of the Precelley Hills, Pembrokeshire.
‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxx. 51-56, 1899.

and EK. W. Smatu. Notes on the Geology of Llanvaches, Mon-
mouthshire. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxx. 80-35, 1899.

Howartn, J. H. The Yorkshire Boulder Committee and its Eleventh
Year’s Work, 1896-97. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 853-356, 1898.
Humpureys, JoHN. Notes on the Geology and Botany of the Neighbour-
hood of Droitwich. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C. 1895-97, 202-206,

1898.

Isue oF Man Naturat History AND ANTIQUARIAN Society. Report of
the ‘Irish Elk’ Committee. ‘Yn Lioar Manninagh,’ 11. 327-330,
895-401, 1898.

Jonss, Professor T. Rupert, Jas. W. Kirxpy, and Dr. Jonn Youne.
On Carbonia: its Horizons and Conditions of Occurrence in Scotland,
especially in Fife. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vir. 420-442, 1899.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, {7

Knrrean, Dr. P. Q. On a certain Structure in the Lakeland Lavas,.
‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 865-867, 1898.

Kenpatt, Percy F., and J. H. Howarts. The Yorkshire Boulder
Committee and its Twelfth Year’s Work, 1897-98. ‘The Naturalist
for 1899,’ 13-19, 1899.

Korxsy, JAMES W. On the Occurrence of Carboniferous Limestone
Fossils at Viewforth, near Largo, Fife. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’
vit. 488-493, 1899.

Kynaston, Herpert. Contributions to the Petrology of the Cheviot
Hills. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ vir. 890-415, 1899.

La Tovucus, Rev. J. D. The Great Ice Age. The Parallel Roads of
Glen Roy. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C. 1895-97,’ 28-80, 1898.

—— Pot Holes and the Erosion of Rock Basins. ‘Trans. Woolhope
N. F. C. 1895-97,’ 170-176, 1898.

Law, Rosertr. Sketch of the Geology of Shibden. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’
11. 97-102, 1898.

Lawrance, Davin H. The Kalgoorlie Mines of the Great Western
Australian Gold Backbone. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xv. 486-441,
1898.

Lostey, Prof. J. Logan. The Place of Geology in Education. ‘Trans.
§.-E. Union,’ mr. 54-64, 1898.

Lomas, J. Do the Crystalline Gneisses represent portions of the
Original Earth’s Crust? (Presidential Address). ‘ Proc. Liverpool
Geol. Soc.’ vir. 169-180, 1898.

— On a Drift Section near Borough Road, Birkenhead. ‘ Proe.
Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ vit. 294-295, 1898.

Lott, Frank EK. Burton Waters—Drinking and Brewing. ‘Trans.
Burt. N. H. Arch. Soe.’ rv. 5-81, 1899.

Mackie, Dr. Wm. The Felspars Present in Sedimentary Rocks as
Indicators of the Conditions of Contemporaneous Climate. ‘ Trans.
Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ vir. 448-468, 1899.

McMurtiz, J. Notes on Ancient British Remains found in a Lias
Quarry at Tyning, Radstock. ‘ Proc. Bath N. H. A. F.C. rx. 39-49,
1898.

Macnam, Peter. The Geological Factors in the Distribution of the
Alpine Plants of Perthshire. ‘Trans. Perths. Soc. N. Sci.’ 1. 240-
249, 1898.

Manseu-PurypEtt, J.C. Wookey Hole. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’
xix. 176-183, 1898.

Mantize, H. G. The Skiddaw Granite of Syning Gill, Cumberland.
‘Proc. Birm. N. H. Phil. Soe.’ x1. 1-5, 1899.

Marcu, Dr. H. Contry. The Twin Problems of Plateau Flint Imple-
ments and a Glaciation South of the Thames. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H.
A. F. C.’ xrx. 180-144, 1898.

Moors, Cuas. C., and J. Lomas. The Chemical Examination of Sand-
stones from Prenton Hill and Bidston Hill; with Appendix on their
Microscopic Examination. ‘Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soe.’ vu. 241—
267, 1898.

Morrow, G. H. The Carboniferous Limestone of the Vale of Clwyd.
Part m. ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ vir. 181-204, 1898.

OxupHam, R. D. Earthquake fin India] of June 12, 1897. ‘ Journal
Manch. Geol. Soe.’ x11. 142-145, 1898.

Peie, Winuiam (N. Eng. Inst.). Transvaal Coal-Field. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Ing.’ xvi. 20-31, 1898.

48 REPORT—1 §99

Parups, J. St. J. (Dublin N. F. C.). Geology at the Kenmare Confer-
ence of the Irish Field Club Union. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ vi. 228,
1898.

Piper, Grorcr H. The Passage Beds at Ledbury. ‘Trans. Woolhope
N. F. C. 1895-97,’ 310-313, 1898.

Pratnavuer, H. M. The Work of the Ouse. ‘Report Yorks. Phil. Soc.
for 1898,’ 36-88, 1899.

Preston, Henry. Geology South of Grantham. ‘The Naturalist for
1698,’ 247-255, 1898. é

Reapz, T. Mevnarp, and Pari Horranp. The Phyllades of the
Ardennes compared with the Slates of North Wales. ‘ Proc. Liver-
pool Geol. Soc.’ virt. 274-298, 1898.

Rep, Cuement. The Paleolithic Deposits at Hitchin and their Relation
to the Glacial Epoch. ‘ Trans. Herts. N. H. Soe.’ x. 14-22, 1898.
Reip, James, and PeteR Macnarr. On the Genera Psilophyton, Lyco-
podites, Zosterophyllum, and Parka decipiens of the Old Red Sand-
stone of Scotland: their Affinities and Distribution. ‘Trans. Edinb.

Geol. Soc.’ vir. 868-880, 1899.

Rogers, A. W., and E. H. L. Scuwarz. Notes on the Recent Lime-
stones on parts of the South and West Coasts of Cape Colony.
‘Trans. S. African Phil. Soc.’ xi 427-436, 1899.

SnepparD, THomas. Bibliography: Geology and Paleontology, 1893,
1894. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 273-296, 1898 ; for 1899, 81-103,
1899.

Sprncer, JAMES. The Halifax Coal Strata. ‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly.
Soc.’ x11t. 802-810, 1898.

Sramrpr, X. The Geology of the Congo. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xy.
491-501, 1898.

Starner, Joun W. A Glaciated Surface at Filey. ‘ Proc. Yorks. Geol.
Poly. Soe.’ xz11. 846-349, 1898.

Srmruens, F. J. Recent Discoveries of Goldin West Cornwall. ‘Trans.

Cornw. R. Geol. Soc.’ x11. 241-257, 1899.

SrpveENson, WiLLtAM (the late). Notes on the Geology of the Upper
Vale of Whiiadder, 1847-1850. ‘History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xvt.
58-62, 1898.

Vaucuan, A. The Argument for Solidity [of the Earth] drawn from
Ocean Tides. ‘ Proc. Bristol Nat. Soe.’ vir. 269-278, 1899.

Waxbacr, THomas D. Geological Notes on Strathdearn and the Avie-
more Railway. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vu. 416-419, 1899.

Werr, Roperr. The Douglas Coalfield, Lanarkshire. ‘Trans. Min.
Inst. Scot.’ xx. 55-65, 1899.

Werrupurn, Epcar D. Fish Fauna of the Lower Coal Measures of the
Halifax District (Part I.) ‘Halifax Naturalist,’ rv. 12-14, 1899.

Wairaker, Wimurim. Chalk Water in Hertfordshire (Anniversary
Address.) ‘Trans. Herts. N. H. Soe.’ x. 1-13, 1898.

——— Hampshire Well Sections. Second Paper. ‘ Hants I’. C.’ rv. 21-45,
1899.

Winson, ArtHuR P. Sulphur Mines in the South of Spain, ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 71-74, 1899.

WooprurrE-Pracock, Rey. E. A. Lincolnshire Naturalists’ Union at
Grantham. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 241-245, 1898.

__— Lincolnshire Naturalists in the Isle of Axholme. ‘The Naturalist
for 1898,’ 335-840, 1898.

a ee

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 49

Wooprurre-Pracock, Rev. E. A. Lincolnshire Naturalists at Woodhall
Spa and Tumby Woods. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’ 65-68, 1899.
Woopwarp, A. Smirn. On some New Specimens of Pteraspis cornubica
from the Devonian of Lantiver Bay. ‘Trans. Cornw. R. Geol. Soc.’
xr. 229-282, 1899.

—— On the Fossil Fishes of the Upper Lias of Whitby. Part um.
‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ x1. 325-887, 1898.

Youne, Ropert. Some recent Deep Borings for Water at Belfast.
‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc. 1897-98,’ 80-88, 1899.

Section D.—Zootoay.

Aucock, Dr. N. H. (Dublin N. F.C.) The Natural History of Irish Bats.
‘Trish Naturalist,’ vir. 29-36, 1899.

Auten, Rey. F. A. Sea Snakes, with special reference to the Great Sea
Serpent. ‘Trans. Car. and Sev. Vall. I. C.’ 11. 158-154, 1898.

Armitt, Miss Mary L. Trees and Tree-nesters. ‘The Naturalist for
1899,’ 5-12, 1899.

— Lakeland Bird Names. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’ 36, 1899.

Asupown, W.C. Ornithology in Herefordshire from January to De-
cember 1895. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C.’ 1895-97, 104-105, 1898.

BaLuantyneE, J. Occurrence of Sirex gigas, Linn., in Bute and Arran.
‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ v. 187-189, 1898.

BioomrFievp, Rev. E. N. On Collecting Materials for a Fauna or Flora
of a District or County. ‘Trans. 5.-E. Union,’ m. 111-113, 1898.
Bouam, Gzorce. Ichthyological Notes. ‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’

xvi. 201-204, 1898.

Bouucer, Prof. G. 5. Presidential Address (‘The Position of Natural
History Societies Sixty Years Ago and at Present Contrasted’).
‘Trans. §.-E. Union,’ m1. 1-20, 1898.

Brown, Mrs. The Wild Animals of Palestine. ‘Trans. Dum. Gal.
N. H. A. Soc.’ No. 14, 68-72, 1898.

Burter, Colonel E. A. Albatross in Cambridgeshire. ‘Trans. Norf.
Norw. Nat. Soe.’ vi. 414-415, 1898.

—— Honey Buzzard in Suffolk. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vr. 416,

1898.

Carapoc AND SEVERN VALLEY Fietp Cius. Zoological Notes, 1898.
‘Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 8, 17-19 [1899].

—— Entomological Notes, 1898. ‘Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 8, 20-23
[1899].

Carr, Professor J.W. Onthe Nesting Habits of Osmia rufa, Linn.
‘ Journ. Nott. Nat. Soc. 1897-8,’ 33, 1899.

CuarK, Percy. A Visit to the Black-Headed Gulls in Essex (1898).
‘Essex Naturalist,’ x. 388-393, 1898.

CuarkE, H. 8. Report of Entomological Section. ‘ Yn Lioar Manninagh,’
111. 884-387, 1898.

Coates, Henry. Annual Address (‘The Progress of Natural Science
during the Victorian Era’). ‘Proc. Perths. Soc. N. Sci.,’ elxviii-
clxxxili., 1898.

Cour, Wm. The Essex Museum of Natural History. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’
x. 237-346, 1898.

—— An Annual Congress or Conference of ‘ East Anglian’ Natural History
Societies. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x. 360-368, 1898.

1899, E

50 REPORT—1899.

CorDEAUX, JoHN. Bird Notes from the Humber District. ‘The
Naturalist’ for 1898, 237-239, 1898; for 1899, 21-26, 1899.

Recent Notes from North Lincolnshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’

261-267, 1898.

The Rush of Arctic Birds on the East Coast of Great Britain in the
Winter of 1894-5. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C.’ 1895-7, 32-36, 1898.

CRABTREE, ARTHUR. Zoological Specimens in the Belle Vue Museum.
1. The Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus tridactylus). ‘ Halifax Natural-
ist,’ 111. 86-87, 1898.

Crevuin. J.C. Report of Zoological Section. ‘Yn Lioar Manninagh,’
1. 381-384, 1898,

CrossMAN, ALAN I’. Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during
the year 1897. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ x. 33-438, 1899.

A List of the Birds of Hertfordshire. ‘Trans. Herts. N. H. Soe.’
x, 84-102, 1899.

Croucu, WauTER. Further Notes on the Occurrence of Crepidula for-
nicata, L., in Essex Waters. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x. 353-855, 1898.

Crotweut, Rev. Canon. On the Genera Depressaria and Gelechia.
‘Trans. Leicester Lit. Phil. Soc.’ v. 67-72, 1898.

CunnincHaM, JAMES. The Kingfisher about Halifax. ‘ Halifax Natu-
ralist,’ 11. 88, 1898.

Daurtry, Rey. T. W. Report of the Entomological Section. ‘Trans. N.

Staff. F. C.’ xxx. 57-60, 1899.

Dawkins, Prof. W. Boyp. The Chartley White Cattle. ‘Trans. N. Staff.
I’. C.’ xxxiit. 48-54, 1899.

Dixon, G. B. A Group of Insects’ Home-made Cradles. ‘ Trans.
Leicester Lit. Phil. Soc.’ v. 18-24, 1898.

Dixon, H. N. Phenological Observations. ‘Journal N’ton. N. H. Soc.’
x. 155-156, 1898.

DonistHoRPE, H. Sr. J. Notes on the British Longicornes. ‘Trans.
Leicester Lit. Phil. Soc.’ v. 25-87, 1898.

— All that is known of Metecus paradoxus, L. ‘Trans. Leicester Lit.
Phil, Soc.’ v. 183-186, 1899.

Duruisz, Col. W. H. M. Birds of the Mountain Tops. ‘Trans. Perths.
Soc. N. Sci.’ 1. 191-196, 1898.

[EupreD, K.J.H. Notes on some Foreign Animals living in British Paris.
‘ Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ v1. 860-362, 1898.

Forrest, H. KH. Feathers and Wings—the Mechanism of Flight. ‘ Trans.
Car. and Sev. Vall. F. C.’ 1. 89-99, 1898.

Fowuer, Rev. Canon W. W. Presidential Address to the Lincolnshire
Naturalists’ Union (Natural History). ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’
37-44, 1899.

Frienp, Rey. Hinperic. New Cumberland Annelids. ‘The Naturalist
for 1898,’ 297-299, 1898.

GiuLANDERS, A. T. The Hemiptera-Homoptera. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic.
Soc.’ 1897, 28-41, 1898.

GraBHAM, Oxtny. Yorkshire Bird Names. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’
369-371, 1898.

Yorkshire Bats. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’ 69-75, 1899.

GrimsHAW, Peroy H. Lincolnshire Diptera: a Preliminary List (con-
cluded). ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 161-170, 1898.

Gurney, J. H. The Economy of the Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus). ‘Trans.
Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vi. 865-3884, 1898.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 5]

Gururin, Wrens Grant. Lepidoptera of the Hawick District:
Corrigenda et Addenda. ‘History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xvr. 101,
1898.

Haurrax Screntiric Society AND GeonocicaL Frenp Cxivs. Local
Records iu Natural History: Zoology. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ 11. 126-
127, 1899.

Haun, W. J. On the Structure and Life-History of the Cockroach
(Periplaneta orientalis). ‘Trans. Leicester Lit. Phil. Soc.’ v. 123-
133, 1899.

Harmer, Sipney F. On some Bones of a Pelican from the Cambridge-
shire Fens. ‘'Tyans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vr. 863-364, 1898.

Harris, G. H. Notes on the Herring Fishery of 1897. ‘Trans. Nort.
Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vi. 402-404, 1898.

Hawsrs, Jonyx. Food as influencing Variation in Helices. ‘The Natu-
ralist for 1899,’ 48, 1899.

Herpman, Prof. \W. A. Why Man should Study Nature. ‘Yn Lioar
Manninagh,’ 111. 324-827, 1898.

Hey, Rey. W. C. Snainton Brick-Ponds and their Beetles. ‘The Natu-
ralist for 1898,’ 228, 1898.

Bird Names in Use at West Ayton, Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for

1898,’ 308, 1898.

Hrcx, Miss E. 8. A Ramble in the Isle of Lindisfarne. ‘The Natu-
ralist for 1898,’ 211-218, 1898.

Hoxson. Dr. J. M., E. A. Panxnurst, and G. Dowxer. Ideals for Natural
History Societies, and how to attain them. ‘ Trans. 5. E. Union,’ 1.
87-98, 109-110, 1898.

Horxrrson, Jonn. Charles Darwin: a Sketch of his Life and Work.
‘Trans. Car. and Sey. Valley F. C.’ 11. 121-125, 1898.

— Report on the Conference of Delegates to the British Association,
at Liverpool in 1896. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ 1x. xli—l., 1898.
Hucues, G. P. Notes on the Red Deer (Cervus elaphus, Linn.)

‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xvr. 81-85, 1898.

Kane, W. F. ve V., J. N. Hatsert, Mrs. E. M. Tartow, R. Lu. Prarcer,

and H. Hanna (Dublin N.F.C.). Impressions of Achill: Lepidoptera,

Coleoptera, Marine Mollusca, Flowering Plants, &c., Sea-weeds. ‘ Irish

Naturalist,’ vir. 135-148, 1898.

Kaye, W. J. On the Evolution of the Hind Wing in Lepidoptera.
‘Trans. Leicester Lit. Phil. Soc.’ v. 73-78, 1898.

Kermopeg, P.C. M. Sharks in Manx Waters. ‘Yn Lioar Manninagh,’
11. 389-841, 1898. P

Lers, G. Dumvinnr. British Rats and Mice. ‘Trans. Car. and Sev.

_ Vall. F. C.” 1. 118-120, 1898.

Lorrnouss, T. Asuron. Lepidoptera noticed in Kilton Woods and
Vicinity during 1898. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’ 113-114, 1899.
Lonspate, H. Pond Life in the Neighbourhood of Halifax. ‘ Halifax

Naturalist,’ mr. 58-59, 1898.

Lort, Larsters F. The White Cattle of Vaynol Park. ‘ Trans. N. Staff.
I. C? xxx. 55-56, 1899.

Lowe, Dr. Joxn. Migration of Ring Ouzel (Turdus torquaius, L.)

‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vr. 416-417, 1898.

—— Leucochroa candidissina. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vi.
418, 1898.
— Psyche bombycella. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ v1. 418, 1598.

Ka

52 REPORT—1899.

McLean, Kennetu. The Avifauna of Staithes and Loftus-in-Cleveland,
Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’ 129-147, 1899.

Manseu-Punypetn, J. C. Clausilia Rolphii, Gray. ‘Proc. Dorset
N. H. A. F. C.’ xx. 109-112, 1898.

Martinpare, J. A. Vernacular Names of Birds at Staveley, Westmor-
land. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’ 79-80, 1899.

Maserietp, J. R. B. Report of the Zoological Section. ‘ Trans. N.
Staff. F. C.’ xxxur. 44-47, 1899.

Mason, J. I. Additions to the List of Hemiptera-Heteroptera of Lincoln-
shire. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 209-210, 1898.

Mawtey, Epwarp. Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in
Hertfordshire during the year 1897. ‘Trans. Herts. N. H. Soc.’ x.
61-67, 1899.

Maxwe tu, W. J. Natural History Notes. ‘Trans. Dum. Gal. N. H. A.
Soe.’ No. 14, 84-88, 1898.

Meyrick, E. Notes on Lepidoptera. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soe.’
No. 47, 44-54, 1899.

—— Scientific Work in Local Societies. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H.
Soc.’ No. 47, 65-68, 1899.

Moss, ©. BE. On the Structure of Crocus Leaves. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’
Iv. 5-11, 1899.

Nexson, WinntaAm. Bxtracts from a Conchologist’s Note Book. ‘The
Naturalist for 1899,’ 45-47, 77-78, 1899.

Norroitk AnD Norwicu Narurauists’ Socrmty. Wild Birds’ Protection :
Record of Action of the Society. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vi.
418-414, 1898.

Onrp, Georaz W. Notes on the Tipulidae of the Glasgow District. ‘Trans.
Glasg. N. H. Soc.’ v. 190-196, 1898.

Paumer, J. KE. (Dublin N. F.C.) Lesser Black-backed Gull Nesting in
co. Kildare. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ vir. 186-187, 1898.

Parren, Dr. Coanzes J. (Dublin N. F. C.).. The Birds of Dublin Bay.
‘Trish Naturalist,’ vir. 229-289, 1898.

Parrerson, A. Natural History Notes from Yarmouth. ‘Trans. Norf.
Norw. Nat. Soc.’ v1. 405-408, 1898.

Pirmavuny, L.,and A. Rarrray. Descriptive Catalogue of the Coleoptera
of South Africa. ‘ Trans. 5. African Phil. Soc.’ x. 808-417, 1899.
PickArD-CamBripag, Rey. O. Natural History Notes for 1897. ‘ Proce.

Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xrx. 48-50, 1898.

Pranagnr, R. Ln., G. H. Carpnntrer, H. K. Gorr Curnpert, Hon. R. E.
Ditton, J. N. Hansert, and R. Stanpen (Dublin N. F. C.). Report
of the Second Triennial Conference and Excursion of the Irish Field
Club Union, held at Kenmare, July 7-13, 1898: Arachnida, Hymen-
optera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Mollusca. ‘Irish Natu-
ralist,’ vir. 201-226, 1898.

Rawson, I’. G. 8. Some Birds of the Ryburn Valley. (Third Paper.)
‘Halifax Naturalist,’ 1. 60-62, 1898.

Ricuarpson, N. M. Notes on the Collections at Montevideo [near Wey-
mouth]. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. I’. C.’ xrx. 154-160, 1898.

Reports on Observations of the Virst Appearances of Birds,
Insects, &e., and the First Flowering of Plants in Dorset during 1897.
‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. CG.’ xrx. 202-211, 1898.

Rorpuck, W. Denison. Bibliography: Land and Freshwater Mollusea,
1892 and 1898. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 189-199, 1898.

- CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 53

Row nny, I’. R. Report of the Delegate to the Fourth International Con-
gross of Zoologists, Cambridge, August 28-26, 1898. * ‘Trans. Leices-
ter Lit, Phil. Soe.’ v. 184-142, 1899,

Sonanrr, Dr, R. FP. (Dublin N. F.C.) The Trish Freshwater Leeches.
‘Irish Naturalist,’ vi. 188-194, 1898,

Beorr, Tos. Notes on the Micro-fauna of Ailsa Craig, Firth of Clyde.
‘Trans. Glasg. N. H. Soe.’ v. 153-158, 1898,

Scourrmnp, D. J. The Entomostraca of Epping Forest, with some
General Remarks on the Group: Part IL, A Detailed List of the
Epping Forest Species; Part LV, A Bibliography of the Literature
Sieing to the British Freshwater Entomostraca., ‘HM ssex Naturalist,’
xX. 818-884, 1808.

Saaw, Wmni1am. Notes on some of the more uncommon Lepidoptera in
the Neighbourhood of Galashiels. ‘History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’
Xv1. 281-2388, 1898,

Sarru, Miss Taropora. Ant Neighbours (concluded), — ‘ Halifax
Naturalist,’ mm. 26-81, 1898,

—— The Hibernation of Ants. ‘Halifax Naturalist,’ mr 116-119,
1899,

Borny, Dr. H.C. On the Preparation of Marine Animals as Trans-
parent Lantern-slides, ‘Mssox Naturalist,’ x. 346-350, 1898.

—— On the Preparation of Marine Animals and Plants as Transparent
Lantern-slides. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. I. 0, 1895-7,’ 802, 1898.

Sourn Arrican Prmosornican Sociwry. Résumé of recent Scientific
Publications bearing on South Africa, from January 1, 1897, to
Juno 80, 1898. ‘Trans. 8. African Phil. Soe.’ x. 487-478, 1899,

Sovrawann, T. Feltwell Decoy. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soe.’ vi.
852-959, 1898,

—— Wxhibition of a Norfolk Bustard, ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soe.

Vr. 885-886, 1898,

—— The St. Helen's Swan Pit. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soe.’ vr.
887-389, 1898,

—— Some additions to the Norwich Castle Museum in 1897. ‘ Trans.
Norf. Norw. Nat. Soe.’ vi, 890-898, 1898,

—— Occurrence of the Mediterranean Herring Gull (Larus cachinnans)
in Norfolk, ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vi, 417, 1898,

7, Tawny Pipit in Norfolk, ‘ Trans, Norf. Norw. Nat. Soe.’ vr. 418,
898,

Sternenson, Toomas. Natural History Notes from Whitby, May 1896
4 February 1898 [Vertebrata], ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 201-206,
98,
Sykes, Manx L. Natural Selection in the Lepidoptera, ‘Trans. Manch.
Mic, Soo. 1897,’ 54-64, 1898,
‘Trompson, M. L. The Yorkshire Coleoptera Committee. ‘The Natu-
ralist for 1898,’ 225-227, 1898.
Twornuey, Rey. A. The Functions of a Natural History Society
i i Address), ‘Report Nott, Nat. Soc, 1897-8," 25-30,
qe
Tomuix, Brocxron. Coleoptera of the Llandaff District. ‘Trans.
Leicester Lit. Phil. Soe.’ v. 187-191, 1899.
Tvex, W. H. Aculeate Hymenoptera at Tostock, near Bury St.
_ Edmunds. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soe.’ vi. 419-420, 1898,
Tur, J. W. Entomology as a Scientific Pursuit. ‘ Trans. 8.-E. Union,’
mr, 21-88, 1898,

DA " REPORT—1899.

Waker, James J. A List of the Coleoptera of the Rochester District.
‘Rochester Naturalist,’ 1. 509-514, 517-581, 542-559, 1898 and 1899.

Watuacn, R. Hepcer. White Cattle: An Inquiry into their Origin and
History. ‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soe.’ v. 220-278, 1898.

Watrtsr, J. H. A Visit to an Egyptian Ostrich Farm. ‘Trans. Norf.
Norw. Nat. Soe.’ vi. 850-351, 1898.

Warp, J. Summary of Literature relating to the Geology, Mineralogy.
and Paleontology of North Staffordshire, chronologically arranged
[1895-99]. ‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxm1. 72-75, 1899.

WarerwortH, H. Birds of the Luddenden Valley. Fourth Paper—
The Finches. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ m1. 82-84, 1598.

Warkrys, GC. J. Some Notes on Lepidoptera from the Painswick Dis-
trict. ‘Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’ vit. 274-278, 1899.

Wess, Sypvey. The Working of Natural History Societies, with the
view to their Success and Popularity. ‘ Trans. §.-. Union,’ 11.
94-98, 1898.

Wuerer, E. G. Marked Woodcocks. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’
vi. 416, 1898.

Peciloscytus vulneratus at Yarmouth. ‘ Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat.
Soe.’ vi. 419, 1898.

Winurams, Dr. R. Curious Experiences in Birds’ Nesting. ‘ Trans.
Woolhope N. F. C. 1895-97,’ 146-147, 1898.

Wricut, Joux. Natural History Notes from Terrrington Church-—
wardens’ Accounts. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 805-306, 1898.

Wysyx, Wrotiam H. Altruism and Organic Evolution. ‘ Proc. Birm.
N. H. Phil. Soe.’ xr. 6-48, 1899.

Section H.—GroGRAPHY.

Apamson, D. B. Yquitos. ‘ Trans. Liverpool Geog. Soc.’ vit. 89-44, 1899.

Brewer, WruuiAm M. Prospecting in British Columbia. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xvi. 291-299, 1899.

Brown, M. Wavron. The Equipment of Exploring Expeditions.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xv. 445-448, 1898.

Buuxiock, T. L. The Geography of China. ‘Manch. Geog. Soe.’ xiv.
113-129, 1898.

CASARTELLI, Very Rev. L. C. Report on the Eleventh Congress of
Orientalists in Paris, September 5 to 12,1897. ‘Journal Manch.
Geog. Soe.’ x11. 183-188, 1898.

Convinn, Lady Zrrim. Madagascar. ‘Trans. Liverpool. Geog. Soc.’
vit. 17-30, 1899.

De Wrxpt, Harry. Through the Goldfields of Alaska to Bering Straits.
‘Journal Tyneside Geog. Soc.’ 1v. 165-187, 1898.

Fox, C. E. The Parish of Halifax. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ m1. 21-26,
1898.

Franxuin, Jonn. Farthest North with Nansen. ‘Trans. Car. and Sev.
Vall. F. C.’ 11. 101-1038, 1898.

Honway, H. C. Scnunxe. Bibliography of Books, Pamphlets, Maps,
Magazines, Articles, &c., relating to South Africa, with special refe-
rence to Geography. From the time of Vasco da Gama to the
formation of the British South Africa Company in 1888. ‘Trans,
S. African Phil. Soc.’ x. 131-294, 1898.

Lronarp, Major A. G. Notes of a Journey to Bende. ‘ Journal Manch.
Geog. Soe.’ xv. 190-207, 1898.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, Dd

Merian, Aurrep. The Seychelle Islands. ‘Trans. Liverpool Geog.
Soe.’ vir. 80-39, 1899.

Moorr, H. Cecm. Heights in Herefordshire. ‘Trans. Woolhope
N. F. C. 1895-97,’ 270-277, 1898.

Nevins, Dr. J. Brxsecx. Geographical Picture of Medieval Europe
during the Thirteenth Century. ‘Trans. Liverpool Geog. Soc.’ vu.
44-63, 1899.

PouireyaAN, Rey. J. Palestine: its Physical Features, Flora, Fauna,
Antiquities, and Religion. ‘Trans. Car. and Sev. Vall. F. GC. un.
154-157, 1898.

Pripeavx, Colonel. Abyssinia: the Country and People, ‘ Trans. Car.
and Sev. Vall. F. C.’ 1m. 104-118, 1898.

Roru, Fevix N. A Diary of a Surgeon with the Benin Punitive Expe-
dition. ‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xtv. 208-221, 1898.

Russett, E. J. The Shetland Islands. * ‘ Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’
xi. 125-138, 1898.

Sctarer, W. L. Notes on Portions of the Cross or Memorial Pillar
erected by Bartholomew Diaz near Angra Pequena, in German South-
West Africa. ‘Trans. S. African Phil. Soc.’ x. 295-302, 1899.

Ssawe, F. B. Western Tibet. ‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xtv. 1-23,
1898.

SowerBurts, Evi. Conference of Missionaries on Geography, Man-
chester, October 29, 1897. ‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ x11. 189—
202, 1898.

Tempe, Sir Ricuarp. The Country of Cashmere. ‘Journal Manch.
Geog. Soc.’ xm. 189-141, 1898.

——_The Upper Waters of the Rivers Irawaddy and Mekong. ‘Journal
Manch. Geog, Soc.’ x11. 181-182, 1898.

VerNER, Lieut.-Col. WiLoucHpy. The Soudan in 1885 and 1898.
‘Journal Tyneside Geog. Soe.’ rv. 205-207, 1898.

,P. J. A Lady’s Notes on Residence in Queensland. ‘Journal
Manch. Geog. Soe.’ xv. 222-224, 1898.

Warvrop, A. Tucker. All About North Borneo, the New Ceylon
‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soe.’ xm. 165-180, 1898.

Wetts, Lieut.-Col. H. L. Caravan Routes and Road Making in Persia,
‘ Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xrv. 176-189, 1898.

Woopwarp, Prof. W.H. Report on the Geographical Prize Competition.
‘Report Liverpool Geog. Soc.’ vir, 3-6, 1899.

Section F’.—Economic Science AND STATISTICS.

Appison, W.H. The Present State of Deaf Mute Education. ‘Proc.
Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxrx. 241-253, 1898.

Armstrone, W. (N. Eng. Inst.). Presidential Address. (The Position
of the Coal Trade.) ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 87-42, 1898.

Caruite, W. W. The Indian Mints. < Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxix.
123-144, 1898.

Cuampers, A.M. Presidential Address (Coal Mining in 1854 and 1898).
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xv. 293-800, 1898.

CraskE, W. R. Presidential Address (The Cement Trade of Rochester).
‘Rochester Naturalist,’ 1. 501-508; 1898.

Daty, E. D. Neglected Children and N eglectful Parents. ‘ Journal
Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x. 850-366, 1898.

i

56 REPORT—1899.

Dawson, CHartes. Greater Dublin: Extension of the Municipal
Boundaries. ‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x. 841-850, 1898.

Dick, G. H. On Indian Economics. ‘Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxix.
45-71, 1898.

Geary, Major-Gen. Industrial Training and Technical Education,
‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc. 1897-98,’ 17-82, 1899.

Giupin, E., jun. Underground Certificates in Nova Scotian Coal Mines.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 300-315, 1899.

Haut, Henry. On the Coal Industry of the Rhenish-Westphalian
Provinces. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxv. 569-572, 1898.

Jounston, W. J. The Coming Change in Irish Local Government.
‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x. 866-377, 1898.

May, GrorGre. (N. Eng. Inst.) Presidential Address (The Progress of
Mining since 1852). ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xv. 279-287, 1898.
Smart, Prof.Wmu. The Report of the Royal Commission on Agricultural

Depression. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxix. 1-21, 1898.

Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

AppENBROoKE, G. L. (S. Staff. Inst. Eng.) The Midland Electric
Corporation, Limited, and its Bearing on Mining in the South
Staffordshire District. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 493-494, 1899.

Barr, THomas H. Two Types of Electrical Coal Cutters. ‘Trans. Min.
Inst. Scot.’ xx. 66-71, 1899.

Bricutmore, Dr. A. W. The Masonry Dam Problem. ‘Trans. Liver-
pool EK. Soe.’ xrx. 144-153, 1898.

BroucuH, Bennett H. Historical Sketch of the First Institution of
Mining Engineers. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 2-13, 1899. ;

Cuamprrs, W. H. (Midland Inst. Eng.) Inaugural Address (Safety
in Mining). ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvr. 91-98, 1898.

Cuark, Percy. Some further Notes on the Effects of the Great Tide of
November, 1897. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x. 855-859, 1898.

Cowrer-Couzs, SHEeraArD. Electro-Zincing. ‘ Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’
xix. 17-82, 1898.

Davis, F H. Davis Calyx-drill. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xv. 363-369,
1898.

Dowson, J. Emerson. Gas Power. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xv.
326-337, 1898.

FarREeN, Georcre. Inaugural Address (On the Necessity of Accuracy in
Statement and Reasoning in Engineering, and the Slowness of the
Human Intellect in Grasping the Idea). ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’
xIx. 1-16, 1898.

GoonpEen, W. T. Coal-cutting by Machinery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xv. 378-384, 1898.

Hamiuton, ANDREW. Diagrams as illustrating Ship and Engine Per-
formances. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xrx. 168-178, 1898.

Harpiz, W. D. L. Machine-mining and Pick-mining Compared.
*Trans. Min. Inst. Scot.’ xx. 79-87, 1899.

Heptey, Jonn L., and Wu. Leck. Timbering in the Iron Ore Mines of
Cumberland and Furness. ‘Trans. inst. Min. Eng.’ xvr. 281-288,
1899.

Hete-Suaw, Prof. H.S. Experiments on the Flow of Water. ‘ Trans.
Liverpool E. Soc.’ xrx. 109-116, 1898.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 57

Hituer, §.G. The Working of the Boiler Explosions Acts, 1882 and
1890. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 19-46, 1899.

Kerr, Georce L. Timbering and Supporting Underground Workings.
‘Trans. Min. Inst. Scot.’ xx. 30-47, 1898.

Krosepera, Dr. C. The Otto Coke Oven. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xv. 402-407, 1898.

Litrie, Girpert. The Automatic Manipulation of Coal and Coke.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. ing.’ xvir. 117-120, 1899.

Louis, Prof. H. The Strength of Pit Props. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xv. 345-360, 1898 ; xvir. 14-17, 1899.

MarsnHaty, W. Barney. Roller-bearings. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xv.
3802-318, 1898.

Marten, KE. B., and Epmunp Hown. The South Staffordshire Mines
Drainage Scheme, with Special Regard to Electric-power Pumping.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 268-276, 1899.

Martin, Ropert. Underground Steam Appliances and Temperature of
the Strata at Niddrie Collieries. ‘Trans. Min. Inst. Scot.’ xrx. 266-
269, 1898.

Maxton, James. The Evolution of Floating and other Dry Docks.
‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc. 1897-98,’ 62-73, 1899.

Meacnam, I’. G. (8S. Staff. Inst. Min. Eng.) The Martin and Turnbull
System of Water Sprays. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 497-498,
1899.

Moorz, H. Crcoin. The Severn Tunnel Pumping Works. ‘Trans.
Woolhope N. FF. C. 1895-97,’ 90-99, 1898.

A Visit to the Works of the proposed Birmingham Water Supply
from the Elan Valley in Wales. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C. 1895-97,’
153-170, 1898.

Morris, W. H. Railways and their Practical Working. ‘ Proc. Belfast
N. H. Phil. Soc. 1897-98,’ 60-61, 1899.

Priest, Frank EK. Experiments in the Acceleration of the Setting of
Portland Cement. ‘Trans. Liverpool HE. Soc.’ xrx. 46-54, 1898.

Rateav, Prof. A. Experimental Investigations upon the Theory of the
Pitot Tube and the Woltmann Mill. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
Xvil. 124-168, 1899.

Rep, Franz. (N. Eng. Inst.) The Felling of a Chimney. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvir. 280-252, 1899.

Rocrers, Hua. Liverpool Landing Stage Extension and Prince's Jetty.
‘Trans. Liverpool EK. Soc.’ xrx. 159-166, 1898.

Samvt, Wintram. On an Improved Decking Table for facilitating the
Loading of Pit Cages. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxv. 577-579,
1898.

Scuaw, Major-General H. The Use of High-pressure Steam as a Pos-
sible Substitute for Gunpowder or other Dangerous Explosives in
Coal-Mining. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 331-834, 1899.

SHaw, Prosser A. H. Portland Cement. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’
xix. 85-45, 1898.

THompson, Bresy. Reservoirs. ‘Journal N’ton N. H. Soc.’ x. 145-
154, 1898.

Tritton, Seymour B. Shallow Draught Steamers. ‘Trans. Liverpool
Ii. Soe.’ xrx. 96-104, 1898.

Tupspery, Dr. J. H.T. Engineering Survey Work. ‘ Trans. Liverpool
Ei. Soe.’ xrx. 125-136, 1898.

58 REPORT—1899.

Watxer, G. Buaxe. (Midland Inst. Eng.) The Rhenish-Westphalian
Coal Syndicate. ‘Trans. Inst. Eng.” xvr. 401-412, 1899.
Waitt, J. Wanwyn. Aérial Rope Railways, with special reference to
Traffic between Liverpool and Manchester. ‘Trans. Liverpool I.
‘ Soc.’ xix, 69-91, 1898.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

Anpson, Rey. Wu. A Description of an Underground Dwelling, com-
monly called a Pict’s House, at Pitcur, near Cupar-Angus. ‘ Trans.
Dum. Gal. N. H. A. Soc.’ No. 14, 61-66, 1898.

Bipaoop, Winu1AM. Norton Camp. ‘Proc. Som’setsh. A. N. H. Soc.’
xuiv. 198-202, 1898.

Cour, Rev. BE. Mauxue. Notes on the Danes’ Graves near Driffield.
‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soe.’ xin. 299-301, 1898.

Cooxz, JoHn H. Neolithic Life in Lincolnshire (Third Paper). ‘The
Naturalist for 1898,’ 221-224, 1898.

CrELLIN, Miss A.M. Report of Anthropological Section. ‘Yn Lioar
Manninagh,’ 111. 379-380, 1898.

CRossLAND, CHARLES. The Place-name ‘Royd.’ ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’
mr. 109-112, 1899.

Date, W. Bronze Implements from the Neighbourhood of Southamp-
ton. ‘Hants F. C.’ rv. 75-78, 1899.

Dawson, Cuarues. Ancient and Modern ‘Dene Holes’ and their
Makers. ‘Trans. S.-H. Union,’ mt. 34-46, 1898.

Hoac, ALEXANDER J. The Flint Implements of Addington. ‘Trans.
Croydon M. N. H. C., 1897-98,’ 257-262, 1898.

Hotroyp, W. F. Neolithic Flint Implements from the Yorkshire Wolds.
‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvr. 14-16, 1898.

Kermopr, P. M.C. Report of the Archeological Section (with List of
Local Antiquities in the Society’s Collection). ‘ Yn Lioar Manninagh,’
ut. 872-379, 1898.

Law, Ropert. The Discovery of Cinerary Urns at Todmorden.
‘Halifax Naturalist,’ m1. 49-52, 1898.

Lovett, Epwarp. Fish-hooks of ‘Wood used on the Essex Coast.
‘Essex Naturalist,’ x. 300-305, 1898.

— Observations on the Implement made from a Deer’s Antler in the
Museum of the Essex Field Club. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x. 851-3538,
1898.

The Folk Lore of Amulets and Charms. ‘ Trans. §.-E. Union,’
m1. 47-538, 1898.

Lynam, C. Presidential Address (Glimpses of the County of Stafford).
‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’ xxx. 28-38, 1899.

MansEL-PuEyDELL, J. C. Lake Dwellings at Glastonbury.. ‘ Proc.
Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xrx. 172-175, 1898.

Meyrick, E. Anthropometrical Statistics.. ‘Rep. Marlb. Coll. N. H.
Soc.’ No. 47, 106-136, 1899.

Mortimer, J. R. A Summary of what is known of the so-called
‘Danes’ Graves,’ near Driffield. ‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’
x1. 286-298, 1898.

MornHersote, Henry. Notes on some Relics of Early Man in the
Neighbourhood of Chelmsford. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x. 305-306, 1898.

Puitures, W. The Berth—a remarkable Harthwork. ‘Trans. Car.
and Sey. Vall. F. C.’ m. 144-148, 1898.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 59

Rary, Rey. Tuos. A Century’s Changes in a Pastoral Parish. ‘Trans.
Dum. Gal. N. H. A. Soc.’ No. 14, 48-60, 1898.

Rotn, H. Linc. Examples of Metal Work from Benin. ‘ Halifax
Naturalist,’ m1. 82-388, 1898.

SuHEepparD, THomas. ‘Traces of an Ancient Lake Dwelling at Land-le-
Mere, near Withernsea, East Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’
801-307, 1898.

Smirns, WortHinaton G. An Implement made from a Stag’s Antler,
from Wormingford, Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x. 310-312, 1898.
Tomson, Rey. J. H. The Kindly Tenants of the Four Towns of

Lochmaben. ‘Trans. Dum. Gal. N. H. A. Soe.’ No. 14, 73-81, 1898.

Warpte, Sir THomas. Notes on the Explosions and Reports in Red-
hurst Gorge, and the Recent Exploration of Redhurst Cave. ‘Trans.
N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxm1. 97-115, 1899.

Watxrins, Rev. M. G. ‘The Keltic Lanes of South Herefordshire.
‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C. 1895-97,’ 61-64, 1898.

Section I.—PHyYstoLoGy.

Auten, Dr. F. G. What is Life? ‘Proc. Birm. N. H. Phil. Soe.’ x1.
44-67, 1899. :

Brrpwoop, Dr. H. M. The Recent Epidemics of Plague in Bombay.
‘ Journal Manch. Geog. Soe.’ xtv. 180-175, 1898.

Browntee, Dr. Jonny. Observations on the Aérial Transmission of the
Enteric Fever Poison, with a Record of an Outbreak presumably
caused by that Means of Infection. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxix.
298-315, 1898.

Frereuson, Dr. A. R. On the Bubonic Plague. ‘Proc. Glasgow Phil.
Soc.’ xxrx. 254-261, 1898.

Harris, Dr. D. F. Note on a New Instrument (Oliver’s) for the Esti-
mation of the Colouring-matter of Blood. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soe.’
XxIx. 238-240, 1898.

Krnnepy, Dr. Ropert. Degeneration and Regeneration of Nerves: an
Historical Review. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxrx. 193-229, 1898.

MacCormac, Dr. Jonn M. Abnormal Ideas of Nervous Super-
excitability. ‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc. 1897-98,’ 36-44, 1899.

WotsTENHOLME, JNO. B. Botriomyces (Bollinger), a Micrococcus which
produces Tumours in some of the Domesticated Animals. ‘Trans.
Manch. Mic. Soc. 1897,’ 23-28, 1898.

Section K.—BorTany.

Auptey, J.A. Report of the Botanical Section. ‘Trans. N. Staff. F.C.’
xxx. 61-64, 1899.

Axon, THomas. The Influence of Light and Temperature on Vegeta-
tion. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc. 1897,’ 46-47, 1898.

Bairstow, U. A Fungus Foray in Luddenden Dean. ‘ Halifax Natu-
ralist,’ 111. 84-85, 1898.

Botam, GrorGE. Notes on Coniferous Trees at Twizell. ‘History
Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xvr. 49-50, 1898.

Note on Fitzroya patagonica (Sir J. D. Hooker), at Belsay Castle.
‘History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xvr. 147-148, 1898.

Boyp, D. A. _Micro-fungi observed near Kilmarnock, Ayrshire. ‘ Trans.
Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ v. 159-160, 1898.

60 REPORT—1899.

Boyp, D. A. Additional Notes on the Peronosporee and Ustilagmee of
North Ayrshire. ‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ v. 161-162, 1898.
Brown, ALFRED. Grasses and other Forage Plants. ‘Trans. Perths.

Soe. N. Sci.’ 11. 217-222, 1898.

Burton-on-TrENT Narurat History AND ARCHEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
(Botanical Section.) The Flora of Burton-on-Trent and Neighbour-
hood: Part 11. Rubiacew to Solanacee. ‘Trans. Burt. N. H. A.
Soc.’ rv. 75-88, 1899.

Carapoc AND SEveERN VALLEY Fientp Crus. Botanical Notes, 1898.
‘Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 8, 5-16 [1899].

Carr, Prof. J. W. Nottinghamshire Fungi [A Complete Localised List
of all the Basidiomycetes recorded for the County]. ‘Journal Nott.
Nat. Soc.’ 1897-8, 39-55, 1899.

Curisty, Mrnrer. ‘Two Interesting Primula Plants. ‘Essex Naturalist,’
x. 807-310, 1898.

Coates, Henry. Opening Address (The Summer Excursions, 1897).
‘Proc. Perths. Soc. N. Sei.’ 1. cli.—clviii. 1898.

Coomer, J. Newton, and M. H. Stes. Diatoms observed at Hatfield
West Moor, near Doncaster. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’ 49-51,
1899.

CrossnanpD, Cuantes. Fungus Foray at Harewood and East Keswick.
‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 357-862, 1898.

Crump, W. B. Facts and Factors in the Distribution of Halifax Plants.
* Halifax Naturalist,’ mr. 48-44, 62-66, 1898.

—— The Flora of the Parish of Halifax. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ m1, rv.
App. 65-96, 1898, 1899.

Dixon, H. N. Botany of Martin’s Brickyard. ‘Journal N’ton N. H.
Soc.’ x. 188, 1898.

Drucz, G. Cuaripce. Notes on the Botany of Northamptonshire.
‘ Journal N’ton N. H. Soe.’ x. 185-187, 1898.

— The Botanologia of Northamptonshire. ‘Journal N’ton N. H.
Soc.’ x. 19-21, 56-59, 112-114, 1898.

HuuioTt, F. W. The Existing Trees and Shrubs of Epping Forest.
‘Essex Naturalist,’ x. 277-287, 1899.

Epps, JAMEs, jun. The Cacao Plant. ‘Trans. Croydon M.N. H.C.
1897-98,’ 262-272, 1898.

Fow er, Rey. Wint1Am. Mycology in its Popular Aspect. ‘ The Natu-
ralist for 1898,’ 817-819, 1898.

Gisss, T. The Climatal Distribution of British Plants. ‘Trans. Burt.
N. H. Arch. Soc.’ rv. 48-55, 1899.

Hauirax Screntiric Society anp GroLocicaL Fieup Crus. Local
Records in Natural History: Botany. ‘Halifax Naturalist,’ m1. 127—
128, 1899.

Hamitton, W. P. The Life History of a Fern. ‘Trans. Car. and Sev.
Vall. F. C.’ 1, 125-127, 1898.

Hey, Rev. W.C. Plant-Names in Use at West Ayton, York, N.E. ‘The
Naturalist for 1899,’ 123-124, 1899.

Hopeson, Wi~u1aAm. Occurrence of Rare Plants in Cumberland. ‘The
Naturalist for 1899,’ 1-8, 1899.

Houmes, E. M. Botanical Work Wanting Workers. ‘Trans. §.-E.
Union,’ mr. 98-108, 1898. ;

IncHam, WiuutaAm. Mosses New to Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for
1898,’ 207-208, 1898.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 61

Incuam, Wiuu1am. Mosses and Hepatics of Skipworth Common, 8.2.
Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 249-352, 1898.

—— Mosses and Hepatics of Strensall Common. ‘The Naturalist for
1899,’ 61-68, 1899.

Mosses New to Yorkshire and Additional Records of Rare Mosses.
‘The Naturalist for 1899,’ 64, 1899.

—-_ Mosses of Tadcaster and Immediate District. ‘The Naturalist for
1899,’ 117-122, 1899.

Kersir, F. W. Impressions of Tropical Life. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic.
Soc. 1897,’ 48-54, 1898.

Krrcan, Dr. P. Q. The Chemistry of the Lakeland Trees. ‘The Natu-
ralist for 1898,’ 181-187, 1898.

The Bursting of the Buds in Spring. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,”
125-128, 1899.

Lakin, Cuartes. Some Medicinal Plants of Leicestershire. ‘ Trans.
Leicester Lit. Phil. Soc.’ v. 176-182, 1899.

MacAnprew, Jas. Botanical Notes for 1897. ‘Trans. Dum. Gal. N.
H. A. Soe.’ No. 14, 5-8, 1898.

MInvosn, C. Notes by a Naturalist round Dunkeld. ‘Trans. Perth.
Soe. N. Sci.’ 1. 223-227, 1898.

Macnas, Miss. A Botanical Ramble on Ben Lettery, Connemara.
‘Trans. Perth. Soe. N. Sci.’ 1. 197-200, 1898.

Mansen-Purypetn, J. C. Order Oryzee.—Leersia Oryzoides, Sow.
‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xrx. 106-108, 1898.

Marsnaty, J. J. Additions to Dr. Parsons’ Moss Flora of the East
Riding. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 240, 1898.

Metprun, Rosert H. A Preliminary List of Perthshire Mosses.
‘Trans. Perth. Soc. N. Sci.’ mu. 227-239, 1898.

Moss, C. E. Green Scums. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ m1. 79-81, 1898.

Murray, Jamas, and R. D. Witkin. The Mosses of Campsie Glen: A
Contribution towards a List of Mosses of the West of Scotland.
‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soe.’ v. 217-219, 1898.

Parsons, Dr. H. Fransury. On the Times of Flowering of Harly
Spring Flowers. ‘Trans. Croydon M. N. H.C.’ 1897-98, 241-245,
1898.

——— On the Nature of the Soil in Relation to the Distribution of Plants:
and Animals. ‘Trans. S.-i. Union,’ ut. 65-72, 1898.

Parry, Lister. The Constituents of the North Lancashire Flora, 1597(?)
-1893. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 809-316, 321-383, 1898.

—— New Plant Records for North Lancashire, 1897 and 1898. ‘The
Naturalist for 1898,’ 863-364, 1898.

Pim, Greenwoop (Dublin N. F. C.). The Fungi of the Counties of
Dublin and Wicklow. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ vi. 178-185, 1898.

Prarcer, R. Lu. (Dublin N. F. C.). Botany at the Kenmare Conference
of the Irish Field Club Union. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ vir. 227, 1898.

— A Botanist in the Central Plain: being Notes on Field Work in 1897
and 1898. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ vir. 87-103, 1899.

Preston, Rey. T. A. Ovules. ‘Trans. Leicester Lit. Phil. Soc.’ v. 115-
122, 1899.

Preston, A. W. Presidential Address (Recording of Phenological Phe-
nomena). ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ v1. 331-349, 1898.

Pyr, Crara E. Flowers of Madeira. ‘Rochester Naturalist,’ 1. 588-541,
1899.

62 REPORT—1899.

SaunpErs, JAmEs. British Parasitic Flowering Plants, with a List of
the Species. ‘ Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ x. 44-48, 1899.

Report on the Mycetozoa of the South Midlands for the Years 1895
to 1898. ‘Trans. Herts. N. H. Soc.’ x. 103-104, 1899.

Smirn, Rosrrer. Plant Associations of the Tay Basin. ‘Trans. Perths.
Soc. N. Sci.’ 11. 200-217, 1898.

Sorrirt, H. T., and C. Crosstanp. New British Fungi found in West
Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’ 27-31, 1899.

StTaBLeR, Grorce. On the Hepatice and Musci of Westmorland.
‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 229-236, 841-848, 1898.

Tattow, Mrs. Emtny M. (Dublin N. F.C.) Wild Flowers in a County
Dublin Garden. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ vir. 129-184, 1898.

Trow, A. H. Liverworts found in the Neighbourhood of Cardiff. ‘ Trans.
Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxx. 57-59, 1899.

TuRNER, CHARLES. The Functions and Structure of Leaves. ‘ Trans.
Manch. Mie. Soc. 1897,’ 64-70, 1898.

Wacer, Haroup. Notes on Botrydiwm granulatum, Grey. ‘ Trans.
Leeds Nat. C. Sci. Assoc.’ rv. 9-15, 1899.

Warp, Epwarp. A Visit to Kew Gardens. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc.,
1897,’ 42-45, 1898.

Weiss, Prof. F. E. Adaptations in Plants. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc.,
1897,’ 71-74, 1898.

Wettwoop, 8. M. Observations on some Morphological Abnormalities
in the Tomato. ‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ v. 181-186, 1898.

Warton, Jas. Meteorological Notes, and Remarks upon the Weather
during the year 1897, with its General Effects upon Vegetation.
‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soe.’ v. 163-178, 1898.

Winxrnson, Henry J. Catalogue of British Plants in the Herbarium of
the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. Part V. ‘ Report Yorks. Phil. .
Soe. for 1898,’ 1-16, 1899.

Wooprvurre-Pracock, Rey. E. A. Old Lincolnshire Plant Records, 1724
and 1726. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 177-179, 1898.

Hepptg, Dr., and his Geological Work. By J. G. Goodchild. ‘Trans.
Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ vit. 317-827, 1899.

Newton, Sir Epwarp. Memoir, by T. Sfouthwellj. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw.
Nat. Soe.’ vi. 409-412, 1898.

Sorritt, THomas Henry. In Memoriam. By A. H. Pawson. ‘The
Naturalist for 1899,’ 157-160, 1899.

Spencer, JAMES (with List of Geological Papers). By W. B. Crump.
‘Halifax Naturalist,’ 11. 69-74, 1898.

Tate, THomas. By Rey. W. Lower Carter. ‘ Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’
xu1I. 850-352, 1898.

Tuts, Rey. JoHn Stantey. By W. H. Hudleston. ‘Proc. Yorks. Geol.
Poly. Soe.’ x1. 858-855, 1898.

ON RADIATION FROM A SOURCE OF LIGHT IN A MAGNETIC FIELD. 63

Radiation from a Source of Inght in a Magnetic Iield.—Preliminary
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor GEORGE IRaNncis
FirzGERaLD (Chairman), THomas PRESTON (Secretary), Professor
A. Scuuster, Professor O. J. LopGE, Professor 8. P. THompson,
Dr. GERALD Mo.toy, and Dr. W. E. ADENEY,

Tue work undertaken by this Committee has not yet terminated. This
occurs partly from the difficulties which arose in obtaining a satisfactory
supply of electric current with which to excite the powerful electro-magnet
now in the hands of the Committee, and partly from the circumstance
that the Secretary was not always free to work at such times as the staft
ot the Royal University found it convenient to permit research work in
the Physical Laboratory.

Considerable advance has been made, however, during the past session,
and the magnetic perturbations of the spectral lines of several substances
have been observed and photographed from one end tothe other of the
spectrum. A considerable amount of work remains to be done in this direc-
tion still, and this we hope to complete in the near future.

The chief points of interest determined by the Committee since its
appointment are as follows :—

1. On Friday, September 9, 1898, Professor S. P. Thompson attracted
the attention of the British Association (see ‘ Brit. Assoc. Report, 1898,’
p- 789) to an elegant experiment devised by Professor Righi for the
purpose of illustrating the absorption of light in a magnetic field. This
experiment was stated by Professor Righi to succeed only when the light
traversed the field along the lines of force, but it appeared to us from
theoretical considerations that similar absorption should also take place
when the light traverses the field across the lines of force. On trying the
experiment on the following Tuesday (September 13, 1898), it was found
at once that the experiment was capable of demonstrating absorption
across the lines of force! as markedly as that ascertained by Professor

Righi along the lines of force. This result was also ascertained subse-
quently, and independently, by M. Cotton.”

2. The next point of interest consisted in placing beyond doubt that
the various modified forms of triplet, that is the quartets, octets, c., are
not produced by reversal or any other extraneous cause, but are true
magnetic perturbations of the same kind as the normal triplet, which is to
be expected from the simplest theoretical considerations. An account of
the experiments by which this was determined will be found in the
‘Philosophical Magazine’ for February 1899 (‘ Phil. Mag.’ vol. xlvii.
p- 165).

oe this inquiry it was found that in a very strong magnetic
field the quartets ultimately became resolved into sextets, the side lines
of the quartets splitting up into pairs and separating as the strength of
the field gradually increased.

These quartet forms, and various other types of perturbation, were
observed by Mr. Preston in the beginning of November 1897, and were
shown at the following meeting of the Dublin University Experimental

1 See Nature, lix. 228-9, January 1899.
* Comptes Rendus, 1898, 127, p. 953.

64 REPORT—1899.

Science Association. Subsequently the quartet form (which we have now
proved in the cases observed to be really a sextet) was independently
observed by M. Cornu! and others.

3. Finally, from the various observations of the character and measure-
ments of the amount of the magnetic effect experienced by the various
spectral lines of several substances, a general law has been inferred con-
cerning the effect which may be stated as follows : >—

(i) The spectral lines of a given substance may be divided into groups
such that all the members of one group suffer the same kind of perturba-
tion in the magnetic field, but the kind of perturbation of all the members
of another group is different. Thus, for example, in the series of triplets
of zine, the first of one triplet is similarly affected to the first of each of
the other triplets, while the second of one triplet is affected in the same
way as the second in each of the other triplets, but in a different way from
first and third of the triplet. Hence the series of firsts of each triplet
constitute a group all the members of which are similarly affected, and the
series of seconds and thirds are other such groups.

(2) The character of the effect is the same in the corresponding lines
of the spectra of chemically related elements. Thus, the triplets of cad-
mium are affected in the same way, both as regards the character and the
magnitude of the effect, as are the triplets of zinc.

(3) If the magnitude of the effect be measured by the difference of
wave-length of the lateral components of the magnetically resolved line,
then throughout any one group the magnitude of the effect is inversely
as the square of the wave-length of the line. This means that e/m is
the same for all the lines of the same group, but not the same for all the
lines of the spectrum. In other words, the difference of frequency
between the lateral components of the magnetically resolved line is the
same for all the lines of the same group ; and if the magnitude of the
effect be measured by this difference of frequency, then we may say that
the effect is the same in character and magnitude for all the lines of the
same group. It differs from group to group in any one substance, but is
the same for corresponding groups in different substances.

Further information will be found in this connection in the ‘ Philo-
sophical Magazine,’ vol. xlvii. p. 165, February 1899, and the ‘ Phil. Trans.
Royal Dublin Society,’ vol. vi. series IT. p. 7, 1899.

Determining Magnetic Force at Sea.—Report of the Committee, con~
sisting of Professor A. W. RtcKer (Chairman), Dr. C. H. Lrxs,
(Secretary), Lord Ketvin, Professor A. ScutusTER, Captain E. W.
Creak, Professor W. Stroup, Mr. C. V. Boys, and Mr. W.
Watson, appointed to investigate the Method of determining Mag-
netic Lorce at Sea.

Some information has been collected as to the methods used at sea by

different countries, and Captain Creak has carried out experiments at
Kew by Lloyd’s method with encouraging results.

1 Comptes Rendus, 1898, 126, p. 181 and p. 300.
2 his law was published in Waturv, lix, 248, January 12, 1899.

ON THE METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORY, MONTREAL. 65

Meteorological Observatory, Montreal.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor H. L. CALLENDAR (Chairman), Professor C.
McLeop (Secretary), Professor ¥. Apams, and Mr. R. F. Stupart,
appointed for the purpose of establishing « Meteorological Observatory
on Mount Royal, Montreal, Canada.

As reported last year, some very good records of temperature on the top
of the mountain were obtained by means of a recorder set up in the
College Observatory at the base, and connected by a line about a mile
long to an electrical thermometer set up in the tower on the summit.
Unfortunately, the grant for meteorological purposes had been reduced by
the present Government, and the sum of money at the disposal of the
Committee, amounting to only half the estimated cost, did not permit of
protection for the line and the instruments in a sufficiently permanent
manner. In the early part of the summer the lock was broken, and the
instruments mischievously damaged. At a later date, the thermometer
was struck by lightning, and the insulation of the line suffered. After
some delay, owing to the winter, the cost of a new thermometer was
defrayed by the Physics Building Committee, but it was found that the
insulation of the line had deteriorated seriously in the course of the winter,
and the accuracy of the records was considerably impaired. It is hoped
that these defects will shortly be located and repaired, and that the
apparatus will soon be in good working order.

The Committee ask for reappointment, with a further grant of 20/.
for the more efficient protection of the line and instruments.

Lables of the G (vr, v)-Integrals.—Report of the Committee, consistin y
of Rev. Ropert Hartey (Chairman), Professor A. R. Forsytis
(Secretary), Dr. J. W. L. GuaisHer, Professor A. Lope, and
Professor Kart Prarson. (Drawn up by Professor Karu
PEARSON.)

APPENDIX.—Tables of F (r, v) and H (r,v) Functions. By Miss ALICE LEE,
SC. « : ; . : - r 2

- page 71

(1) In determining the area a of the curve

ar 1 —» tan -1%
Y¥=Yo oe Rae @ ‘ . 77 U1)
CT |

where 7, v, @ are constants of known numerical value in terms of the
constant yo, we find! ;

; : . ) a=, a ete sin 6’ dé. ‘ ° * (it)
0

This curve occurs frequently in certain forms of statistical investiga-
tion, and if we write
Ke . eee
Ce (ny == | sin” Je’? dd . : : . (iii)
0

' See Phil. Trans., vol, clxxxvi. A, p. 377,
1899.. F

66 REPORT—1899.

We have :
Re I
0 a oP Or, 9)
a 1 F
a ems (iv.)
where we write : F (r, v) = e-»" G (r, v). : ; ; : ane ie)

It was shown in a preliminary report! that :

¥F (7¢j9)= Hed (cos i) ee ae, OO : a 28)
FE

where tan 9=v and x (7, @) is a function which can be fairly easily calcu-
lated, when certain preliminary functions have been tabulated. These
X1» X39 Xs X7 functions were calculated in the preliminary report above
referred to.”

Now, in actual statistical application * may take as large a value as
40 to 50. Hence, if cos be taken from the tables (cos ¢)"** is liable to
a large error often reaching to the fifth place of figures when we are
tabulating log F (7, v). Clearly, for accuracy, it is better not to find
F (7, v) by interpolating between two tabular values of log F (7, v), but
to deal with some new function in which (cos ¢)"*! does not occur, and
then multiply by the actual value of (cos ¢)"*! deduced from the exact
value of the angle ¢ and the quantity 7. This will not, of course, free us
from the error, which arises from a value of cos ¢ tabulated to only
seven figures being raised to a high power. The value of (cos »)’*? must,
therefore, be found from 10-figure logarithmic tables of trigonometrical
functions like those of Vega’s: ‘Thesaurus Logarithmorum Completus’
of 1794. But the error due to the determination of (cos )’*' from
7-figure tables is not significant in the case of statistical investigations.
For y), as determined for any observed frequency series—probably not
containing more than 1,000 to 4,000 observations at a maximuin—is subject
to a considerable percentage error.* It seemed, accordingly, desirable to
tabulate for statistical purposes a function which is without the factor
(cos p)"*?, and has yet a real statistical importance. This function is
obtained in the following manner. The frequency y, per unit of variable
v at the mean for the normal curve :

—K(rJa)?

Y¥=74) © ’
where o is the standard deviation, is given by
jee
: Oo ay

where « is the area of the normal curve. For the curve (i) it is given* by

ny! v =2x(1", #) 1
‘ Up — ae ee BCS ho. ie ' ° vil.
e a v/ 2 r—l ( )
1 B.A, Trans., Report 1896.
* The following slip bas been since discovered in the tables of that report:
loz x, for ¢ = 25°, should be 2.677,7543, and not 2.667,7543, as tabulated.
3 See Phil. Trans. vol. exci. A, p. 297 et seg. ; numerically, perhaps, the error may
amount in practice to *5 to 2 per cent.
4 see Phil. Trans. vol. exci. A, p. 298 (equation cxxxvi,), where, however, the
symbol x isused for 2 x (7, p) of the present notation and of that of the Prediminary
Report.

TABLES OF THE G (r, v)-INTEGRALS. 67

This result we may write :

Fea Rater SA yevtiitit’. OL oils Qe vite)
}o¢ (r, v)
where : H (7, v)=V / tol puro, ; ‘ di Oise)
Vv

It is this function H (7, v) which has been chosen for the purposes of
tabulation. Equation (viii.) shows its statistical importance—it enables
us, knowing the standard deviation « of the observations—to at once
determine the frequency of mean values. It will approximate more and
more to / 27 as the frequency approaches a normal distribution, which it
does when r is large. Hence the differences of H (7, v) will be small,
and are likely ta be smooth, when 7 is large, and consequently F (7, v),
owing to the factor (cos ¢)’*! is not capable of very accurate determina-
tion.

The relations between the three functions already mentioned are :

Ei(r, v)=e7#* G (7, 7) ‘ , : ; oes)

F (r, v)=e" (cos 9)"** H (7, v) . ; ; ae Xe)
J/r—1

Gry) =seP2 WH (75-3) : , ; ‘ sch ul)

G (7, v)=e%**" (cos 9)? H (7, v) ; h(i?)

Vr-1
BiG, y= J/r—le* IBY faji?), b { : raise) }
(cos )"*?

H (r, vy)=V/r—1 em G (0) : ; ), Hz)

(08 gy

so that any one can be found from either of the others.

(2) But while H (7, v) is clearly the best function to tabulate when r
is moderately large, it is not so satisfactory when r is small ; for although
in that case (cos ¢)’*' may be fairly easily found from the tables in
ordinary use, so that it might seem that F (r, v) could be accurately
determined, yet the expression for y (7, ¢) now becomes unsatisfactory.
As has been shown in the Preliminary Report, § 2, we have to deal
with a semi-convergent series, and cannot for small values of 7 go beyond
X73; but this may involve an error as large as 6 in 10,000. Accordingly,
as the tables only proceed by integers, we have used the following results
which can, for r= an integer, be deduced by direct integration :

Dia

at

F (2r, v)=2 sinh 3 Ty G22) (4P) 0 Gen Givi.)
F (2r+1, v)=2 cosh 3 pied exp SEE rap Yee 7 on we
2" (0? +1) (2 +32). (W? +(2r+1)?) (xvii)
oO H (7, v) was then deduced from these values of F (7, v) by
xiv.).
F2

68 : REPORT—1899.

This process was used for values of F (7, v) for r=1 to 7, and the
values of F (r, v) and H (r, v) as found from the y-functions of the
tables of the Preliminary Report were compared and found to agree with
these for r=6 andr=7. For r=6 to r=50 the y-function tables were
used. The values of g are taken from 0° to 45° proceeding by degrees,
for no instanee has yet been found in statistical investigations in which
vis greater than r. Should such cases arise in future, then F (r, v) or
H (7, v) must be calculated from the x-tables for p=46° to 90° given in
the Preliminary Report.

(3) The whole of the arithmetical work (which proved far more
laborious than was initially anticipated) has been undertaken by Miss
Alice Lee, B.A., D.Sc., Assistant-Lecturer in Physics in Bedford College,
London. The arithmetic has been done twice independently, Miss Lee
having been most kindly assisted in the verification of the tables by Miss
M. Fry, Miss C. D. Fawcett, B.Sc., Miss E. Bramley-Moore, B.A,, and Miss
L. Bramley-Moore. To the extent of the methods used we think the accu-
racy of the tables is guaranteed by the agreement reached by the two sets
of calculations. But sources of error common to both independent calcu-
lations have been already referred to, and may be indicated more particu-
larly here. So far as H (7, v) as obtained from (ix.} is concerned, 2x has
been worked to 9 figures and is certainly correct to 8 figures. 2, loge was
then found by actual multiplication. We consider, accordingly, that
log H (r, v) is correct to 7 figures in all cases, from r=6 tor=50. Any
inaccuracy of log F (r, v) arises from the extra factors in (xi.). To begin
with, the factor c*=e'*"* appears as rp tan gloge. was obtained from

T
180
10-figure trigonometrical tables of 1596, and the product rp tan @ log e
obtained by the Brunsviga. We consider, therefore, that 7? tan @
log e, like the previous product 2 y log e, should be correct to at least 10
places of figures. (7+1) logcos » was found from Vega’s 10-figure
trigonometrical tables by actual multiplication. It is unlikely, accordingly,
that there will be an error in this product in the 8th place, and we feel
fairly certain that the method, when all the factors are added in, cannot
affect the value of log F (7, 1) to the 7th place. Still, the differences in
the tabulated values of log F (7, v) are in parts of the table considerable,
and interpolated values, such as we get in practice, can hardly be con-
sidered as accurate beyond the 6th figure, or even at certain parts of the
table beyond the 5th figure. This, of course, is sufficient for statistical
purposes, but if for physical or mathematical calculations it should be
needful to have the G (7, v) integrals to a closer value, a table will have

‘to be constructed for much smaller differences of rand ¢ At present
the physicist or mathematician must use our H (r, v) integral and find
(cos ¢)"*! and e”*"* for the actual values of 7 and @ by 10-figure logarith-
mic tables. He will hardly be sure of being correct to the 6th figure, if
he uses the usual 7-figure logarithmic tables.

For values of 7 less than 6, formule (xvi.) and (xvii.) have been used,
as already noted. The factorial denominators were calculated by aid of
the Brunsviga and Vega’s 10-figure tables. For the hyperbolic sine and
cosine tables have been calculated to 14 figures by J. W. L. Glaisher and
F. Newman, but the differences were so large in the part of the tables
required, that it seemed safer to recalculate e+” for the special values of

x n°, using the Brunsviga calculator ; tan ¢ was taken from Rheticus’

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS. 69

« needed.! In these cases H (7, v) had to be derived from F (7, v) by
(xiv.), and the logarithms of the factors were obtained from Vega’s
10-figure tables. The methods applied should give both log H (r, v) and
log F (r, v) correct to seven figures.

On the whole we consider that the Table, if the calculations are not
in error, ought to be correct to the number of figures tabulated. The
calculations have been done with much labour and care, twice indepen-
dently with 7-figure tables, and then again with 10-figure tables. The
iatter investigation modified generally the seventh figure, and occasion-
ally the sixth, but gave a much smoother system of differences.
Logarithms of the functions and their differences were worked to ten
figures and then cut off at the nearest figure in the seventh place, thus
the recorded differences wre the nearest values of the true differences, and
not the differences of the recorded logarithms.

(4) With regard to interpolation formule for tables of double entry,
we have been unable to discover much consideration of the subject, pos-
sibly because hitherto such tables have been rather rare. We do not
know of any formul, similar to those for interpolation on a curve, for
interpolating on surfaces. The simplest formula, using second differ-
ences, is :

Uz, y— Uo, oO +x A Uo, ty) t yA'U,, 0
+4 {x(a —1)A?u, + 2xy AAU, + y(y— 1)A‘74,, o A . (xviil.)

where A denotes a difference with regard to «, and A’ with regard to y.
But if we consider w,,, to be the ordinate of a surface, and the figure
to represent the xy plane of such a surface, then it is clear that, if P be
the point x, y, and A, B, C, D, &e. the adjacent points at which the
ordinates are known from the table of double entry, only the points
A, B, C, D, J, and N are used by the formula ; and of these points, not
equal weight is given to the fundamental points A, B, C, D, for C only
appears in a second difference. If another point of the fundamental
square other than A be taken as origin, we get a divergent, occasionally
a widely divergent result. If we use only four points—A, B, C, D—to
determine the value of the function at P, then we might take the ordinate
at P of the plane which (by the method of least squares) most nearly
passes through the four points of the surface vertically above A, B, C, D.
We have then

Ur, y=t (Up, ot My, op +Uo, 1+ %4, 1) +3(uy, om Uo, oF U1, 1— Uo, 1) (a—°5) F
+ 4( Up, 1— Uo, ot U1,1—U1, 0) (y—'5) . (xix.)

but by trial it has been found that this formula gives occasionally worse
results than that for first differences, using only three points. To find
by the methods of simple interpolation (with first or first and second
differences) the points @ and 6,? and then interpolate P between them,
generally gives a fairly good result ; but this result usually differs some-

‘ For other investigations we have found,
et? = et toe (4-20) = e201 + (w@—ao) + R(U@—Xo)? + B(—M)>+ —)s

where ir, is the nearest value in Glaisher and Newman’s tables, to give e*” with
great accuracy when four or five terms of the exponential expansion are used. But
this method was more laborious than direct calculation when some 600 values were
needed.

2 See diagram on p. 70,

70 REPORT—1899.

what from that obtained by first finding the value of the function at ¢
and f by simple interpolation, and then interpolating P between these.
On the whole we consider that methods of interpolating in the case of
tables of double or multiple entry require a full discussion and treatment
which would be out of place here. The chief source of error which will
arise in using the present tables will, we believe, be the error of inter-
polation ; but this error with caution will not, we consider, amount to
more than 3 or 4 in the 10,000, an error which is of no importance in
statistical investigations.

F G H I
© © © ©
(-1,-1) (,—1) (,=1) (2-1)
0, 0 1,0
(-1, Tae aebgetity gal 3g” 2,0)

© wee eens igh eeeeee © e
2 Rae =
: Sek :
e: ween eee eee OP wenn -
i
© - (°)
S eS occ ee 4 7) K
as ©, 1) ap ie
© ©) © ©
R N M L
(—1, 2) (0, 2) a, 2) (2, 2)

(5) Should the G (7, v) integrals ever become, like the I'-integrals, of
physical or mathematical importance, e.g. in relation to I-integrals with
a complex variable, then the present table will serve as a skeleton table
to be filled in for much smaller differences of 7 and ¢. The present
determination of G (7, v) through a knowledge of H (7, 7), and the use
of 10-figure tables like those of Vega, will serve for almost all purposes
that are likely to arise, and even without such 10-figure tables for all statis-
tical purposes. The latter were indeed those for which they were planned.
To give greater accuracy for interpolated values we should have had to
increase at least ten to twenty fold the 2,300 entries of the present table,
and this could only be done by an amount of labour wholly incommensur-
able with our initial aims. The table as it is has involved between five
and six thousand independent calculations, and has consumed an amount
of time and energy which, had it been foreseen—which luckily it was not
—would probably have sufficed to discourage any attempt to carry out
the work.

TABLES OF THE G (7, ”)-INTEGRALS.

71

¢ - |— -
log F (7, v)
0 0-301 0300
1 “B01 0609
gPae | ‘301 1538
3 301 3087
4 *301 5262
5 -301 8067
6 “302 1508
q “302 5594
8 303 0335
ent. | *303 5741
101" | “304 1825
11 ‘304 8603
i2 -305 6091
13 306 4307
14 “307 3271
15 “308 3006
16 +309 3538
17 ‘310 4892
18 -311 7098
19 -313 0189
20 *314 4200
21 ‘315 9169
22 ‘317 5137
23 “319 2150
24 “321 0256
25 +322 9507
26 324 9963
27 ‘327 1685
28 +329 4740
29 “331 9202
30 “334 5150
31 ‘337 2672
32 -340 1860
33 -343 2818
34 “346 5656
35 +350 0496
36 ‘358 7469
37 ‘357 6722
38 -361 8410
39 ‘366 2708
40 *370 9805
41 ‘375 9908
42 ‘381 3246
43 ‘387 0070
44 “398 0658
45 ‘399 5316

n=}

A log F (7, v)

‘000 0309
928
1550
2175
2805
3441
4086
4740
54.06
6085
6778
7488
8216
8964
9735
10532
11355
12206
13091
14011
14969
15968
17013
18106
19252
20456
21722
23055
24462
25948
27521
29188
30958
32838
34840
36974
39252
41689
44298
47096
50103
53338
56824
60588
64658

A? log F (7, v)

‘000 0619
621
625
630
636
645
654
666
679
695
710
728
TA9
771

796

a

72 REPORT—1899.
rT=2
$°
log F (7, v) log H (7, v) A log H (7, v) A? log H (

0 0-196 1199 0196 1199

1 196 2052 ‘196 1391 Cue UN 000 0383
2 196 4614 ‘196 1966 Bie 383
3 ‘196 8890 196 2994 ee 382
4 -197 4890 196 4264 gene 381
5 ‘198 2627 196 5985 ae 380
6 199 2118 -196 8087 2 379
7 200 3385 197 0567 pane 377
8 201 6452 197 3424 eee! 375
9 203 1349 197 6655 duet 373
10 204 8110 -198 0260 puoe 370
WW 206 6774 198 4934 Bele 367
12 208 7382 198 8574 a 364
13 ‘210 9985 ‘199 3280 4705 360
14 213 4631 199 8344 Bene 356
iW 216 1383 200 3764 Pea 352
16 219 0303 200 9537 pit? 347
17 "222 1462 201 5657 280 343
18 "225 4936 902, 2120 Bees 338
19 299 0807 202 8921 ae 332
20 ‘232 9167 203 6054 (88 327
21 237 0114 204 3514 aU 320
22 ‘241 3755 ‘905 1294 G8 313
23 246 0203 205 9387 sae 307
24 250 9584 206 7787 Bar, 300
25 256 2084 207 6487 he 291
26 261 7697 208 5478 oy 284
27 267 6733 209 4753 Pee? 275
28 273, 9311 210 4302 eg 266
29 ‘280 5618 *211 4118 2 256
30 287 5852 212 4190 re 247
31 295 0232 213 4509 ie ae 236
32 -302 8992 ‘214 5064 Hees 226
33 311 2388 215 5846 I tees 213
34 320 0695 216 6842 es 203
35 329 4214 ‘217 8041 ae 191
36 339 3271 218 9431 Lee 178
37 349 8221 -220 1000 i pee 165
38 360 9451 221 2734 Tee 152
39 372 7382 222 4621 Lee 138
40 385 2476 223 6644 i eae 125
4] 398 5232 224 8791 Lae 109
42 412 6205 226 1048 Pee 94
43 427 5995 227 3397 . aoa 77
44 ‘443 5266 228 5824 Lat 62
45 460 4745 229 8313 Lae

eee

v

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS. 73

r=8
$°
log F (7, v) log H (7, v) A log H (r, v) A’ log H (7, v)
0 0124 9387 0-275 4537
1 ‘125 0847 ‘275 A674 000 0137 000 0273
g ‘125 5230 275 5084 410 273
3 126 2545 275 BIGT 683 272
4 ‘127 2807 275 6721 955 271i
5 ‘128 6039 275 7948 1226 270
6 ‘130 2270 275 9444 1496 269° |
7 132 1533 276 1209 TGR: | pei
8 ‘134 3870 276 3242 2032 | 266 ||
9 ‘136 9331 276 5540 2298... | 263
10 139 7969 +276 8101 2561 261 |
11 ‘142 9850 277 0923 2822 258
12 146 5043 277 4003 308 un) | Sega! |
13 ‘150 3626 277 7338 3336 252
4 ‘154 5688 ‘278 0926 3588 249
15 159 1322 278 4762 3837 245
16 164 0636 278 8844 4082 241
17 169 3743 279 3167 4323 237
18 ‘175 0768 279 7726 4560 233
19 ‘181 1848 ‘280 2519 4793 228
20 ‘187 7130 | -280 7539 5020 293
21 194 6774 281 2782 5243 217
22 202 0955 281 8243 5460 212
23 -209 9858 282 3915 5673 206
24 ‘218 3688 282 9794 5879 200
25 227 2664 283 5873 COTM nee | 194
26 -236 7023 284 2145 6272 188
27 -246 7020 284 8604 6460 180
28 ‘257 2933 285 5244 6640 173
29 268 5060 286 2057 6813 165
30 280 3725 -286 9035 6978 158
31 292 9278 287 6170 7136 150
32 “306 2096 288 3456 7286 141
33 320 2589 289 0883 7427 133
34 ‘335 1201 289 8443 7560 124
35 350 8413 290 6127 7684 115
36 ‘367 4747 ‘291 3927 7800 106
37 ‘385 0770 -292 1832 7905 97
38 ‘403 7099 +292 9834 8002 87
39 423 4403 293 7923 8089 17
40 444 3416 +294 6089 8166 67
41 ‘466 4933 995 4391 8232 Be
42 489 9829 296 2610 8289 46
43 “514 9055 297 0945 8335
44 541 3658 ‘297 9316 8371

569 4783 298 7710 8394

REPORT—1899.

4817

v=4
ol log F (r ;
og F (7, v) log H (7, v) A log H (r, v)
, |
0 orl 1811 0'809 7418. |: 999 0105
1 ‘071 3902 309 7523 | one
2 | 072 0177 309 7840 oe
B.-.| +073 0650 "309 8366 ot
4 | 074 5342 "309 9103 one
5 | ‘076 4285 310 0049 sae
Bue) . 2078 7517 310 1204 ro
7 | 081 5088 "310 2565 Bey
8 ‘084 7055 "310 4132 ad
9 | 088 3486 ‘310 5904 fas
10-092 4458 ‘310 7877 Bid
11 | 097 0060 “311 0051 pane
12 | -102 0399 “B11 2423 | ORGT
3 "107 5555 "311 4990 Baad
re “113 5680 ‘311 7751 | peed
15 120 0895 ‘312 0701 | fee
16 127 1349 312 3838 | 25011
ir yie| 184 F199 "312 7159 aie
18 142 8621 "313. 0660 2677
19. | 161 6802 ‘313 4337 3945
20 | 160 8948 ‘313 8186 | 4018
21. | +170 8281 314-2204 - | Rian
22 ‘181 4042 ‘314 6385 4341
23 192 6491 "315 0726 4495
24 "204 5907 ‘315 5222 4645
25 "217 2596 "315 9866 4789
26 "230 6885 “316 4655 4997
27 ‘244 9127 316 9583 5062
28 | -259 9707 "317 4644 5189
29. | 275 9034 ‘B17 9833 5310
30 "292 7555 B18 5143 5426
31 310 5754 "319 0569 5535
32 "329 4149 319 6104 637
38. | = 849 3304 ‘320 1741 5733
34370 3832 ‘320 7474 5822
35. | +392 6390 321 3297. | 5904
36 416 1697 321 9201 | 5980
37 441 0529 322 5181 | 6047
38 ‘467 3733 323 1228 | 6107
39 “495 2227 "823 7335 6160
40 *524 7011 B24 3495 | 6205
41 ‘555 9177 324 9700 | 6243
42 588 9916 325 5943 6272
43 | — -624 0530 ‘326 2216 6295
44-661 2446 "326 8510 6307
45 ‘700 7225 ‘827

A? log H (7, v)

‘000 0211
211
210
209
208
207
206
204
202
201
198
196
193
190
187
184
180
176
172
168
164
160
154
150
144
138
134
127
121
116
109
102

96
89
82
75
68
60 |
53
45
38
30
22
12

sS
°

SCananr wor ©

10

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS.

a

log F (7, v) log H (7, v) A log H (7, v) A? log H (7, v)
0-028 0289 0-329 0589
028 3019 329 0673 a ‘000 0173
029 1221 -329 0930 a 171
030 4908 “329 1357 a 171
032 4110 329 1956 Bi 170
034 8865 399 2723 937 169
037 9224 329 3661 Aer 168
041 5250 329 4765 ol 167
045 7016 -329 6037 ua 165
050 4609 329 TATA ‘ant 164
055 $130 +329 9075 ee 162
061 7690 330 0838 soe 160
068 3415 330 2761 + sonnet 158
075 5446 330 4842 Sean 0 156
083. 3937 330 7079 aoe 4 153
091 9061 330 9469 a 151
‘101 1002 331 2010 pi 148
‘110 9967 331 4700 oa 144
121 6176 331 7532 sons 142
132 9872 332 0508 ai 138
‘145 1317 332 3621 nol 135
‘158 0795 +332, 6870 sadl 131
‘171 8614 333 0250 ee 127
186 5105 ‘333. 3757 pe 123
202 0627 333. 7387 ais 119
218 5568 334 1137 a: 115
236 0346 334 5001 sah 110
254 6413 334 8976 on 106
274 1255 +335. 3057 ae 101
994 8399 ‘335 7239 oe 96
316 7413 +336 1516 pe 91"
+339 8909 336 5884 ye 87
364 3553 337 0339 pe 80
390 2059 ‘337 4874 pe 15
‘417 5203 237 9485 eae 70
446 3827 338 4164 | ed G4
‘476 8841 +338 8908 an 58
509 1232 339. 3709 pa 52
543 2072 339 8563 46
579 2529 340 3463 an 40
617 3872 340 $404 on 34
“657 7483 -341 3378 pre 28
700 4872 341 8381 22
‘745 7688 +342 3405 we: 16
193. 7739 B42, $446 peel 9
+844 6999 343 3495 eye

76 REPORT—1899.
r=6
log F (7, v) log H (r, v) A log H (r, v)
0 1:991 9999 0°341 4849
1 -992 3379 +341 4921 oe etd
2 “993 3526 -341 5137 2
359
3 995 0459 +341 5496 sis
4 ‘997 4213 341 5999 eis
5 0:000 4836 341 6644 iat
| 6 004. 2390 341 7432 aie
| 7 008 6950 341 8360 nee
8 ‘013 8607 341 9428 BOF
9 019 7468 +342 0635 are
Beek 026 3653 -342 1980 et
Ie = ala 033 7300 342 3461 iéie
mee ‘041 8562 “342, 5075 eae
13 ‘050 7609 +342 6823 ae
| 14 060 4633 “342 8701 Sk
Pr aed 070 9839 +343 0707 BE
oant'G 082 3457 +343 2839 eae
17 094 5734 “343 5095 9977
18 ‘107 6941 “343 7472 aaah
19 121 7375 343 9968 5611
20 136 7352 +344 2579 9793
21 152 7219 344 5302 9898
22 169 7350 344 8135 9939
23 187 8149 -345 1074 S04t
24 207 0053 345 4115 3141
25 297 3532 345 7256 3936
26 "248 9095 -346 0492 3398
27 271 7291 346 3819 3415
28 295 8713 346 7235 3499
29 -321 3998 347 0734 3577
30 -348 3836 347 4311 3653
31 376 8974 347 7965 3794
32 407 0214 348 1689 379]
| 33 438 8428 “348 5480 3852
34 472 4556 “348 9332 3910
35 507 9618 “349 3242 2962
36 545 4718 349 7204 4009
37 “585 1052 -350 1213 4052
38 “626 9922 350 5265 4090
39 671 2739 -350 9354 4199
40 718 1040 ‘351 3477 4160
41 167 6502 351 7627 4172
42 820 0951 B52 1799 4190
43 ‘875 6383 “B52 5989 4202
44 934 4983 353 0191 4209
45 996 9145 -353 4399

A? log H (r, v)

000 0144
144
143
143
142
141
140
139
137
136
134
133
131
128
127
123
121
119
115
112
109
106
103

99
95
92
88
84
78
76
71
66
62
57
52
47
43
38
33
28

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS.

77

°
? log F (r, v)
0 1-961 0819
1 961 4851
2 962 6953
3 ‘964 7151
4 ‘967 5483
5 | ‘971 2008
6 ‘975 6796
7 ‘980 9940
8 ‘987 1544
9 | -994 1735
10 | 0-002 0658
11 | -010 8465
12 020 5347
13 031 1503
14 “042 7157
15 | ‘055 2551
16 068 7956
Pi 083 3665
18 098 9997
19 ‘115 7298
20 ‘133 5946
21 ‘152 6347
22 172 8941
23 “194 4206
24 217 2653
26 241 4839
26 267 1362
27 294 2868
28 “323 0053
29 “353 3670
30 “385 4529
31 -419 3506
32 455 1549
33 “492 9680
34 “532 9905
35 “575 0721
36 ‘619 6127
37 “666 6629
38 ‘716 3753
39 “768 9159
40 “$24 4653
41 “883 2199
42 ‘945 3944
43 1-011 2229
44 | 080 9618
45 ‘154 8920

T=T7
log H (7, v) A log H (7, v) A? log H (7, y)
0°350 1576 al eaae
“350 1638 S 000 0124
350 1824 P 124
“350 2134 oH) 123
350 2567 ae 123
350 3123 956 122
350 3801 bis 122
350 4601 | a 121
350 5522 | - 120
350 6562 ne 118
350 7720 ae 117
‘350 8995 ay 116
351 0386 Ieee 114
‘B51 1891 tate 112
351 3508 me 110
‘351 5235 iad 109
‘351 7071 1a46 106
351 9012 | pe: 104
352 1058 | = 102
352 3206 | Bee! 99
“352 5452 aaah 97
‘352 7795 | maa 94
353 0232 | aaa 91
‘353. 2760 aie 88
‘B53 5375 ana 85
353 8075 2789 82
“354 0857 onan 79
‘354 3717 Be 75
354 6652 fa 72
354 9659 ae 67
; = 3074
‘355 2732 aoe 64
ae ie es 3138
955 5871 a 60
"355 9070 ae 56
356 2324 anda 53
356 5632 nah 49
356 8988 | 44
357 2388 sane 40
as 3441
‘357 5829 aaa 36
‘357 9306 anne 32
“358 2814 3556 28
‘358 6350s nent 23
358 9910 | Be 19
‘359 3488 ae 14
‘359 7080 | ane 10
‘360 0682 | 3608 6
‘360 4290 j

ee
7 aa Z 7

|
|
|

78

REPORT—1899.

r=8
¢°
log F (r, v) log H (r, v) A log H (r, v) A? log H (7, v)
0 1-934 0080 0°356 5570
1 934 4765 356 5624 Sl 000 0109
2 ‘935 8831 356 5788s oe 109
3 ‘938 2304 356 6059 | a 108
4 941 5232 356 6440 | ia 108
5 ‘945 7679 356 6928 | 488 107
6 950 9729 356 7524 hee 107
7 ‘957 1486 356 8226 | a 106
8 964 3073 356 9034 og 105
9 ‘972 4634 356 9947 913 104
10 | +981 6333 357 0964 1017 103
11. |~ +991 9357 357 2083 1120 101
12 0-003 0914 ‘357 3804 en. 100
13 015 4237 357 4625 1321 98
14 028 8583 357 6044 1419 97
15 043 4233 ‘357 7560 1516 95
18 059 1498 ‘357 9170 1611 93
17 076 O714 ‘358 O874 1704 91
18 094. 2250 358 2669 1795 89
19 ‘113 6505 358 4553 1884 87
20 134 3912 ‘358 6524 1971 84
21 156 4939 ‘B58 8579 gucg 82
2» 180 0093 ‘359 O7LG nail 80
23 204 9923 359 2938 22 7
24 231 5019 359 5226 2238 74
25 259 6019 359 7594 ae 71
26: | +289 3618 360 0033 Ee 68
| 320 8543 360 2540 7 itt 65
98. |. 354 1610 360 5112 a: 62
29 | 889 3678 360 7747 ce 59
30 | 426 5682 361 0441 Ee 56
31-465 8626 361 3191 sae B2
32 “507 3601 “361 5993 a 49
33 ‘551 1780 361 8844 ith 46
34 597 4436 362 1741 2B 42
35 ‘GLG 2944 362 4681 e230 39
36 ‘697 8795 362. 7659 2978 35
37 «| ~~ “752 3605 363 0671 3013 31
38 -809 9127 ‘363 3715 oot 28
39 ‘870 7267 363 67ST 3072 24
40 935 0097 363. 9883 poe 20
41 1-002 9876 364 2998 Bue 16
49 074 9063 364 6130 pie 12
3 ‘151 0352 364 9274 Pe 9
44 231 6680 365 2497 mabe 5
a5 | -8t7 1201 365 BB84 Blog

TABLES OF THE G (i, v)-INTEGRALS. 79

p= 9
°
, log F (r, ) log H(r,») | AlogH(r,») | a2log H (ry)
he. “U 1909 9294 | 0°361 4744
1 910 4635 | —°361 4793 “OO CO 000 0097
2 ‘912 0669 | 361-4938 - 97
i ‘914 7427 | “361 5180 ae 97
4 ‘918 4961 361 5520 | “20 96
5 923 3346 361 5955 | i 96
6 929 2675 361 6485 ban 95
7 | +936 3067 ‘361 7111 Sone. Fi 04
8 944 4661 ‘361 7831 ig 94
9 ‘953 7619 361 8644 ota 92
10 ‘964 2128 361 9550 ae 92
BW ‘975 8398 362 0547 "ete | 90
| 12 | -988 6667 ‘362 1635 TOSS 89
i 38 0-002 7197 362 2812 PEED +e agi, |
ae 018 0278 "362 4075 AGS -4) 86
15 034 6230 362 5426 HES | 84
16 052 5403 362 6860 eo a 83
17 O71 8179 362 8378 | 81
18 092 4974 362 9976 LBS 4 19 |
19 114 6239 | 363 1654 tags 17
| 20 138 2465 363. 3409 ee 75 |
20s | 163 4180 363 5239 | get 73
| 22 | 190 1960 363. 7142 ta 7
| 23° | 2186492 | 363 9115 ie 68
| 24 | 248 9237 ‘3641157 bis 66
2 | 2908124 | 364 3264 ae 63
25 | BIE 68EL 64 5435 Sete me)
oT | +380 5295 364 7666 es 58
28° ‘| -398 4323 | -364 9985 hes ol Bae
| 239 428 4925 | 365 2300 ps, 52
| 30 470 8156 | = -365 4697 | a 50
31 515 5153 365 7144 1 aye-|
32 562 7146 365 9636 | a6 44
33 ‘612 5463 366 2173 | pais. 40
34 665 1541 366. 4750 aoe 37
35 720 6932 366.7365 | | aay 34
36 | «= -779 3322 367 0013 ee 3
37 | “841 253. 367 2693 aa 28
38 | 906 6549 “B67 5400 a 24
39 ‘975 7519 | “367 8131 pe a |
40 1-048 7784 | 368 0884 ps 18
41 125 9892 | 368 3654 ae 14
42 207 6624 | 368 6438 | 2786 1
43 2941013 | -368 9233 he a
| 44 | -385 6379 | -369 2036 2808 n
| 45 | 492 6360 | 369 4e4o aan

80 REPORT— 1899.
a 7=10
°
f log F (7, v) log H (7, v) A log H (r, v)
0 1-888 2505 onto acuhod
1 “888 8502 ‘365 3761 sai
2 “890 6508 365 3892 ae
3 -893 6556 ‘365 4111 ee
4 ‘897 8705 “365 4416 ae
5 -903 3037 ‘365 4808 1
6 ‘909 9658 365 5287 or
ar ‘917 8700 ‘365 5851 sin
8 ‘927 0317 ‘365 6500 ase
9 ‘937 4692 ‘365 723: ade
10 ‘949 2033 “365 8050 ade
ea ‘962 2575 365 8949 od
|} 12 976 6581 | “365 9929 ia
13 992 4345 | “366 0990 1a
14 0-009 6193 “366 2129 sai
15 ‘028 2479 -366 3346 1308
| 46 “048 3595 “366 4639 nee
17 069 9966 366 6c07 ay
| 418 ‘093 2058 366 7447 ee
19 ‘118 0374 "366 8960 meet
20 | ‘144 5461 “367 0541 cae
Riel.) civeereao -367 2190 eat
a) +202 8360 367 3904 aa
| 23 | *284 7504 567 5682 aoe
| 94 268 6087 367 7522 1899
| 26 “304 4913 367 9420 ee
26 +342 4851 -368 1376 Bni8
27 +382 6838 ‘368 3386 fee
98 -425 1882 “368 5448 Bian
29 -470 1076 “368 7559 piee
30 ‘517 5593 ‘368 9718 pack
31 567 6703 +369 1922 a
| 39 | 620 5776 -369 4167 ae
| 339 | > -676 4293 “369 6451 ae
34 "735 3855 “369 8772 eS
35 ‘797 6194 ‘370 1126 ae
36 -863 3188 ‘370 3510 at
37 ‘932 6869 +370 5923 Bae
38 1:005 9444 “370 8360 aa
39 083 3313 “371 0819 ae
40 ‘165 1080 “371 3297 Bod
41 251 5588 “371 5790 Denk
49 342 9931 | “371 8296 Eerie
his -439 7491 | :372 0813 Be5d
| 44 542 1966 “372 3335 Acaé
ea Ce ‘372 5861
| !

A? log H (7, v)

‘000 0087
87
87
87
86
86

61

57

eee ww bw &w
wawkbke o ore

es
moO

TABLES OF THE @ (7, v)-INTEGRALS. 81

| r=11
e : log F (r, v) log H (7, v) | A log H (7, v) A? log H (r, v)
1:868 5367 0°368 5367 000 0040
; *869 2023 +368 5407 | bah 0120 ‘000 0080
2 *871 2002 "368 5527 199 79
3 ‘874 5345 "368 5725 978 79
4 “879 2114 368 6004 357 | ce |
5 *885 2402 368 6361 435 78
6 892 6324 368 6796 514 78
| vE ‘901 4027 368 7310 591 77
8 ‘911 5681 *368 7900 668 iG
9 “923 1487 “368 8568 743 pe
10 “936 1674 "268 9311 818 75
11 ‘950 6505 *369 0129 892 74
12 ‘966 6268 369 1022 965 ts
13 “984 1288 *369 1987 1037 oe
14 0003 1923 369 3024 1108 i
15 ‘023 8567 369 4132 1177 69
16 046 1651 *369 5308 1245
17 ‘070 1646 *369 6553 1311 a
18 095 9063 “369 7864 1376 oe
19 123 4460 369 9240 1439 Ue
20 "152 8439 370 0679 1500 62
21 184 1654 ‘370 2179 1560 60
22 ‘217 4809 *370 3739 1618 58
23 ‘252 8669 *370 5357 1673 Be
24 *290 4057 *370 7030 1727 oS
25 330 1857 370 8757 1779 oF
26 372 3033 371 0536 1899 | 50
27 “416 8615 “O71 2365 1876 id
28 463 9718 ‘B71 4241 1921
29 513 7544 ‘B71 6162 1964 43
30 *566 3390 “B71 8125 2004 40
31 621 8657 372 0129 92042 38
32 “680 4854 372 2171 92078 36
33 : ‘742 3617 ‘B72 4249 2110 a5
3 ‘807 6710 ‘372 6359 2141
55 "876 6045 *372 8500 | 2169
| 36 “949 3690 373 0669 2194 a
37 1:026 1888 ‘B73 2862 92216 se
58 107 3073 *373 5078 9236 i:
39 "192 9888 B73 7314 9253
40 283 5209 373 9567 2967 ee
41 “379 2165 ‘B74 1834 9979 a
42 480 4171 ‘B74 4115 2287
43 “587 4953 | “374 6400 2293 #
44 ‘700 8587 “BT4 8693 2296
45 *820 9540 “375 0990

1899. G

82 REPORT—1899.
r=12
°
log F (r,v) log H (r, v) A log H (7, v) A? log H (7, v)
0 1-850 4619 0:371 1582
1 -851 1933 ‘371 1619 000 0036 000 0073
2 +853. 3889 ‘371 1729 110 73
3 ‘857 0528 ‘371 1912 ae 73
4 “862 1923 371 2166 pire 72
hee ‘868 8171 ‘371 2494 eae 72
es ‘876 9402 “371 2893 200 71
| 7 | 886 5774 “371 3364 eh 71
| 3 | ser 7474 371 3907 pes 70
8 ‘910 4722 ‘371 4519 613 69
10 -924 7770 ‘371 5201 G82 69
11 -940 6901 ‘371 5952 to 68
12 958 2436 371 6771 SHIEH 67
13 ‘977 4727 ‘371 7656 i dr 66
4 ‘998 4167 ‘371 8608 oat ae
16 0-021 1187 371 9624 1016 64
16 045 6258 372 0703 1080 62
17 071 9896 372 1845 ie 61
18 100 2660 ‘372 3048 1203 59
19 ‘130 5159 372 4310 1262 58
| 20 162 8054 372 5630 a 56
21 ‘197 2059 -372 7006 5B
29 233 7945 ‘372 8437 pao . 58
23 272 6547 372 9921 1484 Fal
24 313. 8765 373 1456 1535 49
25 ‘357 5571 373 3040 oe 47
26 ‘403 8013 ‘373 4672 1632 45
27 ‘452 7221 ‘373 6349 1677 43
28 504 4412 373. 8069 1720 41
29 559 0903 373 9831 1762 39
30 616 8111 374 1631 1801 37
31 “677 1567 ‘374 3469 1838 35
32 742, 0923 374 5341 1873 33
33 “809 9965 ‘374 7246 1905 30
34 ‘881 6625 ‘374 9182 ESSN e 28
35 ‘957 2989 375 1145 1963 25°
36 1-037 1322 375 3133 1988 23
37 ‘121 4073 ‘375 5144 2011 21
38 210 3905 ‘375 7176 ae 18
39 304 3704 375 9226 2050 | 16
40 “403 6615 376 1291 2065 13
41 “508 6058 -376 3370 2078 ll
42 619 5764 ‘376 5458 goss 8
43 ‘736. 9806 ‘376 7555 poet 5
44 861 2638 ‘376 9657 ae 3
45 -992 9140 ‘377 1762 HE

a a enanammnal

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS.

Se

r=18
log F (7, v) log H (7; v) AlogH(r,v) | A*logH(7,y) |
1-833 7746 0°373 3653 00 0034
"834 5719 373 3686 101 ‘000 0068
"836 9652 873) 3787) | 169 67
"840 9592 ‘373 3956 | 236 | 67
‘846 5615 373 4192 303 67
853 7829 373 4494 969 67
“862 6374 373 4864 per 66
‘873 1421... | | ‘373 5299 sot | 66
"885 3174 373 5800 566 | 65
"899 1873 ‘373 6365 630 | 65
‘914 7789 373 6995 een 64
+932 1233 ‘373 7689 56 63
‘951 2549 373 8445 | 818 62
‘972 2124 “373: 9263 ' | 879 61
‘995 0382 | “374 0142 938 60
0019 7792 | 374 1081 997 | 59
‘046 4865 ‘374 2078 1055 58
‘075 2161 ‘874 3132 11 56
‘106 0288 "B74 4243 ieee | 55
‘138 9908 ‘B74 5409 is18 53
174.1737 | «374 6628 | 1271 52
‘211 6561 | ‘374 7899 or ese 51
‘251 5187 ‘374 9221 1370 | 49
"293 8552 ‘875 0591 1417 47
338 7623 375 2008 1464 46
"386 3455 ‘375 3472 oe 43
436 7186 “375, 4978" ~ | 1549 42
27 ‘490 0042 ‘B75 6527 1589 40
28 ‘546 3346 ‘375 8115 1627 38
29 "605 8526 ‘375 9742 1663 36
“668 7120 ‘376 1405 1697 34
‘735 0790 ‘376 3102 1729 «| 32
“805 1331 “376 4831 1759 30
‘879 0680 ‘376 6589 1787 28
‘957 0932 ‘376 8376 1819 26
1:039: 4354 ‘377 0188 1836 23
"126 3402 ‘377 2024 1857 21
"218 0735 ‘377 3881 1876 19
"314 9240 ‘B77 5757 1893 17
‘417 2053 ‘B77 7649 1907 14
"525 2683 ‘377 9556 1919 12
"639 4542 ‘378 1475 1928 10
‘760 1977 378 3403 1936 7
"887 9308 378 5338 1941 : 5
2°023 1367 "378 7279 1943 2
"166 3448 "378 9222

G2

84.

wore aa

ou

bh bp bo
tH WwW he ©

Rewwwwowwenwwvwnwenynnwnwnnwy
COMA OMNEANHNHESDAANA

41

REPORT—1899.

r=14
log F (7, v) log H (7, ) | A log H (7, v)
1818 2772 0:375 2489 |
‘819 1404 ‘375 2520 "000 0031
“$21 7316 “375 2614 94
“826 0558 ‘B75 2771 157
‘832 1212 ‘375 2990 219
839.9395 | 375.3271 | 281
849 5258 | 375 3614 343
‘860 8985 | 375 4019 404
‘874 0798 ‘375 4484 465
‘$89 0954 “375 5010 526
905 9746 ‘375 5595 585
‘924 7510 ‘375 6239 644
945 4618 “375 6942 708
968 1485 ‘375 7702 760
‘992 8571 "375 8518 816
0-019 6382 ‘375 9390 872
048 5469 ‘376 0317 926
079 6435 ‘376 1297 980
‘112 9939 '376 2329 1032
‘148 6693 “376 3412 1083
‘186 7470 376 4544 1183
‘227 3107 376 5725 1181
270 4509 "B76 6952 1228
316 2653 “376 8225 1278
“364 8594 ‘376 9542 1317
416 3469 ‘377 0901 1359
“470 8506 ‘377 2301 1399
“528 5029 ‘377 3739 1439
589 4465 ‘377 5215 1476
653 8352 | 377 6726 1511
‘721 8353 | “B77 8270 1544
‘793 6258 ‘377 9846 1576
869 4003 | ‘378 1452 1606
“949 3679 378 3085 1634
1-033 7545 ‘378 4745 1659
122 8047 “B78 6428 1683
216 7831 ‘378 8133 1705
315 9768 378 9857 1724
420 6970 379 1599 1742
‘531 2818 379 3356 1757
648 0989 ‘379 5127 1771
‘T71 5487 379 6909 —| 1782
‘902 OG74 379 8699 | 1791
2-040 1318 “380 0497 1797
‘186 2627 "380 2299 1802
341 0309 | 380 4103 | 1804

4? log H (r, v)

“000 0063
63
62
62
62
61
61
60
60
59
58
57
56
55
54

53

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS. 85
7 = 15
$°
logF(r,») | log H(r,») | AlogH(,») | atlogH (ry) |
) 1:803 8114 0:376 8754
1 804. 7405 376 8783 000), 0028 ‘000 0059
2 ‘807 5297 ‘376 8871 | $8 58
3 812 1842 376 9018 a 58
4 818 7130 376 9222 200 58
5 ‘827 1285 376 9485 ee 58
6 ‘837 4469 376 9805 aay BT
7 849 6881 ‘377 0183 | oie 57
8 ‘863 8758 ‘377 0617 | 8 56
9 ‘880 0376 ‘377 1108 . 56
10 898 2051 ‘377 1655 | at Ee
ul ‘918 4141 ‘377 2256 | ee BA
12 ‘940 7047 ‘377 2912 Gn@ BA
13 ‘965 1215 377 3622 a 53
4 ‘991 7138 ‘377 4384 te4 52
15 0-020 5357 ‘377 5199 oi 51
16 ‘051 6467 377 6064 ate 50
17 085 1115 377 6979 ant 49
18 “121 0005 377 7942 Nas gs 48
19 | 159 3904 ‘317 8953 1 46
20 | -200 3641 ‘378 0011 ph 45
21 244 0118 ‘378 1113 ee 44
22 290 4293 378 2259 Nias 43
23 339 7229 378 3448 Eee) pt 41
24 392 0053 378 4677 bee 39
25 447 3985 378 5946 a 38
26 506 0343 378 7252 sek 36
27 ‘568 0547 378 $595 ae 34
28 633 6129 378 9973 bert 33
29 702 8740 379 1383 ~ 31
30 776 0162 379 2895 _ 30
31 -853 2318 ‘379 4296 ie 28
32 934. 7285 379 5795 is 26
33 1-020 7304 379. 7320 ye 24
34 ‘J11 4801 ‘379 8869 be 22
35 207 2399 380 0440 ae 20
36 308 2938 380 2031 bet 18
37 ‘414 9495 380 3641 pe 17
38 ‘527 BALD 380 5267 oe 4
39 646 4313 -380 6907 ae 12
40 772 0144 +380 8560 be 1
41 904 7199 381 0223 ee 8
42 2-045 0157 381 1894 i 6
43 1983 4131 381 3572 me 4
44 350 4709 381 5254 ee) | 2
46 516 8011 381 6938 Aes © 3

REPORT—1899.

16

86

* i
log F (7, v) log H (7, v)
ho | 1-790 2485 0:378 2941
| ace | 791 2436 378 2969
iD ‘794 2308 378 3051
3 ‘799 2158 378 3188
ae: “806 2081 “378 3380
| 5 815 2211 378 3626
6 "826 2719 ‘378 3927
7 “839 3819 ‘378 4281
§ “854 5764 378 4688
9 “871 8848 378 5149
| 10 ‘891 3410 378 5661
11 ‘912 9831 378 6226
12 | 986 8541 ‘378 6841
| 13 | +963 0016 “378 7507
| 14 | +991 4782 ‘B78 8222
| 15: | 022 8418 378 8985
| 16 | -055 6559 378 9796
| 17. | ~=-091 4895 “379 0654
rise |) gore ‘379 1558
(9 ‘171 023: -379 2506
20) 214 8939 379 3498
fr Oi 261 6258 379 4532
22 | -B11 3296 379 5606
23 “364 0964 379 6721
24 420 0681 ‘379 7874
25 ‘479 3681 379 9063
26 86©| 642 1872 ‘380 0289
27 | -608 5269 “380 1548
28 ‘678 7007 -380 2839
29 752 8356 “380 4162
3 |) +881 1213 "380 5514
31 | 913 7633 "380 6898
32 | 1:000 9834 “380 8299
33. =| ~=—-098 0211 “380 9729
34 190 1352 “381 1181
35 292 6060 “881 2654
36. = -400 7368 ‘381 4146
87: | «514 8b6L "381 5655
38 635 3206 “381 7180
39 762 5175 ‘381 8718
40 | 896 8681 “382 0267
i 2-038 8307 382 1826
12 188 9051 382 3398
43 "347 6370 “382 4966
44 ‘515 6232 +382 6543
45 693 382 8122

5170

A log H (7, v)

000. 0028
82
137
192
246
300
354
408
460
513
564
G15
666
715
764
811
858
904.
948
992
1034
1075
1114

A? log H (7, v)

000 0055

Sr Orv Or
He

rs

St St
ow co

cr Or

= ee eS OF
Noo coo rkwW W

46

Pe PR
Seu wea

38

34

mem Oo

b Ww w &
oS DH © C

to bo to

ao
N-O re Us >

15

bo

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS.

87

| R= Li
° lo F " 2 .
g EF (r, v) log H (7, v) A log H (7, v) A? log H (7, v)

0 | 41777 4895 0°379 5425

1 ‘178 5436 379 5450 000 0026 ‘000 0052
2 ‘781 7289 379 5528 78 52
3 787 0445 ‘379 5657 129 51
4 794 5004 379 5838 es 51
5 ‘804 1110 -379 6070 ae 51
6 ‘815 8945 379 6352 283 51
7 ‘829 8736 ‘379 6686 333 50
8 | -846 0761 ‘379 7070 384 50
9. | 864 5306 ‘379 7503 433 49
10 ‘885 2758 379 7986 483 49
11 ‘908 3516 ‘379 8517 531 48
12 ‘933 8035 ‘379 9096 579 AT
13 ‘961 6821 379 9723 aeF AT
14 +992 0436 380 0396 673 46
15 0-024 9495 ‘380 1115 719 45
16 ‘060 4672 -380 1878 764 44.
17 ‘098 6704 ‘380 2686 808 43
18 139 6392 ‘380 3537 851 42
19 183 4606 ‘380 4430 893 41
20 2230 2288 ‘380 5363 933 40
21 280 0460 “380 6336 973 39
22 ‘333 0225 ‘380 7348 1012 3
23 389 2774 380. 8397 ee 36
24 | 448-9393 380 9482 aa 35
25 ‘512 1471 “381 0602 33
26 ‘579 0504 ‘381 1756 1163 32
27 649 8104 381 2941 1185 31
28 724 6013 ‘381 4157 1216 29
29 ‘803 6106 381 5402 185 28
30 ‘887 0408 ‘381 6674 i 26
31. | ‘975 1103 ‘381 7973 1299 24
32 | 1-068 0549 381 9296 4 23
33 +| «166 1294 382 0642 1336 21
34 | ~— 269 6092 382 2009 136g 20
35 | 378 7922 +382 3396 Beet 18
36-494 0009 382 4800 i 16
37 “615 5849 382 6220 14
38. “743 9285 382 7655 ee 13
39 ‘879 4285 382 9102 1448 11
40 | 2-099 5477 383 0561 Naas 9
41 ‘173 7686 383 2028 1468 7
42 333 6229 383 3503 ei 6
43 ‘502 6906 383 4984 1480 4.
44 “681 6063 383 6468 1488 2
45 ‘871 0649 383 1486

7953

88

CONIA r WNW HH ©

—
wreo

13

28

REPORT—1899.

r= 18
log F (r, v) log H (7, v)
1:765 4249 0-380 6494
766 5520 380 6518
769 9355 380 6591
175 5818 380 6713
783 5015 “380 6884
793 7099 ‘380 7103
“806 2262 “380 7370
*821 0746 “380 7685
‘838 2835 380 8048
"857 8863 380 8457
‘879 9209 380 8913
904 4307 “380 9415
931 4638 380 9962
‘961 0741 381 0554
993 3209 $81 1190
0:028 2696 381 1869
065 9915 381 2591
106 5648 “381 3354
150 0744 “381 4157
196 6125 381 5001
+246 2790 ‘B81 5882
299 1823 ‘381 6802
“355 4391 381 7757
415 1758 “381 8749
478 5288 -381 9774
545 6451 “382 0832
616 6833 “382 1921
“691 8145 -382 3041
‘771 2230 “382 4189
855 1078 -382 5365
943 6834. “382 6567
1-037 1813 "B82 7794
135 8513 “382 9043
239 9636 -383 0314
“349 8099 -383 1605
465 7060 ‘383 2915
587 9937 383 4241
‘717 0435 ‘383 5583
*853 2571 383 6938
997 0711 *383 8305
2°148 9600 383 9683
“309 4403 -384 1069
479 0754 “384 2462
“658 4799 *384 3860
848 3263 “384 5262
3:049 3507 “384 6665

Alog H (7, v)

‘000 0024
73

122

171

219

267

315

A? log H (7, v)

000 0049
49
49
48
48
48
47
47
47

31

CHONRMRMAkHWHRO!] F&

Sioa
- ©

— —
AD ere wo

q) w TO OO OE Os Oo Sd

38

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS., 89
r=19
log F (7, ») og (is) ) A tog Hs) | A? og HG, »)
1-754 0014 0381 6376
‘755 1945 ‘381 6399 “000 0028 000 0046
158 7762 381 6469 @ 46
‘764 7532 381 6584 116 46
‘773 1369 381 6746 162 46
‘783 9431 -381 6954 208 46
‘797 1925 ‘381 7207 abs 45
‘812 9104 381 7505 299 46
‘831 1269 381 7849 ae 45
‘851 8772 +381 8237 388 44
‘875 2015 ‘381 8669 pee 44
‘901 1455 +381 9144 a 43
‘929 7603 '381 9663 mee || 42
‘961 1026 382 0224 aera | 42
995 2351 +382 0826 Seay | 41
0-032 2269 382 1470 Gt 40
072 1535 382 2164 684 39
‘115 0974 382 2877 123 38
‘161 1483 382 3638 L 38
210 4036 382 4437 8 37
262 9690 382 5273 836 36
318 9588 382 6144 871 35
378 4966 382 7049 306 33
441-7157 382 7988 939 32
508 7603 382 8960 971 31
‘579 7858 382 9962 1002 30
‘654 9597 383 0994 1032 29
734 4627 383 2055 1061 27
‘818 4896 383 3143 1088 26
‘907 2506 383 4257 oe 25
1-000 9723 383 5396 1139 23
099 8993 383 6558 boo 22
204 2956 383 7742 ae 20
314 4464 383 8946 ae 19
430 6601 -384 0170 — 17
‘553 2702 384 1411 ie} 16
682 6377 384 2667 1207 ||
‘819 1539 384 3938 ed a |
963 2435 384 5222 1288 ra
2115 3673 -384 6518 1a 10
276 0267 384. 7823 1305 8
445 7673 384 9136 1318 # |
625 1841 +385 0455 1320 5
814 9263 385 1780 Sa 3
3-015 7041 385 3108 1328 2
228 2952 385 4437 a)

90 REPORT—1899.
p°
3 log F (r,») log H(r,v) | AlogH(r,») | a? log H (x, »)
Lat 1-743 1485 0:382 5253
8 744. 4077 382 5275 Be Er 000 0044
| 2 ‘748 1876 +382 5341 2° 44
ee 154 4955 382 5451 sD 44
4 ‘763 3431 382 5605 1p 44
Bo | Syd raya 382 5802 197 43
6 | *788 7299 382 6042 at 43
7 | +805 3174 382 6326 288 3
8 ‘824 5417 382 6652 eel 49
9 | +846 4398 382 7021 369 re
10 «| “871 0541 382 7432 “ah 41
| TL. 898 4326 382 7883 we 41
ee -928 6293 382 8376 — 40
| 13 ‘961 7039 382 8909 Soe 40
14 ‘997 7224 382 9482 ote 39
15 | 0-036 7574 383 0093 ou 39
| 16° | -078 8894 383 0743 eee 34
| i7 | +124 2043 383 1430 ap 3
agin, | lrgcre8 383 2153 Oe -
19 294 7699 383 2912 oe 35
| 20 | 280 2346 383 3706 ie 34
; 21 | +339 3115 | 883 4534 oe =
22 | 40213068 | 388 5394 S80 32
23 ‘468 8327 | 383 6286 oes 31
|. 24 539 5695 383. 7209 925 i
| 25 614 5047 383. 8162 ed a
26 693 8148 383 9142 ats oT
| 27 | -777 6902 384 0150 ie 26
28 | -866 3362 384 1184 ne =
29 | 9599740 | 384 2243 a aS
30. | 1-058 8424 | 384 8325 aa 99
31 163.1992 | “384. 4429 eo 9
: 21
32 273 3224 | ‘384 5554 ee 9
| 33 389 5124 384. 6698 at ‘e
34 512 0941 384 7860 ati =
es 641 4188 384 9039 pi
| 36 | -777 8668 385 0233 1 -
37 | +921 8503 385 1440 1a
38 | 9073 8165 385 266 wat i.
385 2660
39 234 2509 385 3891 a .
40 | -403 6815 385 5130 eS :
41 582 6831 385 6378 ant ‘
42 ‘771 8822 385 7632 vais :
43 ‘971 9629 385 8890 1238 :
44 3183 6730 386 0151 aa :
45 ‘407 8314 386 1414 18s :

nn

cs
°

CASO rR ON FE ©

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS. 91
r=21
Josh Et bya) log H (1; ») | AlogH(r,») | a?log H (r, »)
1:732 8121 0-383 3271
‘734 1352 383. 3292 a 000 0042
‘738 1155 “383 3354 63 49
744. 7542 383. 3459 105 42
‘754 0660 ‘383 3606 146 41
‘766 0683 | -383 3793 188 41
‘780 7641 “383 4022 229 41
‘798 2414 -383 4293 270 41
‘818 4736 383 4604 311 40
“841 5196 383 4955 351 40
“867 4241 383 5346 ei 39
‘896 2374 .383 5776 430 3
‘928 0162 = 383 6245 469 38
‘962 8233 -383. 6753 508 38
0:000 7283 “383. 7299 545 3
‘041 8074 -383 7881 582 36
‘086 1444 | -383 8500 619 36
-133 $306 “383 D154 654 35
184 9653 | = 383 9843 689 34.
-239 6563 384 0566 | 723 33
-298 0208 384 1322 | 756 32
360 1851 ‘384 2111 788 31
426 2861 “384 2930 820 30
496 4716 384 3780 850 29
‘570 9011 -384 4659 879 28
649 7464 “384 5566 | 907 27
‘733 1933 “384 6500 934 26
9214416 | 384 7460 | 960 25
‘914 7070 | 384 8445 985 23
1:013 2222 | +384 9453 1008 22
‘117 2380 385 0484 1031 21
297 0250 «=| = 385 1535 1052 20
‘342 8756 | 385. 2607 1071 18
‘465 1055 | 385 3696 | 1090 17
594 0558 385 4803 1107 16
‘730 0957 +385 5926 1123 14
‘873 6248 "385 7063 1137 13
2-025 0761 ‘385 8213 1150 12
“184 9195 ‘385 9375 1162 10
*353 6651 “386 0547 1172 9
‘531 8676 ‘386.1728 1181 7
720 1308 “386 2916 1188 6
919 1130 386 4110 1194 4
3129 5327 -386 5308 1198 3
“352 1756 -386 6510 1201 2
‘587 9021 ‘386 7712 1203

aa
°

fot

e
wWaWwWrFoeanroaarwhd eo

—

32

REPORT—1899.

v= 22
log F (r, v) log H (7, v) A log H (r, v) A? log H (r, v)
1-722 9451 0°384 0548 fend Bose
724 3364 384 0568 a ‘000 0040
‘728 6130 ‘384 0628 ee 40
‘735 4826 384 0728 ia 40
‘745 2584 “384 0867 | as 40
‘767 8590 “384 1047 “ah 39
‘773, 3082 384 1266 Bed 39
‘791 6354 3841523 ay 39
‘812 8757 -384 1820 ade 38
‘837 0698 384 2155 aie 38
“864 2646 384 2529 | ms 38
“894 5129 384 2940 an 37
‘927 8740 -384 3388 i 37
‘964 4139 +384 3872 ast 36
0-004 2054 384 4393 om 35
‘047 3287 384 4949 a 35
093. 8713 384 5540 5 34
143 9291 -384 6164 = 33
‘197 6061 384 6822 aaa 32
-255 0156 +384 7513 MiP. 31
316 2801 384. 8235 aa 31
381 5322 384. 8987 ae 30
-450 9155 384 9770 ath 29
524 6848 ‘385 0581 eae 28
“602 7073 -385 1420 ae 27
‘685 4632 385 2286 ide 26
‘773. 0472 385 3178 one 25
‘865 6689 385 4094 ws 24
963 6543 385 6034 ce 29
1-066 9472 385 5996 act 21
176 1108 -385 6980 ‘oak 20
291 3286 385. 7984 1088 19
“412 9072 ‘385 9007 on 18
541 1773 386 0047 Ger 16
‘676 4967 386 1104 ime 15
819 2523 3862175 face 14
‘969 8630 386 3261 as 12
2128 7827 "386 4359 aa ll
296 5039 386 5468 ei 10
‘473. 6612 ‘386 6586' fan 8
‘660 5361 386 7713 ee 7
‘858 0615 386 8848 ah 6
3:066 8272 -386 9987 aia 4
‘287 5865 ‘387 1131 de 3
-521 1629 387 2278 | aie 1
‘768 4580 387 3426

ADor oN eK OS

oO

{ABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS.

log F (7, v)

1-713
‘714
719
726
‘736
“750
“766
785
“807
833
“861
*893
928
“966

0:008
053
102
154
210
270
“334
“403
“475
553
634
“T21
813
910

1:012
“121
235
356
483
617
“759
“908

2-066
232
“408
593
‘789
996

3214
446
“690
“949

a ea A

5069
9643
3391
6397
8798
0786
2613
4585
7070
0493
5346
2180
1617
4346
1129
2804
0289
4586
6783
8064
9713
3116
9774
1308
9466
6136
3351
3304
8362
1074
4191
0681
3750
6859
3748
8466
5394
9279
5272
8968
6446
4325
9823
0817
5919
4561

log H (7, v)

0:384 7182
384 7202
"884 7259
384 7355
*384 7488
“384 7660
384 7869
"384 8116
*B84 8400
*384 8721
384 9078
*384 9471
+384 9899
385 0363
*385 0861
385 1393
385 1958
385 2556
385 3185
*385 3845
385 4536
385 5256
385 6004
385 6780
385 7583
385 8411
B85 9264
386 O141
386 1040
386 1961
386 2902
386 3862
“386 4840
386 5836
“386 6846
386 7871
“386 8910
“386 9960
387 1021
387 2091
*387 3169
*387 4254
‘B87 5344
387 6438
*387 7535
387 8633

Alog H (r, v)

‘000 0019
57

96

134

172

209

247

284

321

357

393

429

464

498

532

565

598

629

660

691

720

748
776
803
828
853
877
899
921
941
960
978
995
~ 1011
1025
1038
1050
1061
1070
1078
1085

|
| -000 0038
38

29

| A? log H (7, v)

REPORT—1899,

Y=24
~° NC nn aaa aaa I
log F (1, v) | log H (7,v) | A log H (1, v) A? log H (r, v) |
0 1-704 4618 | 0'385 3256
1 ‘705 9852 | ‘385 3275 aay ae ‘000 0037
2 ‘710 5584 | =~ *385 3380 = 37
Bie) 7181899" yl) ape saan" | ee 36
4 ‘728 8942 | +385 3549 | aide 36° |
5 “742 6914 ‘B85 3714 901 36
6 | *759 6077 “385 8915" | ae 36
7 ‘779 6750 “385 4151 Pie 36
8 802 9317 | “385 4423 Be a5 4
9 | +829 4295 385 4730 | gai 35
10 | — -859 1988 385 5073 hee 34 |
alt Bete 892 3170 385 5450 | Ala 34
12 | 928 8434 | +385 5860 | icone ga
3 | "968 8495 "885 6305 477 33
14 O012 4148 | +385 6782 om 32
15 | -059 6268 | -385 7292 aie 32
16 110 6814 | +385 7834 on 31
17 165 3831 385 8406 i ods 30
set) “Boe 74a58 “385 9009 eae 30
19 | -286.9928 | -385 9642 Bis 29
20 | -354 0583 | -386 0304 a 28
21 425 4870 386. 0994 aa 27
22 501 4356 386 1711 744 26
23 582 0734 386 2455 | aan 26
24 “667 5830 | «386 3225 av 25
25 ‘758 1612-386 4018 rae 24
26 854 0205 | +386 4836 ii 23
27 ‘955 3899 | -386 5676 862 22
28 1:062 5163 “386 6538 : rhe 21
29 ‘175 6661 | +386 7420 cae 19
30 295 1263 |. =-386 8322 — | on 18
31 “421 2069 ‘386 9242 bee.) 17
32 BB4 2426 ‘387 0180 Ae 16
33 694 5945 ‘387 1134 | PS 15
34 “842 6534 *387 2102 aes 14
35 ‘998 8417 -387 3085 | Bae 13
36 2163 6169 “387 4080 ae 11
37 ‘337 4747 *387 5086 iain 10
38 520 9526 -387 6103 ee 9
39 ‘714 6347 ‘387 7128 jieciee| 8
40 ‘919 1558 ‘387 8162 a 6
41 3135 2068 ‘387 9201 Tae 5
42 363 5411 "388 0246 this 3
43 “604 9809 “388 1295 ie 3
44 "860 4254 ‘888 2346 a8 1
45 4130 8591 “388 3398

37
38

OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS.

95

‘TABLES
r= 25
log F (7, v) log H (r, v)
1695 7781 0°385 8838
697 3659 385 8855
702 1393 385 8908
‘710 1019 385 8996
721 2704 385 9119
‘735 6660 385 9277
“753 3158 385 9470
“T74 2534. B85 9697
‘798 5185 385 9958
826 1578 386 0255
“857 2243 386 0582
891 7784 386 0943
929 8876 386 1338
‘971 6270 386 1764
0-017 0795 386 2223
066 3362 386 2712
119 497] 386 3232
176 6711 386 3782
"237 9768 386 4361
303 5430 386 4969
373 5093 “386 5604
448 0267 “386 6267
527 2584 386 6955
“611 3809 386 7669
“700 5843 386 8408
‘795 O741 386 9170
*895 0715 386 9955
1:000 8153 387 0762
112 5627 387 1589
230 5913 387 2436
*355 2004 387 3302
486 7129 387 4185
625 4776 387 5085
‘T71 8709 387 6001
926 3001 387 6931
2:089 2053 ‘387 7874
261 0633 387 8829
442 3906 ‘387 9795
633 7476 388 0771
835 7426 B88 1756
3:049 0373 B88 2748
274 3517 388 3746
512 4708 388 4749
“764 2515 388 5756
4:030 6307 388 6765
312 6342 388 7775

A log H (7, v)

A? log H (r, v)

‘000 0018
53
88

123
158
195,
227
261
295
329
362
394
427
458
489
520
550
579
608
635
662
689
714
739
762
785
807
827
847
866
883
900
916
930
943
955

966
976
985
992
998

‘000 003

CoS

ow

or or a ou

Je)

Su ot

rss

Go co fo wo Ww
rss

rs

mn

ite |

a

bh bt bd w& bw bw
He Ot cc

bo

ho
me bo CO

me bo bo
oo

10

Pdoraoaans

Caen UE aE EEN ER RREEREERenennn eS aaa

06 REPORT—1899.

Secon

7 = 26
g°
| og F (r,v) log H (7, v) A log H (9, v) A * log H (7, v)
0 1:687 4284 0-386 3984
1 689 0840 386 4001 000 0017 000 0034
2 “694 0540 386 4052 bl 34
2 | 702 3476 386 4136 ae 34
4 | -713 9805 ‘386 4254 aie 34
5 ‘728 9746 | +386 4406 152 33
le 6 | -7az7 esi | +386 4591 | Le BB
7 769 1658 386 4810 ae 33
8 | 7944395 | -386 BOGL Fh, 33
9 823 2272 386 5345 ae 32
10 ‘855 5847 386 5661 oy 3
11 *891 5743 386 6009 fee 31
12 931 2665 386 6388 os? 31
3 ‘974 7393 | 386 6798 gu 30
14 0022 0791 | 386 7239 ay 30
15 073 3806 | “386 7710 ib 29
16 ‘128 7480 386 8210 out 29
17 188 2945 ‘386 8738 Bae 28
18 252 1435 386 9295 a 27
19 “320 4290 ‘386 9880 ae 27
20 393 2963 387 0491 Dae 26
21 470 9025 -387 1128 CaF 25
22 553 4176 ‘387 1790 Eee 24
23 641 0250 "387 2477 i 24
24 ‘733 9226 ‘387 3187 ies 23
25 ‘832 3242 ‘387 3920 ce 22
26 936 4600 “387 4674 fee 21
27 1:046 5783 387 5450 fly 20
28 162 9470 387 6246 ise 19
29 285 8547 ‘387 7060 sia 18
30 “415 6129 “387 7893 ey 7
Bite) Wy 50216576 “387 8742 er 16
39 ‘697 0516 ‘387 9608 ca 15
| 33 “849 4867 388 0488 cay | 14
ey 2-010 2864 “388 1382 ie | 3
| 35 “179 9088 “B88 2289 ; 12
| ag “358 8499 -388 3208 ee | 11
37 547 6471 *388 4137 i 9
38 ‘746 8833 *388 5075 a 8
39 ‘957 1916 | +388 6022 ae | 7
40 | 3179 2602 “388 6975 | 6
41 | 413 8384 | -388 7935 poate | é
42 661 7426 =—-*388.: 8900 : | «
| 43 ‘923 8647 ‘388 9868 oe 2
| Ad 4:201 1786 389 0838 a 1
| 45 494 7524 389 1810 z

ee error

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS, 97

to}

\ log F (7, v) | log H (r, v) A log H (r, v) A? log H (7, v)
0 1-679 3877 0:386 8744

1 “681 1094 386 8760 “000 00K ‘000 0033
2 686 2778 386 8809 a ae. |
3 694 9025 386 8891 39
4 706 9998 386 9005 a 32
5 | -729 5993 386 9151 i 32
6 ‘741 7096 386 9329 | ae 32
7 ‘764 3877 386 9539 oie 32
8 ‘790 6698 386 9781 aan 31
9 ‘820 6063 387 0055 a 31
10 ‘854 2546 387 0359 we 31
1 ‘891 6799 387 0694 a 30
12 932 9552 387 1059 a 30
13 ‘978 1615 ‘387 1454 ya 29
14 0-027 3887 387 1879 ie 29
15 080 7353 387 2332 pe aa 28
16 138 3092 387 2814 ae 28
17 200 2283 387 3323 eee | 27
18 266 6208 387 3859 , 26
19 337 6258 387 4492 ae 26
20 413 3944 387 5010 ae 25
21 494 0896 387 6624 ae 24
29 ‘579 8882 387 6261 an 24
23 670 9806 387 6923 a 23
24 ‘767 5727 ‘387 7607 ae 29
25 ‘869 8863 387 8312 se 21
26 ‘978 1616 387 9039. a 20
27 1:092 6538 “387 9786 be 19
28 213 6439 388 0552 Be 18
29 341 4310 388 1337 an 17
30 ‘476 3386 388 2138 i. 16
31 618 7157 388 2956 a 15
32 768 9393 ‘388 3790 ae 14
33 927 4164 388 4638 an 1B
34 2-094 5869 388 5499 ia 12
35 270 9268 388 6372 a u
36 ‘456 9512 ‘388 7257 age 10
37 653 2186 +388 8151 an 9
38 860 3344 388 9055 an 8
39 3-078 9562 388 9967 ais 7
40 309 7991 389 0885 ao 6
41 ‘653 6412 389 1809 aa 5
42 ‘811 3309 ‘389 2738 aa 3
43 4-083 7948 389 3670 pr 2
44 ‘372 0436 389 4604 ase 1
45 ‘677 1878 389 5540

98

mw he Oo | ss

oon as ct

10

|
|

REPORT—1899.

7 = 28
log F (7, v) log H (7, v) A log H (7, v) A? log H (7, v)
1-671 6341 0-387 3160
673 4219 ‘387 3176 peers 000 0031
678 7887 387 3293 a 31
687 7445 ‘387 3301 79 31
700 3062 387 3411 ato 31
‘716 4973 ‘387 3552 141 31
736 3483 387 3724 Pe 31
‘759 8968 ‘387 3927 thes 30
787 1876 387 4160 Sa 30
-818 2728 387 4424 2 30
853 2121 ‘387 4717 a 30
+892 0731 387 5041 328 29
934 9315 387 5893 ane 29
‘981 8715 387 BTT4 381 28
0-032 9863 387 6183 pe 28
088 3780 387 6620 ae 27
‘148 1586 ‘387 7084 — 27
219 4505 ‘387 7576 oe 26
281 3865 ‘387 8093 ot 25
355 1112 387 8635 os 25
433 7811 387 9203 on 24
‘1 5657 387 9794 bee 23
606 6479 388 0409 pie 23
‘701 2256 388 1047 pas 22
‘801 5122 388 1706 ees 21
‘907 7380 388 2387 oe 20
1-020 1612 -388 3088 ae 19
139 0194 388 3808 fay 18
264 6312 388 4547 dab 18
397 2979 388 6303 eh 17
537 3550 388 6077 fis 16
685 1648 388 6865 fou 15
-841 1182 388 7669 a 14
2-005 6375 388. 8487 ee 13
179 1790 388 9317 Ee 12
362 2366 389 0159 ae rs!
‘BB 3447 389 1012 pee 10
759 0825 ‘389 1875 ae 9
‘974 0781 389 2746 879 7
3-201 0137 389 3625 ; 7
440. 6310 389 4511 Bee 5
693. 7374 389 5402 ae 4
‘961 2127 389 6298 ES 3
4-244 0178 389 7197 Fr 2
543 2028 389 8098 a 1
‘859 9176 ‘389 9000 4

es ee SS

pte)
=)

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS.

y=29
~?
log F (7, v) log H(7,v) | Alog H (1, v) A? log H (7, v)

0 1:664 1478 0387 7268

1 666 0017 387 7283 000 0015 000 0030
2 “671 5669 387 7328 | 46 30
3 +680 8538 387 7404 | 16 30
4 “693. 8799 ‘387 7510 106 30
5 ‘710 6695 ‘387 7647 134 30
6 731 2544 ‘387 7813 166 30
7 ‘T55 6734} 887 8008 ae 30
8 783 9728 -387 $234 a3 29
9 ‘816 2068 387 8488 254 29
10 “852 4372 ‘387 8772 283 29
11 | +892 7340 ‘387 9084 = 28
i | -987 1757 387 9424 3) 28
13. | -985 8495 387 9792 pe 27
4 0-038 8519 ‘388 0187 | 20p 27
15 096 2888 -388 0609 423 26
16 ‘158 2763 ‘388 1057 238 26
17 224 9410 388 1631 476 25
18 296 4208 388 2031 499 25
19 ‘372 8653 388 2555 bat 24
20 “454 4367 +388 3103 548 23
21 541 3106 388 3674 ott 93
22 633. 6767 388 4268 594 29
23 ‘731 7398 388 4883 G38 21
24 “835 7212 388 5520 637 9
25 ‘945 8594 ‘388 6177 657 20
26 1-062 4115 388 6854 ou 19
27 185 6549 388 7550 696 17
28 315 8886 388 8263 ee 7
29 453 4351 388 8993 120 16
30 598 6420 388 9740 TAT 15
81 ‘751 8846 389 0501 162 14
32 -913 5680 389 1277 776 13
33 2084 1297 389 2067 789 12 |
34 264 0426 ‘389 2868 ote u
35 453 8181 389 3682 813 10
36 654 0100 389 4505 os 9
37 865 2184 389 5338 833 8
38 3-088 0940 389 6179 841 7
39 323 3436 -389 7028 849 6 |
40 ‘BTL 7357 389 7883 858 5
41 ‘834 1065 389 8744 8) 4
49 4-111 3678 ‘389 9608 Soh 3
43 404. 5148 390 0476 Soa 2
44 ‘T14 6355 390 1346 eh 1
45 5-042 9213 390 2217 Sit

Reem ieee
H2

100 REPORT—1899.

ry = 30
gp?
log F (r, ¥) log H (r, ») Alog H(r,v) | A? log H (7, »)

0 1656 9109 | 0388 1099 |

1 +658 8309 388 1113 000. 0015 “000 0029
2 “664 5945 388 1157 Sie 29
3 G74 2126 388 1231 Gea gs 4 29
4 “687 7031 388 1333 108 29
5 ‘705 0914 388 1465 182 29
6 726 4101 388 1625 161 29
r ‘751 6995 -388 1815 a | 29
8 781 0077 ‘388 2032 | oo 28
9 ‘814 3906 388 2278 setae 28
10 -51 9121 388 2552 | ene 28
sl “893 6447 +388 2854 302 27
12 939 6698 | 388 3183 | Jay 27
13 ‘990 0775 +388 3538 36 26
4 0-044 9676 +388 3920 nb 26
15 ‘104 4498 ‘388 4328 #08 25
16 168 6443 388 4762 138 25
17 237 6820 388 5220 | 48 24
18 311 7056 388 5703 483 24
19 -390 8701 388 6209 507 23
20 ‘475 3432 +388 6739 530 22
21 ‘565 3065 ‘388 7291 Goz 29
22 660 9566 388. 7865 wh 21
23 762 5053 388 8460 BYP 20
24 ‘870 1816 388 9076 BIE 20
25 984 2323 388 9711 Gib 19
26 1104 9235 +389 0366 654 18
27 232 5423 -389 1038 bie 17
28 ‘367 3981 389 1727 i 16
29 +509 8245 389 2433 706 16
30 660 1814 389 3155 ee 15
31 818 8570 389 3891 cs 14
32 ‘986 2707 389 4642 a 13
33 2162 8749 389 5405 ie 12
34 349 1598 389 6180 a 1
35 545 6529 389 6966 uy 10
36 ‘752 9288 389 7762 ha 9
37 -971 6080 389 8567 805

38 3-202 3639 389 9380 813 7
39 -| 445 9277 390 0201 pap 6
40 ‘703 0947 390 1028 827 2
41 ‘974 7302 +390 1859 882 4
42 4-261 7776 -390 2695 836 3
43 565 2668 390 3534 839 2
44 886 3234 -390 4375 etl 1
45 5:226 1804 -390 5217 oy

ASO AMP 52. ex al A Na Sepa Ran SN

CaHNaSArR we = e

BH eee ee eee
ONMDNAOIRWNHeH OS

20

ABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS.

101

y= 81

|

log F (7, v)

1-649
651
657
667
681
699
“721
‘TAT
°778
“812
“851
894.
942
994

0:051
112
‘179
-250
“327
409
496
“589
688
793
“904

1-022
147
‘279
“419
‘566
“721
“886

2:059
‘241
“434
637
"852

3:078
316
“568
"834

4115
“412
‘726

5:058

409

9073
8935
8555
8048
7598
7466
7993
9592
2762
8080
6207
7893
3977
5394
3173
8450
2464
6573
2249
1093
4842
5372
4714
5058
8771
8405
6710
6653
1433
4498
9568
0657
2096
8567
5127
7246
0847
2349
8712
7494
6915
5919
4256
2571
2499
6782

log H (r, v)

0°388
*388
388
“388
“388
388
388
388
388
388
“388
388
388
388
388
388
388
388
“388
388
389
389
389
“389
389
389
389
389
389
*389
389
389
389
“389
389
390
390
“390
390
390
390
390
390
*390
390
390

4679
4694
4736
4808
4906
5034
5189
5372
5583
5822
6086
6378
6696
7041
7410
7805
8225
8668
9136
9626
0138
0673
1228
1804
2400
3015
3648
4299
4966
5649
6348
7060
7786
8525
9275
0035
0806
1585
2372
3166
3966
4771
5580
6392
7206
8021

A log H (r, v)

‘000 0014
43
71
99
127
155
183
211
238
265
292
318
344
370
395
419
444
467
490
513
534
556
576
596
615
633
650
667
683
698
713
726
738
750
761
770
779
787
794
800
805
809
12
814
815

A? log H (7, v)

000 0028
28
28
28
28
28
28
27

27

bo
Q

>

an

wpm pw we bv Ww
Cr Or

to bo
eS Ww Ww wwe

o

lo wb bb bt

=)

102

6
°

REPORT—1899.

Yr

32

log F (7, v) log H (7, v) A log H (7, v) A? log H (r, v)
0 1-643 1226 | 0:388 8034
1 645 1748 ‘388 8048 ad me ‘000 0028
2 ‘651 3354 “388 8089 = 27
3 ‘661 6158 ‘388 8158 a4 27
4 ‘676 0352 “388 8254 io 27
5 ‘694 6208 ‘388. 8378 ie 27
6 ‘T17 4073 +388 8528 i77 27
7 ‘744 4379 ‘388 8706 ate 27
8 ‘775 1637 “388 8910 531 26
9 ‘S11 4444 +388 9140 ae 26
10 ‘851 5483 ‘388 9397 od 26
11 ‘896 1530 “388 9680 S63 26
12 945 3449 388 9988 ea 25
13 ‘999 2205 +389 0322 abe 25
14 0:057 8864 ‘389 0680 aes 24
15 121 4595 +389 1062 108 24
16 -190 0681 ‘389 1469 asd 23
17 263 8522 -389 1899 inh 23
18 “342 9638 “389 2351 ane 22
19 497 5684 +389 2826 197 22
20 ‘BIT 8452 +389 3323 ni 21
21 ‘613 9879 +389 3840 an 20
22 ‘716 2063 389 4379 ae 20
23 824 7266 ‘389 4937 a 19
24 ‘939 7929 +389 5514 ah 19
25 1-061 6692 ‘389 6109 eis 18
26 ‘190 6391 ‘389 6723 ant 17
27 ‘327 0091 ‘389 7353 bie 16
28 “471 1094 “389 8000 ae 15
- 29 623 2962 ‘389 8661 ave 15
30 ‘783 9534 389 9338 eat 14
31 ‘953 4956 “390 0028 a8 13
32 2:132 3701 *390 0732 ae 12
33 321 0601 390 1447 vay 11
34 ‘520 0879 “390 2174 ae 10
35 ‘730 0183 +390 2911 a 9
36 ‘951 4628 ‘390 3657 ane 9
37 3185 0841 390 4412 | 7s 8
38 “431 6009 ‘390 5174 ae 7
39 691 7938 390 5944 aie 6
40 966 5111 ‘390 6719 aA 6
41 4-256 6765 “390 7498 7a 4
42 563 2967 +390 8282 ais 3
43 ‘887 4707 ‘390 9069 7 2
44 5:230 3999 ‘390 9857 vas 1
45 ‘593 3997 “391 0646

ee eS ee

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS. 103

| r=33
op? ——- E — ain
log F (7, v) log H (7, v) A log H (7, v) A? log H (7, v)

0 1636 5434 0°389 1183 ; :

1 ‘638 6617 “389 1197 ab nae ‘000 0027
2 645 0208 389 1237 67 27
3 "655 6323 389 1304 93 . 26
4 670 5163 “389 1397 120 26
5 689 T7005 *389 1516 146 26
6 ‘713 2210 *389 1662 172 26
it ‘741 1222 “389 1835 198 26
8 ‘773 4568 “B89 2033 994 26
9 “810 2865 389 2256 249 25
10 *851 6818 *389 2505 OT4 25
ill 897 7225 “389. 2780 299 25
12 948 4980 | *389 3078 393 24
13 0:004 1077 389 3402 347 24
14 064 6615 389 3749 371 24
15 130 2802 | 389 4120 394 23
16 ‘201 0960 B89 4514 417 23
17 ‘277 2533 389 4931 439 22
18 “B58 9091 389 5370 461 22
19 446 2340 *389 5830 482 21
20 *B39 4127 389 6312 502 20
21 638 6453 389 6814 529 20
22 ‘744 1480 *389 7336 541 19
23 *856 1542 389 7877 560 19
24 “974 9160 389 8437 578 18
25 1:100 7050 389 9014 595 17
26 "233 8145 | 389 9609 611 17
27 374 5602 390 0220 627 16
28 523 2830 ‘390 0847 642 15
29 “680 3501 390 1489 656 14
30 *846 1578 390 2145 669 13
31 2:021 1335 390 2815 689 13
32 °205 7387 390 3497 693 12
33 400 4717 390 4190 705 11
34 605 8714 *390 4895 715 10
35 822 5204 *390 5610 794 9
36 3°051 0494 390 6333 739 8
37 "292 1420 *390 7065 739 7
38 546 5396 *390 7805 746 6
39 *815 0471 *390 8551 751 6
40 4:098 5399 *390 9302 756 5
41 ‘B97 9704 *B91 0058 760 +
42 ‘714 3773 391 0818 763 3
43 5048 3939 391 1581 765 2
44 402 7596 391 2345 766 1
45 ‘T77 3811 391 3111

OOOO Or

104.

REPORT—1899.

7r=04
°o ~~ =
‘ log F (r, ») log. H (7; y) A log. H (7, ») | A? log H (1, v)
0 1:630 1576 0°389 4146 4
1 632 3421 389 4159 _ me 000 0026
2 638 8996 +389 4198 peor | 26
3 “649 8424 “389 4262 af | 26
4 665 1908 +389 4353 ae pass | 26
5 684 9738 ‘389 4469 es 26
6 ‘709 2283 389 4611 aD 25
7 ‘738 0001 ‘389 4778 pee 25
8 ‘771 3436 389 4970 ies 25
9 ‘809 3225 *389 5187 ye 25
10 “852 0090 389 5429 ae 24
11 ‘899 4858 389 5695 38g 24
12 ‘951 8449 +389 5985 a 24
13 0-009 1887 +389 6299 337 23
14 071 6306 ‘389 6636 Be 23
15 139 2949 389 6996 aus 23
16 ‘212 3180 ‘389 7379 foe 22
17 -290 8487 -389 7783 aoe 21
18 -375 0487 389 $209 ve 21
19 465 0938 389 8656 hes 20
20 561 1746 389 9123 aan 20
21 -663 4971 ‘389 9611 mae 19
22 “772 2842 -390 0117 ae 19
23 ‘887 7765 -390 0643 Bis 18
24 1-010 2336 ‘390 1186 Bel 17
25 ‘139 9357 +390 1746 nee 17
26 ‘277 1848 +390 2324 a 16
27 “422 3065 390 2917 & 15
28 ‘575 6518 390 3525 fod 14
29 ‘737 6995 390 4148 ae 14.
30 ‘908 5576 ‘390 4785 id 13
a 2-088 9669 +390 5435 Bed 12
32 279 3029 ‘390 6097 oe 11
33 480 0791 ‘390 6770 | a ll
34 “691 $509 390 7454 ae 10
35 ‘915 2186 390 8148 ae 9
36 3:150 8322 “390 8850 =F 8
37 399 3963 ‘390 9561 =e 7
38 “661 6747 ‘391 0278 73h 6
39 ‘938 4971 ‘391 1002 a 5
40 4-230 7654 391 1732 ad 4
41 ‘539 4613 +391 2466 Fae 4
42 “865 6549 391 3203 ae 3
43 5210 5144 391 3943 is 9
44 ‘575 3166 ‘391 4686 743 1
45 -961 4600

391

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)*INTEGRALS.

°
log F (7, v)

0 1:623 9542
1 626 2048
2 632 9608
3 644 2348
4 660 0478
5 “680 4295
6 ‘705 4180
a 735 0604
8 ‘769 4129
9 808 5407
10 "852 5188
GL ‘901 4317
12 955 3744
13 0-014 4525
14 078 7824
15 148 4925
16 223 7229
17 304 6270
18 391 3713
19 484 1369
20 583 1198
21 “688 5323
22 800 6039
23 ‘919 5823
24 1:045 7350
25 179 3502
26 *320 7390
27 ‘470 2366
28 628 2047
29 ‘795 0329
30 ‘971 1417
31 2:156 9847
32 353 0516
33 559 8711
34 ‘778 0150
35 3-008 1016
36 250 8000
37 506 8356
38 ‘776 9950
39 4-062 1324
40 363 1764
41 ‘681 1377
42 5-017 1183
43 ‘372 3207
44. ‘748 0596
45 7749

105

rT = 85
log H (7, v) A log H (7, v) A? log H (7, v)
0389 6937 F
389 6949 ep 000 0025
389 6987 ae 25
‘389 7050 5 25
389 7138 ae 25
389 7251 mee 25
389. 7389 a 25
389 7551 162 24
389 7738 187 24
389 7948 oo 24
‘389 8183 pele 24
+389 8442 _ 23
282
389 8724 ae 23
389 9029 aug 23
; 328
389 9356 ae 22
389 9706 get 22
390 0078 phe 21
390 0471 ene 21
390 0884 ee 20
390 1319 8 20
390 1773 ei 19
390 2246 As 19
390 2738 se 18
390 3248 de 17
390 3776 ep 17
390 4321 16
390 4881 oa 16
390 5458 =a 15
390 6049 a 1M!
390 6654 a 13
390 7273 oat 13
390 7904 a 1
390 8547 a re
390 9201 2 10
390 9865 oa 9
391 0539 oa 9
391 1292 Be 8
391 1912 7 7
391 2609 ex! 6
391 3312 bas 5
391 4021 so 4
391 4734 ke 4
391 5450 a9 3
391 6169 ah 2
391 6890 795 1
391 7612

106

REPORT—1899.

7=36
go | (aie
log F (r, v) log H (7, v) | Alog H (r, v) A? log H (7, v)
0 1-617 9231 0389 9572
1 620 2399 389 9584 EU 000 0024
2 627 1943 389 9620 cad 24
3 638 7995 389 9682 _ 24
4 655 OT71 ‘389 9767 86 24
5 676 0575 389 9877 ug 24
6 | -701 7800 390 0011 = 24
7 | -732 2932 390 0168 Tem 24
g | -767 6546 390 0350 ps 24
9 ‘807 9316 -390 0555 aes 23
10 -$53 2010 “390 0783 a 23
11 ‘903 5502 “390 1035 ats 23
12 “959 0766 “390 1309 a 22
13 0-019 8889 -390 1605 : 22
14 086 1070 390 1924 p18 22
15 157 8628 390 2264 | te, 21
16 235 3007 390 2625 aoe 21
17 ‘318 5782 390 3007 | a 20
18 ‘407 8669 390 3409 ee 20
19 “503 3529 390 3832 2 19
20 “605 2380 390 4273 441 19
21 713 7407 390 4733 ao 18
22 -329 0968 390 5212 he 18
23 ‘951 5616 -390 5708 208 17
24 1-081 4096 390 6221 on 16
25 -218' 9381 -390 6750 ie 16
26 | -364 4667 390 7296 Se 15
27 | “518 3405 390 7856 ope 14
28 | +680 9313 -390 8431 575 14
29 852 6402 390 9019 ae 13
30 | 2-033 8997 390 9621 ae 12
31 295 1766 391 0234 * -
32 426 9744 -391 0859 ne u
33 639 8374 391 1495 * 10
34 “864 3536 391 2141 : 9
36 3101 1591 391 2796 ee 8
36 350 9424 391 3460 Ee 8
37 “614 4497 +391 4131 if 7
38 -892 4902 -391 4809 oh F
39 4185 9427 391 5492 oe 5
40 495 7624 391 6181 4
41 “822 9894 391 6874 a 3
42 5168 7569 391 7571 ae 3
43 534 3023 391 8270 2
44 | 920 9782 391 8971 mo 1
45 | 6380 2655 391 9673 ROR
1

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)*INTEGRALS. 107
r=37
o° =— ——-- == —- ee
| log F (7, v) log H (r, v) A log H (7, v) A? logH (7, v)
0 | 1-612 0550 0:390 2063 |
1 |. -614 4378 390 2074 ot Cae 000 0024
2 “621 5908 390 2110 36 24
3 | 638 5272 390 2170 60 24
4 | +650 2694 390 2253 83 24
5 “671 8485 390 2360 | 107 23
6 +698 3051 390 2490 130 23
7 729 6890 390 2643 154 23
8 766 0594 390 2820 177 23
9 “807 4855 390 3020 a0 23
10 “854 0464 390 3242 oe 22
1 -905 8318 390 3486 | ie 29
12 -962 9420 390 3753 | ai 22
13 0:025 4886 390 4041 2 21
14 093. 5948 390 4351 ert 21
15 | 167 3965 390 4682 7 21
16 | 247 0418 390 5034 oS 20
17 ~—s*832.: 6929 390 5405 372 20
18 | -424 5260 390 5797 3oL 19
19 | -582 7325 390 6208 4 19
20. | -e27 5199 390 6637 a0 18
21 ‘739 1128 390 7085 448 18
29 ‘857 7536 390 7551 466 17
23 +983 7045 390 8033 +85 16
24 1-117 2483 390 8532 ia 16
25 258 6900 390 9048 b1b 15
26 ‘408 3585 390 9578 _ 15
27 +566 6085 391 0123 545 14
28 733. 8222 391 0682 a 13
29 ‘910 4119 391 1255 573 13
- 30 2-096 8223 +391 1840 585 12
31 -293 5330 +391 2437 oad 11
32 “501 0620 391 3046 608 ie) |
33 719 9685 391 3664 ou S|
34 -950 8571 391 4293 G28 9 |
35 3:194 3816 ‘391 4930 aa a
36 451 2499 ‘391 5576 on ||
37 | ~—-722, 2290 391 6229 = ee. 1
38 4-008 1507 391 6888 a 6
39 | 309 9183 391 7558 668 5
40 “628 5140 391 $224 670 4
41 ‘965 0066 391 8898 Ae 3
42 5320 5613 391 9576 678 3
43 696 4499 +392 0256 680 2
44 6-094 0627 392 0938 682 1
45 “514 9299 +392 1621 eee

108 REPORT—1899.

| 7 = 38
¢° 46.2 3
log F (1, v) log H (7, v) A log H (vr, v) A? log H (r, v)

0 1-606 3413 0390 4421

1 G08 7902 | +390 4433 000 0012 000 0023
2 ‘616 1417 390 4468 2b 23
3 628 4093 +390 4526 op 23
4 -645 6161 -390 4607 SI 23
5 667 7940 390 4711 104 23
6 “694 9847 390 4837 127 23
7 727 2393- | 390 4987 12 93
8 ‘164 6187 -390 5159 | 1i2 29
9 3071940 | +390 5353 | - 29
10 ‘855 0464 390 5569 es 22
7 ‘908 2680 390 5808 a 29
12 -966 9620 -390 6067 ou 21
13 0-031 2429 390 6348 e 21
14 | 1012374 | -390 6650 | BOR 20
15 177 0849 390 6972 | oe eae 20
16 258 9378 390 7314 342 20
17 | 346 9624 390 7676 62 19
18 | -441 3400 390 8057. ee 19
19 542 2671 390 8457 400 18
20 | -649 9569 390 8876 ae 18
21 | -764 6400 | 390 9312 436 17
22 886 5655 390 9765 AE PH 17
23 1-016 0028 391 0235 ie: 16
24 153 2423 391 0721 16
25 298 5974 391 1223 a, 15
26 | -452 4059 391 1739 a, 4
27 =| 616 0321 391 2270 : 4
28 | 786 8688 “391 2815 oo 13
29 ‘968 3394 391 3372 5 12
30 2-159 9006 391 3942 570 12
31 362 0454 391 4523 a 1
32 ‘575 3055 ‘B91 5115 pe 10
33 -800 2556 391 5718 9
34 3-037 6167 | *391 6330 9
35 287 7604 391 6950 ‘ 8
36 551 7138 | 391 7579 - 7
37 830 1647 | “391 8215 ), 6
38 4123 9677 | 391 8857 z 6
39 434 0507 391 9505 shes 5
40 761 4223 | -392 0157 pad 4
41 5-107 1807 | °392 0814 pal 3
42 472. 5225 392 1474 7 2
43 ‘858 7544 392 2136 z 2
44 6-267 3043 392 2800 pe 1
45 699 7361 392 3465 665

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS.

109
fe 7=39 a
eBoy) | teH iy) | Aloe R i») | ato He, vy
0 1:600 7740 0°390 6658 si
1 "608 2891 -390 6669 on a ‘000 0023
2 ‘610 8391 390 6703 34
3 +623 4380 -390 6760 56 a
4 641 1093 -390 6838 9 .
B “663. 8860 -390 6940 101 oH
6 “691 8107 390 7063 124 is
7 724 9361 -390 7209 Tae is
8 763. 3246 390 7377 168 a
9 -807 0490 +390 7566 189 a
10 “856 1930 390 7777 ait re
11 ‘910 8510 +390 8009 232 Fs
12 ‘971 1287 -390 8262 2538 e
13 0-037 1440 390 8535 274 fs
14 109 0268 -390 8829 294 rs
15 186 9202 390 9143 314 Bs
16 270 9806 +390 9477 334 re
17 361 3789 +390 9829 33 Bi
18 458 3010 391 0201 371 i:
19 ‘561 9488 391 0591 390 ra
20 672 5410 391 0998 ae i:
21 790 3143 391 1423 426 17
29 916 5247 +391 1865 482 16
23 1-048 4484 391 2323 458 16
24 ‘189 3837 391 2796 474 15
25 338 6522 391 3285 489 i
26 -496 6007 ‘391 3788 503 14
27 663 6033 -391 4306 517 1B
28 -840 0630 391 4836 530 13
29 2-026 4145 -391 5379 543 12
30 223 1268 +391 5935 555 1
31 -430 7056 ‘391 6501 beg rl
32 “649 6970 391 7078 577 10
33 “880 6908 +391 7665 587 9
34 3124 3244 391 8261 596 : 8
35 381 2874 391 8866 605 8
36 “652 3259 -391 9479 612 7
37 -938 2488 +392 0098 619 6
38 4-239 9332 +392 0724 626 :
39 ‘B58 3315 392 1355 631 3
40 +894 4793 +392 1991 SUE 4
41 5249 5035 -392 2631 peal 3
42 624 6328 +392 3274 ee 2
43 6-021 2079 -392 3919 ben 2
44 -440 6950 392 4566 E 1
45 +884 6991 392 5213 ek

ee ee

110

REPORT—1899,

7=40
te}

4 log F (r, v) log H (r, v) | AlogH(r,v) | A®log H (r, v)
0 | 1:595 3459 0:390 8782 ;

| 1 | +397 9971 ‘390 8793 ss ue -000 0022
2 605 6756 “390 8826 ma 22
3 ‘618 6058 ‘390 8881 2 22
4 636 7416 “390 8958 a 22

rs ‘660 1171 ‘390 9057 en 22

r 688 7760 -390 9177 an 22
7 722 7721 “390 9319 es 21
g | 762 1697 390 9483 I 21
9 “807 0434 -390 9667 Aca ; 21
10 “857 4789 -390 9873 fe 21
11 913 5732 ‘391 0099 -> 20
12 975 4348 ‘391 0346 a 20
13 0-043 1845 391 0612 ae 20
14 ‘116 9556 391 0899 | ao 19
15 196 8949 391 1205 | ac 19
16 -283 1630 391 1530 | Ss 19
17 375 9350 391 1874 | 362 | 18
18 ‘475 4017 ‘391 2236 | pe | 18
19 581 7701 391 2616 aan 17
20 695 2648 391 3014 Pena 17
21 “816 1285 ‘391 3428 ASA 16
29 ‘944 6237 ‘391 3859 447 16
23 1-081 0339 ‘391 4305 hem 15
24 225 6650 ‘391 4767 ou 15
25 ‘378 8470 ‘391 5243 ae 14
26 540 9357 “391 5734 kaa 14
oT 712 3146 ‘391 6238 517 13
28 ‘893 3974 391 6756 bes 12
29 2-084 6300 ‘391 7285 aa i2
30 286 4933 ‘391 7827 a 11
31 -499 5062 “391 8379 Sms 10
32 -724 2290 ‘391 8942 pias 10
33 -961 2666 ‘391 9514 oan 9
34 3-211 2729 ‘392 0095 cao 8
35 ‘4T4 9551 “392 0685 ae 8
36 ‘753 0789 +392 1282 Be 7
37 4-046 4738 -392 1886 a 6
38 “356 0397 “392 2496 ae 5
39 ‘682 7535 392 3112 ob 5
40 5-027 6774 -392 3732 nae 4
41 ‘391 9676 ‘392 4355 = 3
42 ‘776 8842 “392 4982 fen 9
43 6183 8028 +392 5612 a 1
44 -614 2272 “392 6242 a 0
45 7-069 8037 392 6874

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS. 111

sh
op? sae Fis a —— as ae ae Bs
log F (7, v) log H (7, v) A log H (r, v) : A? log H (7, v)

0 1590 0501 0-391 OSOL |

1 “592 6975 391 0812 ang Oe 000 0021
2 G00 6445 391 0844 a 21
3 613 9059 391 0898 be 21
4 632 5064 391 0973 6 21
5 “656 4807 -391 1069 96 21
6 “685 8737 -391 1187 118 21
7 720 7406 391 1325 133 21
s ‘761 1472 391 1485 — | 159 21
9 ‘807 1702 391 1668 a 20
10 ‘858 8973 391 1865 3 20
11 ‘916 4280 391 2086 Me: 20
12 ‘979 8734 391 2327 a 20
13 0-049 3576 ‘391 2587 ann 19
14 125 O171 391 2867 pe 19
15 -207 0023 391 3165 - 19
16 295 4780 391 3483 sal 18
17 390 6238 391 3818 ae 18
18 -492 6351 391 4172 oe4 17
19 “601 7243 “391 4542 371 17
20 ‘718 1215 391 4930 388 16
21 842 0758 391 5334 40% 16
22 ‘973 8556 -391 5754 420 16
23 1-113 7524 -391 6190 gee 15
24 262, 0794 ‘391 6640 = 14
25 -419 1750 391 7105 460 14
26 585 4038 391 7584 479 13
27 ‘761 1593 ‘391 8076 ae 13
28 946 8652 391 8581 oe 12
29 2-142 9789 -391 9097 uL 1
30 +349 9933 391 9626 = 11
31 568 4405 292 0164 bao 10
32 ‘798 8947 392 0713 bo 09
33 3-041 9761 392 1272 Bo 9
34 298 3551 ‘392 1839 gov 8
35 ‘568 7567 +392 2414 575 8
36 ‘853 9658 392 2997 pe 7
37 4-154 8329 392, 3586 589 6
38 472, 2803 392 4181 595 5
39 ‘807 3096 392 4782 600 5
40 5-161 0098 +392 5386 G05 4
41 +534 5660 392 5995 609 3
42 929 2701 392 6607 G12 2
43 6346 5329 392 7221 614 1
44 ‘787 8938 392 7836 61d 1
45 7-255 0429 +392 $452 616

112
REPORT—1899,
‘2 r= 42 asl
log F (7, v) log H (7, v) Bloat (rv) :
; pores 0-391 2724 AEG)
2 on “i 391 2734 000 0010 aes
> 609 3321 eq nak 2: me
S 628 3972 ee id me
5 652, 9704 391 2891 73 21
6 683 0975 "391 2985 94 21
7 ‘718 8352 eee si a
8 760 2510 a peep 135 as
9 807 4232 aol 3391 156 20
10 860 4419 ee 3567 176 a
11 aeons — 196 »
12 984 4383 391 3978 216 20
3 0-055 6569 B91 4213 235 19
14 133 2048 cebea ts 254 19
15 217 2361 "B91 4740 273 19
16 -307 9195 ee 292 19
17 WER: ‘391 5341 310 18
18 509 9950 ieee oe i
19 621 8050 391 6014 345 17
20 salut 391 6376 | 362 17
21 1868 1492 sa 6754 378 16
22 1-003 2143 "391 7149 395 16
23 Peesart ‘B91 7559 410 16
24 298 6206 "391 7984 425 15
25 459 6298 "391 8424 440 15
26 629 9989 we 8878 454 Ae
27 ‘810 1308 ee 9345 467 13
28 Se "391 9826 480 13
29 na 392 0318 493 12
30 413. 6204 "392 0823 | 504 12
31 er ea 392 1338 516 11
32 873 6876 “392 1864 526 10
33 3-122 8199 392 2400 536 10
34 385 5647 "392 2945 545 9
35 662. 6857 "392 3499 554 9
36 954 9802 392 4060 562 8
37 4263 3195 hes aie 4 d
38 588 6485 joe je ee 4
39 aenmose ‘B92 5785 581 6
392 6371 586 5
40 5-294 4700 399 oe ‘
41 677 2923 ek i
392 7556 594 4
= 6-081 7839 399 Ean ;
43 509 3896 ek inal
44 -961 6887 392 8752 599 2
46 Bie eacs B92 9353 601 1
392 9954 601 1

s
°

COMNAAKHWNWH SO

i

1899.

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS. 113
= 43
log F (1, v) log H (7, v) Alog H (r, v) A? log H (7, v)
1579 8310 0°391 4556
582 6106 ‘391 4566 "000 0010 000 0021
590 9546 ‘391 4597 31 20
‘604 8785 391 4648 bl 20
624 4083 ‘391 4720 1 20
-649 5803 391 4812 92 20
680 4416 391 4924 i 20
‘717 0501 391 5056 is 20
‘759 4760 +391 5208 tom 20
‘807 7965 391 5380 Via 19
-862 1068 391 5571 191 19
+922 5103 -391 5781 210 19
989 1236 391 6011 220 19
0-062 0767 391 6259 28 19
‘141 5130 391 6526 28 18
297 5903 391 6810 205 18
320 4814 391 7113 see 17
420 3748 391 7433 320 17
527 A755 391 7770 Sui 17
642 0063 391 8123 a 16
‘764 2086 391 8493 el 16
+894. 3438 391 8878 385 15
1-032 6937 391 9279 40 1b
179 8637 391 9694 is 14
335 2826 392 0124 430 14
+500 2054 392 0567 = 1B
“674 7149 392 1024 40m 13
-859 2934 392 1493 469 12
2-054 1759 +392 1974 Go 12
260 0519 392 2467 Aue 1
‘477 3687 +392 2970 one 10
‘706 6845 392 3484 514 10
948 6018 +392 4007 aap 9
3:203 7711 +392, 4540 ic 8
‘472 8957 -392 5081 ol 8
‘756 7363 392 5629 548 7
4-056 1162 +392 6185 56 6
‘371 9277 392 6747 562 6
‘705 1384 392 7314 567 5
5056 7991 +392 7886 Jie 4
428 0520 392 8463 BG 3
‘820 1404 392 9044 580 3
6-234 4197 +392 9627 ~ 2
672 3690 -393 0212 585 2
7-135 6055 393 0799 587 1
“625 8999 +393 1386 587

114

REPORT—1899.

r= 44
log F (7, v) log H (rr, v) A log H (7, v) A? log H (r, v)
1-574 8962 0391 6305 1000 0010
*bT77 7420 391 6315 30 ‘000 0020
586 2845 391 6345 50 20
“600 5397 391 6396 70 20
620 5341 391 6465 90 20
646 3049 *391 6554 109 20
“677 9004 391 6664 129 20
‘715 3798 391 6793 149 20
"758 8138 391 6942 168 19
*808 2846 391 7109 187 19
*863 8866 “391 7296 206 19
925 7265 391 7502 294. 19
993 9238 391 7726 243 18
0:068 6113 *391 7769 261 18
149 9361 391 8229 278 18
238 0595 391 8508 296 17
333 1584 391 8803 313 17
“435 4256 “391 9116 399 17
545 0710 391 9445 346 16
"662 3227 391 9791 361 16
“787 4277 392 0152 377 15
920 6532 "392 0528 391 15
1:062 2883 "392 0920 406 14
212 6450 "392 1326 490 14
372 0600 392 1746 433 13
540 8966 392 2179 446 13
‘719 5463 392 2625 459 12
908 4315 "392 3084 470 12
2108 0073 “392 3554 489 11
318 7645 *392 4035 499 2
B41 2327 392 4528 502 10
‘T75 9829 392 5030 B19 9
3023 6317 “392 5541 520 9
284 8450 392 6062 598 8
560 3426 *392 6590 536 8
850 9027 392 7126 543 7
4157 3682 392 7669 549 6
480 6520 392 8218 BBB 6
821 7444 392 8773 B59 5
5:181 7208 392 9332 564 4
‘B61 7502 "392 9896 567 4
‘963 1049 393 0463 570 3
6387 1719 393 1033 572 2
"835 4649 "393 1605 573 1
7309 6389 "393 2178 B74 1
*811 5060 393 2752

TABLES OF THE G (7, Y)-INTEGRALS. 115

r= 45
$? ‘eis 7 aS
log F (7, v) log H (7, v) A log H (7, v) A? log H (1, v)

0 1-570 O711 0-391 7975

1 ‘572 9830 391 7984 "000 0010 000 0020
2 ‘581 7241 391 8014 aa 20
; 596 3106 391 8063 #9 19
4 616 7696 ‘391 8131 an 19
5 ‘643 1393 ‘391 8219 eS 19
6 ‘675 4689 ‘391 8326 wi 19
7 ‘713 8192 391 8452 is 19
8 ‘758 2623 391 8598 _ 19
9 “808 8824 ‘391 8762 ies 19
10 865 7761 “391 8944 | is
11 ‘929 0524 ‘391 9145 51 18
12 ‘998 8337 391 9365 a 18
18 0-075 2558 “391 9602 a 18
14 158 4691 ‘391 9857 es 17
16 ‘248 6386 ‘392 0129 68d 7
16 B45 9453 “392 0418 a WW
17 450 5863 392 0724 oa 16
18 562 7765 392 1046 oae 16
19 682 7492 392 1383 es 15
20 810 7568 392 1737 ai 15
21 ‘947 0729 392 2105 es 15
22 1-091 9931 392 2488 - id
23 245 8365 392 2885 ei 14
24 ‘408 9476 +392 3295 a 13
25 581 6979 +392 3719 rey 13
26 ‘764 4880 -392 4155 448 12
27 ‘957 7499 392 4603 460 12
28 2-161 9490 ‘392 5063 ai 11
29 ‘377 5876 392 5534 ‘at 10
30 605 2071 392 6015 491 10
31 ‘845 3918 “392 6506 560 9
32 3-098 7723 392 7006 5 9
33 366 0297 “392 7515 Bi? 8
34 647 9002 ‘392 8032 Bai 7
35 ‘945 1800 392, 8556 me 7
36 4258 7310 392 9087 5a 6
BI ‘589 4872 392 9624 549 5
38 ‘938 4614 +393 0166 3 ‘7 5
39 5-306 7534 393 0713 Bai 4
40 695 5595 ‘393 1264 she ay
41 6-106 1805 ‘393 1818 Bey 3
42 ‘540 0352 -398 2376 iy 2
43 ‘998 6720 393 2985 Bei L
44 ‘483 7836 393 3496 Be 1
45 ‘997 2234 ‘393 4057

I

bo

116 REPORT—1899.
7r=46
¢°
log F (7, v) log H (7, v) A log H (7; v) A? log H (7, v)
0 1565 3509 0:391 9572
1 568 3289 391 9581 000 0010 000 0019
2 ‘BT7 2685 ‘391 9610 29 19
3 “592 1863 391 9658 48 19
4 -613 1100 +391 9725 67 19
5 -640 0785 +391 9811 86 19
6 673 1423 +391 9915 106 19
7 ‘712 3634 392 0039 124 19
8 ‘757 8157 292 0181 142 18
9 809 5852 +392 0342 161 18
10 ‘867 7706 +392 0520 Ai 18
11 -932 4834 392 0717 oe 18
12 0-003 8487 +392 0932 he 18
13 082 0054 392 1164 an 17
14 167 1071 392 1413 a. 17
15 -259 3228 -392 1679 He 17
16 358 8372 392 1962 ii 16
17 ‘465 8522 1392 2261 nee 16
18 580 5873 392 2676 ae 16
19 -703 2808 392 2906 ae 15
20 $34 1911 392 3252 | Bie 3 15
21 ‘973. 5979 392 3612 ane 4
22 1-121 8031 392 3987 he 14
23 279 1333 +392 4375 388 13
24 445 9406 -392 4776 202 13
25 622 6047 +392 5191 a 12
26 809 5352 -392 5618 2 12
27 2-007 1738 -392 6056 ae 11
28 215 9964 +392 6506 450 W
29 436 5163 392 6967 oat 10
30 669 2873 392 7437 aa 10
31 914 9064 +392 7918 ee) 9
32 3174 0186 -392 8407 489 8
33 “447 3201 +392 8905 Ee 8
34 ‘735 5636 -392 9410 abe 7
| 35 4-039 5631 -392 9923 Bie 6
36 -360 1998 393 0442 oS 6
37 698 4283 393 0967 as 5
38 5055 2844 393 1498 as 5
39 -431 8925 +393 2033 ben 4
40 829 4749 393 2572 539 3
41 6-249 3623 393 3115 be 3
42 -693 0048 393 3660 bab 2
43 7161 9854 -393 4207 ast 1
| 44 658 0347 393 4755 ee 1
| 45 8183 0474 393 5304 By

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS.

T=AT
g° =
log F (r, v) log H (r, v) | A log H (r, »)
0 1-560 7311 0392 1100 Rraiuaod
1 ‘563 7753 392 1110 a
2 572 9134 392 1138 fe
3 +588 1625 -392 1185 ms
4 ‘609 5508 392 1250 a
5 +637 1182 392 1334 Pee
6 670 9162 392 1437 Poe
1 711 0082 392 1557 a
8 157 4696 392 1697 i
9 810 3885 392 1854 ss
10 ‘869 8656 392 2029 ag
rs ‘936 0149 392 2991 an
12 0-008 9642 392 2431 ian
13 ‘088 8555 392 2658 ont
14 ‘175 8458 392 2902 4
15 270 107 392 3163 ov
16 ‘371 8299 392 3440 jad
17 481 2188 392 3732 ond
18 ‘598 4987 392 4041 an
19 723 9132 392 4364 :
20 ‘857 7263 392 4702 a
21 1-000 2236 392 5055 ee
22 ‘151 7141 392 5421 aaa
23 312 5311 392 5801 |
24 483 0345 392 6194 a
25 663 6124 392 6600 406
26 ‘854 6834 392 7018 td
27 2-056 6988 392 7447 cs
28 270 1448 392 7887 pie
29 495 5462 392, 8338
30 733 4685 392 8799 pe
31 ‘984 5222 392 9269
32 3-249 3662 392 9748 a:
33 ‘528 7119 393 0235 a
34 823 3284 393 0729 og
35 4-134 0476 393 1231 ee
36 ‘461 7700 :393 1740 3 i
37 ‘807 4710 393 2954 pe
38 5-172 2090 393 2773 i
39 ‘557 1330 393. 3297 ae
40 ‘963 4920 393 3824 fe
41 6°392 6458 393 4355 B34
42 846 0761 393 4889 ae
43 7-325 4006 393 5424 pe
44 ‘832 3876 +393 5961 a
45 8-368 9732 393 6498

11

A?’ log H (7, v)

:

“000 0019
19
19
19
18
18
18
18
18
18
17
17
17
17
16
16
16
15
15

SCF NY wWWRrRAMAAND MS

118 REPORT—1899,

7 = 48
i log F (7, v) log H (7, v) AlogH (7,v) | A?log H(7,»)
0 1-556 2075 0392 2565
1 559 3178 392 2574 pao ae | 000 0018
2 B68 6545 392 2601 ol 18
3 584 2348 392 2647 A ad 18
4 606 0878 392 2711 | 18
5 634 2541 392 2794 | dl 18
6 ‘668 7863 302 2894 diel 18
7 709 7492 392 3012 oe nl 18
8 15T 2198 +392 3149 18
fre 154 ie
9 ‘11 2881 392 3302 =
10 872 0569 392 3474 i 17
1 939 6427 392 2662 sae | 17
12 0-014 1760 392 3868 oa 17
13 095 8020 392 4090 Aa: 17
14 184 6808 392 4329 ae 16
15 280 9888 392 4584 a 16
16 384 9189 392 4855 ose 16
17 496 6818 392 5142 =n 15
18 €16 5066 392 5444 ee | 15
19 ‘744. 6421 392 5760 et 15
20 881 3579 392 6092 ae | 14
21 1-026 9460 392 6437 ae | i
22 181 7216 392 6796 el 13
23 346 0254 392 7168 ced 13
~ 6 2 nD Ly 12
24 520 2250 392 7553 ae s
25 704 7169 392 7950 i dal 12
26 899 9284 392 8359 Gr ul
27 2106 3205 392 8779 a 11
28 324 3901 392 9210 a 10
29 554 6729 392 9652 Be 10
30 797 7467 ‘393 0103 x 9
31 3-054 2350 393 0563 ia | 9
32 ‘324 8107 393 1032 sane | 8
33 610 2007 393 1509 i 8
34 ‘911 1903 393 1993 pi 7
35 4-228 6293 393 2485 ae 6
36 ‘563 4374 393 2982 ae | 6
37 916 6109 393 3486 eae | 5
38 5-289 2309 393 3994 = 4
39 682 4708 393. 4507 a ial 4
40 6-097 6065 393 5024 ane 3
41 536 0267 393 5543 fe 2
42 999 2449 393 6066 a 2
43 7-488 9134 393 6590 ay 1
44 8-006 8381 393 7116 ak 1
45 ‘554 9966 “393 7642 2s

TABLES OF THE G (7, v)-INTEGRALS, 119

7 = 49

Q —_— — -

: log F (7, v) log H (7, v) A log H (7, ») A* log H (7, v)
0 1551 7763 0°392 3969

1 ‘554. 9527 -392 3978 0a0 a 000 0018
2 ‘564 4879 “392 4005 re 18
3 ‘580 3995 “392 4050 18
4 602 7172 ‘392 4113 ah 18
5 631 4824 “392 4193 ns 18
6 ‘666 7488 "392 4291 ar 18
fi ‘708 5826 “392 4407 aa 17
8 ‘757 0624 392 4541 si 17
9 ‘812 2801 392 4692 a 17
10 ‘874 3406 "392 4859 tee 17
11 ‘943 3629 392 5044 de 17
12 0:019 4803 "392 5245 aie 17
18 102 8409 “392 5463 oar 16
14 193 6083 ‘392 5697 oes 16
15 291 9625 “392 5947 aa 16
16 “398 1005 392 6213 a 15
17 ‘B12 2374 “392 6493 ann 15
18 ‘634 6070 -392 6789 maa 14
19 ‘765 4636 “392 7099 a 14
20 905 0822 392 7424 388 14
21 1:053 7610 392 7762 352 13
22 211 8218 -392 8114 365 13
23 379 6125 “392 8478 377 12
24 ‘B57 5084 “392 8855 389 12
25 745 9141 “392 9244 a0 12
26 945 2662 “392 9645 412 11
27 2/156 0351 393 0057 don 11
28 378 7283 393 0479 432 10
29 613 8925 393 0911 449 10
30 ‘862 1178 ‘393 1353 451 9
31 3124 0408 393 1804 459 8
32 400 3485 393 2263 467 8
33 691 7826 393 2731 474 q
34 999 1454 393 3205 481 7
35 4323 3042 :393 3686 488 6
36 665 1980 393 4174 a 6
37 5025 8441 393 4667 498 5
38 406 3461 393 5165 502 4
39 ‘807 9020 393 5667 506 4
40 6231 8144 393 6174 509 3
41 679 5011 393 6683 512 3
42 7-152 5073 ‘393 7195 514 2
43 652 5197 393 7708 B1e E
44 8-181 3822 393 8223 51G 1
45 741 1137 “393 8739

oe ee ee ee ee ee eee

120

REPORT—1899.

7=50
g°
: log F (7, v) log H (7, v) A log H (7, v) A? log H (7, v)

0 1:547 4336 0°392 5316

1 ‘550 6762 392 5325 0 10000 000 0018

2 560 4099 392 5352 26 18

3 ‘576 6529 ‘392 5396 44 18

4 599 4352 932 5457 62 17

5 628 7993 “392 5536 79 17

6 664 7999 392 5633 a6 17

7 707 5046 392 5746 ae 7

8 ‘756 9936 392 5877 Loe 17
9 ‘813 3607 +392 6025 148 17
10 ‘876 7129 "392 6189 fe 17
11 ‘947 1718 +392 6370 181 ie
12 0:024 8733 +392 6568 197 16
13 ‘109 9685 +392 6781 213 16
14 202 6245 +392 7010 229 ne
15 “303 0249 +392 7255 245 te
16 ‘411 3709 392 7516 260 15
LZ ‘527 8818 392 7791 ake 15
18 "652 7964 “392 8080 290 14
19 ‘786 3739 +392 8384 304 A
20 928 8954 "392 8702 8 14
21 1:080 6649 392 9034 331 ih
22 -242 0110 +392 9378 345 a
23 -413 2886 +392 9736 357 io
24 ‘594 8807 -393 0105 369 a
25 ‘787 2004 +393 0486 381 4
26 ‘990 6930 ‘393 0879 393 a
27 2-205 8389 +393 1282 404 ay
28 -433 1556 +393 1696 414 es
29 673 2014 393 2120 424 .
30 ‘926 5783 +393 2553 433 9
31 3-193 9359 +393 2995 442 8
32 ‘475 9753 +393 3445 450 8
33 ‘773 4538 +393 3903 458 7
34 4-087 1898 +393. 4368 465 7
35 -418 0685 +393 4840 472 F
36 ‘767 0481 +393 5318 478 4
37 5-135 1668 _ +393. 5801 483 :
38 ‘523. 5508 ‘393. 6289 488 4
39 -933 4228 393 6781 492 ‘
40 6366 1119 '393 7277 496 5
41 ‘823 0651 +393 7776 499 5
42 7305 8593 ‘393 8278 502 5
43 *816 2157 ‘393. 8781 504 ‘
44 8:356 0160 +393. 9286 505 :
45 ‘927 3206 ‘393 9791 505

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES, 121

Report on the Progress of the Solution of the Problem of Three Bodies.
By HE. 'T. WHITTAKER.

Introduction.

Tur present Report is the fulfilment of the author’s engagement to draw
up a report on the planetary theory for the Association. The above title
has been adopted in place of that originally chosen, as indicating more
definitely the aim of the Report.

The fundamental problem of dynamical astronomy is that of deter-
mining the motion in space of any number of particles which attract each
other according to the Newtonian law. ‘The solution of the problem
depends on the integration of a system of differential equations ; and
various methods have been given for the solution of the equations by
means of infinite series of known functions. The methods are, however,
in general cumbrous ; the convergence of the series employed has only
recently been considered with any success, and the true nature of the
integrals of the problem is unknown.

The theory has hitherto been developed chiefly with the object of
determining the motion of the moon and planets. While, however, the
lunar and planetary theories are, both of them, attempts to solve the
problem of three bodies, yet the results of the two theories are quite
different in form ; this is owing to the fact that the assumptions on which
the approximations are based are not the same in the two cases. Thus
it is known that if the masses of all but one of the particles are zero (ve.
do not exert any attraction on each other), these particles will circulate
round the remaining particle in elliptic paths ; and soa method of approxi-
mation, known as the planetary theory, has been developed, in which it is
supposed that the mass of one body preponderates and the other bodies circle
round it. In the lunar theory, on the other hand, it is assumed that two of
the bodies circle round each other, while circling together round a prepon-
derating third body. This gives rise to a solution of the problem by means
of a different set of infinite series.

Of course, the planetary and lunar theories do not by any means
exhaust the list of possible methods of approximation. For instance, it is
known that a particular solution of the problem of three bodies exists, in
which the three particles are always at the vertices of a moving equilateral
triangle ; and that, under certain conditions, this is a stable form of
motion. It would therefore be possible to form a theory, analogous to
the lunar and planetary theories, in which the approximation would be
based on the supposition that the motion differed but little from this
type ; and the only reason why this theory has not been developed is, that
it is not called for by the practical needs of computers of the solar system.

The results of the planetary and lunar theories may be regarded as
furnishing solutions of the fundamental problem by means of infinite
series, valid in each case only so long as the initial conditions are subject
to certain inequalities. In addition to this, there is a considerable litera-
ture dealing with the differential equations of the problem and their
transformations ; and in recent years discoveries have been made relating
to the nature and general properties of the solution, e.g. Bruns’s theorem
that no algebraic integrals of the problem of several attracting bodies

122 REPORT—1899.

exist, beyond the integrals of energy and momentum. In this Report it is
intended to review the state of these various branches of the theory at the
present time, solely in so far as they help in the mathematical discussion
of the fundamental problem ; no attempt is made to consider numerical
applications, or the suitability of the various developments for purposes of
computation. On this account, many papers which are of the highest
importance in the practical lunar and planetary theory are left unnoticed ;
this is in some respects to be regretted, but it has been rendered necessary
by limitations of space and time.

The Report attempts to trace the development of the subject in the
last thirty years, 1868-98; this period opens with the time when the
last volume of Delaunay’s ‘ Lunar Theory’ was newly published ; it closes
with the issue of the last volume of Poincaré’s ‘ New Methods in Celestial
Mechanics.’ Between the two books lies the development of the new
dynamical astronomy.

The work will be distributed under the following seven headings ;—

$ I.—The differential equations of the problem.
§ II.—Certain particular solutions of simple character.

§ III.—Memoirs of 1868-89 on general and particular solutions of
the differential equations, and their expression by means of
infinite series (excluding Gyldén’s theory).

$TV.—Memoirs of 1868-89 on the absence of terms of certain classes
from the infinite series which represent the solution.

§ V.—Gyldén’s theory of absolute orbits.
§ VI.—Progress in 1890-98 of the theories of $$ III. and IV
§ VII.—The impossibility of certain kinds of integrals,

§ I. The Differential Equations of the Problem.

Taking any fixed axes of reference, the motion of three mutually
attracting bodies is determined by nine ordinary differential equations,
each of the second order, or, as it is generally expressed, by a system of
the eighteenth order. The known fact that the centre of gravity may be
regarded as at rest is equivalent to six integrals of the system, and so the
system can be reduced to the twelfth order. The further fact that the
components of angular momentum about the axes are constant yields
three more integrals, and the system can thus be reduced to the ninth
order. The integral of energy makes possible a reduction to the eighth
order ; and since the time ¢ only enters by means of its differential dé, it
can be eliminated, and the system reduced to the seventh order. A
further simplification can be made, which was first pointed out explicitly
by Jacobi,! though it is really contained in the work of Lagrange,” namely,
that the variables can be so chosen that one of them © enters only by
means of its differential dQ ; it can therefore be eliminated (and after-
wards found by a simple quadrature), and the system can be reduced to
the sixth order.

Later writers have not succeeded in reducing the problem to a lower
order than the sixth. It will be seen, however, that distinct advances
have been made in the formulation of the equations and the theory of their

1 ¢Sur lélimination des nceuds dans le probleme Ges trois corps,’ Credle, xxvi.
pp. 115-31, 1843. oe
2 «Essai sur le probléme des trois corps,’ Prix de ? Académie de Paris, ix. 1772,

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES. 123

transformation, although progress has not been as marked here as in the
other investigations connected with the problem of three bodies. Besides
the general problem of three bodies and of 7 bodies, several problems of a
more special character are often considered, such as the problem of three
bodies in a plane, and the restricted problem of three bodies. The last-
named, which has occupied a prominent place in recent researches, may
be described as follows : Two bodies, S and J, revolve round their centre
of gravity in circular orbits, under the influence of their mutual attrac-
tion. <A third body P without mass (i.e. such that it is attracted by S
and J, but does not disturb their motion) moves in the same plane as S
and J. ‘The restricted problem of three bodies is to determine the motion
of P. This problem was first discussed by Jacobi! in 1836, who showed
that it depends on a system of differential equations of the fourth order,
one integral of which can be written down. This is now generally called
the Jacobian integral of the restricted problem of three bodies.

The most satisfactory reduction of the differential equations of the
problem of three bodies, previous to 1868, was that of Bour? Bour first
applies a theorem.due to Jacobi* and Bertrand,‘ in which, by making
use of the integrals of motion of the centre of gravity, the problem of
three bodies is made to depend on the motion of two fictitious masses
m, and m2, whose potential energy depends only on the lengths of the
lines joining them to each other and to the origin. our takes as his co-
ordinates q, and g», the distances of m, and mz, respectively from the
origin ; g; and q,, the angles made by q, and q, respectively with the
intersection of the plane through the bodies and the origin with the

invariable plane ; p, and p,, which denote ms and m, it respectively ;
a 17

and p; and p,, which are the components of angular momentum of m,
and mz, respectively, in the plane through the bodies and the origin.
With these coordinates the equations become

dp;_ cH dq; _

ats) ight tae

cH .
Sar) (i=1, 2, 3, 4)

where H is a certain function of the quantities p and g, and H=constant
is an integral of the system.

For the rectification of an error in Bour’s paper, see Mathieu’s paper
of 1874, referred to later in this section.

For the problem of three bodies in a plane, Bour’s system becomes

IN Ea RS ME AE

dt. dq) at Cp;
where 7, P2; 91, 72 are defined as before, but 3 is now the angle between
q and qo, and p; is the difference of the angular momenta of m, and m,
round the origin.

The problem was reduced in various ways to systems equivalent to, or

' Comptes Rendus, iii. pp. 59-61. 3
* ‘Mémoire sur le probléme des trois corps,’ Journal de UV Lcole Polytechnique,
xxi. pp. 35-8, 1856,

8 «Sur lélimination des noeuds dans le probléme des trois corps,’ Crelle, xxvi.
pp. 115-131, 1843.

* Mémoire sur l'intégration des équations différentielles de la mécanique,’ Ziou-
ville, xvii. pp. 393-436, 1852.

124 REPORT—1899,

little differing from, Bour’s system, by Brioschi! in 1868, and Siacchi? in
1871 and 1874 ; Vernier * in 1894 published what is substantially only a
reproduction of Siacchi’s paper of 1874. Amplifications and corrections
were also made by Mathieu * in 1873-8.

Previously to 1868 the restricted problem of three bodies had been
discussed by Scheibner® in 1866. His equations refer to a somewhat
more general case, but for the restricted problem of three bodies they are
as follows: Let be the mean motion of the two bodies, and a, y the
coordinates of the particle, referred to the centre of gravity of the bodies,
the (moving) x-axis being the line joining the bodies. Also let

d:

d
ata eid

then the equations of motion are

dx_ 6H di _ push dy_cH dy__ 6H
dt si dt tx’ dt ‘én? dt ~ by?

where H isa certain function of 2, y, & n, and H=constant is the Jacobian
integral of the system.

In 1868 Scheibner © reduced the general problem of three bodies to a
canonical system of the eighth order without using Jacobi’s transforma-
tion to the two fictitious masses. Let ¢, qs, 7; be the mutual distances

of the three bodies, and let Aye Pa=y > Ps =\ where T is the

1 2
kinetic energy ; let q, be the angle Chik the node (of the plane of the
bodies, on the invariable plane) makes with one of the principal axes of
inertia of the bodies at their centre of gravity ; and let py=k cos 7, where
% is the constant of angular momentum on the invariable plane, and 7 is
the angle between the plane of the bodies and the invariable plane. Then
the differential equations become

dq, °H dp, tH »_4 9

a ip. aaah Bled U=h 2 2)

where H is a certain function of the quantities p and g, and H =constant
is an integral of the system.

When the motion is in one plane, the system reduces to the sixth
order, as p, becomes a constant, and q,, now measured from a fixed line
in the plane, is determined by a simple quadrature. This reduction is
more symmetrical than one given by Perchot and Ebert ‘ in 1899.

1 «Sur une transformation des équations différentielles du probléme des trois
corps,’ C. R. lxvi. pp. 710-14.

2 «Jntorno ad alcune trasformazioni delle equazioni differenziali del problema
dei tre corpi,’ Atti di Torino, vi. pp. 440-54; ‘Sur le probleme des trois corps,’ C. &,
xxviii. pp. 110-13.

3 «Sur la transformation des équations canoniques du probleme des trois corps,’
C. R. cxix. pp. 451-4.

4 ‘Mémoire sur le probleme des trois corps,’ C. #&. Ixxvii. pp. 1071-4, xxviii. pp.
408-10; ‘Mémoire sur le probleme des trois corps,’ Liowville (3), ii. pp. 345-70;
‘Sur Vapplication du probléme des trois corps 4 la détermination des perturbations
de Jupiter et de Saturne,’ Journal de ? Heole Polytechnique, xxviii. pp. 245-69.

5 «Satz aus der Storungstheorie,’ Crelle, lxv. pp. 291-2.

5 * Ueber das Problem der drei Korper,’ Credle, |xviii. pp. 390-2.

7 ‘Sur la réduction des équations du probléme des trois corps dans le plan,’
Bulletin Astronomique, xvi. p. 110-16,

.

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES. 125

In 1868 Radau published, first in a series! of notes in the ‘ Comptes
Rendus,’ and subsequently in a memoir? in the ‘Annales de 1’Kcole
Normale Supérieure,’ his researches on the differential equations of the
problem of » bodies. He finds the effect of an orthogonal substitution
performed on the variables in the problem, and shows that Jacobi’s substi-
tution in the problem of three bodies is a case of this. Two other cases are
worthy of mention : firstly, a transformation which is equivalent to referring
the second body to the first as origin, the third body to the C.G. of the
second and third, the fourth body to the C.G. of the first three, and so on,
at the same time modifying the masses ; and, secondly, a transformation
which shows the existence of ‘canonical’ points, each of which has,
with reference to the motion of (x—1) of the bodies, properties similar to
those possessed by the C.G. for the whole system, Considering the case
of three bodies, he deduces Bour’s equations, and also a new canonical
system of the eighth order.

A modification of the transformation of Jacobi and Radau was con-
sidered in 1889 by Andrade,* and in 1896-7 Poincaré? gave another
transformation which appears to be still better suited for effecting the
same reduction.

The results obtained by Allégret ° in 1874 are substantially equivalent
to some of those in Radau’s papers.

Radau’s researches were continued in 1869 in a number of papers," of
which that in Liouville’s journal is the most complete ; the author dis-
cusses the reduction of the order of a canonical system when one of the
coordinates does not enter explicitly in the energy-function, and applies
his results to the problem of three bodies, arriving at Scheibner’s system.

Hesse’ in 1872 published a fresh discussion of the problem of three
bodies, somewhat on the lines of Lagrange’s memoir ; but it was pointed
out by Serret * in 1873 that the equations in one of Hesse’s systems were
not independent, and consequently his results were invalid. Serret’s
paper contains also an exposition, in an improved and symmetrical form,
of the essential parts of Lagrange’s memoir. Other reductions of the

"Sur un théoréme de mécanique,’ @. #. Ixvi. pp. 1262-5; ‘ Remarques sur le
probléme des trois corps,’ idid. lxvii. pp. 171-5; ‘ Sur une transformation orthogonale ,
applicable aux équations de la dynamique,’ ibid. xvii. pp. 316-9; ‘Sur l’élimination
directe du nceud dans le probléme des trois corps,’ ibid. lxvii. pp. 841-3.

* ‘Sur une transformation des équations différentielles de la dynamique,’ Annales
del’ Ecole Norm. Sup. v. pp. 311-75.

° «Sur une réduction du probleme des » corps, qui conserve 5 ou teed
mutuelles,’ C. A, cviii. pp. 226-8; ‘Sur les réductions du probléme des x corps, qui
conservent certaines distances mutuelles,’ ibid. cviii. pp. 280-1.

* ‘Sur une forme nouvelle des équations du probleme des trois corps,’ ibid. cxxiil.
pp. 1031-5; Acta Math. xxi. pp. 83-97.

° ‘Sur une transformation des équations de la mécanique céleste,’ C. R. cxxix.
pp. 656-8.

° *Betrachtungen tiber die Flichensitze,’ Ast. Nach. Ixxiii. pp. 337-44 ; ‘Weitere
Bemerkungen tiber das Problem der drei Kérper,’ ibid. lxxiv. pp. 145-52; ‘Sur une
propriété des syst¢mes qui ont un plan invariable,’ @. R. lxviii. pp. 145-9; ‘Sur une
pr etomaiios des coordonnées des trois corps dans laquelle figurent les moments

‘inertie, ibid. cxviii. pp. 1465-9; ‘Ueber gewisse Higenschaften der Differential-
gleichungen der Dynamik, Math. Ann. ii. pp. 167-81; ‘Sur une propriété des
systémes qui ont un plan invariable,’ Liowville, xiv. pp. 167-230.

* «Ueber das Problem der drei Kérper,’ Crelle, Ixxiv. pp. 97-115.

* ‘Réflexions sur le mémoire de Lagrange intitulé “Essai sur le probléme des
trois corps,”’ C. #, lsxvi. pp. 1557-65 ; and Bull. des Sc. Math. vi. p, 48.

distances

126 REPORT—1899.

problem of three bodies, which seem scarcely of sufficient importance to
be here described in detail, are those of Weiler! in 1869-70, Hill? in
1875, Weiler # in 1879-80, Seydler + in 1884, and Duport® in 1898,

The problem of 7 bodies can be reduced from the 6nth order to the
(6n-12)th order, just as the problem of three bodies can be reduced from the
18th order to the 6th. This subject has been discussed in the period
under review by Allégret ® in 1875 (who fell in errors which were pointed
out by Mathieu’ in 1877), by Betti* in 1877, Mathieu in 1877, Ball !° in
1877, Dillner !! in 1877 (who attempted to use quaternions, but made mis-
takes which were pointed out by Bruns !* in 1880), and Dillner }3 in 1882-8.

Seydler !* in 1885 extended the analysis of Lagrange’s treatment of the
problem of three bodies to the case of the problem of four bodies. The
system isreduced ultimately to a system of the twelfth order and quad-
ratures.

The general theory underlying the work of this section has been
developed by Lie and Mayer. A special consideration of the problem of
three bodies will be found at p. 282 of a paper |’ published by Lie in 1875.

In 1887 Bruns !° published a paper which will be analysed later, but
which contains a new reduction of the problem of three bodies.

Let 9, 72, 73 be the mutual distances of the three bodies ; and let ¢,=
Sa,(a,+ty,)/2b\(%,+ty,), where (a, y;, 2) &c. are the coordinates of
the bodies when the origin is taken at the centre of gravity, and the

1 «Ueber die Elimination des Knotens in dem Problem der drei Kérper, ete.,’ Ast.
Nach. \xxiv. pp. 81-96, Ixxv. pp. 113-28; ‘Notes sur le probleme des trois corps,’
Liowville, xiv. pp. 805-20,

2 «Reduction of the Problem of Three Bodies,’ The Analyst, iii. pp. 179=85.

8 ¢*Ueber die Differentialgleichungen der Bewegung in dem Problem der drei
Korper,’ Ast. Nach. xcvi. pp. 161-82; ‘Das Problem der drei Korper in der neuen
Stérungstheorie,’ ibid. xcvil. pp. 97-112, 129-44, 161-76, 193-208.

4 «Ueber einige neue Formen der Integrale des Zwei-und-Dreikérper-Problems,’
Sitzungsberichte der Ak. zu Wien, \xxxix. pp. 851-72; ‘O integrovani nékterych
rovnic vyskytrujic ich se v problemu tfi téles,’ Sitzwngsberichte d. Ges. der Wiss. in
Prag, 1884, pp. 16-29; ‘ Dal&Si ptispévky k integrovani,’ etc., ibid. pp. 106-26.

5 Sur le probléme des trois corps, Bull. Astr. xv. pp. 377-83.

6 «Mémoire sur le probléme des trois corps,’ Liouville (3), i. pp. 277-316.

7 Mathieu, ‘Sur le probléme des trois corps.’ Liowville (3), iii. pp. 216-9; Allé-
gret, ‘ Note sur le probléme des trois corps,’ ibid. pp. 422-6; Mathieu, ‘ Réponse a la
note de M. Allégret sur le probléme des trois corps,’ Liouville (3), iv. pp. 61-2.

8 ¢ Sopra il moto diun sistema di un numero qualunque di punti che si attraggono
o si respingono tra loro, Annali di matematica (2), viii. pp. 301-11.

9 ‘Mémoire sur les équations du mouvement d’un systéme de corps,’ Liowville (3),
ii, pp. 5-21. j

a Note on a transformation, etc.,’ Monthly Notices, xxxvii. pp. 265-71.

1 «Mémoire sur le probléme des 2 corps,’ Nova Acta R.SS. Upsal. vol. extra ord.,
1877, 18 pp.

12 Jahrbuch ber die Lortschritte der Mathematik, 1877, p. 788.

13 ¢Qm integration af differentialeqvationerna i m-kroppiirs problemet,’ Ofversigt
af K. Vet.-ah. Forhandlingar, 1882, No. 4, pp. 13-20, No. 8, pp. 9-29; 1886,
pp. 173-84, 217-22; 1888, pp. 367-78; ‘ Sur l’intégration des équations différentielles
du probléme des V corps, Annali di matematica (2), xi. pp. 56-64.

14 « Ausdehnung der Lagrange’schen Behandlung des Dreikérper-Problems auf
das Vierkérper-Problem,’ Abhandlungen der kh. bilm. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften,
(7), i. No. 5, 20 pp.

1s Begriindung einer Invarianten-Theorie der Beriihrungs-Transformationen,’
Math. Ann. viii. pp. 215-303.

16 ‘Ueber die Integrale des VielkGrper-Problems,’ Berichte der hgl. Siichsischen
Gesellschoft der Wiss. zu Leipzig, 1887, pp. 1-39, 55-82 ; Acta Math. xi. pp. 25-96.

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES. 127
invariable plane is the plane of wy, and where a, dy, a3, 0, bo, b3 are con-
stants subject only to the conditions

Then the problem can be reduced to the Hamiltonian system of the
eighth order,

dq, __ 6H dp; Aes __¢H

py alll okie) the eon
di ép? dt &q; Start dln Patri 8s)
where ( .
SH MtM; 9 PPAQe +98 —T) ei ee +N
H= [Prgng! AP = 249645 =f ee {Po(%4 D190) +kb,}
D< WMoM1-
{ 25(ay—Dsq)—?3(a2—bago) — Eas

In this, 74 is the constant of angular momentum. Bruns then reduces
this to a system of the sixth order by eliminating the time and using the
integral H=—A; writing H=H,po+H., where H, and H, do not

H,+h

involve p , and putting K=— wwe have
1
Bo tec OK. (5541,9) 8)

dgo &p, dg ey;
which is the required system.

It may be noted that a particularly simple case of Bruns’s transforma-
tion is afforded by putting a, = —1, ag=1, a,=0, 6; =—1, b,=0, 63=1 ; in
this case g is simply the ratio of the two vectors which join the projection
of m, to the projections of mz and mz, respectively on the invariable plane.
Kiaier’ in 1891, starting from Jacobi’s transformation, likewise reduced
the problem to a canonical system of the sixth order.

The differential equations of the restricted problem of three bodies
were discussed by Tisserand * in 1887 and by Poincaré* in 1890. Both
authors reduce the problem to a canonical system of the fourth order ;
Tisserand takes variables defined by means of the elements of the
instantaneous ellipse described by the particle round one of the bodies, ©
while Poincaré uses the instantaneous ellipse described by the particle
round the centre of gravity of the system.

§ Il. Certain Particular Solutions of Simple Character.

Lagrange‘ in 1772 had shown that the equations of motion of the
problem of three bodies can be satisfied by two particular solutions of a
very simple character ; in one case the three particles are always at the
vertices of a moving equilateral triangle and in the other they are always
on a moving straight line. We shall generally call these respectively the
motions of Lagrange’s three equidistant particles and three collinear
particles,

* “Sur la réduction du probléme des trois corps au systéme canonique du sixiéme
ordre,’ Astr. Nach. cxxvi. pp. 69-76.

* «Sur la commensurabilité des moyens mouvements dans le systéme solaire,’
Bull. Astr. iv. pp. 183-92.

* © Sur le probléme des trois corps,’ Acta Math. xiii. pp. 1-270.

* «Essai sur le probleme des trois corps,’ Priz de V Académie de Paris, iz.

128 REPORT—1899.

The first paper oi the subject in the period under review was
published by Routh! in 1875; he showed that the three equidistant
particles are stable when the square of the sum of the masses is greater
than twenty-seven times the sum of the products of the masses taken two
and two together ; a result which, however, had already been stated by
Gascheau. The stability was considered from a somewhat more general
point of view by Liapunow? in 1889; and Gyldén® in 1884 discussed
solutions which differ but little from the three collinear particles.

Lagrange’s results have been generalised, and corresponding theorems
found for the motion of more than three bodies. An attempt made in
this direction by Veltmann‘ in 1875 is open to criticism, but Hoppe® in
1879, and Lehmann-Filhes ° in 1891, discovered solutions in which more
than three particles are placed at the corners of a regular polygon or poly-
hedron, or on a straight line. Sloudsky” in 1892 claimed to have given
some of Hoppe’s results in 1878, in a paper published in Russian. In
Hoppe’s paper the masses of the particles are supposed to be equal,
which detracts from the value of his results ; in Lehmann-Filhes’s paper
the masses are not so restricted.

Cases in which the triangle formed by the bodies is isosceles were
discussed by Fransen § in 1895, and Gorjatschew ° in 1895-6.

§ III. Memoirs of 1868-89 on General and Particular Solutions of the
Differential Equations, and their Expression by Means of Infinite
Series (excluding G'yldén’s Theory).

From the time when it was first realised that the motion of the three
bodies cannot be represented in a finite form by means of known functions,
interest has centred chiefly round that division of the subject to which
the present section will be devoted, namely, the derivation, nature, and
properties of the infinite series by means of which the problem can be
solved.

The result of our observations of the heavenly bodies suggests a form
into which we may try to put the analytical solution. It is found that
the facts can be represented, at any rate for as far back as our records
take us, by supposing that the planets move in ellipses round the sun.
These ellipses are, however, not fixed, but their elements (the eccentricity,
ec.) vary from year to year. Some of these variations, or inequalities, are
periodic—that is to say, can be expressed by terms such as a sin (bt + ©),

‘ «On Laplace’s three particles, with a Supplement on the stability of steady
motion,’ Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. vi. pp. 86-97.

2 *On the stability of the motion inaspecial case of the problem of three bodies,’
Trans. Math. Soc. of Krakow (8), ii. pp. 1-94. (Russian.) ;

3 «Om ett af Lagrange behandladt fall af tre-kroppars-problemet; Ofversigt af
K. Vet.-ak. Forhandlingar, xii. pp. 3-11; ‘Sur un cas particulier du probléme des
trois corps, Bull. Astr. i. pp. 361-9.

4 * Bewegung in Kegelschnitten von mehr als zwei Korpern, welche sich nach
‘dem Newton’schen Gesetz anziehen,’ Ast. Nach. \xxxvi. pp. 17-380.

5 «Erweiterung der bekannten Speciallésung des Dreikdrperproblems,’ Archiv
der Math. u. Phys. lxiv. pp. 218-23.

6 «Ueber zwei Falle des Vielkérperproblems,’ Astr. Nach. cxxvii. pp. 137-44.

7 ‘Note sur quelques cas particuliers du probléme de plusieurs corps,’ Bulletin
de la Soc. Imp. Natur. Moscow, 1892, pp. 437-40.

8 ¢ Ett specialfall af tre-kroppars-problemet,’ Ofversigt af K. Vet.-ak. Forhand.
lii, pp. 783-805.

5 Transactions of the Inyp. Soc. of Nat. Moscow, vii. viii.

e

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES. 129

where a; 6, c are constants ; such variations obviously do not in the long
tun produce any marked change in the solar system ; while other variations
are secular—that is to say, are expressed by terms such as aé¢ + b0? + ...;
these variations of course have the effect of continually altering the
orbits, leading ultimately to a completely different configuration.

The method of the classical planetary theory is to express the solution
in this way: differential equations are found for the variations of the
elliptic elements, and from them is found an approximate solution, which
in the earlier memoirs was of the kind just described.

The question naturally arose, What would be found to be the true
nature of the secular inequalities if the equations were solved rigorously
instead of approximately? The first approximation can be represented
by terms like c¢, where c is a constant ; but it is possible that this is only

the first term in the expansion of (say) - sin mt, where m is a very small

number. If this were the case, the secular terms would really be periodic,
though of a very long period. In researches relating to the stability of
the solar system, and the expression of the coordinates after long intervals
of time, the settlement of this question is of fundamental importance.

Although the founders of the planetary theory succeeded to some
extent in their approximation in thus replacing secular terms by trigono-
metric terms of long period, the most important contribution to the sub-
ject previous to the period under review was the method by which
Delaunay | discussed the motion of the moon, the essence of which may
be described as follows.

Let 8, J, P be the three bodies, and let the mass of P be zero ; then
the motion of S and J, being elliptic, may be supposed known, and to
determine the motion of P we have a system of the sixth order. This
can be brought to the form

Bi OM Bish ON popes ina}

dt cq, dt op,
where H is a function of ¢ and of the generalised coordinates p,, ¢,.
H may be called the disturbing function, and can be expanded as an
infinite series, each term of which consists of 4 function of p,, p., ps;
multiplied by the cosine of a linear function of 9¢,, q, g;, & Delaunay then
fixes the attention on some particular one of these terms, and shows how
to find a transformation from the variables p,, g, to new variables p’,, q’,
such that the equations become

ap, CHA ity bao bloat rigs

wae ee Seater red tee a
where H’ is a function of p’,, q’,, ¢ of the same kind as H ; but H’ does not
contain any term corresponding to the term in H which is under considera-
tion. This transformation has therefore robbed the disturbing function
of one of its terms ; by a fresh transformation we can deprive H’ of any
other term, and so on. In this way all the important periodic terms are
abolished from the disturbing function, and when the residue has become
negligeable, the equations are integrated ; and the coordinates are thus
expressed in terms of six arbitrary constants, and the time by means of
series in which the time occurs only in the arguments of periodic terms.

1 «Théorie du mouvement de la Lune.’ Paris. Vol. i. 1860; vol. ii. 1867.
K

130 REPORT —1899,

In 1872 Newcomb,! assuming that the coordinates of the planets can
be expressed by trigonometric series, as in Delaunay’s theory, proved
various properties of the coeflicients, &c., by using the function called by
Clausius the virial, which is the mean value of the kinetic energy of the
system. This was extended by Siacchi * in 1873,

In 1874 Newcomb ? proceeded to justify his assumption regarding the
expression for the coordinates as functions of the time. He applies the
transformation of Jacobi and Radau to the equations of (+1) bodies, and
so obtains a system of the 6nth order. It is assumed that a set of infinite
series of the forms

Oey ae . . °
p= >K, my (Ay H%QAo+A3Ag + » «+ +43nA3n)

can be found, where p; is one of the coordinates and \,=/,+0,¢ (the quan-
tities / being 3n arbitrary constants, and the quantities b and K being
functions of 3n other arbitrary constants), such that the differential equa-
tions are approximately satisfied by these series. Newcomb, then, using
the method of variation of arbitrary constants, replaces these series by
others of the same form which satisfy the differential equations to a higher
degree of approximation. Proceeding in this way, it appears that the
problem of three bodies can be formally solved by series of this kind.

The year 1877 saw the appearance of a paper * which may be regarded
as the beginning of the new era in Dynamical Astronomy. The author,
Mr. G. W. Hill, was at the time an assistant on the staff of the American
Ephemeris.

The first of the novelties in this paper is the abandonment of Kepler’s
ellipse. It had hitherto been usual to take, as the first approximation to
the orbit of the moon, an elliptic path round the earth ; the orbit, in fact,
which the moon would actually describe if the sun did not exist to disturb
it ; the actual path of the moon was then found by calculating the per-
turbations caused by the sun on this elliptic motion. Hill, however, does
away with the elliptic orbit altogether, and takes, as the intermediate
orbit or first approximation to the moon’s path, an orbit which includes
all the inequalities which depend only on the ratio of the mean motions
of the sun and moon, but takes account of no other inequalities. This
difference between Hil] and the older theorists may be otherwise stated
as follows: the old astronomers first solved the problem of two bodies,
and then attempted to solve the problem of the three bodies by suitably
varying the solution so obtained ; whereas Hill begins by solving the re-
stricted problem of three bodies, and then attempts to solve the problem
of three bodies by suitably varying this solution.

Suppose, then, that an orbit for the particle is known, which is periodic,
z.e. which is such that the two bodies and the particle retake the same
relative positions after the lapse of a certain interval of time. Then the
coordinates of the particle can be expressed as sums of sines and cosines of
multiples of a linear function of the time. We can now consider the small

' “Note sur un théoréme de mécanique céleste,’ @. #. Ixxv. pp. 1750-3.
? «Sur un théoréme de mécanique céleste,’ C. R. Ixxvii. pp. 1288-91.
® «On the General Integrals of Planetary Motion,’ Smithsonian Contribution to
Knowledge, 1874, pp. 1-31.
**On the part of the Motion of the Lunar Perigee which isa Function of the
Seas Motions of the Sun and Moon,’ Cambridge; Mass., Press of John Wilson &
on.

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES. 131

oscillations of the particle about this orbit, when the initial conditions of
its motion are not exactly such as to cause it to describe the periodic orbit.
These oscillations represent those inequalities in the moon’s motion which
depend only on the eccentricity of the lunar orbit and the ratio of the
mean motions of the sun and moon; and the period of the oscillations
represents the time between two successive perigees of the moon, so that the
difference between this period and the period of the orbit gives that part
of the motion of the lunar perigee which is a function of the mean motions
of the sun and moon—whence the title of the memoir.

Let w represent the distance (measured along the normal) of the
particle from the periodic orbit, at any time ¢ during the performance of
the small oscillations. Then Hill finds that wis given by an equation of
the form

d?w

dt

+0w=0

where 9 depends only on the relative position of the two bodies and the
particle ; O is therefore a known periodic function of ¢, and can be ex-
panded in the form

0=0,+80, cos 2+ 0, cos 444+ ,...,

where 0,, 0,, 0, ... are pure constants.

(It ought to be stated here that, since all inequalities in the moon’s
motion which involve the sun’s parallax are neglected, the distance of the
two bodies from each other is supposed to be infinite, and the one of them
at infinity is supposed to possess such an (infinite) mass as would correspond
to a finite mean motion.)

The problem therefore is to solve the differential equation

dw

det {0 +0, cos 244+ 0, cos 4¢4+ .. .}w=0.

Equations of this type had been discussed by the founders of dynamical
astronomy, D’Alembert,'! Lagrange,” and Laplace, and have since been
discussed by a large number of mathematicians. Tisserand called the
equation
dw
spi {Q,+9, cos 24} w=0,

which is a particular case of the above, the Gyldén-Lindstedt equation ;

the name does not seem very appropriately chosen, but as it has now

‘become established we shall use it here. The same equation occurs in

the Potential Theory as giving rise to the functions appropriate to the
Elliptic Cylinder ; it is discussed from this point of view in Heine’s
‘Kugelfunctionen.’ The more general equation above will be called either
Hill’s equation or the generalised Gyldén-Lindstedt equation. The theory
of these equations is a matter of pure mathematics, and the papers in

1 Opuscules Mathématiques, v. p. 336.
? ‘Solutions de différents problémes de calcul intégral,’ Miscellanea Taurinensia,
ili. (@uwvres, i. p. 586.)
3 Guvres, viii. and ix:
K 2

182 REPORT—1899.

which it has been developed will not be reviewed here; the result
important for our purpose is that an integral can be found in the form

w= > a, cos{(e+2r)t+a},
%™=-COO

where c depends on the coefficients in the equation, and a, and a depend
on these coefficients and on two arbitrary constants of integration. For
the determination of c Hill devised the following beautiful method :—

(oe)
Putting e’=Z, we have O= ™\& 9,2?", where the quantities 6, are
g ys q
n=—CO

ee}
constants, Hill assumes that w is of the form w= > b,f°*?" and sub-

n=—-CO

stitutes this value of w in the differential equation. Since the whole
coefficient of each power of £ must now be zero, an infinite number of
equations are obtained, which involve the 6’s linearly ; on eliminating the
é’s a determinant with an infinite number of rows and columns (an idea
first introduced by Kotteritzsch in 1870) is obtained, which involves only
¢ and the known quantities 6,. This determinant, equated to zero,
furnishes the value of c, and consequently the motion of the lunar
perigee.

The convergence of the infinite determinant was not considered by
Hill ; this gap in the work was filled by Poincaré ' in 1886.

Hill’s paper was reprinted,’ with some additions, in 1886.

In 1877, Adams,’ referring to Hill’s paper, remarks that he had himself,
many years previously, investigated the motion of the moon’s node by a
method similar to that used by Hill for the perigee, and had found the
same infinite determinant.

Tn 1878 Hill4 published in a more complete form the derivation of the
periodic solution, which in its character of intermediate orbit had been
the foundation of his previous paper. The solution is found by actually
substituting, in the differential equations of the restricted problem of
three bodies, expansions of the desired form with undetermined coefticients ;
these coefficients are then determined as functions of a parameter m, which
depends on the ratio which the period of the periodic solution bears to
the period of revolution of the two principal masses round each other, 2.e.
on the ratio of the mean motions of the sun and moon. By varying m,
different periodic solutions are obtained ; the last one of Hill’s solutions
(the orbit of maximum lunation) has cusps at the points where the elonga-
tion from the sun is a right angle.

Hill’s work soon led to further developments. In 1883-4 Poincaré,’
using a theorem due to Kronecker in the general theory of functions,

1 ‘Sur les déterminants d’ordre infini, Bulletin de la Soc. Math. de France,
xiv. pp. 77-90.

2 On the part of the motion of the Lunar Perigee, which is a function of the mean
motions of the Sun and Moon,’ Acta Math. viii. pp. 1-36.

3 ‘On the motion of the Moon’s Node in the case when the orbits of the Sun and
Moon are supposed to have no eccentricities, and when their mutual inclination is
supposed to be indefinitely small, Monthly Notices, Roy. Ast. Soc. vol. xxxviii.

. 43-9.
he. ‘Researches in the Lunar Theory,’ Amer. Journ. Math. i. pp. 5-27, 129-48,
245-61.

> «Sur certaines sclutions particuliéres du probléme des trois corps,’ C. 2. xevil.

pp. 251-2; Bull, Aste. i, pp. 65-74.

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES. 1338

proved the existence of an infinite number of periodic solutions in the
general problem of three bodies; and in 1887 Bohlin ! applied an idea of
Hill’s (viz. using the Jacobian integral to separate off regions of space
into which the moon cannot enter) to a more general class of dynamical
problems. In the same year (1887) Hill ? discussed the different systems
of variables which might be employed in solving a system somewhat more
general than the restricted problem of three bodies, namely, that of a
particle of zero mass, attracted by two bodies which move in Keplerian
ellipses round their common centre of gravity.

Poincaré’s* memoirs of 1881-6 on curves defined by differential
equations lead to one result of importance in Dynamical Astronomy. In
order that the system of » bodies may be stable, two conditions must be
fulfilled : firstly, the mutual distances must always remain within certain
limits ; and, secondly, if the system has a definite configuration at any
instant, it must be possible to find a subsequent instant at which the
configuration differs from this as little as we please. It follows from the
investigations of this series of memoirs that, if the first of these conditions
is satisfied, the second is also.

In 1883 Lindstedt * resumed the consideration of the problem which
had been treated by Newcomb nine years before, namely, the expression of
the coordinates in the problem of three bodies as trigonometric series,
whose arguments are linear functions of the time. A fuller account ° of
the work was published in 1884. The author starts from the equations of
Lagrange’s ‘ Essai sur le probléme des trois corps’ ; the system is reduced
to four different equations, each of the second order ; and these are solved
by successive approximation. After the rth approximation has been
effected, the (r+1)th approximation is obtained by solving four linear
non-homogeneous differential equations with constant coefficients. This
ean be done by known methods ; but if the solution is carried out in the
usual way, termg will arise in which the time ¢ occurs as a factor (these
are the ‘secular terms’ of the old planetary theory). Lindstedt therefore
modifies the equations in accordance with a method indicated by himself
in a previous paper,® and obtains a solution in which ¢ occurs only in the
arguments of trigonometric functions. It thus appears that the mutual
distances of the three bodies can be expressed as trigonometric series of
four arguments, each of which is a linear function of the time. The
defects of Lindstedt’s memoir in regard to convergence, &c., will be
noticed in connection with other papers.

A fresh proof of Lindstedt’s results was given by Tisserand’ in 1884-5,

' ‘Ueber die Bedeutung des Princips der lebendigen Kraft fiir die Frage von der
Stabilitit dynamischer Systeme,’ Acta Math. x. pp. 109-30.

? *Coplanar Motion of two Planets, one having a Zero Mass,’ Annals of Math.
iii. pp. 65-73.

* «Sur les courbes définies par les équations différentielles’; Ziowville (3) vii.
pp. 375-422 ; (3) viii. pp. 251-96 ; (4) i. pp. 167-244; (A) ii. pp. 151-217.

* «Sur la forme des expressions des distances mutuelles dans le probléme des
trois corps,’ C. R. xlvii. pp. 1276-8, 1353-5; ‘Ueber die Bestimmung der gegen-
seitigen Entfernungen in dem Probleme der drei Kérper,’ Astr. Nachr. cvii.
pp. 197-214.

5 « Sur la détermination des distances mutuelles dans le probléme des trois corps,’
Annales de V Ecole Norm. (3) i. pp. 85-102.

° «Beitrag zur Integration der Differentialgleichungen der Stérungstheorie,
Mémoires de ? Acad. de Saint-Pétersbourg, xxxi. No. 4.

7 «Note sur un théoréme de M. A. Lindstedt concernant le probléme des trois
corps, C. &. xcviii. pp. 1207-13; ‘ Mémoire sur le probléme des trois corps, Annales
de lv Observatoire de Paris, Mémoires, xviii.

134. REPORT—1899,

on the lines of Delaunay’s lunar theory ; Tisserand extended Lindstedt’s
theorem, and in 1887 Lindstedt! showed how this extension could be
derived from his own original paper. An imperfection in Lindstedt’s
first paper was removed by Poincaré? in 1886, who, by an ingenious
application of Green’s theorem, proved that only one secular term appears
in each of Lindstedt’s approximations, and that this can always be
removed.

In 1889 Poincaré* gave a fresh method of derivation for Lindstedt’s
series, by transforming the Gyldén-Lindstedt differential equation into a
Hamiltonian system of the fourth order, replacing this by the corre-
sponding Hamilton-Jacobi partial differential equation, and solving the
latter by a series proceeding in ascending powers of a small parameter,
the coefticients being trigonometric series of two arguments. Poincaré
observes, however, that in the problem of three bodies this method will
not apply if Kepler’s ellipse is taken as the first approximation, and
consequently another intermediary orbit must be used.

The number of independent arguments required in order to express
the coordinates in the problem of 7 bodies, without having the time out-
side trigonometric functions, was shown by Harzer* in 1889 to be
3(n—1).

The question of the convergence of sums of periodic terms, such as are
obtained in Lindstedt’s expansions, had now become a matter of prime
importance, Poincaré? in 1882-4 showed, firstly, that if such a series is
absolutely convergent for certain values of the time, it is so for all values
of the time ; and, secondly, that a function cannot be represented by two
different absolutely convergent series of this kind. Further, a function
represented by such a series can assume indefinitely great values if the
convergence is not uniform. In a further note ° in 1885, he showed that
this can happen in two ways: either the function may steadily increase,
or its value may oscillate, the amplitude of the oscillations increasing
indefinitely. Bruns‘ in 1884 further discussed the series of Dynamical
Astronomy : as these are usually obtained by the integration of trigono-
metric series, it follows that the coefficients of those terms whose periods
are very long will be affected by very small divisors. Bruns shows that
this causes the series to fluctuate between convergence and divergence,
when the constants, on which the coefficients of the time in the arguments
depend, are altered in value by small amounts.

Features of special interest present themselves in the planetary theory
when the periods of two planets are very nearly commensurate with each
other. In this case some of the inequalities of long period rise to im-
portance; thus, in the theory of Jupiter and Saturn an inequality with
a period of 900 years has a large coefficient; the grandeur of this
coefficient is due to the fact that its denominator contains a factor

1 ¢Ueber ein Theorem des Herrn Tisserand aus der St6rungstheorie,’ Acta Math.
x. pp. 381-4.

2 «Sur une méthode de M. Lindstedt, Bull. Astr. iii. pp. 57-61.

3 ‘Sur les séries de M. Lindstedt,’ C. R. eviii. pp. 21-4.

4 ‘Ueber die Argumente des Problems der m-K6rper,’ Astr. Nach. cxx. pp.
193-218.

5 ‘Sur les séries trigonométriques,’ C.R. xcv. pp. 766-8, xcvii. pp. 1471-3; ‘Sur la
convergence des séries trigonométriques,’ Bull. Astr. i. pp. 319-27.

6 «Sur les séries trigonométriques,’ C. #. ci. p. 131.

7 *Bemerkungen zur Theorie der allgemeinen Stérungen,’ Ast. Nach. cix. pp.
215-22

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES, 155

5n—2n’ (where 7 and 7/ are the mean motions of Saturn and Jupiter),
and this factor is very small, on account of the approximate commensura-
bility of m and n’. In certain cases (called librations) the commensura-
bility is exact ; thus a linear relation exists between the mean motions of
three of Jupiter's satellites.

Tisserand ! in 1887 applied Delaunay’s method of integration to dis-
cuss the effect of approximate commensurability, showing that commen-
surability is not inconsistent with the stability of the system.

Bohlin 2 in 1888-9 gave a new method for treating the cases in which
terms with small divisors appear likely to endanger the convergence, He
considers the equation

Os =—3iBy sin (ju),
where the coefficients (,; are of the order of the disturbing masses and
form an absolutely convergent series, and where the independent variable
w is, in the applications to the planetary theory, a multiple of the time,
ia

If in this equation we write w= — 2, om =—p,, we have
ae dw dp F Sarna) ps
; apy agate Bt as —Xif3,, sin (7%¢—jw),

which we can write

i is pe et) edly DOM ipods Oh
dx tp, dx cp, da of’ dx dw’

where
H=}p,?—p.—/,; cos (if —jw).

The solution of this Hamiltonian canonical system depends in the
ordinary way on the solution of the Hamilton-Jacobi partial differential
equation

sV\2__8V
This is now replaced by the equation

Ov Non JON

in order to mark the fact that g and the f’s are small (in the applications
x* is the mass of the disturbing body) ; and Bohlin integrates this equa-
tion by expanding V as a power-series in x,

V=VotcV, te?7Vo+ Ce

It is found that the occurrence of small divisors can be avoided in the
series which represent the quantities V,, and hence the original difliculty
would appear to have been removed, It is, however, possible that large

1 ‘Sur la commensurabilité des moyens mouvements dans le systéme solaire,’
C. R. civ. pp. 259-65 ; Bull. Astr. iv. pp. 183-92.

2 ‘Ueber eine neue Anniherungsmethode in der Stirungstheorie, Bihang till
Kgl. Svenska Vet.-ak. Handlingar, xiv. No. 5; ‘Zur Frage der Convergenz der
Reihenentwickelungen in der Stérungstheorie,’ Ast. Nach. cxxi. pp. 17-24.

136 REPORT-—1899,

numerators may occur, and so the question of convergence is not definitely
settled.

The above expansion in powers of « is noticeably similar to that of
Poincaré.

SIV. Memoirs of 1868-89 on the Absence of Terms of certain Classes
from the Infinite Series which Represent the Solution.

The distinction between the secular and periodic inequalities of the
elliptic elements of a planet’s orbit has already been explained. Laplace
in 1773 showed that one of these elements—the mean distance or semi-
major axis of the orbit—has no secular inequalities at all, when terms of
higher orders than the first powers of the masses and the squares of the
eccentricities and inclinations are neglected. Lagrange in 1776 proved
that this result still holds when all powers of the eccentricities and
inclinations are taken into account ; and in 1808 Poisson showed that it
is still true when terms involving squares of the masses are included in
the calculations.

In the period under review, Tisserand ! in 1875-6 simplified Poisson’s
proof by using the transformation of Jacobi and Radau, thus reducing the
problem of three bodies to a system of the twelfth order, depending on a
single perturbing function.

In 1874-5, Mathieu? extended the discussion so as to include terms
multiplied by the cubes of the masses. He first, by using Jacobi’s sub-
stitution, replaces the sun and three planets by three fictitious planets
moving round a fixed centre ; the orbits of these bodies are homothetic
with the actual orbits, and consequently the study of the variations of the
mean distances in the fictitious orbits will give the required results. The
author then, by developing the disturbing function as far as terms of the
third order in the masses, shows that the reciprocals of the mean distances
have no secular variations of this order.

In 1877 Haretu * published an extract from a memoir 4 which appeared
in 1883. He uses the transformation by which Tisserand had, in 1875,
simplified Poisson’s work, and discusses a memoir published in 1816, in
which Poisson believed he had proved the non-existence of secular terms
in the mean distances, of the third order in the perturbing masses, when
the variations of the elements of the disturbed planet only were taken
into account. Haretu shows that Poisson had overlooked a certain class
of terms, and proves that secular inequalities arise from these terms,
which are not ultimately cancelled ; and hence that the theorem of the
invariability of the mean distances holds only to terms of the second order
in the disturbing masses. Haretu, however, does not give the explicit
analytical expression of the third order terms in the secular inequalities.

1 «Mémoire sur un point important de la théorie des perturbations planétaires,’
Mémoires de lV’ Académie de Toulouse (7) vii. pp. 374-88 ;y Annales de U'Ecole Norm.
Sup. (2) vii. pp. 261-74 (merely a reprint); ‘Note sur l’invariabilité des grands
axes des orbites des planétes,’ C. R. Ixxxii. pp. 442-5.

2 ‘Mémoire sur les inégalités séculaires des grands axes des orbites des planétes,’
C. R., xxix. pp. 1045-9; Crelie, xxx. pp. 97-127.

8 «Sur Vinvariabilité des grands axes des orbites planétaires,’ C. R. lxxxv. pp.
504-6.

4 «Sur Vinvariabilité des grands axes des orbites planétaires,’ Annales de U’ Obs. de
Paris, Mémoires, xviii. (39 pp.).

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES. 137

In 1889, Eginitis! gave the analytical expression for those secular
inequalities of the mean distances which are of the third order in the dis-
turbing forces. After showing that they can arise only from a term

1 /(3B" ,\*
nai ( “Ot at) j

ut
where = denotes the aggregate of terms of the first and second order,

he finds [ae by substituting the ordinary development of the disturb-

ing function, squares it, and shows that secular inequalities arise from the
multiplication of terms with the same arguments. He further shows that
these secular inequalities are periodic, though their period is very long.

The transition from the old planetary theory, with its secular and
periodic inequalities, to the new Dynamical Astronomy, in which all terms
are periodic, had its effect on theorems such as that now under considera-
tion. Tisserand ? in 1888 gave the new formulation of the theorem of the
invariability of the mean distances, when the solution of the problem of
three bodies is expressed as in Delaunay’s lunar theory. He shows that
the theorem does not hold when terms of the order of the fourth power of
the ratio of the mean motions are taken into account, and for the general
problem of three bodies confirms Haretu’s result that the theorem does
not hold for terms of the order of the cube of the disturbing forces.

In 1878 Adams? published some curious results relating to one of the
expansions in the lunar theory. Let e¢ be the eccentricity of the lunar
orbit, and let y be the sine of half the inclination of the moon’s orbit to
the ellipse ; these quantities are supposed defined as in Delaunay’s
theory : let n be the moon’s mean motion, (1—c)n the mean motion of the
lunar perigee, (I—g)n the mean motion of the moon’s node, a the mean

distance, and 7 the radius vector. Then the non-periodic part of < can

be expanded in the form
A+ Be?+Cy?+ Ee! + 2Fe?y?+Gyi+...

where A, B, C...are functions of the solar eccentricity and of the
ratio of the mean motions of the sun and moon ; similarly the terms in
¢ which involve e? and y? can be denoted by He?+ Ky’, and the similar
terms in g by Me?+Ny?.

Then Adams’s theorems are that

B=0, C=0, EK—FH=0, FN—GM=0.

These results are all obtained by one process, which for the case of the
first may be thus described : consider two moons, of which the orbit of one
has no eccentricity or inclination, and the orbit of the other has no inclina-
tion. It is proved that a certain function of the coordinates of the two
moons is purely periodic ; and it is shown that this requires the vanishing
of the quantity B.

1 ‘Sur la stabilité du systéme solaire,’ C. R. cviii. pp. 1156-9; ‘ Mémoires sur la
stabilité du systéme solaire,’ Annales de l’ Obs. de Paris, Mémoires, xix.

? «Sur un point de la théorie de la Lune,’ C. R. evi. pp. 788-93.

* Note on a remarkable property of the analytical expression for the constant
term in the reciprocal of the moon’s radius vector,’ Monthly Notices, Roy. Astro. Soc,
xxxviii. pp. 460-72,

138 REPORT—1899,

§ V. Gyldén’s Theory of Absolute Orbits.

In 1881 Hugo Gyldén, Director of the Observatory at Stockholm, began
the publication of a new method for calculating the motions of the
heavenly bodies. The method has been made of practical importance by
its application, in the hands of Gyldén’s pupils, to the minor planets, and
is of theoretical interest from the fact that (as in Delaunay’s, Newcomb’s,
and Lindstedt’s memoirs) the time appears only in the arguments of
periodic terms. In this report it seems best to give, first of all, a general
account of the method, and then briefly to notice the series of memoirs in
which Gyldén and his pupils have developed it.

Consider, then, a system consisting of the sun and two planets. For
convenience one of these will be spoken of as the distwrbed and the other
as the disturbing planet. At any instant the motion of the disturbed
planet is taking place in a certain (moving) plane, which passes through
the sun; this we can call the plane of its instantaneous orbit ; in this
plane we take (as an axis from which to measure angles) a line which
moves with the plane in such a way that the surface formed by the
motion of the line always cuts the plane orthogonally. The angle between
this line and the radius vector to the planet can be called the planet’s
true longitude, and denoted by v ; the radius vector from the sun to the
planet will be denoted by +.

The quantities 7, v are given by differential equations of the form

af ,dv\ 4-60 aa S M_wy cQ
di (" a )aMae Bush ap TN ge (i aaah?

where © (which is called the disturbing function) is supposed to be
expressed in terms of 7, v, and the quantities which define the moving
plane and the position of the disturbing planet, and where M is the sum
of the masses of the sun and the disturbed body. .

Let the perpendicular distance of the disturbed body from some fixed
plane be zr. Then the third differential equation of the disturbed body’s
motion may be written in the form

2 >
aa + Mzr=a function of the positions of the planets.

Now introduce new variables p, n, 8 connected with the old variables
by the relations

_2(1—n?) pd? — \Ma(1— n?)}}

hos seer dt hee ary

where @ is a constant called the protometer, as yet undetermined ; as there
are only two conditions here to determine the three quantities p, n, S we
can impose another condition later.

The equations for » and v now transform into

oA DB og431_lb an?
1+Sdv — ‘eae 5 serra dv

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE RODIES, 159

and
Pep {tg tt csne} Laas cs
— {aes aoe tap (as) Py Cae OO
where
Par a= aay a

Also, the equation in x can be written

az 4 dz ‘
Oe 4 2 — (148)Q0 +(148)a%,
dv? dv
where Z, is a certain function of the positions of the planets.

Now let us consider the form in which Gyldén wishes to express the
solution of these equations.

The differential equations will finally be solved by means of sums of
periodic terms whose arguments are linear functions of v; these terms
may be classified in the following way :—

Firstly, there will be terms which vanish altogether when the dis-
turbing mass is put equal to zero ; these are called coordinated terms, and
correspond to the ‘ periodic inequalities’ of the classical planetary theory.

Secondly, there will be terms which, when the disturbing mass is put
equal to zero, do not vanish, but coalesce with the terms which represent
the Keplerian elliptic motion of the disturbed planet round the sun.
These terms involve the disturbing mass in their arguments, but not in
their coefficients ; they are called elementary terms, and correspond to the
‘secular inequalities’ of the classical planetary theory. Terms will also
occur in the course of Gyldén’s process which involve the disturbing mass
in the denominator of their coefficients, and so would become infinite if
the disturbing mass were put equal to zero; these are called hyper-
elementary, and it is shown that they do not appear in the final result.
And, lastly, we have already seen that when the periods of two planets
are nearly commensurable, certain terms of long period rise to importance ;
these are called the semi-elementary or characteristic terms for the planet
under discussion.

The quantity p, as already defined, will be composed of both elementary
and coordinated terms. Let (p) denote the elementary terms, and let R
denote the coordinated terms, so

p=(0) +R.
Jt will appear that p is of the form

ea)
(p)=« cos {@! ie c)v —T} + poe cos {1 ee c,)v— Let 5)

n=1
where « (called the diastemmatic modulus) and T (called the longitude of
the absolute perihelion at the origin of time) are two of the six constants of
integration of the problem, «, and T, are functions of the constants of
integration, and ¢ and ¢, are small constant quantities of the order of the
perturbing forces,

140 REPORT— 1899,

We can now define 7 ; let

n cos r=K cos '+ 3x, cos {(c—c,) v—T,}
n sin w= sin '— 3x, sin {(¢c—c,) v—T,}.

Thus 7 contains only elementary terms, and
(e)=n cos {(1—c)v—7}.

n is called the diastemmatic function, and (l—c)v—7z is called the dia-
stemmatic argument.

If in the expressions for the coordinates we strike out all the co-
ordinated terms, leaving only those which are elementary, these modified
expressions for the coordinates will define a new orbit, which will be so
near to the true orbit that the difference between them will be only cf the
same order of magnitude as the disturbing forces. This new orbit may be
called the absolute orbit. The radius vector in the absolute orbit (r) is
thus defined by

a(1—n?)
a =~
*) 1+(e) °
The variable z can be divided into two parts just as p was; thus
2=(z)+Z,

where (z) contains all the elementary terms ; (x) is of the form
loa)
(z)=7 sin {(1+7r)v—O} + >i. sin {(1+7,)v—9,}
n=1

where 7 (called the anastemmatic modulus) and © (called the longitude
of the absolute node) are two more of the six constants of integration of
the problem, and r, ¢,, 7,, ©, are constants depending on them. If this
be written in the form

(z)=J sin {((1+7)v—0}.

J is called the anastemmatic function, and (1+7)v—Q is called the
anastemmatic argument.

Gyldén (who, however, is not in this particular followed by his pupil
Harzer) further introduces a quantity ¢ called the reduced time, which is
defined by the equation

df at (1—n?)},
dv M? {1+( i 2

and a quantity c

W therefore satisfies the differential equation

nie 148
a =o Hy pee ies

the integration of this will clearly introduce another arbitrary constant,

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES, 141

which will be denoted by A, and will be called the absolute longitude, or
mean longitude for t=0.

The six arbitrary constants which have now been defined are the
elements which fix the absolute orbit of the disturbed body, namely, A
(the absolute longitude), (the longitude of the absolute perihelion), ©
(the longitude of the absolute node), a (the protometer), « (the diastem-
matic modulus), and 7 (the anastemmatic modulus).

Having now described the form in which the solution is to be obtained,
we can resume the consideration of the differential equations.

First, we have to expand in a suitable way the disturbing function 0
and the quantities P and Q. This is effected by means of infinite series,
each term of which consists of a product of powers of the various small
quantities such as 7, multiplied by a trigonometrical function of the
longitude.

Next, we have to substitute these expansions in the differential equations
for p, s, and W, and integrate these equations.

The equations for p and 8 are respectively of the forms

dp ae era)
7,3 t(1—B)ps= 3a, cos (ww By),

dS as ?
= b, cos (A,V—/3,);

where the quantities A, are constants, but the quantities a,, b,, (,, contain
the unknown variables. These equations are solved by processes of suc-
cessive approximation ; only those terms are initially retained which have
a considerable effect, and in this way the elementary part (p) is determined.
A feature of Gyldén’s treatment of equations such as that given above for
p is the use of the horistic function, which is a modification of the term
containing the first power of the dependent variable, and is designed to
ensure the convergence of the approximations.

We may regard the arbitrary constants « and Tas arising from the
integration of the equation in p, i and 0 as arising from that in z, a as
arising from that in 8, and A as arising from that in W.

The principal papers in which Gyldén’s theory has been developed will
now be briefly noticed. In 1881 Gyldén published three short papers ! in
French and German, and three long memoirs in Swedish.? The deriva-
tion of the differential equations of the first Swedish memoir was simplified
by Backlund 3 and Callandreau.!

Further notes and criticisms on the early part of the theory of
intermediate orbits were given in 1882 by Thiele® and Radau.® The

1 «Sur la théorie du mouvement des corps célestes,’ @. R. xcii. pp. 1262-5; ‘ Sur
lintégration d’une équation différentielle linéaire du deuxiéme ordre dont dépend
l'évection,’ C. R. xciii. pp. 127-31 ; ‘ Ueber die Theorie der Bewegungen der Himmels-
k6rper,’ Ast. Nach. c. p. 97.

* ‘Undersékningar af theorien for himlakropparnas rorelser,’ Bihang till K. Sv.
Vet.-ak. Handlingar, vi. and vii. I wish gratefuily to record my obligations to Mr.
W. F. Sedgwick, late Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, who has kindly placed
at my disposal a manuscript English translation of the Undersékningar, with many
corrections of his own.

8 « Ableitung von Professor Gyldén’s Differentialgleichungen fiir die intermediire
Bewegung,’ Asi. Nach. ci. pp. 19-22; Professor Gyldén’s ‘Neue Untersuchungen iiber
die Theorie der Bewegung der Himmelsk6rper,’ Copernicus, ii.

‘ «Sur la théorie du mouvement des corps célestes,’ C. #. xciii. pp. 779-81.

° ‘Ueber Professor Gyldén’s intermediiire Bahnen,’ Ast. Nach. cii. pp. 65-70.

® «Sur un pojnt de la théorie des perturbations,’ C. RB. xcy. pp. 117-20.

142 REPORT—1899.

notion of the absolute orbit and the definitions of elementary and co-
ordinated terms are introduced in the second part of the ‘ Undersékningar.’
Gyldén wrote another paper! on this in 1882, and in the same year dis-
cussed further? one of the differential equations of his theory of inter-
mediate orbits.

A long series of papers dealing with the processes for integrating
differential equations of the second order by successive approximation, and
with the convergence of the developments, was published? by Gyldén in
1882-96. On this see also Harzer.!

In 1885 Gyldén® and Shdanow® applied the theory of intermediate
orbits, which had been given in the ‘ Undersékningar,’ to the case of the
moon’s motion. The problem is made to depend on the solution of the
Gyldén-Lindstedt equation, and the results yield an approximation to the
motion of the perigee. Andoyer’ also applied Gyldén’s theory to the
moon in 1887 ; and Tisserand * in 1888 discussed the Gyldén-Lindstedt
equation, and applied his results to Andoyer’s equations.

Harzer ° in 1886 applied Gyldén’s ideas to the determination of the
motion of those of the minor planets (e.g. Hecuba) whose mean motion is
approximately twice as great as that of Jupiter. On account of this
approach to commensurability, some of the characteristic terms become
very important. Harzer modifies Gyldén’s original procedure in two
respects : firstly, in using the true longitude throughout as the independent
variable ; and, secondly, in abandoning the use of the ‘reduced time.

1 ‘Ueber die absoluten Elemente der Planeten-Bahnen,’ Ast. Nach. ciii. pp.
49-58.

2 «Sur l’équation différentielle qui donne immédiatement la solution du probléme
des trois corps jusqu’aux quantités de deuxiéme ordre inclusivement, C. R. xcv.

. 55-8.
- 3 *Hine Anna&herungsmethode im Probleme der drei Kérper, Acta Math. i.
pp. 77-92; ‘ Untersuchungen tiber die Convergenz der Reihen, welche zur Darstellung
der Coordinaten der Planeten angewendet werden,’ ibid. ix. pp. 185-294; ‘ Nouvelles
recherches sur les séries employées dans les théories des planétes,’ ibid. xv. pp.
65-189 ; xvii. pp. 1-168; ‘ Ueber die Convergenz einer in der St6rungstheorie vorkom-
menden Reihe,’ Ast. Wach. cxix. pp. 321-30; ‘ Bemerkungen tiber die Convergenz der
nach der Potenzen der stdrenden Krafte geordneten Anniiherungen im Stérungs-
problem,’ ibid. cxxi. pp. 80-94; ‘Sur une équation différentielle du second ordre, non
linéaire et a coefficients doublement périodiques,’ C. £. cxxii. pp. 160-5 ; ‘ Remarques
ultérieures relativement 4 ma derniére communication 4 M. Hermite,’ ibid. exxii.
pp. 585-8; ‘ Om bestiimningen af ojemnheter med mycket lang period i theorien for
planeters och satelliters rorelser, Ofversigt af Kongl. Vet.-ak. For. lii. pp. 419-32 ;
‘En transformation .af den differentialekvation, som bestiimmer ojemnheterna med
mycket langa periorder i en planets longitud,’ ibid. lii. pp. 503-6 ; ‘ Olika methoder att
bestiimma de horistika termerna i den differentialekvation, som férmedlar hiidled-
ningen af ojemnheterna ien planets longitud,’ ibid. liii. pp. 421-30.

+ ¢*QUeber eine Differentialgleichung der Stdrungstheorie,’ Ast. ach. ecxix.

. 273-94.
aks Sur l’orbite intermédiaire de la Lune,’ (. R. ci. pp. 223-6; ‘Die intermediire
Bahn des Mondes,’ Acta Math, vii. pp. 125-72.

6 Recherches sur le mouvement de la Lune autour de la Terre daprés la Théorie
de M. Gyldén, Stockholm, 1885.

7 ¢Contribution a la théorie des orbites intermédiaires,’ Annales de la Fac. des
Sc. de Toulouse, i.

* «Sur une équation différentielle du second ordre qui joue un réle important
dans la mécanique céleste,’ did, ii,

® *Untersuchuugen tber einen speciellen Fall des Problems der drei Kérper,’
Mémoires de Saint-Pétersbowrg, xxxiv. No. 12; ‘Quelques remarques sur un cas
spécial du probléme des trois corps,’ stronomiska Iakttagelser ooh Undersikningar
anstilda pa Stockholms Observatorium, iii. No. 4. y

?

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE bopiEs. 148

Some criticisms on Harzer’s paper (and also on Brendel’s paper of 1889)
were made by Charlier’ in 1890 ; and Harzer himself made some correc-
tions in 1891.2. Brendel? in 1887 derived Harzer’s equations as a special
case of Cyldén’s system.

After this several applications of Gyldén’s theories to definite cases
were published. Wellmann‘ in 1888 discussed the intermediate orbit of
Thetis, and Brendel ° in 1889 found the absolute orbit of planets of the
Hestia type, whose mean motion is approximately triple that of Jupiter.

Some developments useful in the theory were given in 1889 by Masal,"
and improvements in the integration of the equations were introduced by
Wolf? in 1890.

Backlund 8 in 1892 discussed by Gyldén’s methods the motion of the
group of small planets whose mean motion is approximately twice that of
Jupiter ; in distinction to Gyldén and Harzer he takes the time as the
independent variable. The same subject was treated by an improved
analysis in a number of papers’ published in 1897-8.

Researches in connection with the properties of series such as those
occurring in Gyldén’s work were published by Gyldén '? and Backlund !! in
1889, and by Olsson? in 1890 and 1891.

1 Vierteljahrsschrift der Astron. Gesells. xxv. p. 175.

2 «Berichtigung zur Abhandlung “ Untersuchungen tiber einen speciellen Fall des
Problems der drei Korper,”’ Ast. Wach. cxxvi. p. 399.

3 «Ueber einige in neuerer Zeit angewandte Formen fiir Differentialgleichungen
im Problem der drei Kérper,’ ibid. exvi. pp. 161-6.

4 «Die intermediire Bahn des Planeten @) Thetis nach Herrn Gyldéns Theorie,’

Archiv der Math. u. Physik (2) vi. pp. 353-91.
5*Om Anvindningen af den absoluta Stérungsteorien pa en Grupp af

sma planeterna, med numerisk Tillimpning pa Planeten | 46 ) Hestia,’ Astr. Zakttagelser

och Under. anst. pa Stockholms Obs. iv. No. 3 ; ‘ Sur les perturbations de la planéte

Hestia, d’aprés la théorie de M. Gyldén,’ C. &. cviii. pp. 49-51; Ueber die Anwendung
der Gyldén’schen absoluten Stirungstheorie auf die Breitenstorungen einer genissen
Klasse kleiner Planeten, Inaugural-Dissertation, Géttingen, 1890.

6 ‘Wormeln und Tafeln zur Berechnung der absoluten Storungen der Planeten,’
Kgl. Svenska Vet-ak. Handlingar, xxiii. No. 7.

7 Sur les termes élémentaires dans Vexpression dw rayon vectewr, Habilita-
tionsschrift, Stockholm, 1890.

8 « Ueber die Bewegung einer gewissen Gruppe der kleinen Planeten,’ Wémoires de
? Acad. de Saint-Pétersboury (7) xxxvili. No. 11.

9 *Ueber die Integration der Differentialgleichung des Radius vector einer
gewissen Gruppe der kleinen Planeten,’ Budletin de l’ Acad. de Saint-Pétershourg
(5) vi. pp. 311-19; ‘Sur la détermination des termes 4 longues périodes dans
expression de la longitude des petites planétes du type de Hécube,’ Bull. Astr.
xiv. pp. 321-4 ; ‘Deuxiéme méthode pour la détermination des termes a longues périodes
dans l’expression de la longitude des petites planétes du type de Hécube,’ ibid. xv.
pp. 5-9; ‘Formeln zur Berechnung angeniaherten Bahnen der kleinen Planeten vom

Hecuba-Typus, nebst ihrer Anwendung auf den Planeten (18s) Dejopeja,’ Astr.

Nach. exly. pp. 241-8; ‘ Ueber die Bewegung der kleinen Planeten des Hecuba-Typus,’
Mémoires de V Acad. de Saint-Pétersbourg (8) i.

10 * Sur les termes 6lémentaires dans les coordonnées d’une planéte,’ C. R. cviii.
pp. 79-82, 116-9; ‘Sur la représentation analytique des perturbations des planétes,’
ibid. cix. pp. 395-6.

1 «Ueber die Kleiner Divisoren bei den elementiiren Gliedern in der Theorie der
Planetenbewegungen,’ Astr. Nach. exxii. pp, 273-302.

12 ¢Bemerkungen tiber die Integrationsmethoden der Zeitreduction in der

144 REPORT—1899;

Gyldén in 1893 published the first volume of a work! which was
intended to furnish, in three volumes, a complete exposition of his theory
of absolute orbits. His death occurred in 1896 before the second volume
was ready, but it is expected that Dr. Backlund, who has charge of
Gyldén’s manuscript, will as far as possible carry out the original design.

Backlund ? in 1896 described a method, founded on Gyldén’s work,
for integrating the differential equation which determines the radius
vector in the case of minor planets whose mean motion is nearly twice that
of Jupiter. Brendel® in the same year discussed the relation of Gyldén’s
series to the gaps in the distribution of the minor planets; in 1897
Brendel‘ announced that he had found an improved process of integration,
and in 1898 the same author published the theoretical part > of a memoir
in which the motions of the minor planets are discussed by a modified
form of Gyldén’s process ; the second part, which is not yet published, is
to deal with definite applications to the solar system.

§ VI. Progress in 1890-8 of the Theories of §§ ILI. and IV.

A new impetus was given to Dynamical Astronomy in 1890 by the
publication of a memoir ® by Poincaré.
The first feature is the introduction of integral invariants. We can
regard a system of ordinary differential equations
May _

GH ee
"hai leider n

dt

as defining the totion of a point whose coordinates are (x, 22)... 2,)
in space of » dimensions. If now we consider a group of such points
which occupy » v-dimensional region Z, at the beginning of the motion,
they will at any subsequent time ¢ occupy a region Z. A v-ple integral
taken over ¢ is called an integral invariant if it has the same value at all
times ¢. Thus, in the motion of an incompressible fluid, the volume of
the fluid which was contained initially in any given region is an integral
invariant.

Poincaré gives a number of integral invariants which exist in particular
cases, and then proceeds to apply his results to the question of the stability
of the motion in the problem of three bodies. There are, he remarks, two
senses in which the word ‘stability’ may be taken. It may be taken to
mean that variations in the mean distances of the bodies are always
restrained within finite limits—Hill and Bohlin have proved that under

Gyldén’schen Theorie,’ Archiv f. Math.og Natur, Christiania, xiv. pp. 1-10 (1890) ;
‘Ueber die Convergenz der Annaherungen in der Gyldén’schen Storungstheorie,’ ibid.
pp. 232-9 ; ‘Untersuchung tiber eine Gruppe von langperiodisch elementiiren Gliedern
in der Zeitreduction,’ Bihang till k. Sv. Vet-ak. Handlingar, xvii. No. 4.

1 Traité analytique des orbites absolues des huit planétes principales, tome 1,
‘ Théorie générale des orbites absolues, Stockholm. :

2 ¢Sur Vintégration de Véquation différentielle du rayon vecteur d’un certain
groupe des petites planétes, C. R. cxxii. pp. 1103-7.

3 «Ueber die Liicken im System der Kleiner Planeten und iiber ein Integrations-
verfahren im Probleme der drei Korper,’ Ast. Nach. cxl. pp. 145-60.

4 «Ueber stabile und instabile Bewegungen in unserem Planetensystem,’
Jahresbericht der Deutscher Math. Verein, vi. pp. 123.

5 «Theorie der kleinen Planeten,’ erster Theil, Abhandlungen der Kin. Ges. der
Wiss. su Gottingen, Neue Folge, i. No. 2.

6 «Sur le probleme des trois corps et les équations de la dynamique,’ Acta Math,

sili. pp. 1-220.

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES. 145

certain conditions the motion in the restricted problem of three bodies is,
in this sense, stable,—or stability ' may be taken (as by Poisson) to mean
that the system is to pass infinitely often through positions as near as we
please to the initial position ; the intervening oscillations may be of any
magnitude.

The existence of asymptotic solutions (which will be explained later)
shows that an infinite number of particular solutions of the restricted
problem of three bodies exist, which are not stable in Poisson’s sense of the
word. But M. Poincaré now proves that there are also an infinite number
which are stable, and, further, that the former are the exception and the
latter are the rule, in the same sense as commensurable numbers are
the exception and incommensurable numbers are the rule. In other
words, the probability that the initial circumstances may be such as to
give rise to an unstable solution is zero.

The proof of this is made to depend on the following theorem ; when
the point (x, 2, .- + 2ny Yiy Yo +++ Yn) Moves so that its coordinates are
always finite, and the integral invariant

[aa re A eee ie

exists, then for every region 7) in space, however small this region may be,
there exist trajectories which pass through 7, an infinite number of times ;
and, in fact, those points of 7, which do not give rise to such trajectories
form a volume which is infinitely small compared with 7».

It is thus shown that, when the constant of relative energy in the
restricted problem of three bodies lies between certain limits, the motion
is stable not only in the sense of Hill and Bohlin, but in the sense of
Poisson ; the number of exceptional cases to which this law does not
apply being infinitely small in comparison with the number of orthodox
cases. The result is, however, not extended to the general problem of
three bodies.

The author next passes to the theory of periodic solutions.

Consider a system of differential equations

div, °
aoe G=lI, 2; eee 2);
where the X’s are functions of ~,, %,...,, and a parameter p;

X,, X,,...X, may also involve ¢, but if so they are supposed to be
periodic functions of ¢ with a period 27.
A periodic solution of these equations of period T is of the form

x=¢(t), (i=1, 2,... 7)

where the functions ¢ are such that ¢(¢+T)=¢,((t). (If x, is an angular
variable, this may become ¢,(¢+T)=9,(¢) +27, where 7 is an integer.)
The meaning of this for our purpose is, of course, that the relative
motion of the moving bodies repeats itself at regular intervals T of time.
Suppose that, for the value 0 of the parameter ,, these equations
admit of a periodic solution,

Hi—9,(t)y (G1, 2, . she 90)

1 A discussion of general definitions of stability is given in the second volume of
Klein and Sommerfeld’s Theorie des Kreisels.

. L

146 REPORT—1899.

the period being, for example, 27. The question is now propounded,
whether the system admits of periodic solutions differing but little from
this, when p has values which, though very small, are different from zero,
M. Poincaré finds the answer. By choosing, as initial values of the co-
ordinates, certain functions of p, it is in general possible to obtain such
periodic solutions.

It is further shown that as p varies, periodic solutions disappear im
pairs in the same way as the real roots of algebraic equations, This
happens when a certain functional determinant is zero.

Poincaré next proceeds to define the characteristic exponents of a
periodic solution.

Suppose that a periodic solution, as above, has been found. Consider
a motion differing but little from this, and defined by

x=o(t) +6: hoa teay tc W??),
where the quantities — are supposed to be so small that their squares and

products can be neglected.
Then to determine the £’s we have

ey. sip OG Wis tan ie
dt =XE, te,’ V—" ayeoae n).

As these are linear differential equations of a definite type, with
periodic coefficients, £; will be a sum of 7 quantities, each of the form >
e%'S,,, where the quantities S,, are periodic functions of ¢ with the same
period as ¢,(¢), and the ~ constants a, are the roots of a certain algebraical
equation.

The constants a are called the characteristic exponents of the periodic
solution. If they are purely imaginary the é’s will remain small, and the
periodic solution is stable ; if not, the solution is unstable.

If two of the characteristic exponents are equal, the form of the
solution is altered, as the terms of the form te“ now appear.

When the original equations have the Hamiltonian canonical form,
the characteristic exponents can be arranged in pairs, the exponents in
each pair being numerically equal, but of contrary signs. The 7 values of
a2 are called the coefficients of stability of the periodic solution considered ;
if they are all real, negative, and distinct there is stability. Whén the
Hamiltonian function does not involve ¢, one of the m coefficients of
stability is zero, so two of the characteristic exponents are zero.

The author now shows that the functional determinant already men-
tioned vanishes only when one of the characteristic exponents of the
original periodic solution is zero ; the theorem already given can thus be
put in the more precise form.

If a set of equations, which depend on a parameter p, admit of a peri-
odic solution when p=0, for which no one of the characteristic exponents is
zero, then they also admit of a periodic solution for small values of pu.

Poincaré then turns to the periodic solutions of the differential equa-
tions of dynamics. For greater definiteness, the system is supposed to
have three degrees of freedom ; the equations are taken in the form—

dx, oF dy;_ 6F

day OR ayy _ OF sg
aa ae Sa

and F is supposed to be a uniform function of the «’s and w’s independent

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES. 147

of ¢, and to be periodic in the y’s of period 27. F is further supposed to
depend on an arbitrary parameter p, and to be expansible in the form

FEFot+pF+ pF, + F3 +...

where F,) does not involve the quantities ¥.
When p=0, the equations can be integrated ; x), », «3 are in this case
constant, and

y=nti+w,, where n,=——?

0a

the quantities w, being arbitrary constants of integration. The solution

will be periodic if m,, ”,, 3 are commensurable with each other ; the
period T will then be the least common multiple of the quantities

oF,

“4

Qn Qe Dr
eee
N, Ny Ne

In general, it will be possible to choose 2, %, #3 so that 7), no, 5
may have any prescribed values—at least in some domain ; so that there
are co? periodic solutions, when p is zero.

The author next proceeds to investigate whether periodic solutions of
period T exist, when « is not zero. By a process of reasoning similar to
that used before, it is shown that, corresponding to any periodic solution
which exists when »=0, and whose constants satisfy certain conditions,
there exists in general a solution of period T when p has small values dif-
ferent from zero. The quantities x, and y;—,t can be expressed as series

of ascending powers of p, the coefficients in which are circular functions of
Int

pT and a method of forming these expansions is given.

The results are applied to the restricted problem of three bodies ; a
difficulty arises, which in this case is solved by asimple artifice, but which
is not so easily disposed of in the general problem of three bodies.

Still considering the dynamical system with three degrees of freedom,
Poincaré considers a solution

U=P(t)+E, Yi=v(t)+n,
differing but little from a periodic solution, and writes
E=e'S;,, ne 'T,,

where §; and T; are periodic functions of ¢.

When the periodic solution corresponds to »=0, the six exponents a
are all zero ; when p is not zero it is shown that the quantities a, S,, and
T; are expansible in ascending powers (not of p, but) of Wp. It is shown
that to every set of values of m, and n,. there correspond at least one
stable and one unstable periodic solution ; and that there are exactly as
many stable solutions as unstable when , is sufficiently small.

The next idea to be introduced is that of asymptotic solutions. Re-
turning to the general system

BX, Gest Fem)

let Ate

v t

L2

148 REPORT—1899.

define a known periodic solution.
Put w=, +E,

The system now becomes a set of m equations to determine the é’s ; if
these are solved on the supposition that squares and products of the és
can be neglected, the solution is of the form

E,= Aye"); + Ace™ poi + eee $A,67ntbyis

where the A’s are constants of integration, the a’s are the characteristic
exponents, and the ¢’s are periodic functions of ¢. In order to solve the
equations when products of the 2’s are not neglected, assume

E= bit Mbait «++ EM Pri

The equations determining the 7’s can now be written down ; it is
proved that they can be solved by assuming each of the quantities 7 to be
a series of ascending powers of A,e™’, A,e™,...A,e; the <A’s being
constants of integration, and the coefticients being periodic functions of ¢.

In general, some of the quantities a will have their real parts negative.
The other a’s can be got rid of in the expression for £ by taking the cor-
responding A’s to be zero. Then, when ¢ increases indefinitely, €; will
diminish indefinitely ; in other words, the solutions thus obtained approxi-
mate more and more closely to the original periodic solution as the time_
increases ; they are called asymptotic solutions.

Similarly, another class of solutions can be obtained which differ widely
from the periodic solution when t=-+0co, but approximate to it for
t=—co, These form a second kind of asymptotic solutions.

In the case n=2, the solution can be represented by the locus of a
point whose coordinates are

ecost, e = sint, a.

Tf the solution is periodic, this locus is a closed curve in space, and
the solutions asymptotic to it are represented by curves asymptotic to this
curve. The aggregate of these asymptotic curves is called an asymptotic
surface ; there will of course be two asymptotic surfaces corresponding
to t=co and t=—co respectively, and each of them passes through the
periodic curve,

M. Poincaré then discusses the case in which the original equations

ey ee ee et)

contain a parameter p. It is shown that, when the X’s and the
characteristic exponents a of the periodic solution are expansible in
powers of », the coordinates of a point describing an asymptotic solution
can also be expressed as series of ascending powers of p.

The theory of asymptotic solutions is then specially developed for
the differential equations of dynamics. The system is taken in the form
oF dy; oF

been =— I=1, 2,...
di ty? dé &x; caso

where F is expansible in powers of p.
It has already been shown that the characteristic exponents a are ©

developable in powers of /p, and are all zero when p=0. It is now

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES. 149

proved that series can be found which proceed in ascending powers of the

quantities /p, A,e™, e-1, and ev, and satisfy formally the differential
equations which must be satisfied by the coordinates in an asymptotic
solution ; but that these series are not convergent.

The series in question belong, in fact, to that important class of
developments which are now called Asymptotic Expansions ; of which
the best-known examples are Stirling’s series for the ['-function,

r@)= omieiie At

and the so-called ‘semiconvergent’ expansions for the Bessel functions
and Riemann’s -function. An example given by M. Poincaré is the
function

F Ww — . wu —
( » #) DF +n

This series converges uniformly when p is positive and|w| <w, where
Wy is a positive quantity less than unity. If F (w, ») is developed in
ascending powers of p, it becomes

Dour —n)Pp.

This series does not converge, but is an asymptotic expansion ; that
is to say, if ¢, denote the sum of those terms for which the index of p is
not greater than p, the quantity

F(w, 1) =,
a oer Ek

tends to zero as p takes a sequence of positive values tending to zero.
The series thus represents the function F(w, ,) for small values of p in
the same way as Stirling’s series represents the I-function for large
values of z. The series found in this section are of the same character,
regarded as functions of »/ for small values of p.

Passing in the second part of the memoir to the special discussion of a
dynamical system with two degrees of freedom, the author studies the
asymptotic surfaces, which have already been defined. An infinite
number of doubly asymptotic solutions is shown to exist ; these belong at
the same time to both of the classes of asymptotic solutions, 7.e. they are
approximately periodic when t= —oo and t=co, but are not periodic in
the meantime.

Poincaré next discusses periodic solutions of the second kind. Suppose
that a set of periodic solutions of the kind already discussed is known,
the expressions for the coordinates being expansible in ascending powers
of px. Let po be a definite value of ». In certain cases there exists a set
of periodic solutions, in which the expressions for the coordinates are
expansible in ascending powers of (u—j1)’. These are called periodic
solutions of the second kind. Their period is approximately a multiple of
the period of the solution from which we started. When ;: >, there are
two of these solutions of the second kind corresponding to each value of j ;
when p=p they coalesce into a single solution of the first kind, namely,
the member for p= , of the set of solutions from which we started ; when
<p they are imaginary,

150 REPORT—1899.

Poincaré now goes on to discuss the question of the convergency of
Lindstedt’s series. He takes the differential equations in the form
da,__6F

dx, _«F dy, oF dy, _¢F
Gi tye. Or. ey, at ca, dt ex,

where
F=K)+ B F,

and F, is a function of #, and a, only. The a’s and y’s are regarded as
functions of w, and w,, where

Wy=AjyE+H,, Wy=ob +a,
and where

«=0
qd
Y= t SY: 7 (== 10 2)
, <1
A= pe AL |
«=0

The author sketches Lindstedt’s result, that the constants \* can be so
determined that these expressions for x, and y; (in which x and y; are
periodic functions of w, and w,) may formally satisfy the above differential
equations, with an error of the order p**’.

The series are first assumed to be uniformly convergent ; and it is
shown that if this assumption were true, all the characteristic exponents
of the periodic solutions (which arise when \, is commensurable with i.)
would be zero. Since this is not the case, the assumption must be false ;
and thus the result is obtained, that Lindstedt’s series do not converge
uniformly for all values of the arbitrary constants of integration which
they contain.

The author next discusses the nature of the integrals of the differential
equations, other than those integrals which are already known.

The system

Oa, aN. diy. OW on peta
di dy, dt éx, Geraied

has an integral
F(x, %o; Yi, Yo) = constant.
Suppose, if possible, that another integral exists of the form
(x), La, Yi, Yo) = constant,

where ¢ is a uniform analytic function of p, 7, %, Y\, 2, and is periodic
in y, and ys, of period 27. It is proved that in this case the equations

6F _OF oF oF
8a, da _ oy) dy.

must be satisfied at all points of all periodic solutions. It is then further

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES, 151

shown that these equations must be satisfied identically ; thus ¢ is a
function of F, and so the two integrals » and F are not distinct.

Hence the result. The system possesses no integral (other than the
integral F), which is a uniform analytic function Of 21, Loy Yi. Yo: » for
all values of y, and yo, for small values of », and for values of w, and x,
contained within certain limits, and which is periodic in y, and 7.

This forms an important complement to Bruns’s result, which will be
reviewed in the next section of this report.

The last section of Poincaré’s memoir is occupied with the extension
of the results, which have been obtained for systems with two degrees of
freedom, to more general systems, i.e. to the problem of m bodies.

Poincaré’s paper gave a fresh stimulus to the investigation of periodic
solutions. In 1890 v. Haerdtl! calculated numerically two cases of the
restricted problem of three bodies. Charlier? in 1892 discussed the same
cases by means of expansions proceeding in ascending powers of the time,
and the same author? in 1893 found a set of periodic solutions of the
problem of three bodies in a plane, whose expansion involves four arbi-
trary constants ; the mutual distances of the bodies are given as series of

ascending powers of a quantity

{a? + a? — 2a’ cos (dt + «)},

the coefficients in the series being constants.

Callandreau‘ in 1891 discussed the equations which lead by successive
approximations to solutions differing but little from periodic solutions.

Lord Kelvin * in 1892 traced by graphic methods a looped orbit, which
may be regarded as a continuation of the set of periodic solutions which
Hill believed to be terminated by the moon of maximum lunation.

Coculesco ® in 1892 proved the stability (in both Hill’s and Poisson’s
senses) of the motion in one of the cases treated by v. Haerdtl. The
motion of the same system, under fresh conditions of projection, was
investigated in 1894 by Burrau? ; in the second paper he considers those
purely libratory motions in which the zero particle does not, in the rela-
tive movement, circulate round either of the other bodies, and finds that
the series of solutions is terminated by an orbit of ejection, in which the
zero particle starts from a collision with one of the other bodies. These
libratory orbits were further discussed in 1895 by Thiele,’ and (by use of
Poincaré’s theory) by Perchot ? and Mascart.

1 ©Skizzen zu einen speciellen Fall des Problems der drei Kérper, Abhand. der
K. Bayer. Ak. in Miinehen, xvii. pp. 589-644.

2 «Studier dfver tre-kroppar-problemet,’ Bihang till K. Sv. Vet.-ak. Handlingar,
xviii. No. 6.

3 Thid. xix. No. 2.

4 «Sur quelques applications des théories concernant les solutions particulicres
périodiques du probléme des trois corps et l'intégration des équations différentielles
linéaires 4 coefficients périodiques, Bull. Astr. viil. pp. 49-67.

5 «On Graphic Solution of Dynamical Problems, Brit. Assoc. Report, 1892,
pp. 648-52; Phil. Mag. xxxiv. p. 447.

° ‘Sur la stabilité du mouvement dans un cas particulier du probléme des trois
corps,’ C. #. cxiv. pp. 1339-41.

7 Recherches numériques concernant des solutions périodiques d’un cas spécial
du probléme des trois corps,’ A. WV. cxxxy. pp. 233-40, cxxxvi. pp. 161-74.

8 Tbhid. cxxxviii. pp. 1-10.

® «Sur une classe de solutions périodiques dans un cas particulier du probléme
des trois corps,’ C. 2. cxx. pp. 906-9; Bull. Ast. xii, pp. 329-52.

152 REPORT—1899.

Poincaré’s method for the direct calculation of periodic solutions of
dynamical systems was modified in 1895 by Kobb,! so as to be applicable
to the problem of three bodies.

Darwin in 1896 published a preliminary EoGie? of a paper ® which
appeared in 1897, and in which a large number of periodic solutions are
calculated numerically. The case considered is the restricted problem of
three bodies ; two of the bodies, S and J, revolve round each other in
circular orbits, and the mass of the third body P is zero. Darwin finds
six families of periodic orbits ; in one (Planet A), P describes a closed
path round §, as in Hill’s periodic orbit ; in two others (oscillating Satel-
lites a and 6) P oscillates about a position on the line joining § and J, as
in the libratory motions of Burrau, Thiele, and Perchot and Mascart ; and
in the remaining three (Satellites A, B, C), P describes a closed path
round J. In the numerical work, the mass of S is supposed to be ten
times the mass of J. When different values are assumed for the constant
of energy, the orbits of these families change their form, pass from
stability to instability and vice versd, and even go out of existence
altegether.

Another class of periodic solutions of the restricted problem of three
bodies was found in 1898 by Schwarzschild.

An application of Poincaré’s theories in a different direction was made
in 1893 by Perchot.® In the first part of his memoir the coefficients of
the principal periodic inequalities of the longitudes of the lunar node and
perigee are calculated ; the author takes the equations in Delaunay’s
form, and applies the theory of periodic solutions. In the second part,
the secular variations of the eccentricities and inclinations are discussed,
with the aid of Poincaré’s theory of stability.

The theories of periodic solutions, characteristic exponents, asymptotic
solutions, and the non-existence of uniform integrals were somewhat
more completely discussed in 1892 by Poincaré® himself in the first
volume of his treatise on the new developments of dynamical astronomy.
The second volume, which was published in 1893, and contains a good
deal of matter which had not appeared in the memoir of 1891, opens with
a chapter on asymptotic expansions ; after this the author discusses, by
Jacobi’s method, Lindstedt’s theory of the solution of the equations of
dynamics by means of sums of periodic terms, using his own proof of its
applicability, as given originally in C. &. cviii. Newcomb’s method is
shown to be fundamentally equivalent to Lindstedt’s. Lindstedt’s theory
is then applied, firstly, to prove a result obtained by Poincaré? in ‘C. R.’
exiv. regarding the expression of the secular inequalities in the planetary

1 «Sur le calcul direct des solutions périodiques dans le probléme des trois corps,’
Ofversigt at K. Sv. Vet.-ak. Forh. lii. pp. 215-22.

2 «On Periodic Orbits, Brit. Assoc. Report, 1896, pp. 708-9.

3 «Periodic Orbits, Acta Math. xxi. pp. 99-242; Math. Annalen, li. pp. 523-83.

+ « Ueber eine Classe pericdischer Losungen des Dreikérperproblems,’ Ast. Mach.
exlvii. Pp. 17-24; ‘Ueber weitere Classe periodischer Losungen des Dreikérper-
problems,’ idid. pp. 289-98.

5 «Sur les mouvements des eae et du périgée de la lune, et sur les variations
séculaires des excentricités et des inclinaisons, Annales de le. Norm. Sup. (5)
x. suppl. pp. 3-94.

6 Les Méthodes Nouvelles de la Mécanique Céleste, Paris, Gauthier-Villars, vol. i.
1882, vol. ii. 1893, vol. iii. 1898.

7 «Sur lapplication de la méthode de M. Lindstedt au probléme des trois corps,’
C. R exiv pp, 1305-9.

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES. 153

theory as sums of periodic terms, and, secondly, to effect the general
expansions in the problem of three bodies; as explained in the paper
referred to, there is a difficulty here, since in Kepler’s ellipse the node
and perihelion are fixed, and thus there is a linear relation between the
mean motions of the arguments used. This difficulty is surmounted, and
another is considered in the following chapter, arising from the fact that
if the eccentricities are very small (supposing that ¢ is used as one of the
variables, and not e cos a and ¢ sin a), some of the developments break
down. It isshown that this difficulty can be avoided by taking as starting-
point a periodic solution instead of Kepler’s ellipse.

The author then proceeds to discuss the convergency of Lindstedt’s
expansions ; his results in this connection were disputed by Hill,’ and led
to some controversy.

After some interesting remarks on the theorem of the secular invaria-
bility of the mean distances, Poincaré proceeds to show how the coefficients
in Lindstedt’s series can be calculated directly, without the complicated
transformations which were introduced in the proof of their existence ;
and then a new way of forming Lindstedt’s series is explained, in which
half of the original equations of motion are replaced by the equation of
energy and certain equations involving an auxiliary function S. Two
equalities which can be used in the verification of these processes were
given in 1895.?

The first half of the book may be said to centre round a theorem,
which may be stated as follows :—

Let the equations of dynamical astronomy be given in the form
(1) dx,_@F dy,_ oF

ey ee
GEM Oy, aR ORE da Painaacdin
The function F is periodic in the quantities y, and may depend on the 2’s
in any manner. Moreover, certain of the terms are small in comparison
with others, and the order of magnitude of the different terms may be put
in evidence by introducing a small quantity », and developing F in
ascending powers of j, in the form

F=F)+ypF,+p2F, +... ;

F,, does not involve the quantities y.
Then it is proved that the equations (1) can be formally satisfied by
series of the form
9 fo =a Pt poO+woPt... Sanaed
@) Lyi Hey Fey P +... CaL ay?

where the quantities ~{° and y,” are periodic functions of the quantities

wW=nita,; (i=1,2,...) F

) Hill (1895), ‘On the Convergence of the Series used in the subject of Perturba-
tions, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. ii. pp. 93-7. Poincaré (1896), ‘Sur la divergence des
séries de la Mécanique Céleste,’ C.2. cxxii. pp. 497-9. Hill (1896), ‘ Remarks on the
Progress of Celestial Mechanics since the middle of the century,’ Bull. Amer. Math.
Soc. ii. pp. 125-36. Poincaré (1896), ‘Sur la divergence des séries trigonométriques,
C. R. exxii, pp. 557-9.

* «Sur un procédé de vérification, applicable au calcul des séries de la Mécanique
Céleste,’ C. 2. exx. pp. 57-9, :

154 REPORT—1899,.

the quantities a; are constants of integration ; the quantities n; are
constants (called the mean motions) which can be developed as power-
series in p. The quantities x,“ and y;, can themselves be developed in
series of the form

(3) x (or y{°)=ZA cos (mw, +MyWo+ ... +m,w,+h).

Suppose for simplicity that n=2. If the ratio of the mean motions
is commensurable, one of the terms of the series (3) becomes infinite ;
leaving this case, it is shown (pp. 96, 97) that incommensurable values of
the ratio of the mean motions can be sorted into two categories—those -
for which the series converges and those for which the series diverges—
and in every interval, however small, there are values of the first category,
and also values of the second category ; in particular, the series converges
for incommensurable values whose square is commensurable. The con-
vergence is in no case uniform. By an artifice, however, the series (3)
can be regarded as composed of only a finite number of terms, and so the
series (2) can be formed.

What may be regarded as the second half of the book begins, in the
sixteenth chapter, with an introduction to Gyldén’s theory ; the Gyldén-
Lindstedt equation is treated by the methods of chapter ix. and by those
of Gyldén, Bruns, Hill, and Lindstedt ; and then the author proceeds to
the more difficult of Gyldén’s differential equations. The last three
chapters of the volume are devoted to an exposition of Bohlin’s method,
and to an extension in which some of the limitations of Bohlin’s work
are removed.

The theorem regarding the expression of the coordinates as trigono-
metric series was still further improved! by Poincaré in 1897. It is
shown that the coordinates in the problem of three bodies can be expressed
by series proceeding in ascending powers of a small parameter , of the
order of the two small masses, and of several constants p of the order of
the eccentricities and inclinations, These series are periodic functions of
five arguments :

W,=Nyt+Q), Wye=Nttay wy, =Mb+e, Wo=Mobteo, wWz=1;6 + &

Here 7, ao, &, &, €, are constants of integration ; 7, %2, 4) 1’) v3; are
functions of «, the quantities p, and two other constants 2, and 2, and
can be expanded as power-series in p» and the quantities p* ; the coefh-
cients in the series depend on z, and z,. The quantities n, and , may be
called the mean motions of the planets ; z,?and z,” may be called their mean
distances ; a, and a, correspond to their longitudes at the epoch, the
quantities p to the eccentricities and inclinations, the quantities w to the
longitudes of the perihelia and nodes. The development of m, and », in
powers of » commences with terms of order 0, while the development of
V1, Vx) Ys Commences with terms of order one, so the w’s vary quickly and
the w’s vary slowly. Terms whose arguments are compounded of the w’s
only may, by analogy with the older theories, be called secular terms.
Poisson’s theorem on the invariability of the mean distances, in its new
interpretation, is proved in the course of the paper. The mutual distances
of the bodies depend only on the differences of the above five arguments.
The third (and last) volume of Poincaré’s book was published in

1 ‘Sur Pintégration des équations du probléme de trois corps’, Bull. Astr. xiv.
. pp. 261-70.

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE popirs. 155

1898-9. The first half of it is devoted to the theory of Invariant
Integrals, which is given here in a more developed form than in the
memoir of 1890; while the second half is concerned chiefly with the
theory of periodic solutions of the second kind. Since the publication of
the 1890 memoir, periodic solutions had been connected by the author!
with the theory of least action. In the first of the two notes referred to
it is shown that the existence of periodic solutions of different kinds can
be inferred from the principle of least action, when the law of attraction
is some inverse power of the distance higher than the square; in the
second note, a classification of unstable periodic solutions is made, which
depends on the principle of least action ; and it is shown that when the
constants of the motion are varied, a periodic solution cannot pass from
one kind of instability to the other. In this volume, the theory of least
action is further applied.

After developing the theory of periodic solutions of the second kind,
Poincaré shows that some of the results of Darwin’s paper of 1897 are in
accordance with his own theorems, and criticises others ; and terminates
the book by a study of doubly-asymptotic solutions.

Since 1892 Brown? has published several memoirs dealing with the
junar theory on the plan projected by Hill. The first paper extends
Hill’s paper of 1878 by including in the work the inequalities which
involve the sun’s parallax ; in other words, Hill found periodic solutions
of the motion of a particle in a plane under the influence of two bodies
which revolve round each other in circular orbits, and whose distance
apart is infinite, while Brown supposes this distance to be finite. In the
second paper the inequalities dependent on the moon’s eccentricity are
included, 2.e. the general solution of Hill’s problem, which of course is
not periodic, is found. The investigations of the third paper relate to the
more general problem of the moon’s motion, and include a deduction and
extension of the theorems of Adams’s memoir of 1878. (See § IV.) Brown
is at present preparing a complete numerical lunar theory.

In 1895 Hill’ calculated numerically the periodic solution, which may
be taken as the base of the lunar theory, and in 1896 Liapounow!? dis-
cussed Hill’s series, and proved their convergence in the case of the actual
motion of the moon.

Andoyer? in 1890 gave another method for finding the solution of the
differential equations of Dynamical Astronomy by means of series of
periodic terms. He obtains the series directly by assuming that they are
of the required form but with undetermined coefficients, and finds these
coefficients by successive approximation. It is shown that the mean dis-
tances of the planets contain no long-period terms of orders zero or one,
which corresponds to the theorem of the invariability of the mean distances.

‘ «Sur les solutions périodiques et le principe de moindre action,’ @. RB, cxxiii.
pp. 915-8 (1896) ; ‘Les solutions périodiques et le principe de moindre action,’ zbid.
exxiv. pp. 713-6 (1897).

2 «On the part of the Parallactic Inequalities in the Moon’s motion which is a
function of the mean motions of the Sun and Moon, Amer. Jour. Math. xiv. pp.
141-60 (1892); ‘The Elliptic Inequalities in the Lunar Theory,’ ibid. xv. pp. 244-63,
321-38 (1893); ‘Investigations in the Lunar Theory,’ ibid. xvii. pp. 318-58 (1895).

% «The Periodic Solution as a first approximation in the Lunar Theory,’ Ast. Jowr.
Xv. pp. 137-43.

* Transactions of the Physical Section of the Imp. Soe. of Nat. Sc. Moscow, viii.

5 «Sur les formules générales de la Mécanique Céleste,’ Annales de la Fac. de
Toulouse, iv. K,35 pp.

156 REPORT—1899.

The same author! in 1896 showed that a theorem analogous to the invari-
ability of the mean distances can be obtained for a general class of
dynamical systems.

The solution of canonical systems of equations by series was discussed
in 1891-2 by Wand ? ; suggestions for directing the approximations in the
problem of bodies were published in 1891 by Laska,* and in 1897 by
Kovesligethy,t and (for solving the differential equation for the mean
distance) in 1893 by Gyldén.’ The first part of a paper® published by
Newcomb in 1895 contains a solution of the problem of three bodies based
on continued approximation. Hill’ in 1893 and 1897 showed how, by
dividing the potential function otherwise than in the old theories, an inter-
mediate orbit may be obtained which is free from the disadvantages of
Kepler’s ellipse ; and Krassnow § in 1898-9 obtained an intermediate
orbit for the moon, making the suppositions of the restricted problem of
three bodies, by integrating a Hamilton-Jacobi partial differential equation,
in which small quantities of the third order are neglected.

Painlevé ® in 1896 showed that the problem of three bodies can be
integrated by means of series of polynomials, convergent for all values of
z, except when the initial conditions are such that two of the bodies collide
after a finite interval of time. The same author !° in 1597 showed that
the conditions which must be satisfied in order that, after a finite interval
of time, two of the bodies may collide, cannot be algebraical conditions.

Brown! in 1897 discussed the properties of the general solution in
trigonometric series of the problem of three bodies, by supposing it to
have been derived by integrating the Hamilton-Jacobi equation. Several
properties of the constants of the solution are deduced, including those
previously given by Newcomb. In a second paper,!? the same method is
applied to the Lunar Theory, and Adams’s theorems on the constant part of

1 «Sur l’extension que l’on peut donner au théoréme de Poisson, relatif a l’invari-
abilité des grands axes,’ C. 2. cxxiii. pp. 790-3.

2 ‘Ueber die Integration der Differentialgleichungen, welche die Bewegungen
eines Systems von Punkten bestimmen,’ Ast. Mach. cxxvi. pp. 129-88, cxxvii.
pp. 353-60, cxxx. pp. 377-90.

3 «Zur Berechnung der absoluten Stérungen,’ Sitzungsberichte der k. Bohm. Ges.
der Wiss., Prague, 1891, pp. 147-53.

4 «Storungen im Vielkorpersystem,’ Mathem.u, Natur. Berichte aus Ungarn, xiii.
pp. 380-412.

5 ‘Ueber die Ungleichheiten der grossen Axen der Planetenbahnen,’ Ast. Nach.
Cxxxlii. pp. 185-90.

* * Action of the Planets on the Moon,’ American Hphemeris Papers, v. Part III.

7 «On Intermediate Orbits, Annals of Maths. viii. pp. 1-20 (1893). ‘On Inter-
mediary Orbits in the Lunar Theory,’ Astron. Jown. xviii. pp. 81-7 (1897),

8 «Zur Theorie der intermediiren Bahnen des Mondes,’ Ast. Nach. cxlvi. pp. 7-10 ;
‘Weitere Mittheilung betreffend die Theorie der intermediiiren Bahnen des Mondes,’
ibid. cxlvi, pp. 337-40; ‘Zur Integration der Jacobi’sche Differentialgleichung fiir
die Mondbewegung,’ ibid. exlviii. pp. 37-42.

® «Sur les singularités des équations de la Dynamique et surle probléme des trois
corps, C. R. cxxiii. pp. 871-3.

1 «Sur les cas du probléme des trois corps (et des » corps) ot deux des corps se
choquent au bout d’un temps fini,’ C. R. exxv. pp. 1078-81.

1 ¢QOn the application of Jacobi's Dynamical Method to the General Problem of
Three Bodies,’ Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. xxviii. pp. 130-42. There is a slight error in
result (x.), p. 141 of the paper.

12 «On certain properties of the Mean Motions and the Secular Accelerations of
the principal arguments used in the Lunar Theory,’ Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. xxviii.
pp. 143-55.

PROGRESS OF THE SOLITION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES. 157

the lunar parallax, in the generalised form previously given by the author,
are shown to be simple deductions from a single equation.

Researches relating to the convergence of the trigonometric series of
dynamical astronomy were published in 1896 by Charlier! and in 1898 by
Poincaré.? The former, by expanding in descending powers of m the
coefiicient of the mth term in such a series, arrived at the conclusion that
the convergence can be augmented by dividing the function expressed into
two parts, one of which depends on the first terms in these expansions of
the coefficients. In Poincaré’s paper the author first connects the series of
the older theories, in which the time occurs explicitly, with the new
expansions, and then observes that the slow convergence of the latter
is to some extent compensated for by the fact that the terms can be
grouped together in such a way that, although the individual terms of a
group may be large, yet their sum is small. The latter part of the
paper is devoted to showing how the expansions which represent periodic
and asymptotic solutions can be derived from the general expansions.

§ VII. The Impossibility of Certain Kinds of Integrals.

Poincaré’s theorem on the non-existence of uniform integrals of the
problem of three bodies, other than those already known, has already
been reviewed in § VI. Before the publication of Poincaré’s memoir,
however, an important theorem on the non-existence of algebraic integrals
had been obtained by Bruns.

In Bruns’s paper, the differential equations of the problem are first
taken, in their unreduced form, as a system of the 6th order ; they can
be written

sees BM flan Voy ++ + L3ny rp C=), 2, sae 3n)
where ¢ denotes the sum of all the mutual distances of the bodies ; the
reason for introducing ¢ is that the quantities / are rational functions of
Hy, Loy.+. Lan, ¢, Whereas they would be irrational functions of
%\, Xy,—%3, alone. ¢ is a function of the a’s, given as a root of an
algebraical equation.

Bruns supposes that this system of equations possesses an integral of

the form ¢(x,, 2%)... X3ny Yir Yo +++» Yan), Where B09 and where ¢

is an algebraic function of its arguments. must therefore be a root of
an algebraic equation whose coefficients are rational functions of the
quantities x, y, and which we may take to be irreducible. On differen-
tiating this, it appears that either the coefficients of the algebraic equation
in » are themselves integrals, or else » satisfies an equation of lower
degree, whose coefficients are rational in the quantities x, y, c. In this
way it is proved that all integrals which are algebraic functions of the
quantities x and y are algebraic combinations of other integrals which
are themselves rational functions of the quantities 2, y, and ¢. We need

1 «Ueber die trigonometrischen Entwickelungen in der Stérungstheorie,’ Asé,
Nach. cxli. pp. 273-8.

? «Sur la fagon de grouper les termes des séries trigonométriques qu’on rencontre
en mécanique céleste,’ Bull. Astv, xv. p. 289-310.

% ‘Ueber die Integrale des Vielkérper-Problems,’ Berichte der Kgl. Stéichsischen
Ges. der Wiss. zu Leipzig, 1887, pp. 1-39, 55-82; Acta Math. xi. pp. 25-96.

158 REPORT—1899.

therefore only consider this latter class of integrals. It is shown that
integrals of this class can be compounded of another kind of integrals,
called by Bruns homogeneous. When a homogeneous integral is resolved
into factors which are rational integral functions of the quantities y, it
appears that each of these factors either is itself an integral or can be
made into an integral by associating certain factors with it; and so,
finally, every integral of the problem of m bodies which is algebraic in the
variables x, y, and is independent of ¢, can be compounded algebraically
from integrals of a very special class, which are rational integral functions
of the quantities y, and rational functions of the quantities x and c, and
which are, moreover, homogeneous. It is further shown that if ¢ denote
an integral of this last class, and ¢, denote the terms in it which are of
highest order in the quantities y, then o involves the «’s rationally and
integrally, and only by means of the expressions (y,%,—y, “,), and 5
does not involve c.

Now let A, B, C be the three components of angular momentum of
the system, let L’, M’, N’ be the three components of linear momentum,
let L, M, N be the coordinates of the centre of gravity, and let

A’=MN’—NM’, B’=LN’—-L’'N, C’=LMW’—LM ;

all these quantities are supposed to be expressed in terms of the quanti-
ties x and y,so that any one of them equated to a constant represents
one of the known integrals of the system of differential equations. Then
it is shown that ¢) involves the variables x only in the combinations
A, B,C, A’, B’, C’, and is a rational integral function of A, B, C, A’, B’, C’,
and the y’s ; and then ¢, is proved to be a rational integral function of
fasts, OC, A’, BGC’, L’, WY, N., T, aay.

y= (A; B, C, AG Bi, C5 L, MW’, N’, T).

Now let —U be the potential energy of the system, so T—U is an
integral. Then the quantity

J=AA, B, 0, A’, BY, C’, L’, M’, N’, TU)

is also an integral, since it is compounded solely of integrals ; and when
it is arranged according to powers of the variables y it coincides with the
integral ¢ in the terms of highest degree. The difference
y=o—T

is therefore an integral of the same kind as ¢, except that its degree in
the variables y is at least one unit lower than the degree of ¢ in these
variables. Thus any integral @ can be made to depend on the known
integrals and an integral of lower degree in the y’s: proceeding in this
way, @ can be made to depend on the known integrals and an integral of
the same kind as ¢, but of zero degree in the y’s ; but such an integral
would be a constant. Thus Bruns arrives at the theorem : In the problem
of n bodies, the only integrals which involve the coordinates and velocities
algebraically, and which do not involve the time explicitly, are compounded
of the integrals of the centre of gravity, of angular momentum, and of
energy.

Bruns then proceeds to the reduction of the differential equations of
the problem of three bodies which has already been given in § 1 of this
report, and shows that the system of the 6th order at which he arrives has

PROGRESS OF THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF THREE BODIES, 159

no algebraic integrals, and that it is not possible by any algebraic trans-
formation which leaves the canonical form of the equations unaltered to
obtain any further separation of the variables analogous to the elimina-
tion of the nodes.

In the second part of the paper (pp. 67-96), the author first, by an
easy extension of the previous result, shows that no integrals exist which
involve the time and the variables algebraically, except the known
integrals, and then finds the integral-equations of the reduced system of
equations for the problem of three bodies, 7.e. functions of the variables
whose derivatives with respect to the time vanish when the functions
themselves vanish ; and shows that the only integral-equation is the one
whose vanishing expresses the condition that the motion takes place in
one plane.

The author then discusses the question, whether any integrals of the
reduced system exist in the form of integrals of algebraic total differen-
tials, i.e. the generalised Abelian integrals which have since been studied
by Picard. This also is shown to be impossible ; and, lastly, this result
can be extended to the problem of 1 bodies, since, if such an integral
existed for the problem of n bodies, a corresponding integral for the pro-
blem of three bodies could be derived by equating all but three of the
masses to zero.

A defect in Bruns’s proof (pp. 37 sqq. of Bruns’s paper) was pointed out
and remedied by Poincaré ! in 1896.

Gravé? in 1896 showed that the differential equations of the problem
of three bodies, in the form given by Bertrand, possess no integrals inde-
pendent of the law of attraction other than those already known ; and
Painlevé® in 1897-8 extended Bruns’s result, by showing that every
integral of the problem of n bodies which involves the velocities alge-
braically (whether the coordinates are involved algebraically or not) is
an algebraic combination of the known integrals of energy and momentum

On Solar Radiation.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. G. JOHN-
STONE STONEY (Chairman), Professor H. McLxop (Secretary), Sir
G. G. Stokes, Professor A. ScuusTER, Sir H. E. Roscoe, Captain
W.de W. Abney, Dr. C. CHREE, Professor G. F. FirzGErap,
Professor H. L. Cattenpar, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. W. E.
Witson, and Professor A. A. RaMBAUT, appointed to consider the
best Methods of Recording the Direct Intensity of Solar Radiation.

Tur Balfour Stewart actinometer is now in the hands of Professor
Callendar, who proposes to employ it in connection with one of his bolo-
metric methods.

The Committee therefore asks for reappointment.

1 «Sur la méthode de Bruns,’ C. &. cxxiii. pp. 1224-8.

2 ¢ Sur le probléme des trois corps,’ Wowvelles Annales (3) xv. pp. 537-47.

3 ¢ Sur les intégrales premiéres de la Dynamique et sur le probléme des x corps,
C. R. oxxiv. pp. 173-6, 1897; ‘ Mémoire sur les intégrales premiéres du probléme
des n corps,’ Bull. Astr. xv. pp. 81-113, 1898.

160 REPORT—1899,

Hlectrolysis and Electro-chemistry.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Mr. W. A. Suaw (Chairman), Mr. E. H. Grirrirus, Rev. T. C.
Firzpatrick, Mr. S. SKINNER, and Mr. W. C. D. WHETHAM
(Secretary), appointed to report on the Present State of our Know- —
ledge in Electrolysis and Electro-chemistiy.

The conductivity of anumber of salts in very dilute aqueous solution
at the freezing point of water has been determined by Mr. Whetham, while
Mr. Griffiths has concurrently made observations of the freezing point for
corresponding solutions. The observations of conductivity extend to
solutions of sulphuric acid, potassium chloride, sodium chloride, barium
chloride, copper sulphate, potassium permanganate, potassium bichromate,
and potassium ferricyanide. The range of dilution is, speaking generally,
from below the hundred-thousandth to about the twentieth part of a gram
equivalent per thousand grams of solution.

The water used was specially distilled three times, and finally
from a platinum still, and collected in platinum vessels. Its approximate
conductivity was about 1:1 x10-" at 18° C.in O.G.8. units. The best
water obtained by Kohlrausch by distillation in vacuo had a conduc-
tivity of 0:2 x10-” in the same units at the same temperature.

The results obtained this year, while confirming those described at the
last meeting of the Association for solutions of moderate concentrations,
show differences when great dilutions are reached, but the constancy of
the present measurements shows that the water now used is good enough
to enable trustworthy values to be obtained even at the lowest limits of
dilution above mentioned.

Mr. Griffiths has remodelled his apparatus for determination of freezing
points, and is now able to carry the measurements of temperature to a
higher degree of accuracy than hitherto.

As soon as the observations are completed it is intended to publish
the results of both investigations together.

No further progress has been made with the rest of the Report.

Tables of Certain Mathematical Functions.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Lord Kenvin (Chairman), Lieutenant-Colonel
ALLAN CunnincHaM, f.H. (Secretary), Dr. J. W. L. GLAISHER,
Professor A. G. GREENHILL, Professor W. M. Hicks, Major P. A.
Macmanon, and Professor A. LopGE, appointed for calculating
Tables of Certain Mathematical Functions, and, if necessary, for
taking steps to carry out the calculations, and to publish the results in
an accessible form.

Tue Tables (Binary Canon) were reported complete last year. The Com-
mittee only wait fora grant to proceed with the printing, estimated at
1202. for 100 copies, or 135/. for 200 copies ; a portion of which would be
hereafter repaid by the sale of copies of the Tables.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 161

Seismological Investigations—Fourth Report of the Convnittee, con-
sisting of Professor J. W. Jupp (Chairman), Mr. Joun MILNE
(Secretary), Lord Ketvix, Professor T. G. Bonney, Sir F. J.
BraMweE.t, Mr. C. V. Boys, Professor G. H. Darwiy, Mr. Horace
Darwin, Major L. Darwty, Professor J. A. Ew ING, Professor C.
G. Kyort, Professor 2. Metpova, Mr. R. D. OLpHAM, Professor
J. Perry, Professor J. H. Poynting, Mr. Clement Rem, Mr.
G. J. Symoys, and Prof. H. H. Turner. Drawn up by the Secretary.

CONTENTS.

PAGR
I. On Seismological Stations already established. By J. MILNE . . L6L

Il. Notes respecting Observing Stations and Registers obtained from the same.
By J. MILNE . : : c 3 . 162
JIL. Discussion af the Preceding Register 8, ” By np MILNE ‘ ; . 192
IV. Earthquake Varieties and Earthquake Duration. wh J. MILNE : . 225
V. Larthquake Echoes. By J.MILNE . : : : Per As
VI. Larthquake Precursors. By J. MILNE . : = ; . 230
VII. Larthguake and eee Disturbances. By J. MILNE : . 233

VIII. Form of Reports . - : : : : : . 233

I. On Seismological Stations already established.

InstRuMENTS of the same type have been forwarded to the following
twenty-three stations :—Shide, Kew, Toronto, Victoria, B.C.,San Fernando
(Spain), Madras, Bombay, Calcutta, Batavia, Mauritius, Cape Town,
Arequipa, Strathmore College (Philadelphia), Tokio, Cordova (Argentina),
New Zealand (two instruments), Cairo, Paisley, Mexico, Beyrout, Hono-
‘lulu, and the last to Trinidad.

It is expected that shortly instruments will be installed in Ireland,
New South Wales, and Victoria, and your Secretary has had correspondence
about the establishment of seismographs in other countries.

The following Report contains registers from the first eleven of the
above- mentioned stations, and reports ‘tr om several of the remainder are
expected to arrive shortly,

The principal analysis of these registers has been made in reference to
the one from Shide, but as many earthquakes have been recorded which
did not reach that station, but were common to groups of observatories in
other parts of the world, it is evident that if similar analyses are made in
reference to other localities, our knowledge respecting the distribution of
seismic disturbances will be largely increased. Should any of the observers
who have forwarded copies of their observations to Shide consider it
advisable to undertake this work, it is hoped that this report will be of
assistance in carrying out the same.

The Committee thank the Directors of observatories in Italy, Germany,
and Russia for copies of records corr esponding to those obtained in Shide.
For the purpose of seeing the installation in the Isle of Wight and dis-
cussing records, Shide bas been visited by Colonel Gore, R.E., of the
Trigonometrical Survey of India, Mr. R. D. Oldham, of the Geological
Survey of that country, Dr. Figee, i in charge of the instrument in B: wtavia,
Mr. a Claxton, Director of the Observat tory in Mauritius, Dr. F.

; M

162 REPORT—1899.

Omori, in charge of Seismological Observatories in Japan, Mr. T. Heath,
of the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, and by many others directly or
indirectly interested in the work of this Commitize.

Il. Notes respecting Observing Stations and Registers obtained from
the same.

1. England : Isle of Wight, Newport, Shide. Observer, Mr. J. MILNE.

The continuity of records obtained from this station has largely been
dependent upon the interest shown in the work by Shinobu Hirota, Mr. ~
Milne’s assistant.

At rare intervals, usually in consequence of some irregularity in the
band of bromide paper, the clock driving the same has been stopped.
Failures due to this cause have been extremely few. The greater number
of failures arise from ‘air tremors,’ which during the winter months, in
frosty weather, and at night are frequent. Slight continuous movements
of the boom produced by these air currents have no doubt eclipsed many
gmall earthquakes, and have certainly hidden the commencement of larger
disturbances. These difficulties, which occur from time to time, and
interfere with observations for at least one month out of twelve, are not
likely to be overcome until the instrument is moved to a larger and better
ventilated room.

A pair of horizontal pendulums recording on smoked paper have
given records of the periods of earth vibrations.

The Shide Register.

The following register is compiled from the photographic records of a
Milne Horizontal Pendulum, and refers to E.W. displacements. The time
used is Greenwich Mean Civil Time. Midnight=24 or 0 hours.

Amp. = Amplitude, or half the complete range of motion. It is expressed
in millimetres, 1 mm.=0''5 of arc. Records of -5 mm. or less refer to a
inere thickening of the line, and indicate half its width.

D = Duration expressed in hours, minutes and seconds.

P.T.’s = Preliminary Tremors, the duration of which is from the first movement
to the maximum motion.

L.W.’s = Large waves, and refers to the maximum motion.

Doubtful means that it is not certain that the record refers to earthquake
morion.

The instrument stands on 2 brick pier founded on the upended beds of
hard chalk.

| | 7
| No. | Date Nereida Remarks
1898.
| (ae. ae Se
| 170 | Feb. 27 |) ll 7 44 | Amp.:25mm. D 4m.
| 171 | Mar, 3| 165 87 34 | Doubtful.
(age es ee 4116.58 3h -
| 175 | 4 + 21 13 46 Amp. ‘25mm. D 6m.
A ne als 5 | 16 35 12 | Doubtful.
| 175 loa, a di) SHG 44 22 *
176 | x 19 4 45 29 Amp. °25mm. D 2m.
| 177 |, 21) 22 51 50 | Thirteen small group up to 1h. 30m, on 22nd. |
Max. about Oh. 30m.
i478 i°j, 231 2048 G | Amp.-25mm. D 2m.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.

163

THE SHIDE REGISTER—continued.

Time of Com-

No. Date sratrneenTine Remarks
H. M. S
179 | Mar. 28} 17 44 28 | Amp.-5bmm. OD 4m.
Dey Gos i ae ae a ae . 3m.
yee ase? P1821 6 Bt athe? br Ay
Fiera 23.44 5 ie ODI a yy
180 5 28 0 511 | Sulier
eae 20 13 33 O This is ‘the first of at least 28 distinct disturb-
we 29 1529 30* ances, with durations of from 2 to 6 minutes.
e289 15 46 36 ‘Those marked with an asterisk commenced
» 29 | 15 49 48 gently, and the others abruptly. The largest of
ee 29 15 56 12* the series is that at 15h. 56m. 12s., which has
a | 29 16 13 16 an amplitude of lmm., and a duration of 7m.
a 29 16 39 18 Other marked members in the series are at
a 29 16 53 32 15h. 29m. 30s., 17h. 23m. 2s.,and 18h. 54m. 33s.
hale 17 3 42 Many of these are of doubtful character.
2g 17 18 52
eae cy 17 15 54 =
eee: 17223) 42%
"29 17 27 6
Baoan Ligeoerou
soe 29 18 12 51
oy ae 18 27 6
» 29 | 18.54 33*
f. 29)|'. 19535) 14.
g 89°) -19 138° 17
Pe es) 20 12 51
wy eo! || 6208276
mee) 20 30 9
ss «628 |) 21 56) 35
yin HES, 22 1 40
» 29| 22 8 47
» 29°| 24.43 22
» 29} 22 51 30
eae) 23 0 39

181 » 380] 12 7 O | Amp. Imm. D 6m.

182 ok 8 21 1 | Maxima at 5°7, and 11m. later. Amp. Imm.
D 24m.

183 ay) mall 11 24 56 Doubtful. Amp.‘5mm. D 10m.

184 Feral 13 15 42 The first of a series of 22 very slight shocks,
ending at5p.M. Greatest amp. 1mm.

= 31 13 45 12 i
ny trl 13 59 26
9 31 14 15 42

185 | April 3 7 38 35 | Amp.*'mm. D 10m.

186 < 45) 1 42a , ‘25mm. |,, 5m.

js; 4 12 24 53 +> Dam. hese
ae eoyag: s » 25mm.

187 5 | 14 30 O | From 13°30 to 15-30. About 12 small disturb-
ances; each commences suddenly. The one
at 14-30 has 2 max. each ‘5mm. D 8m.

188 7 6 | 12 3717 | Ten min. latera max.amp.2mm. Small P.T.’s
6m. D 35m.

189 a lle 7 47 55 | Six min. later a max. amp. 2mm., 7m. still later
another, max. l‘bmm. D54m. Small P.T.’s
4m.

190 » 15) 2215 31 | Amp.-Smm. D 3m.

191 3 Gs 17 51 31

” Bb) ” ”

M 2

164

REPORT—1899.

THE SHIDE REGISTER—continued.

Date

April

23

Ts

(ee
Time of Com-
mencement.

Remarks

Five min. latera max.amp.1mm. Small P.T.’s
3m. D 16m.

Thirty-six min. later a max.amp.6mm. Small
P.T.’s 25m. D about 2h. Commencement
earlier than noted.

Doubtful. 3

= Six or eight similar

PURN pecs) EE j aishacbastees between
Fd 2 i these two.

Continuous to 17h. 37m. 34s., with at least 7 max.
each 1mm.

Doubtful.

Seven other small shocks up to 5.30. Amp.
‘25 to‘5mm. D2to5. All doubtful.

Thirty-five min. later a max. amp. 175mm.
Motion rises and falls every 5 to 9m. for 2h.

Amp. 1mm. D im.

Amp. lmm. and D for each about 5m.

Amp. ‘75mm. D 8m,

a G2bDaM: ao hen
” ” ” ”

” ” ” ”

5 ‘Imm. 5 Om.
” ” ” 6m.
30) GeDmin. wie, 2s
3 ‘5mm. ey ahaa
” ” ” 10m.
5 j2omm. Aaa eels
“o ‘5mm. 530.) 600.

Fourteen min. later amp. 25mm. Small P.T.’s
12m. D extends 2h.

From a series of 10 max. each with amp. ‘25 to
‘5mm. D dm.

Forty min. lateramax. amp. 8mm. Small P.T’s
9m. D 38h. The seismogram shows a marked
symmetry. Period of L.W.’s 23s.

Max. amp.’5mm. D 4m.

PA a eibcohasts » 8m. Doubtful.

Max. amp. ‘75mm. “Dobm_ Doubtful.

a ay) | comm: » Jol,
is » 125mm. » 40m. Small P.T.’s 14m,
sy » sf onlm, » 45m.
i » ‘25mm. Seem

Max.amp.Imm. D 35m.
sy > 25mm. sn BM.
Amp. ‘25. D 2m.
Max. amp. 25mm. D 2m.
- 3 4mm. » 17m. Doubtful.
a oy Om; » dh. Smallest P.T.’s 5m.
Max. 3lm. from commencement. Shows sym-
metry. Period of L.W.’s 32s.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 165

TuE SHIDE REGISTER—continued.

Time of Com-

No. Dato prericektiont Remarks
H. M. 8. ;

231 | Sept. 3] 16 448 | Max. amp.1:25mm. D 56m.
Tete cee a Slight thickenings until 20b. 7m. 35s.
233 » 22| 12 30 54)| A series of 6 max. with amps. reaching 3mm.

» 22] 13 37 52/ D for each 3 to 5 m.
234 » 25| 1251 50 | Amp.‘5mm. D 13m.
235 | Oct. 11] 16 58 52 | Max. amp. ltbmm. OD Ih. 40m. About 19

maxima.
236 - 11 | 19 26 38 | Amp.:25mm. D 2m.
237 ” 12 13 21 2 ” ” 2? ”
238 S, 15 4 2 44 Max. amp.‘5 mm. D 7m.
239 | Nov. 17] 13 2015 ae y eons
240 | Dee 1 12 48 16 :4 a 3 » ddm. About 11 thickenings.
241 % 3 318 43 | Amp.-25 mm. JD Im.
mop) CSG 25 58 2 3 » bm.
243 zy 3 17 42 26 ~ “4 neem
244 i 4 | 20 20 40 2 re ay 2m.
1s99.

245 | Jan 6; 1911 9 | Max.amp. 25mm D 20m.
246 ‘i 12 SHS MS ye A 5 smcormms » 6m,
247 a 12 eas e 3) Zon. >», 12m.
248 38 14 2 48 £5 » 25mm. » 50m. Two shocks, the

"second from 3h. 25m. 30s.
53 | Max. amp. 1mm. D 30m.
42 “Mahan ants » 80m. Commencement
and end uncertain.
251 = 30 18 55 52 Amp.‘25mm. D 1m,

252 » Sl} 11 22 47 | Max. amp. Imm. D 20m.
Bes } os) sy 17 32°31 1p 00) Onigrameni 04. (52) Bitte

254 | Feb. 23} 13 47 23 a qo) oni: » 10m.
255 ES 26 13 47 29 A - Imm. =f bem:
256 eat 2G 10 12 19 e oe ea. ,, 28m. Two shocks.

258 | - 98! 16 714 | Amp.-25mm. D 3m.
259 a 28 19 47 38 Max.amp.°75mm. D 15m.

260 < 28 VB es aah) 54 so 2mm. ye Orde
261 | Mar. 6/ 15 32 52 | Amp.:25mm. D 15m.
262 5 6 | 20 52 31 7m.

263 a3 tk Peale k Max. amp. ult 5mm. D 80m. Commencement and
end uncertain.

264 sb 12 955 10 | Max.amp.1lmm. D 50m.

265 Ss 17 19 44 48 Amp.*25mm, D 4m.

266 PL ac LD 13 45 35 “5 Ee Storer’
267 a6 21 14 58 47 Na ‘5mm. ,, 43m. Max. at 15h. 39m. 8s.
268 23 10 45 16 -, ldmm. — ,, 1h.38m. Max. at 1]h.16m. 16s.

Small P.'T.’s 28m.

269 + 23 14 57 41 Amp. ‘75mm. D 44m. Max. at 15h. 0m. 47s.
Small P.T.’s Im. 2s.

270 » 25] 145819 | Amp.-bmm. D 45m. Max. at 15h. 21m. 14s.
271 » 25:| 20 39 62 | Amp.:25mm. D 3m.

272 | April 3 Tel", APU sig eit: », 12m.

The preceding fart of this List is contained in the ‘ British Associa-
tion Report ’ for 1898, pp. 179-276.

166 REPORT—1899,

In its original form the akove List did not contain records numbered
170, 173, 176, 177, 178, 190, 191, 198, 204, 205, 206, 208, 209, 211, 212,
218, 224, 227, 234, 236, 237, 241, 242, 243, 244, 251, 258, 261, 262, 265,
266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, and 272. The reason for the omission was
that these records were so small that it was not considered likely that
they would be recorded at other stations. I call them the subsidiary
list.

Between March 18 and 21 the original list was sent to stations No. 1
to 19,1 and also to Strassburg, Padua, Rome, Rocca di Papa, Casa-
micciola, Catania, Potsdam, Nicolaiew, Edinburgh and Bidstone.

On April 14 the subsidiary was forwarded to Cadiz, Bombay, Toronto,
Potsdam, Rome, Rocca di Papa, Catania, Paisley and Kew.

The responses have, when necessary, been reduced to Greenwich mean
civil time, and are contained in the following tables :—

2. England: Kew Observatory. Superintendent, Dr. Cuares Curr, F.R.S.

Kew has met with difficulties in common with Shide, but the tremors
have not been so frequent or pronounced. Why certain earthquakes like
Nos. 196, 207, 214, 220, 221, 225, 246, 247, &e., were not recorded, whilst
the amplitudes of large earthquakes are smaller than the same at Shide
and at the same time show phases of maxima movements farther separated
in time than they appear to be at the latter place, is difficult to under-
stand. The most likely explanation is that at Kew the foundations of
the instruments rise from an extremely thick bed of soft tertiary materials
more or less saturated with water, whilst at Shide the piers rise from the
surface of upended beds of comparatively hard, diy chalk.

The Kew Register.

Such a statement as ‘normal line or line, ‘2 mm. ; tremors, 0:4 mm.’
means that the full width of the line (not the half width) was -2 mm. when
undisturbed, but -4mm. when disturbed. In such a case the amplitude
would be 5 (-4—+2), or ‘1 mm. On the other hand, when it is said either
that ‘max. amplitude = 0-9 mm.,’ or ‘amplitude = 5-5 mm.,’ it is meant
that the half width of the central line was 0:9 in the former and 5-5 in
the latter case. The ¢rwe amplitude would be in the former case, say,
0‘9—«, when 2a was the undisturbed width of the line, whatever that
might be at the time.

At Kew variations in the full width of the line from ‘1 to ‘3 mm. are
noticed.

Milne Seismograph started at Kew Observatory on April 19, 1898.

Shide Time of the '
No. | No, Date | Commence- Remarks: (D=duration in minutes)
; | ment
|
1898.

ieee

1 | 195 April 25 TS Geb <9 Character slight. D=2. Faint tremors

1ih. 14m. to 11h. 24m.
—_— » 20 Wpye ae) Fairly well marked. D=12. Max.

tremor 0°4 mm.

1 See British Association Report, 1898, pp. 180-182.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, 167

Tue Kew REGISTER—continued.

Shide Time of Fs ;
No. ENG Date Commence- Remarks: (D=duration in minutes)
ment
Bite tan Bs
3 — | April 29 Si ond Slight. D=2. Normal line=:2 mm. |
‘ Max. tremor="5 mm.
4 199 May 7 6 4:0 Very faint tremors at intervals from
6h. 4m. to 6h. 41m. Most marked at
Gh. 10°5m. and 6h. 39m. |
5 — 3 8 8 373 Slight. D=2. Normal line=:2 mm.
Tremor=06'4 mm.
6 — eager LO 1 49:2 Slight. D=23. Normal line=:2 mm.
Tremor =0°5 mm.
ff —- se EL 12P or Slight. D=2. Normal line=:2 mm.
Tremor = 0:4 mm.
8 — SH LE So oie Slight. D=2. Normal line=‘2 mm.
Tremor=0'5 mm.
) — et 12 45°5 Very slight; little more than a broaden-
ing of the line,

10 — Pa ie ll 545 5, . a

11 -? ” 22 12 45-0 ” ” ”

12 Fe } ” 23 14 TA ” ” ”

« 97 9 Re.

a He a7 2 eo | Slight pulsations for about 35min. |
meas, 3 21-7) Max. at 3h. 15m. |
20K31 —_ Boom ‘ off’ greater part of time. |

14 —_— June 1 16 182 Smallmovement. D=3. Line=-lomm. |

Tremor = 0-4 mm. |

15 | 210 Pe 3 Lt O37 Fairly well marked. D=8. Max. at

| 17h. 145m.

16 = | a eld 14 22:8 Very slight. D=5.

17 een iy 4c Kh 18 41:7 Ps | Deet

18 211 ae abo Ti te: Little more than a broadening of the

line.

19° | 213 | oa 2k O 46°35 Fairly well marked movement. D=

| 64:8. Max. at 0°59°1, with a sudden

| movement. Max.amplitude=0')mm.
= 0:55, followed byslowly decreasing |

| tremors till 1h. 51:1m. |

20 — | eo al 19 2:8 Slight. D=4m. Normal line=:2 mm. |

| Tremor ="4 mm.
| A long series of slight tremors, the |
21 214 ee 6 544 times given being for the commence- |
| T 122 ment of the major movements, but
T 365 there was almost constant movement
| till apparently 9h. 6:5m.

22 | 215 ye er 18 47:2 The largest disturbance recorded here
during 1898. The maximum move-
ment was at 19h. 21‘6m., with an
amplitude of 5°5 mm.=3''36 of arc;
the next largest swing occurred at
19h. 26°2m., with amplitude of
5mm. The movements grew smaller
and smaller until 20h. 4:2m., but
there were numerous tremblings up
to 21h. 86m. 1

23 | 216 July 2 4 25:4 Short, but well defined. Began sud- |
denly, with almost no preliminary
tremor. Max. was at 4h. 28°5m.,
with an amplitude =0°5 mm,

24 | 217 a 2 16 25°8 Very slight. D=4}.

168 REPORT—1899.

THE Kew REGISTER—continued.

Time of
Commence- Remarks : (D=duration in minutes)
ment
H M.
21 44:5 Very slight. D=2.
18 3-0 Succession of slight tremors, lasting for
15m.
22 93 Very slight ; little more than a broaden-
ing of the line.
11 35:0 Very slight. |
14 25 Slight. D=3. Line-15mm. Tremor
="3 mm.

30 — 25 14 36:1 Slight. D=7. Line -2mm. Tremor
='6 mm.

Aug.13-28 — Action of boom doubtful. ? Grazing
scale plate.

31 — 4 30 15 393 Very slight ; a mere broadening of the
line.

32 230 A Bill 20 4:0 Large disturbance, lasting for Th.

, 33°6m. Max. amplitude=5°5 mm.

33 — Sept. 3 9) O35 Very slight. D=14. Line -2 mm.
Tremor ‘4 mm.

34 231 a 3 15 54:0 Very slight. End at 16h. 14m.

35 232 Ae lS) 18 11:3 Very slight.

36 = ies 10) 12/284 Very slight. D=1}. Line -2mm. Tremor |

‘4mm.
37 | 233 ees 12 46:5 Long periods of smal) swings, lasting
from 12h. 465m. to 2h. 98m
Maxima at Ih. 10m., lh. 39:-4m., and
lh. 442m. Max. amplitude=0'"'31,.

38 | 234 Pree) 0 503 Small. D=13. Max.at 0h.53m. Line
‘3mm. Tremor *8 mm.

39 — ALS 17 40:0 ? Tremor or light flare. D=14.

40 -~ Peck) 14° 48'S Very slight ; just a broadening of line
for 3m.

41 | 235 Oct. 11 16 59-2 Fairly well marked period of small

swings, lasting lh. 16m. Max. at
17h. 387m. and 17h. 45.5m. Am-
plitude =0'"33.

42 237 3 12 13 20°6 Small. Preliminary tremors 2°5m.
Max. at 13h. 23°5m., with ampli- |
tude =0'"30.

43 238 i 15 4 280 Slight. D=3. Line‘15mm. Tremor
‘5 mm.

44 | 239 Nove 17 13° 387-2 Movement well marked, but swings not
large. Preliminary tremors 108m.
Max. at 13h. 46-4m. and 13h. 58°6m.
Total D=53. Max. amplitude =0''60.

45 | 240 Deer 1 12 516 Very slight. D=24.

46 | 241 +) ,, 3 eles Very slight; scarcely more than a
broadening of line.

” 3 3 70 ” ” ”
1899.

47 | 245 Jan. 6 19 37:0 Slight. D=15. Line-4mm. Tremor
‘8 mm.

48 — 5 6 19 415 Slight ripples lasting, say, for 28 mins.,

with max. at 20h.4:2m. Line -d5 mm.
Tremor 1 mm.

ON SEISMOL@GICAL INVESTIGATION, 169

THE Kew REGISTER—continued.

Shide Time of
N Date Commence- Remarks: (D=duration in minutes)
os ment
WY. MM.
248 Jan. 14 | 2 58:2 Well-marked disturbance. First max.

at 3h. 26°5m., second at 3n. 28°2m.
| Max. amplitude 1:75 mm. = 1’"03,
Total duration 1h. 113m. (Dovration
of preliminary tremors 27-2m.)

249 pee ee, i BH) 22:2 Short, but well marked. Max. at
sh. 29m., with amplitude 0''-77.
| D = 27'5. (Preliminary tremors 5°6m.)

— | ew BO 19 62:6 Slight. D=38. Line ‘4mm. Tremor
‘7 mm,
250 Po ed ny 23 476 Large and distinct movement. First

max. at Oh. 355m. on 25th, with
amplitude 2/14; second max. at
Oh. 426m., with amplitude 2/44,
The amplitude exceeded 0'"5 till
1h. 10m., and then died down very
gradually. Total D=2h. 696m.
(Preliminary tremors 4%:4m.)

251 i) 18 45:8 Only a broadening of the normal line.

252 We TE 21:8 A short. but distinct movement, dying
off very gradually. Max.at 11h. 25m,
Amplitude =0'"30. D uncertain, pro-
bably 21m.

253 ol 17 313 Tery small; just a broadening of line.
D from 2-4,

— Feb. uf 10 DH ST ” ” ”?
12 42°7 ” ” ”
13 9:0 = a: nf
— ” 1 bal VaR yr ” ” ”
= 4 Z 10 42:8 5 + ”
11-169 a 3 ”
— iam 12 12:0 Slight. D=23. Normal line -4 mm.
Tremor ‘8 mm.
254 eB} 13 49°5 Slight. D=6. Normal line -3 mm,
Tremor ‘6 mm.
255 a 126 13 49:0 Very slight; just a thickening of line.
D=9 mm.
256 eet, Il 27-5 Small movement. D=25. Line-3mm.
Trace 1-0 mm.
257 ae Ith 15 27:2 Very slight. D=3.
-= se ES ‘te bie Slight. D=8. Line -3mm. Tremor
“8 mm.
259 het 40 19 485 Slight. D=6. Line ‘3mm. Tremor
‘S$ mm.

262 Mar. 6 20 36-7 Very slight. End at 21h. 9:2m.
A short series of small movements,

abd = , ; “au lasting from Jh. 17-7m. to about
1 (28 | Qhy yld-Smes, ax at. why Sar4m:
rr Line -2 mm. ‘Tremor ’8 mm.
264 1 ie 9 ba'T Faint suspicion of movement.
_- aw ild 12 28:9 Small. D=2. Line:l1mm. Trace ‘5 mm.
—_ rf 16 12 Of BS De sam. %;,),, 2 Ie
207 ae Oe: 15 25°5 Trace rather ill-defined, focus not being

good, but apparently lasted about
12m. Character slight.

— ih nie 22) 7 15°7 Slight. D=4. Normal line -2 mm.
Trace *5 mm:

170 REPORT—1899.

THE KEW REGISTER—continued.

Shia : Time of
No. ace Date Commence- Remarks : (D=duration in minutes)
No. ment

73 | 268 Mar. 23 ll 05 A series of small swings. Total dura-

tion 45m. First max. 11h. 20°2m.,

second at 11h. 22:2m. Max. ampli-
tude = 0''30.

74 | 269 » 22 |15 O 4) Small. D=18'5. Max. at 15h.14°7m.
Line -2mm. Tremor ‘8 mm.

75 = » 24 | 4 53 6 | Slight movementsonand off till 5h.30m.
| Line 4mm. Tremor -9mm.

76 270 jie 14 54 0 | Distinct movement.

17 271 yp tee2D 20 46 1 | Merely a broadening of the line.

(No further movements during March,
1899.)

3. Canada: Toronto. Meteorological Observatory.
Professor R. F. Srupart, Director.

The instrument has been moved from the small building outside the
Magnetic Observatory to the inside of the same. One result is that air
tremors have apparently entirely disappeared. The Observatory is
situated on a bed of alluvium, perhaps 100 feet in thickness and stretching
20 miles North, East, and West with Lake Ontario on the South. Beneath
the alluvium are granitic and other primitive rocks.

The purchase money for the Toronto instrument and the funds required
for the installation and maintenance of the same, and also for the installa-
tion of a seismograph at Victoria, B.C., have been provided by the Dominion
Government. The excellent series of results obtained from these stations,
amongst other things, throw light upon changes taking place aiong the
Eastern and Western Canadian seaboards. They have already attracted
the attention of scientific men, and will undoubtedly act as an incentive
for other Governments to work on similar lines.

The Toronto Register.

No. ee | Date eed Maximum End Amp. Remarks
1857.
BH. Mi, 4s: | B.. G, s.7] Ge a 4s.) ae

1| 133 | Sept. 20 19 24 O — Aircurrents| — —

i ee » al — 6 53 30 — ie cz,

3 — A 25 15 16 16 1517 0} 15 2016)! 05 —

4|} — | Oct. 13] 20 05 30 — — 0-2 oe

5} — 5 13 | 2214 O | Thickenin'g of line. |Dur. 4'm.

6 — Nov. 10 14 58 Q TS 2 ON ib ei 0: || 0:7: —

a aed i) 6 21 19 6 23 19 |Aircurrents} — —

8 | 153 Dec. 11 10 0 0 10 3 0; 1036 O| 1:0 —

9 — =e 19 14 38 O 14 38 O -= — =
10 | 156 5s 28 20 24 37 30 31 40 | 20 54 20 | 2:0 —
TT) 157 - 29 SZ ecO ml oD up taleleeod 0.) 6:9 —

1898.
12 — Jan, 20 0 54 0 0 58 22 12) Onl O03 —
13 | 161 % 25 0 13 30 0829 JO 2 3 0" 368 | — {

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 72

Tur Toronto REGISTER—continued.

No. pads Date eee Maximum End Amp. Remarks

|
H, M |S..| He M. S.|H.°M. 5S. .| MM.

14, — Mar. 20 12 48 38 2 5it 58 Wes 19) 1 011) 4270 —

i es 2 bos a3 2018 0 a 15 ax

16}; — » 29 | 15 35 80 | 15 38 27 | 15 41.29) 02 —

17 | 188 Apr. 6 12 44 40 12 54 44 | 13 312 | 5:0 Well marked.

18; 189 | ;,, 15 | Air currents; 7 26 40 |Aircurrents; 2:0 | Well marked.
22nd.

19; — » 21| 22 4241 | 23 24 7} 039 43 | 22 oo

| 23rd.

20 | 193 > 22 | 23-59 60 0 34 26|} 14912] 39 | Very pro-

| 23rd. nounced.

21 | 196 ee OO lor 2cez0nn| Grob 4 Du|aldeoneGe tes —

D2 199 | May 7 6 0 42 6 16 40 |Aircurrents) 5:2 | Large shake.

Se - 27 f 2 = ol 2 32 12 | Uncertain | 2:0 | Moderate.

94} 215 | June 29 18 45 41 18 55 18 | 20 43 41 | 16. | Very large.

| About

25 — | July 11 | Small displacements 20 h. and 23h. 15m.

26) — + 20 | Uncertain | 17 2 33 | Uncertain} 1:0 —

27| — ss 23 23 10 31 | 23 24 0 | 23 30 0} 05 Small but de-

cided.

28 — 4 24 19 56 54 19 59 O | Uncertain} 0°5 Small.

29 — ff 25 15-3L 39 15 39 0|16 40 0} 10 Moderate,
four distinct
| | shocks.

SG) —" | Ane 4) 4,5 21, | 4 5 21 |,.4°23 17 | 08 —

31 | — 2) 16.) 10.39. 5 | 10/4550 | lO 48 50°) 1:0 Three distinct

shocks.

32 | 230 » 81| 201753 | 21 3 20 | 22 12 36| 1-1 | Series of

small shocks.

33 | 231 | Sept. 3]| 1617 22 | 16 18 30 | 16 31 20| 02 Very small.

34 | 232 % 13 18 21 45 19 15 44 | 21 11 O | 21 Moderate.

35 — a 25 945 2 9 53 82 |10 1 0} 03 Small.

36 | — » 25 | 18 56 87 | 18 57 32) 19 16 50) O07 | Small.

37 | 235 | Oct. 11] 16 47 29 | 17 29 30| 17 47 29| 36 | Large.

38 | — pies 0 51 18 — — — | Very small.

39 | 2939 | Nov. 17| 13 9 46 | 13 44 50| 14 44 2/| 15 | Marked.

40 | — he 20 124 1 —- — — | Very small.

41 | — | Dec. 5 |Anoticeable thickening [of the line at 16h. 7m.

42); — - 11 faa Lb -— — — | Decided, but

| small,

43) — 20 8 2 55 — — | — | Thickening of

the line.
hit n eh D2. Boney | |. {| Twoverysmail
ie LA ey | 540 8f = Saeaice a ones.

45 | 245 | Jan. 6 19 9 8 | Uncertain} 19 57 0) — | Succession of

: small shocks.

46 | 246 bx. pe k2 3 47 50 _— _ 0-4 | Very small,

| but decided.

47 | 248 seo 14 24218 | 257 6| 4 8 51) 3:2 | Moderate.

48 | — » 6 2f | 12,14 os — — — | Very small.

1899.

49 | 250 | Jan. 24] 23 50 24 01210| 2 27 9-5 | Large.

50 | 252 as 31 11 36 0 UVES Tel sh 12 242%) < 0:2 =

51; — | Feb. 7 — 22 4 0 — ==) |) Minutes

52) — » 8 | 19 24 14 | 19 34 23 | 19 58 14 | 05 | Very small.

53 | 25! » 23 |Aircurrents; 14 4 0 — 05 | Very small.

172 REPORT-—1899,
THE TORONTO REGISTER—continued.
No Shide Date epee Maximum End Amp Remarks
Pa at INO, ment .
H. M. S. Be OM) §, eM. ee 8, ||) MOAT.

54 | 2562 | Feb. 27 11 41 10 ll 42 20 — 10 | Very small.

55 | 259 Fi 28 20 O15 20 1 0/20 8 O| O03 | Very small.

56 | 263 | Mar. 7 1 19 29 2 1 0) 219 29] 03 | Small.

57 | 264 se ML: 9 52 11 DDS) af HALONS2) 11 |) o335 Moderate.

58 | 266? — oes — — — —

59 | 268 oe LOR 52. | G6 On At 521-06" | Smalls

60 | 269 pe ee Thickenin g of line at, 14h. 45m. |47s. Duration, 20m.

61) — ca Bie) Js — 5 14 18 | 03° | Very small.

62 | 270 i eee 14 44 37 14 46 57 — 05 | P.T.’s marred
by air cur-
rents.

63 | — | Apr. 5 8 33 38 Thickening of line uncertain.

6 yb ed | AT 65-0 | 17 69 "4 H9NSe. “310-6 || Small:

65 | -— sy) let) | 4,0) 8 411 0| 431 8] O4 | Very small.

66 | — 3 14 6 56 43 Te 8 7 745 | 06 | Very small.

67 | — » 16) 13 48 59 | 14 2 48 | 15 22 10] 7:0 | Large © and
continuous.

68 | — a 17 2) 211 3 0 0} 38 059; 06 | Seriesofsmall
shocks.

69| — | May 8 3 50 22 3 5122 | 447 0 °3. | Very small.

70; — . 12 15 44 5 15 46 0); 1554 0} O-+ | Small.

71 | — | June 5 4 38 42 45416] 7 38 51/1147 | Very large.

72 -— 3 5 15 7 24 LSMVG 0) 17-18 0) 1070 Very large.

Instrument put into basement January 19, 1899.
Double vibration of boom 15 seconds or the same as before.

4. Canada: Victoria, B.C. Mr. FE. Baynes Rein, Superintendent.
Mr. F. Napirr DENIson tx charge of the Seismograph.

The instrument is in the basement of an old brick building with stone
foundation en the shore of the harbour. It is placed on a solid concrete
pillar, built on bed rock not many yards distant from the water. I am
not aware that troubles arising from ‘air tremors,’ or other causes, have
interfered with the regular working of the instrument.

The Victoria Megister.

No bails Date aera Maximum | Ending “Ap | Remarks
13898.
He 0M: 85 || Hs St. 8. He OM. 6, |) “DON

D235. Oct oT | 16 44 sa — — -— | Faint curve.

2; — Bi 3 040 0 —- HPs by eat) 2°5 | Faint curve.

3 | 239 | Nov. 17|13 7 0 | Various plicsl4h.50m.) 0-5 | Series of small
shocks.

4! — | Dec. 11]! 6 653 58 — — — —

5} — IW Vay: 71352) 725 0} 919 O|} 1-2 | Medium.

6 — 33 a 858 7 —_— —_ — —

7/ — » 191017 0 |Tremors ex|tending 15|b.45m.| Very slight.

8); — pec OE Soa lye 0. — — — | Minute tre-
mors.

9); — as Dele i) PASEO — _— — Minute tre-

mor.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 173

THE VICTORIA REGISTER—continued.

No. mate Date ect °e"! Maximum Ending | Amp. Remarks
ELEMIS: fil MY MSP S24] Uo aes
10} — | Dec. 23; 4 1 0 — = — | Quake in Vic-

| toria. Some
sections es-
| caped.

Also on Dee. 1, 13h. to 14h., and again at 19h. 40m. small shakes,

1899.

1246 | Jan. 12 | 3°35°16 1.3.36 16 |~3 40 16 | 0:9 | Small:

12 | 248 Fé 14 2 42 30 2 55 28 3 43 30 8-1 | Large.

13 soe cout 2) (O30 — _ — | Marked little
vibrations,
2h.

14) — » 2£/] 12 17 30 | 1217-50 | 12 23 30 | O02 | Very small.

25th. 25th.

15 | 250 » » | 2351 7] 0 5386! 315 O| 20. | Very large.

16 | 252 pe ok 40! On ale e6el E46 O O1 a

17 | — | Feb. 8 19 31 59; 19 85 0] 19 40 0} O:4 | Very small.

18 | 254 ee yous, 6.40 Ia S33: 4 12. Bel Ord —

ES) |) 265 on 26) 14 6 23] 14 § 24] 1417 19 O1 —

20} — Wee | lorie ea lor tre la orb 7h Ot —

21 |, 259 » 28 | Slight thic/kening of tjhe line 20h], 5m. tio 20h. 12m.

22 | 263 | Mar. 7 1 165 13 116 15 217 13 0-4 —

23 | 264 so) 2 949765.) 9059) 30) | 10E49 55). 0-4 —

24 | 266 win, LO) | Lsels 43 — 13 24 43 | 0-9 —

25 268 { Hee PLO Sona LLG Lia eS. |e aD —

26 }2 aera 0 le lOl Ap ao = = — ‘} Very small.

27 | 269 +9 ee ee bo: ZO eS) bell Th. 30r 48) ho —

28 Sedan vane oO Dd. Load 5 20 54 5 27 15 0:6 —_

29 | 270 20 | 14-46 25" Wo “O) Lana. 23016 Aah ==

30 | — | April 65] 818 O |Thickening} of the line) — —

eke eh — ae 6 339 46) 4 513; 43852) O1°| Very small
shocks.

32); — py ke ET AG 218 19) OT Bear sa 0 | Very ~small
vibrations
from 13h.

| 55m.

33 SN I er nen 359 15: 4 25 59 5 12.28 0-4 | Series of small
shocks.

34 a 5 alle § 7 9 10 F939. 7 16 20 0-4 | Very small.

35.| —- » 16) 13 42 30 |Number of| 15 33 42 | — | Largeandcon-

vibrations tinuous.
across slit

36 a ay ey al 1s}? ams} 2 26 37 3 34 Of 1:15) Medium.

of | — | May 8] 3 45 30.| 3 46 36]! 4.35 31 | O71 | Very small.

38 | — » 15 | 20 65 21 |Thickening| 20 16 16} — | Very small, |

of the line may be air |
| currents.

39} — | ,, 25/19 0 0 |Thickening! of theli | — te

Also Jan. 30 about 18h. 44m. 15s. a thickening of the line.
Feb. 27 about 10h. 12m. Os. air current effect.

From January 7, 1899, swing was increased from 15 to 20 secs. March 25 boom
put at 17 secs.; ending March 4, 15 secs.; April 1, 17 secs.; April 8, 17 secs.

174 REPORT—1899,

5. Spain: Cadiz. San Fernando. Instituto y Observatorio de Marina.
Director, Commodore J. VINIEGRA.

When first installed the instrument at this station showed but few
movements of the ground, and these were slight. On April 27, 1899, it
was therefore dismounted, but set up again on the same day ; the position
of the balance weight being slightly altered and a more perfect equilibrium
of the boom assured. Its “period i is 16 seconds. Now it appears to work
better, but the vibrations are not very intense as compared with those
from other localities. This lack of sensitiveness may, Commodore
Viniégra remarks, be due to the foundations, in which there are several

‘stone furrows,’ surrounded with mud.

The San Fernando Register.

Shide | Date Commence-

No No. | Seats Remarks
“= a= |
1898.
H, Ma... 8:
1 Feb. 18 | 16 25 49 | Rapid barometrical fall.
2 wp eed 10 54 49
3 | 170 Js pee. a Earthquake recorded.
4| 172 | Mar. 5 | 16 30 49 | Small movements up to 10h.
5 | 185 | April 3 744 4
6 | 188 + 6 12 36 49
7} 193 » 22 | 235951 | Max. 23h. Om. 366s. Amp. 34mm. D
ih. 40m.
8 | 196 29 16 37 19
9| 199 | May 7] 5 57 49
10 | 209 SS ae 0 21 30 Rapid deviation of 4 mm.
June 19-July 21, main-spring of clock
broken.
11 | 230 | Aug. 31 ¥ Earthquake recorded.
12 | 234 | Sept. 13 | 18 10 49 eT
13 ¥ 19 19 4
September 20-24, not working.
14 | 235 | Oct. 11! 17 2719
1899.
15; 245 ; Jan. 6; 1914 4
16 | 256 | Feb. 11 35 49
17 | 259 28)| 19°56 49
18 | 263 | Mar. 7 1 49 49
19 | 267 yn 21] 15 58 19 ,
20 | 268 » 23} 11 40 34 | Rapid deviations to 11h. 56m. and 15h. 42m.
21 | 270 » 25 | 14 52 19

April 1-4, watch removed and replaced by
an electrically moved pencil.

~)
ou
~)
Je)
(y=)
qy
2
4
Vd 4 bo OT Or
_
~)
or
Je}
to
i=)

22 | 290 | June 4 40 55
ep ee) as ae 15 6 55
24 | 293 14} 11 18 16
26 i 7 012
27 is 8 0 2
28 | 302 | ,, 9 0 42
29°|°806-|->,, - 11-|-. 7-bT-2B
30| 307 | ,, 12| 14112
31 ag 1 a ey
32| 308 | ” 44] 12 46 30
33 B eag 12.0 axeas

sI

qr

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. a

6. India: Madras. Director, Dr. C. Micu1e SM1rH.

Dr. C. H. Michie Smith writes as follows :—

‘The instrument is placed in the old magnetic room of the Observa-
tory on one of the old piers. The surrounding ground is mainly a stiff
clay which cracks during the hot weather, leaving fissures many inches
deep. The Observatory is on a plain, and is about three miles from the
sea and 20 feet above sea level. No air tremors were experienced during
the time under report, but the instrument gave a great deal of trouble
specially owing to changes in the length of the suspending silk thread,
caused probably by alterations in the amount of moisture in the air. The
instrument will be removed to Kodaikanal as soon as a room is ready
for it.’

The Madras Register.

Shide Prelim. | shock | Maxi- | 3 | Shock | Fina
No. |"xo Date | Tremors | jocins ime | ae Beat Tremor Remarks
; begin Deen om | ee ends
1898
H. M. Ss. | H. M. 8. | H. M. S.| MM. | H. M.S. | H. M. S.
1 | 201 May 21?| 17 14 25 | 17 20 1/17 20 1 0°75| 17 26 5 | 17 35 38 _
— | 201 —_ — 19 54 0 — 05 | 19 55 O _ —

2 | 210? — — — — _ _— _ About this time
a large number
of small dis-
turbances, but
none character-
istic of a true
shock—possibly
theywere caused
by a spider.

—j| — | June 4 _ _ a — _~ _ Instrument not
to working,
Aug. 11

3 | 230 | Aug.31 | 20 2 5 | 2012 25 | 2018 0j| 10 | 20 33 35 | 20 43 36 _

4} — | Sept. 9 _— > 48 38 _— <0 3 40 47 —_— mc

5 | 232? 3) LS _ 17 34 25 — — | 17 35 37 — Very slight.

6 | 233 2 = 12 34 43 = — | 12 39 13 = a

7) — 3) 28 = 12 24 13 = == (2.31 19 = 4

8) — Oct. 1 _ 3 27 49 329 1 —_ 3 30 31 _ t

9 | 235 ? cp alli —_ 17 2 36 _ — | 175912 _— Probably due to
a thunderstorm.

10 | 238 ala — $5019] 35225) 1:2 356 40| 4 6 26 | Felt as a shock
in N. India,

11| — | Nov.12 _ 947 1 —_ —_ 9 48 31 — Very slight.

12}; — 3 30 —_— 12 32 30 — _ 12 35 0 — 8

13 | 240 | Dec. 1 | 12 45 14] 12 52 21/1255 9| 10/13 343] 18 911 —

14 _— = — 12 631 — _ 12 10 31 _ Very slight.

15 — joe _ 13 15 31 — — 1319 1 _ py

1899

16 — | Jan, 23 _ 2 425 2 449 05 210 25 —_ _

17 | 251 » 30 _ 17 48 19 | 17 52 25 | 1°0 L767 +1 — =

18 — | Feb. 5 — 14 8 29 | 14 18 31 | 3°0 14 52 46 — —

19 _ oe — 16 41 5 | 16 48 51 | 2°0 16 55 34 — —

20 _ 6 _— 18 32 36 | 18 37 35 | 15 18 43 47 —_ —

21 _ AG _— 20 42 15 | 2046 4] 15 20 54 32 _— —_

22 —_ ea _ 4 53 29 5 331] 1:0 518 0 _— —

23); — os we — 20 28 27 | 20 33 7 | 2°5 20 49 27 — Time slightly un-
certain.

24 — =e _ 050 1 0 54 31 | 1:0 PO. 4 — —

25 - » 10 _ 13 36 28 | 13 45 21 | 10 13 46 54 — ?

Norvss.—After November 12 the period of the oscillation may be taken as 16 secs, Before that time it
was less, but the exact period is very uncertain aud was variable.

:

176 REPORT— 1899.

7. Bombay: Colaba. Abstract from Report by N. A. F. Moos, Esq., Director of
the Government Observatory.

The instrument at the Bombay Government Observatory is installed
in a small isolated building 10 feet square and 14 feet up to the eaves,
which was formerly used for electrostatical observations. It has a gable
roof, and is well ventilated on all sides. On the west side, at a distance
of 40 feet, is a carriage drive leading to the Directors’ quarters, and at a
distance of 70 feet in the same direction, and parallel to the drive, is the
main road outside the Observatory compound. On the east side, there is
toa distance of 60 feet open ground as far as the thermograph shed,
beyond which an open tract continues to the sea. On the north side
there is a small well and open ground for 120 feet, where the observers’
quarters are situated. Probably in consequence of a copious ventilation,
no troubles have been experienced with the so-called earth tremors.

The pier is oriented N.S. and E.W., and located in the centre of the
room. Its foundation was dug 5} feet below the flooring of the room,
which is 1} feet above the ground. At this depth a huge boulder was
struck, upon which was laid a bed of concrete 5 x 5 feet square and 2 feet
deep. Over this a mass of rubble masonry 4 x 4 feet and 15 feet thick
was built, and upon this a brick pillar 15 feet square and 55 feet high,
On the top of this there is 1 inch of cement and a }-inch marble slab.
On the north side to carry the clock box there is a heavy table 3 feet
9 inches square. The Observatory stands on somewhat elevated ground
formed of basaltic traps, with their inter-trappean beds of hard red earth.

The records commence on September 8, 1898. The period of the boom
has been kept at 18 secs., the sensibility being such that a deflection of
1 mm. corresponds to a,tilt of 0°38”. No ditticulties have been experi-
enced in the working of the instrument beyond an occasional slight falling
of the boom, due, perhaps, to a stretching of the silk thread at the upper
end of the tie. The sensibility is determined weekly by observation and

by deflections whilst the film is in the box, thus preserving a photographic
record of the same. By stretching a fine wire across the slit in the clock
box an accurate zero line is obtained.

. Regular tremors and pulsations are absolutely absent.

The list on the next page only contains records which correspond with
records obtained in the Isle of Wight. The complete Bombay Catalogue,
commencing on September 8, 1898, to June 2, 1899, contains 2,021 entries.
These refer to shocks which were lccal, and do not appear to have reached
Europe, curious irregular sinuosities varying in period from a few minutes
to an hour, sudden displacements or dislocations in the position of the
boom, and numerous thickenings of the normal record. The latter, in
some instances, may be the result of slight earth tremors, but where they
are continuous over several hours and have an irregular, bead-like
appearance, it is likely that they are due to air currents. Movements
due to such causes are most frequent at night. The cause of the sinuosi-
ties and sudden displacements is at present unknown.

In an official report on the condition and proceedings of the Colaba
Observatory, dated April 29, 1899, in reference to Seismology, Mr. Moos
says, that the seismograph appears to give every satisfaction. At first
tremors were absolutely absent, but they appeared in the middle of
November, and subsequently caused great trouble. To arrive at the
causes producing these tremors, Mr. Moos has instituted a series of experi-

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, 177

ments, and he has found it possible to suppress their existence by regulating
the temperature and draught in the room by four small kerosine lamps
kept burning between 8 p.m. and 9a.m. The introduction of these lamps
also results in giving the zero of the boom a fluctuation almost analogous
to that observed in the diurnal wave.

Excerpt from the Bombay Register.

: |
No. ie Date if cent ee! Maximum End Remarks
1898.
A. OM, 8. [as Me. Bi H. M, 8.
1 | 232 | Sept. 13/ 18 53 28 _- 18 56 10| Thickening of line.
2 | 233 » 22) 12 40 45 | 12 49 8 12 54 24) Eleven bead-like
| movements.
ay2st | 4, 25) 1218 37] 12 20 36 12 31 53 | Small disturbance.
#} 235 | Oct. 11/17 2 36 | 17 36 42 | 17 48 57 | Earthquake. Amp.
0'-78.
5 | 238 ee Looe oedGo Ady |. SAG 24: 4 849) Earthquake. Amp.
2'°03. Felt over
Northern Bombay.
6 | 239 |Nov. 17} 13 14 19 | 13 34 0 14 3910} Earthquake. Amp.
3’”-80.
7 | 240 » 80} 21 4°36 — (Dec.1) 3 49 25) Real movement
| masked by feeble
tremors. Also Dec.
| 1 from 12h. 43m.
l7s.
8 | 2417?/ Dec. 8] 2 49 58 — = | Dislocation.
9 | 244 syn 20) 28.1:5 -— (5th) 31558 | Movement masked
by tremors,

4.899.
10 | 245 |Jan. 6] 19 13 40 — (7th) 4 43 34 | - ue
11 | 246 svt | LOFAZs44 — (12th) 411 36) te i
12 | 247 we el. 9) Sa 24 — — Dislocation with vi-
| bration.
13 | 248 USA IMS) SITY — (14th) 421 2 + Movement masked
| by tremors.
14 | 249 ase eet aD Ay — — | Dislocation W. with
| vibration.
15 | 250 3 ea Lab noo — == » ”
16} 251 a OOP Lee DOUG PIB ro 18 15 28 Small disturbance.
| 252 » 981) 12 23 20 — — Dislocation E. with
vibration,
18 | 253 » 81! 17 16 2) ~- — Thickening of line.
19} 256 | Feb. 27} 10 42 20 — — Dislocation W. with
vibration,
20 257 ” 27 | 14 40 50 — a » ”
21 | 259 » 28] 20 9 23 — = ” ”
22) 263 |Mar. 7| 0 3 47 — 13113) Tremors mask the
real record.
23 | 264 3) 12 ):10 32 41 oo _- Thickening of line.
24 | 268 Pee! Le? 30) [LL 4 46 12 22 4) Small disturbance.

8. India: Calcutta, Alipore Observatory.
G. W. Kicuinr, Assistant Meteorological Reporter.

At the above Observatory, in consequence of an indifferent foundation,
dampness, the presence of insects, and from other causes, great difficulties
have been met with in working the instrument. These to some extent

1899. N

178 REPORT—1899).

have been overcome, and it is expected that better results will be
obtained,

The Caleutta Register.

| Shide |

Ore | Cons Date Time Remarks
| No. | |
1599. |
Me. eM. “ZS sheet H, ow. Ss |
1 —- Jan. 18 16 $12 2 | Hndi6 50 10
2 — Ed 25 21 be “3 eee aon Lt |
3 == Feb. 18 3 15 52 | 4, 38 29 45 Amp.lessthan2mm.|
4 — 93 23 3. 883" Wy see sow) = <2). +53, “2p
5 264 | Mar. 12 8) bt 520 pee) wd 2 pS
6 266 | ‘9 19 12°36" 1S Oi Re Pio So ibs. ,, Aime
| Seago. cat 9 12 24 | £3
8 267 | FF 21 14 43 6 See hoee9 Stbd
9 269 | 4 2B wee nS) 2.88 pete Sie ¢,, pA amme
10 | — | a 26 | 11 53 47 | (about)

The above have been extracted from a selected list of disturbances
commencing January 15, 1899.

9. Java: Batavia. Magneetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium.
Director, Dr. J. P. vAN DER Srock.

Observations with the Milne horizontal pendulum commenced on
June 1, 1898. The period or time of double swing is kept at an average
of 17 seconds. It is installed in the magnetometer room. The observa-
tory is situated on a plain of alluvium. Difficulties arising from ‘air
tremors’ have not been reported from this station.

The Batavia Register.

| } Commencement
|
i) INo: Shide No. | 5 lft tes ary Duration
yg a | Small Pul- Maximum
| sations aA ae
| 1898. |
H. M. H. M. H. M.

{ie = June 4 15 37 15. 3:9 0 13°9
2 == Fue ike 8 05 § O7 0 35
3 A 9) 22 Pd eG eS 6 448 0 123
4 219 | duly 19 4°) gaege ig te eee 0 65
5 — ° sii 11 32:8 | Jl 375 0 32
6 Aug 1 16 68 | = 0 38
z 230 sy LAB 20 13 20 21-7 1 144

ee8 =2 Sept. 1 9 43 9 10-4 0 31-9 |
y = ale 18 47°8 18 55°8 0 17-0
10 BR 8 27°3 $ 28-2 0 44
Ts) 232 eel 18 21 18107 #8| “OuSn7

ipelizs 233 ee OD saat | 197-3 12 29-1 0 58:9
13 = 0 12 40 [ae 2 5D 0 58

1 es — | Oct. 2 14445 | --14 53: 0 23-4
15 | = es kien de Ogseiby 2h — Doubtful
16 [Pie RRC 20277 | 20 362 0 218
17 235 sei oii 16 49-7} hd 1 105
18 23 16 Sou 7e aH 4 21:2 0 130
19 | ae G3 10 54:5 10 55°9 0 23
20 = se GLS 19 25:0 19 290 0 39:3

Ee —

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 179

THE BATAVIA REGISTER—continued.

Commencement
No. Shide No. Date Garman. | / Duration
: Maximum /
sations
/ H. M. He, He, Me: |
a1 — | Oct. 22 0 93 0 19°6 0 26:6
22 = Nov. 2 11 28:8 | Jl 29:3 i 0
23 = Aro Rae 11 59°5 — oe.”
24 ia eS 15 33:4 15°33°6 o102 |
25 239 7 13 12°6 13 13:0 0376 |
26 - Fgh Oke 7 45-2 7 46:8 0 93 |
7k" = a 29) 22 34-0 22 36-4 0 94 |
28 | = in Dees 02 12 216 12 27-2 O14 |
29 243 eat S 16 59-9 17 06 0.20 |
30 — 5 4 7 18-0 T 25-4 Or5:05 |
3 = | =k 7 43:8 7 44-2 0289 |}
32 ze 6 10 28:6 10 28°8 0 21
33 ot tae BGS 13 31°5 13 34:8 F222"!
34 = So eyo 3 07 3°17 0 6-0
35 = ie dul 2 11:1 2 135 0 76
| 36 sie, Heel lYy 51:1 1 51:2 0 06
37 = DI 3 52:3 3 53:5 0 2-4
38 =e + ay 9 29 9 49 0 29:8
39 = 3 OB 21 56:0 21 56:2 0 O07
' 40 = » 29 2 446 2 44-9 i oes) |
j; 41 — | Pa aT 9 16-0 9 22:5 Ort
1899.
1 42 | 247 Janelle >| 8 43 l 8 88 0 15-0
; 43 | 264 [Mar 12s | — 10 $2 0 25-0

Nos. 15 and 19 were also recorded by Ewing’s Bracket Seismograpi).
Nos. 1, 4, 5, 6, 12, 15 and 19 were also felt at different places in West
Java and Sumatra. Earthquakes felt on the Eastern part of the Archi-
pelago (Moluccas) are not yet regularly recorded.

10. Mauritius: Royal Alfred Observatory. Director, T, ¥. Craxtoy, RAS.

The Observatory, in lat. 20° 5’ 39’S., and long. 3h. 50m. 12°6s. E., is
situated on a plateau about four miles from the north-west coas*, and
180 feet above mean sea level. The soil around the Observatory varies
from 3 to 14 feet in depth, below which is solid basalt. Extending for
about half a mile to the west is a forest, thickly wooded with thin acacia
trees, and to the east are principally fields of sugar cane.

The instrument is mounted with its boom pointing north, in a small
hut containing two brick pillars, formerly used for the electrometer. The
building is 8 feet long by 5 feet wide, and 9 feet high. The roof and
walls are of wood, covered on the outside with painted canvas, while the
floor is of concrete, I am not at present in a position to state whether
the foundation of the piers is on the solid rock, though it certainly is not
more than a few fect above.

Observations were commenced in the middle of September, 1898. All
the seismograms have been tabulated and subjected to analysis, and the
results will be published in due time; they show principally five
things :—

(a) That there is a large diurnal variation in level (probably larger

N2

180 REPORT—1899.

than at any other observing station) with a marked bi-diurnal effect, as
shown by Bessel’s interpolation formula, which for the months of October
1898, to March 1899, is

2/’-61 sin (9+ 295°°47’) + 0-73 sin (204+ 331°-57’) +030 sin (304 272757’),

indicating a possible connection with the atmospheric pressure; the
formula for the diurnal variation of which is

0:0108 in. sin (04+ 49°32’) +. 0:0285 in. sin (29+4+163°2’)
+0:0020 in. sin (39+ 26°4’),

(6) That rapid changes in the vertical occasionally occur on a large
scale, notably on 1898 December 5, 6 and 7, and 1899 January 7, and
February 10 and 11.

On December 5 (see diagram) after a dry period for a few days, a very
heavy cloud formed at about 11 a.m. ; its eastern edge was clearly defined,
and extended for about a mile to the Eastward ; shortly after noon very
heavy rain began to fall at and to the west of the Observatory. The
effect on the seismograph is seen in the accompanying diagram.

Fig. 1.

oS0

7-30 Dec. 5 1898 V/ Yj
: Wge Jabulations A

MMMM

(c) That air tremors occur every night, in spite of every precaution to
ensure copious ventilation, and the prevention of convection currents.
They begin at sunset with small movements, which rapidly become larger,
but, although of variable amplitude during the night, do not show a marked
maximum: they finally die away at sunrise. As a general rule the
tremors are greatest when the fall of temperature during the night is
greatest ; but this is not always the case.

(¢) That on almost every day the westerly movement of the boom
exceeds the easterly, indicating a gradual sinking of the land west of the
instrument.

We must conclude that this movement is only local, for if the whole
island tilted in this way as a rigid body, land would appear on the east
coast, which was previously submerged, and vice versd on the west coast,
and up to now I have been unable to obtain evidence that such a thing
has taken place.

(c) That the earthquake effects are comparatively small, as will be
seen from an inspection of the accompanying list. This makes us question
whether it is possible for the ocean to act as a damper to earthquake shocks.

hen records are forthcoming from Honolulu we may learn more of
this subject.

Beside the above five phenomena, there is another interesting point to

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 181

be considered : the variation in the scale value of the instrument. As
the boom points to the north, an increased sensibility means that the
boom pillar has tilted towards the south, and vice versd.

In the following table will be found the smoothed scale values for
every four days from 1898, October, to 1899, January. (A bar represents
an adjustment.)

Value of 1 Mill.

Day October November December January
4 33 38 25 32
8 32 50 ry) 41
12 31 45 38° 50
16 30 36 33 58 |
20 25 28 Ba 33 |
24 18 26 28 33
28 54 25 24 33
32 46 | 25 21 33

If the above figures are plotted down on acurve, after allowing for the
alterations for adjustment, it will be seen that the boom tilted towards
the south till November 25 ; was then practically stationary till the
middle of December, after which the tilting continued towards the south
till the end of the month, when a northerly tilt set in, lasting till
January 16, after which the boom was stationary.

Mauritius Register.

No. eo Date | Commence- Maximum Remarks
0. ment
1898.
H. M. S. H. M. S. A.
1}; — Sept. 19 — 1L 139 | 2/4. Commencement 1h.
earlier ?
2 | 233 se 2D, -— 13 50 25 =| 0'45.
3 | 238 Oct. 15 4 612 410 0 | 0'"15. D 22m.
4 | 239 Nov. 17 13 45 23 14 2 O | 0O'°66. D 40m.
5 | 240? Dec. 1 _— 0 58 43 | Karthquake?
6 | 244? ee 7 oOo @ 52. 'O |'0"-12.— D'4bm,
About
7 — Abii 7 O30 7 362-5 0-38. D lh. 22m. (See
Register for Toronto, Vic-
| toria, Nicolaiew.)
1399.
8 | 250 Jan. 25 — I 15) 45: 3 |-0"-99%
and
9° — I — Oa O From 6.30 to noon, about
20small disturbances. One
about 9h. looks seismic.
10 | 263 March 6 _ 23 20 O | Slight thickenings of the
to March 7 line.
1 Bi (0)
11 | 264 a le _ 8 20 0 | Slight thickenings of the
to line.
10 50 O

182 REPORT—1899.

11. Cape of Good Hope: Royal Observatory. Director, Davin G11, Esq., F.2.S,

The instrument was mounted on a concrete pier based on a rock
foundation, and was experimentally started on June 20, 1899.

At first difficulties were experienced in attaining the necessary amount
of sensitiveness. There appeared to be a large amount of friction which
prevented the boom swinging freely. This, however, was remedied by a
readjustment of the balance weights, and the instrument has been re-
cording with occasional interruption since July 1i.

The principal events so far registered are as below, the times being
referred to Greenwich mean civil time.

The Cape Register.

1899.
1. July 14—
H M.
Preliminary tremors . : : i b 18 47:2
Commencement of decided motion : LAL Te?
End of decided motion 5 : ‘ . 1b 32:6
Maximum amplitude, 3 mm.
Also recorded at Shide.
2. July 18—
H. OM.
Preliminary tremors . 2 : : «2 poll “1456
Commencement of decided motion : 2 2180

Maximum amplitude, 3 mm.
Times of maxima, 2]h. 23°2m., 2lh. 34:4m.

3. July 20—
Slight tremors from about Oh. to 7h., commencement and end not well
marked. More violent disturbance for about 10m.; maximum dis-
placement 23 mm. at 3h. 40m.

4. July 20—
Disturbance commenced at 19h. 17m. The motion subsided from
19h. 26:8m. but restarted at 19h. 44:2m., and finally ceased at 19h. 595m.

5. July 27—

Disturbance commenced without preliminary tremors at 15h. 4°7m.
Maximum displacement about 24m. after commencement. Greatest
amplitude of swing, 9mm. Total duration, 45m., with calm interval of
10m.

6. July 31—Violent disturbance.
H. M.
Preliminary tremors. - ; . s + 2 42:5
Commencement of decided motion. . 2 46:0
End of decided motion 5 ‘= : By sits}

The early part of this disturbance shows signs of a periodic character with a
period declining from about 6m. to about 3m. The latter half is much more -
irregular in form. Well-marked maxima at 2h. 47m., 2h. 52m., 2h. 57m., 3h. 1m.,
3h. 4m., and 3h. 25m. Displacements from centre amounting to 20 mm.

Several insignificant disturbances have also been recorded, besides those quoted
above.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 183

12. Russia: Nicolaiew. The Observatory.
Director, Professor T, Korvrazzi.

The Observatory of Nicolaiew (lat. 46° 58’:3, long. 2h. 7m. 9s.) is
situated on a sandy hill with gently sloping sides at an elevation of 50m.
above sea level. The streets of the town are at a distance of 150m., and
the railway more than | km.

The von Rebeur Horizontal Pendulum, with its photographic regis-
tering apparatus, is placed in a cellar on a pillar isolated from the walls
and the floor, The pillar is built of large blocks of very compact lime-
stone, covered with tar to prevent the absorption of moisture. The annual
change of temperature in the cellar does not exceed 4° R. Diurnal changes
are not perceptible. A deviation of 1 mm. in the position of the light spot
indicates a tilting of the pillar in the direction of the meridian of 0’-012.
The recording surface moves at the rate of 22 mm. per hour.

The Nicolaiew Register.

The times for commencement, reinforcement, maximum, and weakening are
indicated in Greenwich mean civil time :—4 amplitude = ya in millimetres. P.T/s=
duration of preliminary tremors.

; Nl :
~. |Shide {Commence-| Reinforce- e. | | Weak- Dara As : |
Xo. a Date Wont | afore Maximum | ha | ening | on fi Ss Remarks
i { ul | |
| 1898. /
| | | H. M tes. 5 He M. | MM. | ow) | Hsu} at
1} — | Mar. 6/ 2 46 | 3 2 ee ee — | 036 | 16
Aes Of 19npalee- 14 19 13 20 { = 12! 5
sh) , 25) 19 39 19 47
573 19 58 9 20 3 2 58'| 8
4); — BEND 9 9 56 55 110 7|040/ 3
5) — seh On|) Tee 37 15 595 | 16 2 105 [16 9) 1 15 | 295
0 16 75 019
§ 182 a) LOL 8 22 § 30 8 34 4 _— 0 30 8
i 185 Apr. 3 6 53 — 6 58 3 — 0 8 _—
8| 189 eh Tien lod = i 60 + |28 =, es) ee
9 _ AA op il 22 48 22 575 23 22 16 23 52 | 2 44 od
10| — ay Dee |) BBE AT — 23 58 10 -- — — | Pendulum in-
li 193 ae — (te 0 45 | 38 1 37 | 3 37 — clined 8 mm.
12 195 9s 25 11 105 ae ad ll 44 9 11 49} 142) 85 tothe S.
13; — i 28 14 27 14 445 14 54 75 — | 057, 175
14} 196 5 29136 30 1G 445
LG 92 ioe A 21 17 47 | 2 22 | 145
15 | 199| May 7] G 4 6 i 6 38 | 25 712|233| 7
ie — Seoul 19). au 9 39 9 42 4°5 2h O85 )) ee
17 _ ef ee 2 2 _ 2 22 4 — 1 20 _—.
Rk) — June 1 5 47 5 52 5 54 6 6 7] 0 48 8
19 210 EF } 16 57 —_— Dee 1) 5 —_— 0 30 —_—
20); — 2 6 19 37 — 19 58 5 — | 021) 21 P.T.’s followed
21} 213 5 LN. 0) “87 0 41° O 44 38 — |045) — by a single
22) 214 5 29 | G64 Tl jemth ally 7 46 shockat 19h.
i — 7 eo 15 755/3 1) — 58m.
23 —_— eS 23 «3k —_— 23 47 2 — 0 9 6
24 215 351 129 18 42 18 59 18 59 50? _ — 12
| 19. 17. 40? _— 3 45 At 18h. 59m.
Q5')' S16"| July 2) 4 29 4 23°5 ii) 9 _— — 15 to 19h, 7m.
26 meh 199.38 —_— 19 41 3 _ 0 15 _ and 19h.
27; — | Th 0) 48 _ 0 54 3 — |034) — 7m. to 19h.
28 221 | as Le 17 30 17 45 17 52 10 _ 0 37 | 15 22m. the
20 pets 6 22 6 37 6 37 2°5 — | 0 32] 12 traces are
30. 225 Aug. 8 8 25 8 44 8 54 7 917 | 1 47 | 19 searcely
31 ell Se} O 4% — 0 7 6 —_ 0 27 — visible.
32 —_ pea}. 16 375 —_— 16 39 25 _ 0 75 _
33 230 Ae 20. 39 — 20 42 20 — 058) — The photo-
B4 — | Sept. 1 9 11 9 20 9 39 22 10 10.) 2 29 9 gram indis-
35 _ aoe Liat 19 16 _— 19) 29 4 19 47 tinct.
| | 20 0 6 — Leis “a
36 | ,231 > 3) 16 32 15 59 1662 7 — |120 =
37 232 » 138 | 18 145 — 18 34 | 10
} \ 19 12 13 — 1|138| —

184 REPORT—1899.

THE NICOLAIEW REGISTER—continued.

; eae |
Shide : Commence-) Reinforce-| ,,__. Weak- | Dura-| 5, ms. ages
No. No. Date sank port Maximum] 4a ening | tion Rae Remarks
|
Hs M, He MY 5: gM MM. | H. M. | Hi. M. | M.
38 233 Sept. 22 12 44 12 3 isye aks) 29 1410/|258) 9
3 234 » 20 12 26 12 34 12 37 22 Pye bl i a i Me)
Ay) ae » 26.| 22° 37:5 — 22 42 5 — |018| 5
41 _ ee) 5 42 — 5 52 3 _ 010 | —_
42 _— 3 380 | 16 85 16 54 16 57 7 — | 032 9
43 _— Oct. 1 1 4 _ 15 55 8 _— 118]; —
44 _ dif 2 36 —_ 2 44 2°5 _— 0 8); —
45 — 2s 3 40°5 —_— 24 18 2 _ =~) t
46 235 ae! 16 49°5 16 595 TG 13 —_— 3 8} — At 17h. 20m.
47 | — » 22) | 22 14 — 22) 17 3 — — |— the paper
48} 238 ae) 3 28 4° 5 4 10 7 mi Lit! 37 was chang-
0 4 eH ed. No de-
ite = » 18] 19 565 |} 20 5 20 95 | 6 — (025 | 5 tails.
50 —_ 9 22 OQ 13° 0 28 0 32 45 0 39 — M] |
0 40 Th at) 19 1 27 | 2 25 | |
51 _— Nov. 2 A VbOS le 12 18 6 — 1/050; —
By) x a9 Gigs 47 = 18 48 35 Oe
ingp || Sn 7 29 7 395 7 42 3 — |0 35] 105 |
54 239 Poe Lf 13 63 13 12 13 37 18 13 62; 134) 9 |
0 17 |
55 240 Dec. 1 12 42 —_— 12 54 15 _ 10; — |
56 241? ec 6 18 os 6 19 3 — — —_
57] — Od pee rire 7 = 8 5 3 == ic BON neat
58 | — Sanit 8 10 = 8 20 4 — 1052/10 |
59 _ EO 13° 575 — 14 12 25 — 020; —
60 | — Peay 7 eds} 2: 7 28 35 | 7 84)
7 48 6 |8 7s|149] 9
61 _ wi lz 16 58 7.) Oe dive oe 35 — | 0 49} 1155
62 = ae, ae ale —_ 15 4 3 — }]110!] —
1899.
63 — Jan. 3 6 Ag ee a ied Nei — 0 38 | 28?
64 | 245 » 6| 19 23 = 19 46 65 | 19 57 | 1 39} 10
65 247? » 12 8 37 8 48 8 50 tf 8 59 | 045) IL
66 248 » 14 2 54 3. (0 3 32 8 3 20])128)| 6
67 | 249 SF 8 19 — 8 21 15 — |024| — | Earthquake
68 | — » 20 2 13°5 2 19 2 22 4 238} 1 8 | 5b in Greece
0 42 4 | | (Comptes
69 | 250 » 24) 23 B75 | 0 15 | 0 12 1] 9 ~ loss |{tor] renduws,
» 25 nO ee i Aa “99 11105) e xxviii
70 251? 3!) 17 «(59'5 — 18 25 3 — 0 37 = No. 8).
71 253? » ol Aa? Seb. 17 14 17 15 4 — | 0 30 | 12%
72 _ Feb. 10 4 145 4 24 4°27 2 — 0 22 95 |
73 _— meee So. a7 8 34 8 40 55 — |035|17
74 256 Seats ll 315 ll 34 BE ST 3°5 | 11 41 | 0 15 25
75 _ ae) 3 65 3 22 3 32 16 3.42 | 0 55 | 155
76 _ Mar. 3 0 52 O 545 0 56 115 112)43..0) 25 |
77 262 oat ee 20 30 — 20 34 2°5 — |017 — |
78 263 Ay = rl 1 5 1 15 1 22 7 1 97 |
1 32 1 (39 27 1 44) 113) 10
79 264 ne Le 9 415 10% 20) i 6 10 21 |
10 24 10) 97, He | 1 59 | 25

13. Potsdam.

Professor Dr. Eschenhagen, of the Kénigliches Meteorologisch-
Magnetisches Observatorium, in place of a list, kindly sent me photo-
graphic copies of the various seismographic records he had obtained
between October 2, 1897 and Jan. 6, 1898. The observations were made
by means of a conical pendulum, carrying a small mirror on a glass boom,
20 cm. in length, and held horizontally with a glass fibre.

Out of forty-three records, on dates between March 3, 1898, which
corresponds to the commencement of this year’s list for Shide, and
January 6, 1899, there are twenty-nine of them corresponding to the
Isle of Wight observations.

In the discussion of registers the times of these are given approxi-
mately, but can be obtained with greater accuracy if required.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 185

14. Excerpt from the Trieste Register.

Observations corresponding to those in the Shide list, made by Herr EDUARD
MAZELLE, Astron.-Meteorol. Observatorium, Trieste. Rebeur-Ehlert Horizontal

Pendulum. Photographie record.

ve, ee Date aries Maximum | pee End | Remarks
1899.
H. M. HAM MM. H. M. ;
1 | 249 | Jan. 22 8 15°85 8 21°57 84 9 20-20 | Thetimeof com-
(1'"47) mencement is
- 2 REIN ier : : = that of the pen-
2 | 250 . Sf 23 58:38 0 48°86 for) 2 35°70 dutuuy fret set
in motion. For
3 | 255 | Feb. 26: | 18 48:36 ; 14 0-77 8 complete _re-
4 | 257 ny ee 15 28:28 | 15 40°55 4 cords see A.
5 | 259 i 20 19 50°20 | 20 4:54 5 Ahad. der Wis-
6 | 260 a 28 22 42°83 | 23 14:52 2 senschaften in
7 | 263 |Mar. 7 1 6:89 1 42°88 105 219778 | Wien, Febru-
(0'"'3) ary 1899, and
8 | 264 ein |’ S535 10) |) 108 3h 13:16 | 11 Oabt.) subsequent
(Oe 3 publications,
9 | 266 a Ld 1 24°29 = 1 25-66
(O'" 06)
10 | 267 ee 14 46°63 | 15 22:25 55
(Gi: ne
11 | 268 Kanes 10 42°80 | 11 5:12 58 12 Oabt
(0'"13)
12 | 269 see 14 29°96 | 14 47°69 3°5 15 30°45
(0'"-08)
13 | 270 ae Tne pote” | Ttebool T5 15 46°32
(0/32)

15. The Bidston Register.

Darwin Bifilar Pendulum records, from the Liverpool Observatory, Bidston,
Birkenhead, Cheshire. Director, W. E. PLUMMER, Esq.

Shide
No. | No.
1 as
2) 180
3
4 | 196
5 | 200
6 ——,
“( —
8 em
9 —
10; —
11 | 225
12); —
13 | 228
144) —
15) —
16; —

| Date Remarks
18938.
Mar. 28 | Moderate disturbance about 23h. 44m.

» 29 | Continual slight disturbances throug] out this period. The
smallness of the time scale prevents exact identification.

April 3 | Trace lost by clock failure.

» 29 | Slight disturbance at about 17 hrs.

May 20 | At 23h. 30m. “Max. at Oh. 11m., and slight till 2h. 15m.

» 21 | Commences at 15h., with max. at 17h. 30m. The Shide
record for 22h. 50m. may have been recorded, but it is
mixed up with an alteration to determine the time scale.

» 26 | About 22h.

June 4 » 1b. 50m. slight. Trace off the scale.
July 21 | Very slight. ,
» 29 | 10h. a disturbance.
Aug. 7 | 8h. to Sh. 30m.
», 19 | Considerable disturbance.
» 21 | 16h. 50m. to 18h.
Noy. 7 | 12h. slight.
OPS GER: os 5,
| Dec. 31 | 6h. 20m. to 9h.

186 ' REPORT—1899,

THE BIDSTON REGISTER—continued.

Shide |

|
| No. No! Date | Remarks /
1899.
17 | — | Jan. 26 | 13h. to 14h. tremors.
See Web, «19 | 18h. 30m. *:
19 | 254 » 23 | 12h. 50m. slight.
20 | —- — | Slight.
21 | 2 ey tani
22} — | Mar. 2 | 12h. to March 3 2h. Slight tremors, clearly marked. |
16. The Edinburgh Register.
Observations at the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, with a Darnin Bisilar
Pendulum. Director, Dr. R. COPELAND.
eae i Se, ‘ i ete ae 5 x |
| No. FEve | Date Time Remarks
| = a ||
| 2898.
| # | HL OM. 2x ‘
1 | 1742 | Mar. 5 ih7geati) Slight tilt to South. |
| | She ae |
| 2 | 179 ees | S25 Very slight tilt to South. |
| 3 | 180? | 89 1 0B al Sr oate . North.
| 4) 1827] ,, 31| 7 365 ie es . is
/ 5 | 189 | April 15 7 39 - » oscillation, just perceptible. |

Mr. Thomas Heath, who is in charge of the instrument, states that
only one of the above coincidences is of an oscillatory character. A
number of tilts and slight bends were recorded, but only one of these, on
April 23, from 0h. 18m. to Oh. 36m., was oscillatory. The bends and tilts
were most numerous in March, April, and May. From May 30 to
November 11 there is practically not a trace of any kind of disturbance.
From the latter date to the end of the year the number of tilts is small.
A second pendulum was placed in position on May 14, and a couple of
thermometers were installed in the pendulum chamber on May 31. They
are covered by an earthenware dish. Between May 31 and March 20 the
maximum temperature was, on September 21, 63°-2 ; the minimum was

51°-0 on February 26.
7 17. Excerpt from the Rocca di Papa Register.

Observations made at the R. Osservatorio Geodinamico di Rocea di Papa.
By the Director, Dr. ADOLFO CANCANT.

Horizontal and other pendulums recording on smoked paper.

No. 5 ate Date eae Maximum End |
if

1898. '

A a |S: H. M.S H. 2.5 }
1 189 April 15 754 0 or 70 8 20 0
2 193 - 23 48 40 023 =O 0 34 O
3 195 Py 743) 11 40 O Il 42 O 11 45 O
tw 196 oe 74) 16 40 O 16 43-0 17 185,06
| 5 199 May 7 6 5 30 614 0 653 0
1 6 213 June 21 0 53 20 058 O le 81-0
7 214 by ee 645 2 6 45 18 655 0O

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 187

THe Rocca DI PAPA REGISTER-—continued.

Shide Commence-

No. pay. Date merit Maximum End

H. Mu) 8: Hex, MS) Paws G.

8 215 June 2 18 48 42 18 59 about Zi 00

9 216 July | 419) 0 4 21-0 | 448 0O

10 230. | Aug. 31 | 20 3 40 20, de0.0 2130 O

Tih}! "239° | Sept. 13 | 18 11 38 alts joal Hla Py) 18 13 30
12 | 2383 22, 12 58 O 13 33 about! 14 O O about

13 235 Oct. Ut | 16 50 35 le 32). 0 nS Om)

ye 4 239 Nov. 17 13 4 40 13 46 30 1410 0O

1899.

Thee ae5e- |; Jan: Sy | 19 49 -O 19 52 30 20 O O about

16 | 249 a 22 | 3 16 10 8 20 40 | S20 FO

17 250 3 Zo Vi Oo 0 0 _- | 050 O

| 18 | 263 | March 7 | 113 0 Eee (Of) f2sT6 00,

None of the very small disturbances on the supplementary list were
recorded.
18, Excerpt from the Casamicciola Register.
Records received from Dr. GIULIO GRABLOVITZ, Director R. Osservatorio
Geodinamico di Casamicciola, Ischia.
Records from horizontal pendulums recording on smoked paper are marked,
H.P:; and those from the Vasca Sismica, V.S.

No Bee Date | re Maximum | End Remarks
1898.
(Hiya Mey | Gee My Ss. [SEG Me Sp]
ison | Aprilts 8 GO 1) = S100) jeer: |
PmeoS: 629112330. 0)| = 0-50 0/| H.P.. The V.S. com-
menced at 23h. 48m.
. | 46s,
el va ed — | 0°25 0 — delle?
and
fe Onsse (0
4/196 sh ee ELGeSS! ¥O)s] — LT. 8510
Svs | May 7 |, 6383 ~0 — 6 38 0 | H.P. V.S. from Gh. 24m.
ee | 35s. to Gh. 26m. Qs.
P2onezi4 | June 22 |) 6°51 48 | — — By several instruments. |
| | Duration several mins.
Origin, Greece.
7) — a eo eta, 20) 0 — — H.P. feeble oscillations.
| 215 and V.S. from 18h. 47m.
: 18 50 0 47s,
8} 216 | July 2] 419 12 — 4 30 0| Various instruments.
: Strong. Origin, Dal-
matia.
asl 223 ee ll 31 0 -—— 11 400) | ERR.
10 | 230 | Aug. 31 | 20 3 45 | 20 30 0] 21 0 O
11 | 232 | Sept.13 | 18 12 .0 — 20 0 0
a2 | 235 » 22|12 54 0 — 14 4 0
13 | 235 | Oct. 11 | 16 50 34 -— 18 14 0
14 | 239 | Nov.17|1330 0| — 14 0 0|
1899.
15"| 249° | Jan. 22 | 8 14 37 Origin, Greece.
16 | 263 | Mar. 7{ 130 0

188 REPORT—1899.

19, Lucerpt from the Catania Register.

Ol servations made at the It. Osservatorio di Catania e dell Etna by the Director,
Dr. A. Ricco.

The records are from the ‘grande seismografo,’ a pendulum 25m. long,
carrying 300 kilos.

No. | Shide | Date | eee Maximum | Duration Amp. Remarks
1898.
| Bw OM. «Ss. HH. Mi 8. OM, S. ) EM.

it — | Mar. 29 2 13 45 Z2ebe30|(ia6) 3p. 1

2{ — | Apr. 3 — _ — — | Slight pertur-
bations es-
pecially in
the morning
occasioned
by a strong
W. wind.

3] — Fe 4 — — —_ — | As above, but
the pertur-
bations were

| stronger.

4 | 193 Fe 22 23 48 58 0 33 47 | O 56 25 il

0 34 29

— rs 25 — — — — | Perturbations
due to the
movements
of the sea
for 24 hours,

5 | 196 :. 29 16 33 40 Neale 3] 2.26% 25) 1e0:5:

6) 199 | May 7 6 1 40 6 45 33 111 56 | 0:37

7 56 18

7| — 5 20 — — — — | Perturbations
due to the

sea.

8 | 201 3 22 NGS 5 eo9) a — 0 O 34 — Local earth-
quake 8.W.
of Etna.

9 | 214 June 22 6 51 48 6 62 56| 2 3 20 | 1:15

10 | 215 so 29 18 49 8 19 1 5| 2 414 15

11 | 216 | July 2 4 19 52 4 23 37 | O 26 56| 3:8

12); — a 12 — — -— — | Perturbations
due to the
sea.

13 | 220 i 14 0 80 26 0 30 26 | 0 10 30 | 0:25

14 a A 14 — — -- — Perturbations
due to the
sea.

LO. | » 20 = = = — | Small pertur-
bations in
the morning.

16 | 223 ny 21 11 28 41 ioomo O 14 35 | 0:75

17| — | Aug. 8 — — — — | Small pertur-
bations all
day.

18 — Fs 22 | — _— — {= Small pertur-

| | | | bations in
the morning.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 189

THE CATANIA REGISTER—continued.

No. <sa Date ae sg Maximum | Duration | Amp. Remarks
wom. s. |o ow s.| a. ws. | MM,
19 | 230 Aug. 31 20) 4 3 | 2012 33) 1 34 51 08
20! — | Sept. 3 619 0 _- _ — | Of doubtful
| character.
21 | 232 eee Loe LeelO SL 18 11,27.) -2 34 30} 05
22 | 233 ae 22 12 40 32 | Uncertain| 2 7 46
23 | 235 Oct) 11 i 322 17 38 42 \ | 1 26 43 0:5
17 39 56 | |
24 re is — == — — | Movements
due to the
sea.
2omeed ©) Nove) 17. 11 59 33 | Uncertain} 1 57 47
26 | 240 Dec. 1 12 38 11 12 49 51 0 48 59 | 0-17
1899.
27 | 245 | Jan. 6 | 194611 | Uncertain| 0 28 8 |
28 | 249 a 22 $ 14 11 819 48} 0 22 37 2°5
29 | 250 oe 25 0 143 | Uncertain}; 119 51
30} — 3 26 — — — = Movements
due to the
sea.
31 | 263 |Mar fi 118 14 119 23 | “0 4 42 | 0:25
32 | — as 12 = | — — - — | Movements
j due to the
| sea.
33 | 267 Hs 21 14 46 24 | 14 573 0.22 2 O'5
34 | 268 5 23 10 34 15 | Gs ee 2) 115 45 | 0:25
385 | 269 i 23 1418 1 14 54 45 0 59 25 | 0:15

20. Seismometrical Observation at Tokio.

Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded by a Gray-Milne Seismograph at the Central
Meteorological Observatory, Tokw, January 27, 1898, to January 29, 1899.
(Continuation of Catalogue commencing in the British Association Report, 1886.)

llorizontal Motiou Vertical Motion
Local time of dip ha ere oe i: =
Occurrence. ES) re Maximum
No. | Date 9 hrs. in 2 Maximum Range valodley. Accelera- | Maximum Range
advance of 5 Directi tion
Greenwich A ESOL
Period |Amplitude| mm. secs.| mm. sees.| Period |Amplitude
1898.
1982/7 M.S. SECS, MM. SECS. MM.
2) Jan. 2 P.M. — —_ — slight — cs | a =
1,983} Feb.10} 015 2pm. | — = a = Pe OE 23 =
1,9: » 13] 11 52 47 am — = = “4 —_ od _ _—
1,985| ,, 13] 1158 36pm. |249!SS.E.,NN.W.| 0-7 14 63 56-4 05 0)
1,986; ,, 14) 6 & 48 4M — —. = slight = = — _
1,987) ,, 21| 649 6am = | = aa = = & = =
1,988) , 23) 5 5710 PM — | = a % = 2% —_ --
1,989; ,, 26 5 14 47 PM — | = eal A ms a4 — —
1,990; ,, 28 8 51 31 a.m, = | 2 =s a Zs = — —
1,991; Mar. 3) 11 6 10 P.M. — = = ps = | tn — _—
m1002) 4, 4 9 5 20 AM — = = z = | = — —
2,993; , 5 1 421 PM — — _— B = | Pe — —
a5904) 5, 5 5 44 47 PM _ — = S = = — =

190 REPORT—1899.

CATALOGUE OF WARTHQUAKES RECORDED AT ToK10—continued

Horizontal Motion Vertical Motion
Local time of EI r
Occurrence, ue! aay Maximum ;
No. | Date 9 hrs. in g Maximum Range ue Accelera- | Maximum Range
| advance of i Di ‘ eto tion
Greenwich irection
. iS :
| Period |Amplitude)} mm. secs. | mm. secs.| Period Amptitna
| HW. M. S. ae Ff
| - M.S. M. 5. SECS, MM. al
1,995) Mar. 5| 1141 8PM. | — — = slight = = i >
1,996] , 9) 445 9am. | — = Lee | A a at SS
1,997| , 9] 61925 am. | — =< Say | dy a a =) <
1,998} . 9: 10 2 24 aM. = = eat Se ae =: ae
MIG, Lb} One!) mm — = = 5 (pee PST at aa
2,000} ,, 16° 1013 4pm. | — = = we eel |: !.'y “2B DE ae
2.001|,, 17! 32112 4M.) — e4 ait 7 if. = tr a Ten
2,002! . 17 38 26\54 A.M. | — = rs ge ie ea ed eee Wi H
2,003| ,. 22! 10 31'38 P.M. — = al 2 m2 ers aa =
BOOS; 2} LON29 7 ea Gg) — = =a - Eup | eee ae Ts
PANO tye eat 324 7AM. /]1 6] NNW. SSE, O3 O7 | Ti 53°D a -
2006| , 27| 1125 8PM. | — — — alight | dy | yak | oe pgs ate
2007;Apr. 3, 610 6AM, | 230] N.W.,S.E. 05 15 o4 | 1184 03 03
2,008] , +/ 827 5pm. | — ae = Euehe 0) 7 Sah ae Ba pe |
9,009] ,, | 104232 pM. | — = aa) = he) ye eel) ee = i? De
2010], ¢) 12715 am. | — = ut @ Tap KON en
2,011; , 9! 340 5 A.M. == ae ia Se ee | ee Ee
2,012) ., 11, 9 56 32 Am. = = ats “i 2a! A SS
9.0138] 5, 12] 5 41 29 Am — = = a iar ax. = Be:
2,014| ,, 14) 8 30 23 P.M — = BF a (Bf CMON ee = re
2,015; ., 18, 85711 PM — | a a. i = | oe 3 = Sir
2,016; ., 20: 2 424 aM — = = a Wee Bead Pry” ze
2,017) 3» “2l| 8 4 7PM -= | = = ef es oe at a
2018} , 23) 05545 AM. | — = =a Z ie
2,019} ,, 23) 8 36 49 AM. |12 0 S., N. 0-9 os | yy 154. | eee xe
9,020] ,, 26| 70751 RM. | — (— = ; bes =, Pa
2:021| ,, 29| 023 8 AM. |) — = a es \\¢ _ ee er <—
2,022] , 29) 93821 Pm. | — = —™ i PME ae Eo Se pz 5
D028) ee eroU Sika 0) Aca || — = es ie 5 el ee = a
2,024|May Gj; 72259 AM. | — = = 4 ee ian ma
2,025| ,, 6, 74833 AM. | — = as <. 2) ey a
BIGUGI in) Tale OS) ORANG 9) =e oud # hei = ts F-
9027| 7, 9| 249°6 AM. | — = > eo Hivn oat aS = a
9,028; ,, 9) 62140 Pm. | — — me ¥ | = ra is
2,029! ,, 10; 8 26 43 AM. | — = os il ? ai a ni &
2,030) ,, 1l¢4| 831 OAM. | — = = Fee = = x
9,031| , 19| 115555 pM. | — we, wal ‘ ea he an Si i=
2,032] ., 22) 1 14 48 AM. = AW ne 1 OS Ue ese v3 fi
SHB TA ae eA eM hE INs cee aN = = - 1 BEtiag sR 2 =
9.034| ,, 23; 11 1 8 PM. — ae = Sa pst =a e ee
9.035| , 26| 3 082 aM. /210| N.W.,S.E. 05 Ls | 182 3 Fis
2,036] ., 2¢| 387 4am. | — = = slight a eae bs ia
2,037), 26! 455 33 AM. — — ue 3 = boss S
21038| ,, 26; 628 2am, | — | ae a a = sa iz B=,
DORON Line (2OLkwe, |") = pa =| : | gee Be £ am
9,040)June 1! 42012 pm. | — | = cere Ye | =
2,041) ,, 6/ 103951 PM. | — | = = 4 ara ee im is oan
9,042) 5, & 913 380 A.M. — = es |
2048|., 9). 114023 am. | — = OS ean tae S = =
9044) 4 12} 23118 am. | — | “ a p: = =
2,045} 5, 12) 10 25 52 am. — = = , = i | ai =
9,046] ,, 12] 3 2454 Pm. | — — = ied hee an = oS
9,047] 5 13) 384315 PM. | — = == “ erro. = &
BAS) eels cl Ipsok eae, | — ee : | PE it atc = =
9,049! ,, 21| 102219 am. | — = es 2) RSS ee < aa oe
9,050] . 24) 347.47 4.mM. | — = is ¥ a) Ay a2 =
2,051] . 30| 012 6PM | — = a eee: oe < a aa
glos2| .. 30| 10 619 PM. [110] NE, SW. O01 O3 | 9-4 599°2 SS ae
2,053 |July 5) 6 56 57 PM. _— = a slight Die ea) oF ig
2,054] 4, 7| 6 35 49 PM — = a ie 5, 58 a a
2,055| . 12| 035 7am | — oa S . Sry Fee oe ard
2056] ,, 13| 5 40 30 pM = — = fe rem ei at
2:057| ., 12| 105535 PM, |}150| S.W., NE. 0°3 0-8 st | 1755 Oy an
2058; ” 13; 11935 4M. | — tg leant c aa 2 0-2
2,059| , 13; 8 9 45 PM = a a paral Pe =. a a
2060| , 14} 7 850 pM. | — =e xe : oe Ee
2.061/ ,, 15) 5 10 44 AM — a = i ee =o ey a
2,062' ,, 18’ 38 20 26 P.M _ = = ees is a4 a: Ti.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.

19]

CATALOGUE OF BARTHQUAKES RECORDED AT ToK10—continued.

Horizontal Motion

Vertical Motion

|
{
|

Local time of zg | | iat
| No. | Date eatin = Maximum Range yaoi Baas, Maximum Range
5 iou
| Greeuwisn | © | Direction
Period Amplitude mm. secs. | mm. secs Period Amplitude:
oe is pean fe | ve
H. M.S. M.S secs. | MM. SECS. | MM.
2,063 | July 19} 2 49 35 a.m. _ — t=) | Sight _ _ -- | —
064) ., 20 6 41 54 P.M. _ -— was eS _ _ —_— —
2 ee Ps OS (6) Aa _ —_— } — a _ _— — —
» 25) 62011 a.m. | 2 10 a re 4:2 877 — ==
Ww) ed 017 13 pM. 1 20 |} O4 i 16) 79 1234 O-2 Os
ays 2 35 21 A.M. _ — } — } slight —

Aug. 1/ 124 18 pw. — _ a ” = — aed —
» 4] 8 48 45 am _ — a r _ _ _— —
ay | el) 3 45 Po == -- — = -- _ — —
way Ld 5 40 47 P.M. | 1 20 N.E., SW. O38 12 1 vy L236 263°2 OL (2
Skt) 4.16323 Pim. _ — — |. slight | — — — =
» 21) 0 9°39 a.m. — — — | Pa — — — =
wero: 1 29 51 A.M. _— _— Tie) a —_— —_— — ==
» 22] 11 40 33 P.M. —_ —_— -—— = = = a --
eH) 8 5 20 A.M. —_— — — } BS — —_ — pad
» 23] 11 47 59.4.m, _ _- ees 7%) A — | _ = as
3 2¢| 488 14 an. — a cs — — —- —
eee rg bb 19 Ava |) 1 0: 8., N. Os ee ‘ 16 12°3 —_ =
joan 0 12 24 p.m. = — — sligh - — — =

Sep. 1] 6 219 Pu. | — = ie = = = = Be
wee 4 2 50 46 =. _— _ oo 3 — — — =
eek 353 5 PM. —_— — po = ” = = _ =
» 2| 447 27 pM. _ — — 5 — — — =
pe aa 1 6 42 PM. _ — sly] s — — — =
e 25) O15 9 Pat _ _ ey i = = _— =
oe 8 59 25 pM, _ —_ See - — — —_ a
ae | 10. 3°86 P.xt. — _— etme | Pe — _— — 2H
ce le 7 245 pM. _ — | o— + — — a= | =
7 16 448 23 aM. | 2 30] SSE.,N.N.W. | IL O44 itl 65 — j =
» 16) 8 32 42 a.m. — — ta slight — — = | =
oy, 24 916 41 A.M. _ — — 1s — — — | =
» 26) 10 28 43 a.m. — — —— 3 — — a= =
pe 2h 10/1959 aw. | — = a pe = = ees =
ae oO 143 2am. | 3 20] ESE. W.N.W. 08 = 59 46°73 OL ! Ot

Oct. 1} 0 36 35 a.m. — — — slig _— — = | as
o. & 4 55 59 A.M. — — — = — — = | =
» (| IL 0 46 aM. — — ; — iW — — —, 1 ==
20) 316 2 Par — — — 5 _— — — =
= 26/ 10 30 47 a.m. _ — — = — — — =

Noy. 6 9 224 aM. _— —_ — PA — _ == =
rs 7 259 5 AM. | 240) E.S.E., WNW 2°0 a fa | Var a4 — | —
» 10} 10 20 43 a.m. — _ — slight _ — = =
Peale! 92 46.38 Aw. || — = = 4 a= “= ont Pe
» 12 94219 am. | 210] W.S.W., ENE. On na 12°6 2632 —_ | slight
» 13) 11 33 12 am. -- — — slight — =- — | =
oA 4 643 PM. _— —s — - —_ — = ; —
ew 340 12 jaar: |) = = YP es ies = Parris =
ain? te 9 7 SAM — — — % — — — | =
» 28] 7 247 am. | — = | = ” = = ee ae
» 28} 10 56 10 pM. — — fo af = = = <<

Dee. 4 1657 O aM. — —_ ee ” = — = 4
a) So AOWO) Bh Acar. tL =a Katte 18 = — — —
dopey Ms 467.1. br =) belie ele) we — — pe ty. 24
) WE eg Gi aT NG — fe ae | “s — _— _- =
Seti) eep Samet ae tl = EB | Fi 38 = as aad
» 19] 11 59 42 am. — — — & = a = &
FPR ae i etn ae = —* es — = == =
pre 20k ao Uaars jess = satel a ; o— = =. =
br 2 4.49, 40) pane |) — — — | 5 ES — = hs
» 380] 11 31 40 pM. — — — A \ —_ — — —

1899.

Jan. 1} 151 1am. _ -- | torus 3 | _- —_ — ! =
= 5 9 1 38 AM. — — =I a | = , —~ ; S
SR BNE TG = et a ——— = = =
Re p14! 2 30} BowAG ary ees = a ee — = ak =
we2|: 8 4552 Ase le — — ioe | “ _ — = =
ty 2B | 2TS Le ISip a, yew = FS US = = = =
» 29 7 59 33 PM. — — = — — = —

eee

192 REPORT—1899,

21. Hawaii: Honolulu.

On February 19, 1898, the trustees of the Elizabeth Thompson Science
Fund assigned me a grant of $250 in aid of a seismic survey of the world.
This was expended in purchasing a horizontal pendulum, which was
shipped to the care of H.M.’s Consul-General, W. J. Kenny, in Hawaii.
When Mr. Kenny left Honolulu in March 1899, the instrument was
handed to Professor Maxwell, who will work in conjunction with Pro-
fessor Alexander and Professor Hosmer (Principal of the Government
High School), and the latter, I understand, will kindly make arrangements
for its installation. Professor George Davidson, Chairman of a Committee
appointed by the Council of the University of California to undertake
Seismic Investigations, writes me that Mr. Bishop of Honolulu has promised
a site for the instrument, and that Professor Alexander will see that it is
placed in working order. It is hoped that by next year a series of records
will have been obtained from this exceedingly important station. Copies
of the report based upon these records should be sent to the Secretary of
the Board of Trustees of the Elizabeth Thompson Science Fund, Harvard
Medical School, Boston, Mass., through the liberality of which body the
Hawaiian Station has been established.

22. Lgypt: Cairo.
Captain H. G. Lyons, R.E., Director-General of the Survey Depart-
ment, writes on June 2, 1899, that owing to structural alterations and
other causes, it has not been possible to commence continuous observations

with the seismograph. The instrument was handed to him in February
last, and in about three months’ time observations will commence.

23. U.S.A.: Philadelphia, Swarthmore College. Professor 8S. J. CUNNINGHAM.

When observations commenced at this station Professor Cunningham
experienced great trouble with ‘air tremors,’ but from the excellent
character of the seismogram for the Mexican earthquake of January 24,
1899, it is anticipated that these difficulties have been overcome, but no
report has been received.

III. Discussion of the preceding Registers.

Although in the following discussions a few disturbances are referred
to in detail, all that is given for the majority are the time entries.
The first of these refers to the instant when motion commenced at various
stations. It is the commencement of the preliminary tremors referred to
as P.T.’s. In the Milne H.P. records these are usually shown as a mere
thickening of the line. If there is no entry in this first column it means
that heavy motion commenced suddenly, or else in consequence of move-
ments due to air currents the commencement of the P.T.’s was not deter-
minable. The duration of these first P.T.’s, which are regarded as com-
pressional waves which have travelled through the earth, is given where it
is possible in the second column. These quantities are not the same as
those given in the Shide Register, which refer to the duration of all
movement from the commencement up to the maximum. The time of
the maximum, which is not the time when the largest group of waves
appears, but a point usually midway between this commencement and end,
is noted in the third column. The difference between the first and third
columns gives the duration of all P.T.’s, and corresponds to entries in the
Shide Register. The sum of the first and second columns gives the com-

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 193

mencement of the second phase of motion. For the commencement of
other phases of motion, of which there may be several before the
appearance of the largest waves (L.W.’s.), reference must be made to the
seismogram.

For entries in the first column all records should be fairly comparable.
The entries in the second column are only comparable in those instances
where I have been able to place the seismograms for the stations to which
they refer side by side. Where this has been the case will be seen by
reference to the reproductions of such seismograms. The accuracy of the
determinations of the times given in the third column is dependent upon
conditions which govern the accuracy of the entries in the second column.
If a station reports a series of times for the first, second, third, &ec., sudden
increases in range of motion, unless we have the seismograms before us it
is by no means certain that these correspond to phases of movement
which have been similarly numbered at a second station.

The time entries for Potsdam are only given approximately. (See

. 194.)
a The first illustration of these three-column entries is Earthquake
No. 182.

Determination of Origins.

The methods by which origins may be determined from time observa-
tions are numerous.! The simplest, perhaps, is that of circles, and its
application is as follows :—If the large waves of an earthquake reach
stations B, C and D four, six and eight minutes after reaching station A,
then when they reach A the wave fronts are respectively about 600, 900
and 1,200 kms. distant from B, Cand D. Ona globe with B, C and D as
centres I draw circles 600, 900 and 1,200 kms. radius. The centre of the
circle, found by trial, which passes through A and touches the circles round
_B, C and D, is the origin required. The assumption is that whilst the
P.T.’s are propagated with variable velocities through the earth, the large
waves traverse the surface of the earth with a velocity that is nearly con-
stant. In this illustration I have assumed this velocity to be 2-5 kms.
per second.

The observations which support these assumptions are too numerous
to require special reference.

With times of arrival at only three stations we are left to decide
between two possible centres. See Earthquake 252.

In consequence of the want of sufficient records which are strictly
comparable, no attempt has been made in the present report to determine
erigins with any degree of accuracy.

As an assistance in these determinations the times at which prelimin-
ary tremors have been recorded and intervals by which they have outraced
the large waves at various stations are not neglected, whilst the topo-
graphical and geological character of the locality in which the origin
is placed is often an indication as to whether the determinations are
correct.

Earthquakes, Nos. 133 and 134, September 20 and 21, 1897.*

_ These earthquakes, which were separated from each other by an
interval of about ten hours, evidently came from the same origin, and were

' See ‘ Harthquakes,’ Int. Sci. Series, pp. 200-212.
' * See British Association Report, 1898, p. 211,
Eeo9. o

194 REPORT—1899.

connected with the throwing up of a small island off the coast of North-
West Borneo, near to Labuan.

The first of these disturbed an electrometer at Batavia at 7h. 14m. 20s.
P.M., a Iagnetometer being disturbed two minutes later. These disturb-
ances indicate the arrival of the larger waves, which coming from Labuan
had travelled about 1,660 kms. The velocity of propagatiun of these
movements may be taken at about 2°7 kms. per second. With this
assumption the conclusion is that this earthquake originated at about
Th. 4m. 20s. p.m., the time to travel to Batavia having been 10 minutes.

The effect of the second earthquake was to disturb a magnetometer in
Batavia at 5h. 22m. 45s. A.m., which by similar reasoning leads to the
conclusion that it originated at about 5h. 13m. a.m. At Sandakan, which
is about 300 kms. from the origin, it was noted at 5h. 18m. a.m., the
inference from which is that the time at the origin would be about
5h. 16m. a.m. The mean between these two determinations gives as an
approximation for the true time at the origin 5h. 14m. 30s. a.m.

Apparent Velocity of Preliminary Tremors.

September 20 | September 21
pag aan Locality | Velocity in kms. | Velocity in kms.
of Observation , | per sec. : per sec.
Time | Time aS
| In Arc On Chord Are | Chord || | Are Chord
H. M. 8. || He at. 8.
be! = Origin 7420); — | — | 5 14.30) — =
9046 | £302 | Nicolaiew 7 23 30). %s8 2) |e be 2s Oe 1220 11:0
10212; 9150 | Potsdum 1-26, 0 78a 770 5,30, 0.) LO 9°8
| (about)
10545 | 9378 | Catania 7°25) Bi) SBE 7-5 5 29 82 | 11°6 10:3
| 10656) 9453 | Ischia . . | 7 21 54) 101 90 || 5 28 12 | 129 115
/10711| 9489 | R.di Papa .|7 25 0| 86 76 5 32. &| 10:1 89
/10730| 9490 | Rome. . | 7 2154) 101 9-0 5 29 42 | 11-7 10-4
11211} 9815 Edinburgh . | 7 56 0| 3°6 a 6 730| 3-4 30 |
/11433|} 9954 | Shide . » 17 24.47 )0 93 ol 5 28 51 | 13:2 11:5
}

In discussing the above table, the Edinburgh records may at once be
excluded as referring to large waves rather than to preliminary tremors.
Making this exception then, it will be observed that the velocities for
September 21, are greater than those for September 20. Now as these
two earthquakes, as recorded in Europe, indicate initial impulses of about
the same intensity, it is extremely likely that they radiated from their
origins with equal velocities, and therefore the differences seen in the
tables in all probability are dependent upon errors in the times calculated
for the origins of these shocks for which there is no sure method of cor-
rection. On comparing these velocities with velocities determined over
paths of similar lengths (see ‘ British Association Report,’ 1897, p. 174) it
is noticed that one set of results lie about as much above average deter-
minations, as the other does below the same.

_A fair approximation to truth may therefore possibly be obtained by
taking the average results recorded for the two shocks. In doing this,
Catania, Ischia, Rocca di Papa and Rome, may be placed together as
representing a path, which for each is practically 96° in length. The
result of this operation is as follows :—

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 195

\Velocity in kms. per sec.|

|

Localiti | Distance ' te |

ocalities : be = == S | apth |

in degrees Are | Chord dv in kms. |

22 Eee arsed we Ww 4 eee ot |

S

Nicolaiew . 2 e é 81° 9-9 8-1 | 8-0 |
Potsdam’. : 3 ; 92° 93. | 8-4 91
Catania, Ischia . rs | 45 ‘ | = | ze

Rocea di Papa, Rome . J 96 104 | 20a be :

Shide . : > 103° 11°2 | 9°8 10:2

The slight discrepancy in the Potsdam record no doubt depends on the
want of accuracy in the original observation as indicated in the first
table.

The figures in the fifth column express in kilometres one quarter of
the square root of the average or mean depth of the chords connecting
the origin and each of the observing stations. |The close correspondence
between these figures and those in the third and fourth columns so long as
the records refer to wave paths exceeding 2,000 kms. was pointed out in
the Report for 1898, p. 22i. These two earthquakes have been discussed
by Dr. G. Agamennone in the ‘ Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei,’
September 18, 1898, vol. vii. Fas. 6, p. 135. Inasmuch as he has calcu-
lated velocities for the preliminary tremors, based on the supposition that
the disturbance had only reached the Batavian isoseist when the magneto-
meters at that station were disturbed, he arrives at velocities practically
reaching 30 kms. per second, which are very much higher than those dis-
cussed in the preceding tables. He also gives velocity tables for the
large waves which are somewhat higher than those which are obtained
when it is assumed that the disturbances originated at the times used in
our calculations. For example, the shock of September 20, if it originated
at 7h. 4m. 20s. apparently gives for the velocities of the large waves
results like the following :—

Velocity in kms. per sec.
On Are On Chord
2-7

First large wave ° r one
Largest wave Z : 7 Ben 2°3
Last large wave 18 16

In calculations of this description the assumption is that all the waves
recorded at a distant station left their origin at practically the same time.
If this were so, inasmuch as the last trace of movement at Shide took place
three hours after the arrival of the preliminary tremors, then the last
movement only travelled at a rate of 0:9 km. or 0:8 km. per second, a con-
clusion that is very improbable. The inference to be derived from the
sections in this report relating to Earthquake Echoes (p. 227) and
Earthquake Precursors (p. 280) is that the only movements which started
from an origin at approximately the same time, are those lying between
the first preliminary tremor and the large slow waves representing the
maximum motion. The limiting velocities for this earthquake, therefore,
lie between 9°3 and about 2-7 kms. per second.

No. 180, March 29, 1898.

H M. S. H MM. S§S

Shide . E ‘ 0 5 11t023 0 39 Series of disturbances.
Bidston 5 F About these times.

02

196 REPORT—1899.

These small movements may possibly have been connected with an
earthquake noted at Cadiz on March 30.

No. 182, March 31. (Origin, California ?)

H. M. °S. M Hi. Moe,
Shide peta I! | 4 8. Zou! °
Nicolaiew . s 8 22 0 ; 8 : 8°. 34.21
Potsdam — : — 5 $ 26 0O
Edinburgh . 7 36 30 F — é —
No, 185, April 3,
H. VOC teks: M. Hs Woks
Shide . i Nooo 5 — 5 7, 4130
Nicolaiew 6.53. 40: ‘ — , 6 58 O
Potsdam — i — 4 ty O30
San Fernando 7 44 #4 : — ‘ =
No. 188, April 6,
He | Su iS: M. Hf leds:
Shide . é PPPS Y mal y/ : 6-0 ‘ 12 46 0
Toronto ; . 12 44 40 3 70 . 12 54 44
Potsdam . Slo aoe, : 3°0 : 12° 4020

San Fernando . 12 36 49 4 = : —_
Origin, Western Atlantic.

The Shide seismogram shows symmetry between the shocks and first
echo.
Yo. 189, April 15. (Origin, California.)

Locality | Commencement | P.T.’s | Ist Max. | 2nd Max. | 3rd Max.
ee LD pow. eee | aes

Hi. bite us. | ams. |x me 5. OM use

Shide iano — een 1) 52 45D 8a 0 eer eo
Nicolaiew (6A ON Be, Oe - BT OM — | —
Rocca di Papa (Gy a0) =e eS eee — =
Ischia . 8 10710 — | _ — —_—
Potsdam var Ce Pe Yo | — —
Toronto — — | 7 26 40 | = =
Edinburgh 7 i392 70 — | _- | — | —-

The above was noted at about 7.20 a.m., April 15, in California, at
Albion, Mendocino Co., where it caused minor damage. The time at
which the P.T.’s commenced at Shide, owing to air tremors, is not clearly
defined. ‘Neither is this phase clear in the seismogram from Potsdam.
Mr. Ralph R. Funk, of Albion, California, writes me with regard to a
series of shocks, of which the above is one, saying that ‘frequently we
would be called to the “ phone,” and in answering would be asked, “ Did
you feel that one?”’ The movements reached us about the time of our
reply. The other end of the line was about twenty miles inland, and the
conclusion is that the shocks must have originated inland. Mr. Funk
enclosed with his letter cards from a Draper’s self-recording thermometer,
showing the effect of shocks upon the record. Between April 15 and 18
I count twenty-two sudden displacements with ranges of from 2 to
10 mm.

Mr. Funk’s observations lead to the conclusion that these earthquakes
originated at a centrum from forty to sixty miles inland from Albion, and
the times of their origin would be about one minute earlier than the

a

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 197

times he noted. ‘The time for the particular earthquake here considered

would, therefore, be 7h. 19m. A.M. : i
With this assumption we obtain the following table of velocities :—

| Time of travel | Distance Velocity of
— |. -— -- —————— = —|L.W.’s in kms.

P.T.’s | L.W.’s | Degrees | On Are per sec.
Shide : ¥ é .| 29m. | 34m. 15° 8325 kms. 4:0
Nicolaiew : " . | 35m. Otero TOTO & 4-4
Rocca di Papa . ‘ BA) Bates 435m eH S982 ors OTGR ae 37
Potsdam . : ; - i MEG ion | acaba» athe 8769 ,, 3:8
Toronto . P ‘ Tia ||) Sms) op as2e BEA 7:0?

These velocities are distinctly too high, and as the time of arrival of
the large waves in Europe is fairly accurate, we must conclude that the
shock originated earlier than the time here assumed. For this reason,
and for the reason that the times of arrival of the preliminary tremors in
Europe do not appear to have been accurately noted, the velocities of
these precursors have not been calculated.

No. 192, April 25.

ae Oe M. om <'s:
Shide F 3 wR eat suuae: Lyf 3 By 4 ie Mest 6(0)
Potsdam . F Se ee ye(0) — 9 120

No. 193, April 22-25. (Origin, N.-E. Japan.)

| | Dura-
Locality prea ail ae | Maximum Remarks

| P.T.’s

ese Soe Geo M.
Shide. : : .| 23 58 55 25 | O 31 12 |Commencement earlier
Rocca di Papa . .| 23 48 40 3 | 0 23 0 —
Ischia ; F aa) Zak 30) “0 —_— | — —
Catania. : .| 23 48 58 — 0 33 47 ==
Toronto . : .| 23 59 50} 25 Ose e 26 _
San Fernando . . | 23 59 61 20 0 36 36 ss
Potsdam . ; ehezon ol) <0 — — —
Micdiaiewer ss 3 28 47 0 |’ —., | 28 58 oO she
Tokio. c : a —- —- 23). °33

49 =

We have here the case of a large earthquake which reached Toronto,
Shide, and San Fernando (Spain) and other places at about the same
time.

The following accounts of this disturbance are taken from newspapers
published in Japan :—

‘The sharp shock of earthquake which was felt at Yokohama and
Tokio on the morning of the 23rd instant was not unattended with
accidents in the north-eastern districts. At Maizawa-cho, Iwata Pre-
fecture, a house was thrown down ; at Nanamiki-cho fissures were pro-
duced in the ground at various places ; at Satokawaguchimachi a house
was damaged, while the premises of the Kuji Police Station were also
affected. At Sanumo, Miyagi Prefecture, two persons are reported to

have been injured, while houses and godowns were damaged. At Sendai

198 REPORT—1899.

a large Buddhist image of the Shurin-ji temple was shattered to pieces,
and the buildings of the Prefectural Office and other houses all suffered
more or less injury. The districts of Ishinomaki, Fukushima and neigh-
bourhood were aiso a good deal affected, while at Sakata, Yamagata
Prefecture, the waters of all rivers overflowed their banks.—Japan
Times.’

‘On Saturday morning (April 23, 1898), at 8.56 a.m., a somewhat
strong and prolonged shock of earthquake was felt in Tokio. According
to the bulletin issued by the Central Meteorological Observatory, the
seismic movement is described as follows :—

Vibration commenced at : 5 3 . 8h. 36m. 49s. A.M,
Duration of movement . ‘ 3 - . 12m.

Direction of movement . : ; Z . North to South.
Maximum horizontal vibration 3 ‘ . 8mm.

Nature of vibration . - : F . Slow.

‘It is conjectured that the shock was caused by a subsidence of the
sea bed in some part of the Northern Pacific. The following table shows
the localities where the shock was felt :—

. |
Localities oi | Nature
He) ioe |

Ishikawa 8 34 50 | Strong
Fukushima 8 36 40 | -
Akita 8 30 0 s
Awomori 8 36 O | a
Yamagata. 8 36 0 -
Utsunomiya . 8 36 30 ;
Mayebashi 8 36 54 | ;
Kumagai 3 : : ; ; : -| 8 36 39 =
Niigata . ; ; ; j ; : cit = Sokol RY Caen) | as
Yokohama 3 8 36 15 a
Tokachi 2 ae ae Weak
Mito -| 8 36 35 | ‘
Kofu : : : : 3 5 .| 8 36 53 ap
Nagoya . : : . : ; : .| 8 37 40 | a
Yokosuka. : ; ; : : “ab Cancer £7) | ”
Fukui . : . ; 5 é = nile OSeeope 0 | Faint
Nemuro t BieSiTs. B | ”
Numazu 8 37 53 55

ei apun M. ail,’

From a consideration of the above time observations, and from the
position of the places at which the movement was severe, it is probable
that the origin was from 4° to 5° distant in a north-north-east direction
from Tokio. The heavy movement travelled to Tokio at a rate of about
2-5 kms. per second. The time at the origin would, therefore, be 3m. 42s.
earlier than that recorded in Tokio, or approximately on May 22 at
23h. 33m. G.M.T. This conclusion is fairly in accord with all the time
observations made in Japan, excepting those for Akita and Tokachi.

Professor Omori, by different reasoning, places the origin 120 to
200 kms, E.S.E. from Miyako, the time at that place being 23h. 34m. 13s. _
The time at the origin and the position of the same are, therefore, prac-
tically identical with what has been stated, and we have here another
illustration of a suboceanic yielding at a depth of from 1,500 to 4,000

ON SEISMOLCGICAL INVESTIGATION, 199

fathoms on the face of the western bank of the Tuscarora Deep. That
sea waves were not reported indicates that submarine landslips or sudden

displacements of materials on the ocean floor were not of marked magni-
tude.

Time in Transit Distance Velocity kms. per sec.
Place | P.T’s |
P.T’s L.W.'s_|Degrees 3 are |Onchord P.T.’s ea | L.W.’s
ms. kms. |on are on arc
chord
My (Bs M.
Shide . .| 25 65 58 0 86 9546 8675 (ia | 56 DG
Ischia . .|—3 0 = 87 9h5T 8756 as = pat
Catania . .| 15 58 61:0 90 | 9990 8994 10-4 9:3 2-4
San Fernando| 27 0 60 99 | 10989 9672 67 59 2°8
Potsdam. a 18. 0 -— 79 8769 8091 81 T5 a
Nicolaiew a) Hee 51-0 75 8325 1743 99 9:2 227
Toronto. .| 26 50 62:0 89 9879 8915 61 bays 2°4
Rocca di Papa} 15 40 500 89 -| 9879 8915 10°5 9-4 32
No. 195, April 25,
H OM M. Ss. Hi, (Metis
Shide A : ; A pom LOR ba iy _ —
to 12 25 10
Kew ; : ; ? Pee tt 5 54 — —
to ll 24 a
Nicolaiew . ‘ : ; a ITY 30 8 30 ll 44 O
Catania. : ‘ r 7 Ae 40 10 — a
Potsdam . s é 7 - Il O- 0 (bout) —
No. 196, April 29,
me Tels si Hy age 7S:
Shite) ietees paiceb harden we (4 — 16 59 0 (about)
tomy 30 34 /
San Fernando . a) Saye Ue) oa —_
Nicolaiew . ; Se LD, is Ue m8) — =
Rocca di Paya. . 16) 40°" 0 — 16) 43:50
Ischia P : . 16 58 O = aoe
Catania : : . 16 383 40 -- Lee eee sé
Lidston ; ‘ . 17 O OA(atout) — —
Toronto ; ; . 16° 28 .20 — irre ait Ys:
Potsdam 5 ; . 16 30 O (about) — 16 57 = O (about)

The Shide and Potsdam seismograms, although they have definite
commencements, are but marked thickenings of the normal trace. The
times for maxima are therefore uncertain. The tremors reached Shide at
least eleven minutes after reaching Toronto, whilst the large waves at
Shide were twenty-four minutes behind those at Toronto. With a
velocity of 25 kms. per second when the large undulations reached
Toronto they would be at a distance of 32° from Shide. Considerations
of this description based upon the above data suggest the idea that this
earthquake had its origin on the western side of the Atlantic in the
‘direction of the West Indies.

200 REPORT—1899.
No. 199, May 7.

Hier, “'s M. S HRM &
Shide . ‘. : 3 * oped. WG = Gusta O
Kew. ; A : 3 CUED mES, XO 4 10 6 10 30
Nicolaiew . : ; : Oe 0 — —
Rocca di Papa . 2 : Sov bia: 30 — (dee Home (0)
Catania ‘ ‘ . , oo RO eet — G6 45 33
Ischia . : ‘ : ‘ ee Gasooee 0 — =

or6 24 35

Toronto , : rr mente 0) 42 — 6 16 40
San Fernando ‘4 2 2 os Dien 49 — —
Potsdam a : : 5 Paerp ore 2 ‘0 —~ —

From the difference in time of the arrival of the maxima movements at
Toronto and Shide it is likely that the origin of this earthquake should be
sought for in the direction of the West Indies (see Earthquake No.196).

No. 200, May 20.

Hi: Bias? Wo Mugeeres
Shide . : ‘: ; u STTSB DON hs = —
Bidston ; 5 : F 5 2B) "310, ee) — Ci Oe Ore <0

No. 201, May 22.

H. M. s. H. M. S
Shide . 4 - #14 e285 — —
to22 50 0 — —
Catania . : . - 16 33 389 Local earthquake -—
Madras . : : Alte T4eh25 — LT. 200s

No. 207, May 30.

-ay MG. US: H. -eM. abe
Shide. : : 2 , ‘ Sgt LS bbe-and! 4 Coe
Potsdam . 4) 8 WY 557° .b* S30 ae
No. 210, June 5. ,
it. “M.S: Hy oi ee
Shide . 2 : j : : . 17 14 44 — =e
Kew + : ‘ A : : & LOMO c4y — 17 14, 30
Nicolaiew ‘ : . , F dG. Se SO) Shire Oe
Madras. Tremors recorded ?
Potsdam : 5 : 3 : soe! 0%. OSes 269 FO

This earthquake crossed Europe from the 8.E. towards the N.W.
No. 211, June 19.

i: oa VS: H.\M. S
Shide (es —
Kew 7 8S 24 — —
Potsdam PON O == 73 SR

Origin probably the same as No. 210.

No, 213, June 21.

Hy aly. Ss. M. » JH.) om Uae
Shide . . : - A : eco 1205 SO
Kew 4 . - - 3 ye) 46) 18! + 0859 Eig
Nicolaiew : : : . se ROMEO TiO) HO 4D
Rocca di Papa ; 5 : ; 2/90 953) (20... —, 09589 s2GF

Origin probably the same as No. 210.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, 201

No. 214, June 22.

Te. tS H. M.) ae Wee it ps
Shide ; Wb) 62) 42 .— 7 14 42 °& 9% Wa 42 Nine maxina,
tO 49 7 42
Nicolaiew palo) O40) | WO ote LS 0
Rocca di Papa. 6 45 2 — 6 45 18
Ischia ‘ ;. 6 BL 48 — —
Catania . = G6 Si) 48) — *6" 62)" 56
Batavia . P66. 42) 018 — te
Kew é . © 5¢ 24, 6h. 56m., 6b. 57m., upto Th.5m. At least 12
maxima,
Origin, Greece ?
No, 215, June 29.
H. M. s. M. Ani M. s. H. M. s.
Shide 7 Vom etS aaa? oy VON ie aie
Kew A = 18% aie 13 9 OP Sabueor | ee ieO,
Nicolaiew lo. 42, 0 12 18 59 0
Rocca di Papa 18 48 42 a 18 59 OO (about)
Ischia > su ISH5ON SO — —_
or 18 47 47
Catania . a SS == 1A Me RT Ns)
Toronto . Be kre | — 18) 55518
Potsdam - polite SU! 0) — 19 8 O

At Shide the duration exceeded three hours, the amplitude was 8 mm.,
indicating a tilting of 4’"8. The period of the large waves was 13’7s.,
which, with a velocity of 3 kms. per second, indicates a wave-length of
39 kms. The height of these waves may have been 30°2 cm.

The records for the preliminary tremors indicate that the movements
commenced at Shide, Kew, Rocca di Papa, Ischia, and Catania about five
minutes later than at Toronto. The largest group of waves were re-
corded at Shide and Kew 26m. or 32m. after they reached Toronto.
The corresponding intervals for the remaining stations cannot be inferred
with certainty from the above data, as the last column of this for
Nicolaiew, Rocca di Papa and Catania apparently refers to the commence-
ment of the large motion.

Although the data taken as a whole point to an origin much nearer
Toronto than Europe, and the time intervals for large waves noted in
Toronto, Kew and Shide suggest an origin on the western side of the
Atlantic in the direction of the West Indies, the marked difference in
the time at which the first heavy movements were recorded at Shide and
Kew throw great uncertainty upon the localising of the originating centre

No. 216, July 2.

TN wis M. OS Hetattie., S
Shide 4°97 94 — —_—
Kew 4 25 24 -- Aer to
Nicolaiew 1 22)" .0 1 730 Ase 25 (0
Rocca di Papa MTT O —- 4 21 0
Ischia aa US a [Pe — —
Catania 4 19 52 — ARDS 43ST
Potsdam 4 Dod — _—

Origin, Dalmatia. Both the preliminary tremors and large waves
have been recorded at distant stations in an expected order.

202

Shide
Kew
Shide . : 5 =
Kew . - 5 a
H.
Shide . 10
Batavia 11
Shide .
Catania
H.
Shide . LT
Nicolaiew . 17
Potsdam 17

REPORT—1899.

No. 217, July 2.
H. M. s.

17 3 23 The identity of these disturbances is
16 25 48 doubtful.

No. 218, July 3.

Me ES:
30 0 (about) The identity of these two shocks is
38 6 doubtful.
yo, 220, July 13-14.
Hoy MS 6) 8s H M S§
23 51 8 — _
0 30 26 — 0 30 26

No. 221, July 14.

Origin to the East or South of Nicolaiew.

Shide .
Toronto

Origin, Mid-Atlantic ?

Shide . 3 *
Ischia . 2 P
Catania : 3 5
Kew

Origin, 8.E. Europe ?

H.
23

Shide

M.S
21 14 This may be connected with a series of shocks

M.S. M. He it 8
46 15 15 18 9 27 The [.T.’s are irregular.
30 0 15 1 52 520
33° «0 12 17 54 O
No, 232, July 20.
EL.) ttaq yy Se Bis.) as
. . - 16 59 26 — 16 59 26
(uncertain) — 17 2 33
No, 223, July 21
2,1), Oo wisi Bil eas
de SS) BG Aa ae oie ee
Tis She Ob —
WwW 28° 41 = 1T 333° Sk
1300" 07 4 — —_—

No, 224, July 26.

recorded in Valparaiso and Concepcion, one or
two of which appear to have been noted in
Toronto. (See the Zoronto Register.)

In a despatch to the Foreign Office, H.M.’s Minister in Chile, Audley
C. Gosling, Esq., writes respecting these shocks as follows :—

‘I have the honour to report the occurrence on the night of July 23
of severe shocks of earthquake at Concepcion, in Southern Chile, latitude

36° 50’, longitude 73° 10’.

‘Nearly every building in the town suffered more or less damage,
especially the cathedral and the Bank of Chile and Concepcion.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 203

‘The first shock happened at 10.50 p.m. (July 24, 3h. 16m. 30s. a.m.
G.M.T.) lasting 50s., with an oscillation of 10 centimetres, direction
south-east to north-east, followed by lesser shocks, which continued alto-
gether for twelve hours, and the sea having receded fears were enter-
tained of a tidal wave.

‘ The winter throughout Chile has been unusually severe and wet, the
rainfall in May and June having amounted to 22 inches. Seismic
disturbance has been frequent, especially in the neighbourhood of the
Andes, where abnormal quantities of snow have fallen. In several passes
of the Cordillera snow has attained the extraordinary depth of from 14 to
18 metres, and postal communication has been entirely stopped vid the
Andine route for close on two months, many hundred bags of postal
matter having been abandoned in the snow by the carriers, several of
whom lost their lives whilst performing their perilous duties.

‘On the 12th inst. snow fell heavily in Santiago, a very unusual
occurrence, to a depth of between 2 and 3 inches: indeed for twelve
hours the capital presented the appearance of a city of Northern Europe.

‘Valparaiso suffered considerable Gamage from inundation in the
early part of this month, caused by excessive rainfall, which was followed
by shocks of earthquake and a severe cyclone, causing considerable destruc-
tion to property.’

No, 225, August 8.

EM) Se M. S. H. M.S.

Shide . 8 53 30 = 9 50

Nicolaiew S 2040 190 8 54 0

Potsdam & 9 0 — 8 45 0

No. 228, August 21,

H. M. S.

Shide . ; ; : : ; : ‘ : : 5 17 28 0

Bidston C j A 3 . : 3 : c C 16 50 0

The identity of these shocks is doubtful.
No. 230, August 51.

Heys 1S. MM. Ep Mima

Shide j : ‘ ; é ee ZOO 5to6 20 36 25

Kew . 5 , : A - = 204s 8 20 35 0

Nicolaiew . : i ‘ A - 2039 O — 20 42 0

Rocca di Papa . : : : - 20 3 40 — 20 31 O

Ischia : : : ; j . 20 “3 45 == 29 30 0

Catania ; é A 3 ‘ a 20s G3) — 20 12 33

Toronto . F z ‘ : . 2017 53 — 21.3 20
Batavia .. ‘: : : : Pa 2.0) LS — —

Madras : ‘ F : 3 eee — 20 28s. .0
Potsdam . P <e 2008" — ——

San Fernando (recorded) . ; j — — —

At Shide the first P.T.’s lasted about 6 minutes, after which they
increased and decreased sometimes gradually and sometimes suddenly
up to 20h. 3lm. 21s. The maximum was attained at 20h. 36m. 25s., to
be followed by its echo of nearly equal magnitude at 20h. 42m. 29s.
Following this there were fairly symmetrical sets of earthquake followers.
(See Earthquake Echoes, p. 227). The period of the P.T.’s reached 12s.,
and that of the L.W.’s 15:-4s. The maximum amplitude was 9 mm.,
indicating tilting of 5’’-4.

204: REPORT—1899.

At Kew the chief movements were as follows :—

H. NM.

20 34:9 semi-amp. 5mm. or 2'°75
0 37 2°8 155
0 378 32 175
0 40°7 3 1'"-65

It will be observed that the amplitude at Kew is smaller than the one
from Shide.

An inspection of the time records shows that the disturbance first
reached Batavia and Madras. The heavy movement reached Ischia and
Rocca di Papa 12m. or 13m. later, Shide and Kew 18m. later, and
Toronto about 45m. later. With the assumption that the large waves
travelled at a rate of about 2°5 kms. per second, these time intervals
would lead us to look for the origin of this earthquake in the South
Indian Ocean eastwards of Madagascar.

Vo, 231, September 3.

bale, M. s. M. 5. H. M. €.
Shide . pur LOin ities J5 8? 16 ¥%1 57 Commencement badly
defined.
Nicolaiew . 15 52 — JO pee)
‘Toronto = SUG LE 322 -— L6, 18 “20
Kew . 7 tbe a <0 — =
Potsdam ci ipe oe 0 — Ho 15. 20

The L.W. records for Shide and Toronto would indicate an origin on
the west side of the Atlantic, but this does not accord with the records
from Potsdam and Nicolaiew.

No. 252, September 13.

Fi Mik, Si Hi MLSs
Shide . ; 5. thee S51 — Record small and not
to20 7 35 — — clear,
San Fernando . Ls J0e4o a= =
Nicolaiew . a ii Ae) Oi Se 1g 3£ 0
Rocca di Papa » iS TASB ee Sh elite 55
Ischia . F eS: 2 Om a —
Catania , = ES aero — . eS) 27
Batavia 3 1 Ly 24, 64 — —
Toronto 4 Sey B i G2 AS hs TO a Be ad
Kew A : sf 1S) Sse —
Madras . : ~. Wie nod ep a -
Bombay : ~ 18 53 28 - — —
Potsdam ‘ = 182) O70 Ore pila

The minuteness and irregularity of the earlier movements render it
impossible for Shide, Kew, and other places to give an exact commence-
ment. The large movement recorded in Toronto suggests an origin nearer
to that place than to Europe.

No. 235, September 22.

SPM {v8 AK. = Sy Bi. UM se
Shide . : ; ‘ - 12 30 54 _ —
tol3 37 52 — —
Kew i : 5 5 . 12 46 30 — 13.10 O
Nicolaiew 3 ’ . 12 44 =O 10 13 19°.0
Rocca di Papa ; F PAALIE 58" 0 _ 13 33 0 about

Ischia . : _ : “lized” 70 -— —

bo
Oo
Cr

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION,

EP Me BY H. M. Hi MM; , st
Catania . ; : : Ske 40h a2 — Uncertain
Batavia . ; F 5 me 2 OS LB — —
Madras . : : : a 2) (34043 = =
Bombay . : : : . 12 40 45 a 12 V49""'8
Potsdam F - ; Tee So NO — 13 21 0
Mauritius : : : 3 — — Ls V50!"'O

No. 234, September 25,

Bi) om rst M. S. Bi May 8s
Shide . ; A OlOTE 2 be 50) — OQorl2 54 0
Kew : , : 0 50 1s —— Oa)
Nicolaiew : ; 12 25 ‘0 9 0 12 kane ek O
Bombay 3 ‘ 12 18 (37 —~ 12 20 36

The movement apparently crossed Europe from the east towards the
west.

No. 235, October 11.

Hy . Mie Se M. S. use yu Ast

Shide . . . , - 16 (58 52 — i {Sareeo
Kew. : : Ss) 6 59) 12 -— 17 38 42
Nicolaiew . f F - 16 49 30 -— LP) CRO
Rocca di Papa. ‘ - 16 50 35 — Lt 2S BPO
Ischia . P é , - 16 50 34 — —
Catania : A : = ol ipenca mcr — 17 88 .42
Toronto 4 ; , SUG 447" 29 0 17 (29 30
Batavia ‘ Z i . 16 49 42 — —
Victoria . ‘ F 16 44 34 4 0 —
Madras : : ; Tee 2 3b — —
Bombay : : : lip eee 36 -- WI 0 (42
Potsdam : : ; af lige Dee 0) — 17 30) 01@)
San Fernando j : on elie 2a Lg —- —

The probability is that this shock originated in the Pacific, and after
reaching Victoria spread eastwards to Toronto and Europe. In the seis-
mograms received there are several maxima, and it seems impossible to
recognise similar groups of large waves at different stations.

No. 237, October 12.

Ele ie. wes H MM Ss
Shide é A 3 7 i : ey a Hidine td: 2 a
Kew 3 3 = ws 20% 42 Mets PGW Ie}
No. 238, October 15.
Hass tie S M. Ss. H. MM. “Ss:
Shide : = ‘i . ££ 2 44 — A Sia
Kew é , 3 3 2 4 28 0 — ah
Nicolaiew a8 0 37. «(OO 4 TOPS O)
Batavia . 7 ‘ , Ata piles 42, — =
Madras . 4 ; ; He 2BOMLLe = Bh BYE Sy
Bombay . : ; : . 8&8 46 41 -- 347 24
Mauritius P F ‘ o£? (Gn 2 — 4 10 O

The disturbance apparently crossed Europe from east to west.

No, 239, November 17,

H. M. s. Ms. H. M Ss.
Shide . : : ; ey Owe b -- —
Kew . = 6 E alos olen U2 — 13 46 24
Nicolaiew . 3 : WS 9 :355..0 9 0 133i 0
Rocca di Papa. ' RUSE Fie 40 — 13 46 30

206 REPORT— 1899.

Hew Ms. 1S; H. M. H.C ase
Ischia . : f . “158 00) 10 — —
Catania . zy ‘ ‘ Bn is)9 S53 -- “=
Batavia . : 3 4 i — — 13° 12,088
Toronto . Ps 4 : = ide 9°46 — 13 44 50
Victoria . : > : . Loe ser 0 — —
Bombay . fi 5 3 2 Ld 4s a9 — 13 34 0O
Potsdam . , . 5 = 135.70" 30 = 13: 45" ©
Mauritius é 5 S «f 13.45 £23 — 14. 2-0

It seems probable that from its origin the shock radiated westwards to
Java and India, whilst eastwards it successively reached Victoria, Toronto,
and Europe.

No. 240, December 1.

HM. 8S. Haus:
Shide 0 3 A : - 12 48 16 —
Nicolaiew 5 fs 5 , gli2h Aa (0 = 12: bt TO
Catania . : - PS SZ 36° ML — 12 49 51
Victoria, B.C. Z i - 2 — —
Kew P ‘ ; : Sel 2eoler 1S — —
Madras . eplzin aby; 14 = 12) 5b «9
Bombay (N ovember 80) . eS 17? — --
Potsdam . . oe loner? 70 — 12 sbi 0
Mauritius 5 ‘ 5 : = — 0 58 4382

The Shide seismogram consists of a series of small broadenings of the
normal line, like No. 239.

No. 241, December 3.
H. M. S.
Shide é : - : A * . : : F Aye he ten 2153
Kew S 5 : : : : : a1 OLE WS
Andis oie. 10
Nicolaiew ‘ A } ( J : 5 ; : Gi 18 FO
Potsdam . : : , 3 5 : : = ; Gulbs 30
Bombay . 6 fs 7 ; ; 3 5 2 : 2.49 58?
No. 243, December 3.
He OM. SB:
Shide , A : é ; F x F Z ; 17 42 26
Batavia . ° : ‘ 3 3 16.59 54
It is doubtful aiteie: siege refer to ae same aie
No. 244, December 4.
A. Ms. 7S} H, SM.
Shide : 5 A ; 205-207 40 == —
Bombay . a s : LP 2Oy 28 15,7. — _
Mauritius : : : A (amoOL cOr? —_ (fee ar Q?
No, 245, January 6, 1899.
Hs Ms S: M. S. H. M Ss
Shide C : - A ee US) aI 9 — —_
Kew A 5 ; F SRO BBs AD = --
and 19 41 30 -- 20-9 RS
Nicolaiew Fi : j alt Oer 23:0 10 0 19 46 O
Rocca di Papa. : : aye! 22E9 car@) — 19 52°30
Catania . : . ‘ te Oe AG at — Uncertain
Toronto . : 5 : wT Love 9h, 8 — z
Bombay . : : , = LO Se 4017 -— fa
Potsdam . 3 ; ; tl Oe yO 10 — yy

San Fernando . é - ong 19. V4 od — —

ee

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 207

No. 246, January 12.

Bes. mm. 3G Ss
Shide. : 5 : . (3° F588 — —
Toronto . : : : = - 0, 40° 50 —
Victoria . : 3 4 : . 3 BS 16 -— 3 36° 15
Bombay (January 11). : - 19 23 442? — _

Probably originated in the Pacific, and passed across North America
to Europe.
No, 247, January 12.

nM OS: i a Cae B
Shide A : é Bh Oe 226 = pa
Nicolaiew . 5 ’ 3 WiSiton. LO A a0) S 500410
Batavia . F P : pe Sie MEE 18:2 — 8 8 48
Bombay . : ; 4 =) oO) da) 224 Dislocation of the line.

No. 248, January 14.

Hs. a). 85 M. Hee Mee eS
Shide 2 48 55 — 3722 48
Kew. 2 58 12 272 3 26 30
Nicolaiew 2 54 O 6 & (aZe 40
Toronto 2 42 18 13 ae (Di tb
Victoria, B.C. . 2 42 30 9 2° 5b 28
Bombay (13th) 19° 41 372 — 21S
Potsdam . Deripage, 10 — Sy30N Go

We have here well-defined maxima for Shide, Kew, Toronto, and
Victoria. The latter place was reached first, whilst at intervals of 2, 29,

and 36 minutes, Toronto, Kew and Shide, and Nicolaiew and Potsdam

were reached. These data lead to the conclusion that the origin was in
the Pacific, at no great distance from the coast of Central America.

No, 249, January 22. Origin, Greece.

Hom 8s BG, fee St Hie (Me) 8
Shide 8 22° 53 — Se sor 0
Kew. 8 22 12 5 18 8 29 0
Nicolaiew & 2990 — S215 oO
Rocca di Papa . 8 16 10 — 8 20 40
Ischia 8 14 37 — ==
Catania 8 14 11 — 8 19 48
Trieste 8 15 48 — S2T 30
Bombay 9°15 47 Dislocation of the line.
Potsdam . Ss) Sie Say 0 — baa
or 8 18 0 = ur

This earthquake originated in Greece, and is described in the Daily

Telegraph of January 23 as follows :-—
‘Athens, Sunday.

‘A severe earthquake shock was felt in several parts of the Peloponnesus early
this morning. ‘The shock was most violent in the departments of Philiatra, in the
province of Messinia, and Kyparrisia, in the province of Laconia, the two most fertile
and beautiful districts of the peninsula. Several villages are completely destroyed,
and in the towns practically every house is uninhabitable.

‘The loss of life would have been very great had not the majority of the inhabit-
ants, warned by the first shocks, left their houses in the early morning, and camped
in the open plains and fields. A great many, however, have been injured, and
several are killed, though it is impossible at present to state the exact number.

‘The people, panic-stricken, have been in the fields all to-day, and are in a dis-
tressing condition.

‘The greatest efforts must be made to give them the urgent succour which is
necessary.— Central Ners.’

208 REPORT—1899.
The fact that the large waves reached Trieste, Rocca di Papa, and
Nicolaiew at about the same time, and the English stations 10 minutes

later, also indicate that the origin of this shock was in Greece.

No. 250, January 24-25. Origin, Mexico.

Hint AleaeSe M. Se 1 eee os
Time at the origin ; _- — 23-43 fail
Shide : : é eee a oa er 0 34 42
Kew. ‘ : : ; it 2b WAT POA 9.0 0 35 30
or 45 2t
Nicolaiew ; : : COs mie tO 4 0 0! PLD
or 10 O
Rvcca di Paya . ; ‘ «, 200 On. 0 aa =
Catania 3 ; ee Oy gl a3 Uncertain
Toronto . : : ! ~ 23) 30) 924 0 “26
Victoria, B.C. . : i 5 eB a eT = 0 4°10
Trieste. ‘ ‘ A », 23,58. 24 — 0 48 0
Bombay (25th). : t Pel on s5 94 — —
Potsdam . ; : : 23 38 0 =
Mauritius. : . : ; — — Lab as

and 1 19.450

At Shide the early part of the disturbance is eclipsed by air tremors.
The first echo, the amplitude of which is equal to that of the maximum
at Oh. 34m., was at Oh. 37m. The Kew record is distinctly smaller than
the one from Shide, the amplitudes at these places being 4 mm. and
6 mm. respectively.

The following notes throw light upon the nature of the shock near to
its origin, and other disturbances, with which it has been confused.

The Sub-Director of the Central Meteorological and Magnetic
Observatory in Mexico, Senor José Zandejas, writes to Professor R. F.
Stupart of Toronto, as follows :—

‘ Owing to the temporary absence of Senor Barcena, I have great pleasure
in answering your favour of January 26 last, and inform you that the
shock of earthquake on the 24th of the same month was felt here at
5h. 23m. (local time) and lasted 2 minutes, causing some damage to
old buildings, but cannot be classified as very strong. Generally they are
not in the capital. It was felt from Vera Cruz on the east to St. Blas
on the west, both seaports, one in the Gulf and the other on the Pacific,
declining towards the south to the Pacific Ocean and Tehuantepec
Isthmus, including the States of Jalisco, Colima, Michoacan, Guerrero,
Pueblas, Flaxcala, Mexico, Oaxaca, and Vera Cruz, which is the territory
where earthquakes are generally felt and in which the volcanos of the
Republic are situated.

‘ As these phenomena have not been sufficiently studied, it would be
hazardous to point out a determinate point of convergence of their
probable origin, but it has been noticed that the greatest intensity and
frequency of these earthquakes take place in the States of Michoacan,
Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Chiapas to Guatemala, (c., and might extend with
still greater violence to the Pacific Ocean.’

In a subsequent letter Senor Zandejas corrects the above time to
January 24, 5.29 am. and adds that there was a second shock at
5.9 p.m. (mean local Mexican time). The former was slight and the latter
was strong.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, 209

The United States Monthly Weather Review for January gives the
following note :—

‘Reports from Mexico describe the earthquake of Monday evening,
January 24, as the severest ever known in the City of Mexico. The first
oscillation began at 9:09 (local time). It was from north-east to south-
west, and lasted Im. 56s. Three minutes later came a second shock,
which lasted 5s., oscillating north-west and south-east. The earthquake
was felt over the entire Republic of Mexico. At Colima it lasted
Im. 20s.; at Vera Cruz it lasted 10s. But few reports of this earth-
quake have been received from the United States, although it must
have been feebly felt at many stations.

‘At San Barnardino, Cal, a shock was felt at 4.55 pm.,
January 25. The newspapers of that city state that the shock was of
little greater severity than usual, and that the barometer dropped from
30:12 to 29°86, “an unusual occurrence, &ec.”’

Mr. O. H. Howarth, who is interested in recording earthquakes,
writes to me from Hacienda de Zavalita, Oaxaca, Mexico, as follows :—

‘T think you may be interested to have a local note about the earth-
quake shock which occurred here on Tuesday, January 24, being the
longest and strongest I have yet experienced in this country. The time
was 5.25 a.M., and the duration, as near as I could get it, 20 seconds. We
are situated here about 13 miles south-west of the city of Oaxaca, in a
winding cajion, well up into the mountain range: altitude, 6,200 feet.
We seem to be all agreed that the wave approached from thesouth. The
formation of the whole district here is a very hard gneissic granulite in
which occur the quartz veins with gold. The feature which struck me
most was the sensation (which I have not experienced before), of the
wave grinding its way through a hard resisting medium. Just at the
climax there was a peculiar jerk, as if it had changed its direction, or met
with some exceptional obstruction. The noise was considerable, and
some of our people were on their knees saying their “ Ora pro nobis” with
great vigour. One of them told me to watch the clouds, and for three
hours afterwards I noticed heavy mist down upon the high ridge at the
head of the cafion (8,700 feet), which otherwise we never see at this time
of the year—the middle of the dry season. I cannot see any direct
reason for an atmospheric change, but there is no doubt that a big
condensation occurred. The shock seems to have been unusually long
and severe in the city of Mexico (200 miles north from here)—
Im. 36s. (this I doubt), and damage was done at some points; but
probably the accounts which reach England will be exaggerated as
usual,’

On May 29 Mr. Howarth again wrote me, saying that in Oaxaca
where he was (200 miles south from Mexico City), there was a severe
shock at 5.25 a.m., a slight tremor about 11 a.m., and another slight
shock about 5 p.m. In Mexico City this was reversed, the slight shock
being at 5.23 a.m. and the heavy one causing damage about 5 p.m. The
first coming from the south to reach Mexico City would have to traverse
the great range of Popocatepetl, Ixtaccehuall, and Ajusco, by which it
would be absorbed or diverted, and therefore whilst strong in Oaxaca, it
would be feeble in Mexico City. If the second came from the north or

1899. P

210 REPORT—1899.

north-west these effects would be reversed. The only effect at Zavalita,
near Oaxaca, on January 24, was to crack walls, and to bring down a load
of loose rock at the entrance to a mine tunnel, and in this way it acted
as a service. In Oaxaca the intensity of local shocks is remarkably
variable at short distances.

The conclusion we arrive at from the above notes is that we
have to deal with the shock felt severely in Mexico at 5.9 p.m., or at
llh. 45m. 3ls. G.M.T. The time at the origin would be about 2m.
earlier than this, or 11h. 43m. 31s.

Velocities of transit, on the assumption that the disturbance originated
at 23h, 48m. 31s.

Velocities in kms.

Time of Transit Length of path per sec.
Place IP SEs L.W.’s
Tees Ue L.W.’s | Degrees| Are | Chord |————__ —
Are |Chord| Are
M. Ss. M. S. KMs. | KMS.
Shide. “ 411 51 11 80 8880} 8170] 35 32 2:5
Kew . ; 3 53o0r| 5] 59 80 8880} 8170) 38 or) 350r)| 2°6
12 53 f1°5” | 105
Nicolaiew . cy) LA sell 28 29 100 |11100|) 9744) 13:1 | 11°5 6-42
Rocca di Papa . | 16 21 —_ 92 |10212) 9150/ 10-4 9°3 —
Catania . © oe Ss: le — 97 |10767| 9526] 9°8 87 >
Toronto . : 6 53 23.39 30 3330| 3292] 8:0 Go 2:3
Victoria, B.C. . 7 36 20 39 34 3774| 3719! 8:2 8-1 3:0
Trieste 5 » | d4e53 64 21 91 |10101| 9072} 11°3 | 10:2 2°6
Bombay . . | 14 282 — 141 +#+|15651/)11990; — — —_

Because the commencement of the Shide seismogram is partially
eclipsed by air tremors, there is no certainty in the determination for the
time of transit of the P.T.’s. The Kewseismogram is perfectly clear, and
shows a very small movement, commencing at 23h. 47m. 24s., which nine
minutes later is reinforced by slightly larger tremors. The commence-
ment of this second group leads to the determination of the velocities
11:5 and 10°5 kms. per second. Records from Shide, Kew, Toronto, and
Victoria, which relate to large waves, are distinctly comparable, and the
resulting velocities are fairly in accord to what previous investigations
would lead us to expect. The velocities obtained for the preliminary
tremors are, however, apparently too high, and suggest that the time
determined for the origin of the shock is a little late. When more defi-
nite information is obtained from Mexico this may be altered.

The amplitude of the first maximum and the time interval to its ‘ echo.’

Interval Amp.

M 8. MM
Shide 3 : 5 : : ; ; eas ee) 6
Kew : . 3 : E 3 : : ‘ > 16F 30 BW)
Toronto . bo Oo Tb
Victoria . 4 30 17

A good seismogram has been received from Swarthmore, Penn.,
U.S.A., but its time scale has not arrived in time for publication.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, 21]

No. 251, January 30.

HomeM. Si by re Se War
Shide . ° : - 5 - 18 55 42 — —
Kew : : 5 : é 3 . 18 45 48 — —-
Nicolaiew eG: : : ; . 17 59 30 — 18 25 O
Victoria, B.C. . : ; ‘ s . 2 — —
Madras. ; d : : : on Lt 48) 19, 6 ==] 17, 52 26
Bombay . : : A : ‘ st 50) AG, — Ai 58 34

No, 252, January 31.

ee He Megas:
Shide - : - : E : eld 22) 4G = TN 2b nO
Kew 6 “ - “ é - 11 21 48 — 11 25 =O
Toronto . : : : ; . > A 36> OF = 1 aie
Victoria, B.C. . # : F : 7 1 40° 09. ==" 1S Ai 26
Bombay . E . - - : . 12 23 20 Dislocation.

The time intervals for the L.W.’s indicate an origin to the south of
the Azores or off the coast of North Norway.

No. 253, January 31.

: Bae -8; M.’ S. H. M.S.
Shide . * . : , MLO) | oul 2 30 17 35 0
Kew ‘ ‘ 4 ; E ~ hae 1S —_— —
Nicolaiew 2 : Fl : an? Sik 30 12 30 Dyula 10)
Bombay . : é : : 5) Be Ne a — —

No, 254, February 23.

Heo Ms) Se Mas He an. se
Shide F 5 . A . 13 47 23 2 0 13) OF 75a
Kew j 3 : F F . 13 49 30 — —
Bidston . : Z . , 3 22 e50h sO — —
Toronto . 3 c E 4 . Uncertain — ge OP ee. en)
Victoria , : 2 ‘ : . 14 +6 40 —- ale Ye Tanes is

The time intervals for the L.W.’s suggest an origin west of Cape
Verd.

Wo. 255, February 26.

Heb we 18 Hi) Mr, ess
Shide 5 ‘ : . 4 Siar eel art) — 13. -48 O
Kew 2 z Fi ‘ : ‘ . 13 499 0 — _—
Victoria . , ; 3 . : Soe 4S FAG: 223" —. Eee od
Trieste . 3 ‘ sale, L480 ES: — 14 O 42

Origin probably near to that of No. 254.

No, 256, February 27.

He Ms? Se M.S. HW M's,
Shide 4 5 : ; 2 Os 12, 9 — Light out
Kew : 4 ; F 5 ait de eit 80 — —
Nicolaiew ; 4 - . se lee colle BO 2 30 Rey aa)
Toronto . ; f " 2 lie 4 lo —- ll 42 20
Victoria . ; : : : 2 — in) P48 80
Bombay . ; ; - 2 . 10 42 20 Dislocation.
San Fernando . d : Sal 335449 — —

Origin probably the same as 252, 254, and 255,

212 REPORT—1899.

No. 257, February 27.

H OM. éS. HL, oe Mer PSs
Shide. ; 3 : : ; - 16 26 40 — —
Kew . ; . : 5 : monet 120 — =
Trieste : : : - ¢ . 16 28 12 -— 15 40 30
Bombay . - : : 5 . 14 40 50 Dislocation.

No, 259, February 28.

H.! M.S. H OM. «OS.
Shide. i : & : = AQ KATS 38 — 19 48 38
Kew . : A : : . 19 48 30 — —
Toronto . ; j A : $20. 0 15 — 20 elie UO
Victoria . A 5 , - +20". 5 ~0 = —
Trieste : : é : . 19 50 -12 — 20 4 380
Bombay . : i ; - 20 9 23 Dislocation.
San Fernando . ‘ . ~ 19," 56: 49 -- —
Origin like 255, &c.
yo. 260, February 28.

; LIT, oS: Bsc Mocks
Shide . : ‘ : F , Ok ie A eee _-
Trieste A ; ; 4 ue. 42 48) ——.. 23° 1 830

No, 262, March 6.
OM. . Se He. SAB
Shide . ‘ 5 : P 5 e052: 3 — 20 56 ' 0
Nicolaiew . : 3 : : Pa 30° OQ «==. 20s 0
Kew . : a i ‘ a . 20 36 42 ‘— —
No. 263, March 7.

H,.\: Me». 18s Mm Ss, Haw. oS:

Shide. Laer ey _— 1 53 42 P.T’s eclipsed by air
tremors.

Kew . 1 17 #42 = 1 53 24
Nicolaiew . Ly b. © 10 0 12 (0
Rocca di Papa 1 (G0) — IL Pape tO)
Ischia 30 20 — —
Catania 1 18 14 — WO) 23
Toronto » i 19\29 — Dg hes 0
Victoria, B.C. . 1 15 138 —_— TG Ubi?
Trieste hy Gy abt: — 1 42 48
Bombay . « 0 (ed ATT — —
Mauritius, Mar.6,23 20 0 to Mar.7,1 35 O
San Fernando 1 49 49 — —

This earthquake had its centre in Central Japan, but until the time of
its origin is more definitely known its complete discussion is impossible.
The Japan Mail of March 11 gives the following description of the
occurrence :—

‘The earthquake on the 7th instant belongs to the category of serious
shocks. Our daily life in this country is perpetually disturbed by
tremblings and shakings, which become at last so familiar that we scarcely
notice them. Yet not a few of these ugly visitors fall short of calamitous
dimensions by only a narrow margin, and the unconcern with which we
receive them is simply the result of habit. Apparently the centre of dis-
turbance on the 7th instant was somewhere in the vicinity of Osaka.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 213

Such, at least, is the conclusion arrived at by the Meteorological Bureau,
though the record of damage done suggests that Nagoya may share the
honour. The time telegraphed from Nagoya is 9.45 a.m., and that tele-
graphed from Osaka 9.56, but it is not possible to place much reliance on
these figures. Nagoya city does not seem to have suffered. The damage
occurred chiefly at Ono, Handa, and Chirin, where houses are said to have
been overturned. Wakayama, also, was severely visited, houses and go-
downs being overthrown in the two districts of Nishi-mura and Higashi-
mura. The most accurate accounts come from Osaka. There the direction
of the shock was from south-east to north-west. At first vertical, the
movement presently became horizontal, the latter phase, which lasted
about two minutes, developing the maximum intensity. Apparently the
only personal injuries were not directly due to the shock, but resulted
from a panic among the employees at the Osaka Cotton-spinning Factory.
In attempting to escape from an upper story, several fell downstairs, and
twenty-eight were hurt, two severely. Fuller details may show, however,
that the falling of chimneys and buildings was not unaccompanied by loss
of life.

‘Considering the wide area through which the seismic disturbance on
the 7th instant was felt, it is inferred that the origin of the force must
have been at a point very deep below the surface. The great majority of
the earthquakes experienced in this country are of distinctly limited scope.
Thus the statistics collected by the Seismological Bureau show that out of
2,670 shocks felt in 1891, only eight were felt throughout an area of over
10,000 square miles. The great earthquake on August 28 in that year
made itself perceptible throughout an area of 15,750 square miles, and the
shock on the 7th of this month had a range of 15,000 square miles. The
latter did not reach farther north than Yokohama: it was not felt at all
in Tokio.

‘A telegram received by the Home Department from Nara Prefecture
gives details of the damage done by the earthquake :—‘“ A strong shock
was felt at 10 a.m. on the 7th. At Takata-machi twenty farmers’ houses
fell, and two children were buried in the ruins. At Sakmaimachi a man
was crushed to death. Other damage is in course of investigation.”

‘A telegram received subsequently says: “The result of investigation
shows that three persons were killed and 11 injured, 67 houses destroyed
and 24 damaged. The mountains in Amanowawa Mura, Yoshino district,
shook greatly and emitted a thunderous sound, and the ground opened in
parts, landslips occurring here and there. Roads westward of Hirase
have been broken away in places.”

ve workers in the Tenwa mine were buried alive, but were dug out
safely.’

Time of transit | Velocity per sec

eee, Bes Wwid Distance ines
: M. ° KMS. |
Shide . ; 3 F 4 3 59 87 27
ew 4 Rio's. 59 86 2-7 .
Nicolaiew . 3 : a , 26 74:5 5:2?
occa di Papa soe a0. | 56 88 2°9
Catania ‘ ; : ; : 24 90 6:92
Toronto : 3 5 3 : 65 95 27
Trieste : F A ; 3 47 84:5 33

214: REPORT—1899.

The velocity of transit for the P.T.’s is not given, because small errors
in the time observations lead to marked discrepancies in the final results.

A point of interest in the seismograms is that whilst at Shide and
Kew the range of motion was 3 and ‘8 mm., at Toronto it was only °5,
and at Victoria, the nearest station to the origin (71°), the movement
was barely visible, and so indefinite that certain determinations of time
are impossible. This latter place would be reached along a path entirely
beneath the Pacific, Toronto by a path crossing Behring Straits, and
Shide by a land path across Asia and Europe.

Observations of this nature suggest that oceanic waters exert a damp-
ing effect upon the earth waves traversing their beds.

No, 264, March 12.

BH. om. %s M Ho) eae,
Shide 9 55 10 9 10 26 12
Kew 9 55 42 == os
Nicolaiew 9 Al, 730 25 10, da eo
Toronto . ‘i i 9 b2) Wt — Maa ee F/
Victoria, B.C.. ; 39 495 bb — 9 9 30
~ Trieste , a9 NES NG — 10° 7 WS
Batavia . ; — — 10 8 12
Bombay . -10 31 41 = --
Calcutta 5 5 > 8..51 20 — _-
Mauritius 3 j ; 2 — 8h.20m. to 10 50 O

The L.W. records for Toronto and Victoria, followed 13 and 27 minutes
later by records at Batavia and Shide, suggest an origin in the Mid-South
Pacific. :

No, 266, March 19.

H. M. Ss.
Shide . é - 5 = " : : ‘ 13 45 35
Victoria : H : . : : ; : i 13) Ab 4e
Trieste . : : é ; ; ; . ; ; 1 i Aa 4: Eee
Toronto . 3 : : ; - F 4 , ; 13) ga 2907
Calcutta - 4 5 ; : 4 é i . 12-36 “18

This disturbance probably travelled from the western side of North
America towards Europe.
No. 267, March 21.

H: ') M7 4s) my a Ast
Shide . , ’ 3 . 14 58 47 _— lb) Be aale
Kew ; : 4 ; » 1b 525% 30 — _—
Trieste . : ; : . 14 46 24 — 15 22 12
Catania . 4 3 e . 14 46 24 — 14 57 30
Calcutta. j 6 4 . 14 48 6 — —
San Fernando : , . 15 68=19 — —

The movement apparently crossed Europe from the east or south-east.
No, 268, March 25.

H OM. «OS. M. Ss. Et) Ava ase
Shide . fe : 5 .10 45 16 18 0 1 ops
Kew 5 3 s 4 = LT 20; “30 — Ii, =20; iz
Toronto . é a : -10 41 52 — Ly 66 oO
Victoria, B.C. : 6 _ 10. 35 47 — aia
Trieste . . : : .10 42 48 — >" 5 26
Catania . 5 - % . LO 34° 15 — 11 9 48
Bombay . 4 : . » 11 42 30 -—- 11 47 46

San Fernando . : » 11.40) 34 = ae

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.

215

Apparently we have two small shocks, and it is difficult to discriminate
between the commencements of the first and the second. For Shide,
Toronto, and Victoria the times of the L.W.’s refer to the second dis-
turbance, which may have originated on the western side of the Atlantic.

Shide .
Kew .

Victoria, B.C.

Trieste .
Toronto
Catania
Calcutta

Shide .
Kew
Toronto

Victoria, B. C.

Trieste

San Fernando

To suit the L.W. intervals for Toronto, Victoria,

No. 269, March 28,

M.

57 41

O 24
55 20
30° 0
18 1
12 38

No. 2

70, March 25.

Wa ek. 6:
1453 29
14 54 O
14 44 37
14 46 25
14 53 30
14 52 19

Ss.
0 First of three maxima.

42
11
24
47?
45
H.
= 15
2 — 14
= 15
— 14

may be sought on the West Coast of South America.
No. 271, March 25,

Shide
Kew

H M. ‘S.
20 39 52
20 46 6

and Shide, an origin

Earthquakes recorded at Shide, I.W., and aiso at distant stations, betneen
February 27, 1898, and April 3, 1899.

| Kew

é H.P. and
H.P, with ee Ordinary
Milne’s H. P. (Photographie Record) (Photo. lum (@epnieal
ak Photo- A
raphic C “ Regis-
et graphic) tration)
3S
Q|s3 g |
ale eal eles Els
o\s 5 n mB » s/f[-3|s o r~| =I a) 3
eee es | Salter ees ee ee [oc |) See eu tain: | a
wo = —
Rola lS Pape Sts | oy 2 fe lo ies Sitesi |! os
Set tec 1S, [coe | sete fh aeae Se) sete fl 2 = oS S 2 a
aHlPlialae(aliolala lala} ae |.a]) 8 |e ba] o
Beebe & aa es saa he | fi
ae * oe oe * = -_ o. ee
. -* * -_ = - = . .
= =|. = | mera os
= ee . -, a — = —_— -_
on = oe oe = . oe oe oe
-_ = Ar —= = aes — = —
- * - . =_= = * Led
— = ee ry -_ | = eo) = —_ -—
— -— oe . =| = - —_ — =
ieee. fal oc tadiarh hire, Ibis Pe =
a in ee Ey 4

209

216 REPORT—1899,

EARTHQUAKES RECORDED AT SHIDE, I.W. &¢.—continued.

|
| : H.P. and
H.P. with pile Ordinary
Milne’s H. P. (Photographic Record) Mirr BE lum Pendulums
(Photo- (Photo- (Mechanical
graphic) graphic) Regis-
tration)
S| 3 53
2 Fa o n i= ss tal
is si\fiBlelelei[sisails/8!]o.fialsia 3
S GS |e) eto | eS loo tee | S| 27 | eee
S (Ee) Se hehe a eee ee 8 fog [8 | ese
ai|M¥/8|PFlalalel/oSi/aje|/eala|/elalalale|s
i]
ZLO! | jim] wie, || ore a 5 =) — 50 oe a
211 — - oe . .* = +. oe. oe
2130 | = 54 “10 ‘ =) .. a oie c —_— > a0
214 = oe a5 - |] oe | | om oe . ene —_ =
215 an (|=! .,. Ay alte =| — A * . - _ =
216 exe Rie ee ea =a = Wik : = Cl —=
217 - wipe ll ware on 7 lias a5) Ad os
218 | = we) Af) Sete fae Oval lo on i ee
220 ats z ee . als ee on os Cl
221 ae 5 we oo | om > om] we . ve A ae
222 | .. | =| Satll yes cals. a6 "0 a all eae
223 Lal “* “eo oe oe oe . . ae or . oe = -_=
225 Kael| | Tatera | tare cial Poa “ _|(= |= nies oe a4
ABE Wicca) fete) |) See ol ecebal iets a Bell ages |e let aes fe — ae he
230 Cl eel i -= (=o \—_ =. 5 —_ - sd
231 =?) os on oe on 8 oe . =| = oo oe o. oe oe
232 = oe =| = | = oe = . —_ = on . = —_ =
290: | emma} ce: ep cfyvste | \eemmcts toe | =| — | om | | ee fl = =
234 — “- oe oe = . on oe = . oe . ae . ae
235 em | iw | oe | oe | | ce ~ fmm]... | wl] em] . = =a |=
237 | me | .. |. Ar es halt tl Gomllibarky| pod. th acs Fi Be, 0 a5
238 | jice | ne == | os - | om | me om | ea 5 35 an
239 =m | aon | oe ~. | om] ow. | ee |] oe | | 2s M oa — —_
240 om | oe | ow - | =| .. .) | =?) oe | ome oe ee oe -=
241? | om | .. royal maul eetra: Alister 7 ltt Boe Pett a 35 ain
242 aD Cia] ace Pee {eee ears leer. |) oa as <s ;
244 ne of Pm) 2 Sree o | ae] EPA as An ne) = 39
245 | mee | et os | me]. fe] we] we]. | oof ee] Cl EC
246 | .. | om | me]. si) emi sis Tuco iiletety) 4), ceil ite ol tion > a AG :
247 rind cx me | . | owl .. | oe] AC . an f
248 ea | os | =| ,, — 2 Sma fesenen t—De | 1 here nd A
249 ioe) STEM) een |] ala —_ e ~[e |=) |] =_=_|/|~— | =
250 om | om | | .. = : . | ome | ee | oe | ee _ . =
251 = = = 4 — = 4 . ot <=? .. o. -* . ee
252 Jam] .w foe] wf ow fem] ed. Ah 5 |eS5 “i
AED TE ot least | (wet Meena) laa Mecinial Proc maa lesion tt eis An :
Oe |i oman] a5: | mm: || cle || teres ifieeeeal” Sent oe ae Sue aas =|
255 [mm] .. fm] ed. aieen| aero lets nb shel ol a
256 oe | oe | a | oo ead) cil cee oe si ae 5 . ae .
257 | me] oe | eel Pl adel bascelh mel) ce .| = : 50
259 om |... | om | — | scty! lectel| ce | — 5 as eo
260 Ate, || Sete ck lor : sie ail serail | tap _|= 5 . as .-
262 | ==?! .. y Boa |) coli ee callice a3 o. :
263 = = = =D ole oe = = . = ee ee = = =
264 = = = . = —_ = -_— = am ee ee ee of
266 | .. | .. | : sey pti! Ge a4) ce =m] .. no 5 sa
PAE al Be |= Kin om ate oe -
268 | me | oe | oom o |=] .. - 5D = 35 oe -=
269 — ate = ate 55 — -_ = hee Scie o. =
270 = = | = we ; - f 54 oe
271 | ow]... ' , ae an me
Totals . 67 42 | 23 | 18 | 13 8 | 24 4 9 8 | 35 | 29] 13 4 5 18 15 22

Records were kindly sent to me from Rome, Pavia, Livorno Castello,
and Catanzaro, which unfortunately arrived too late for insertion in this
report,

~“I

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, 21

Earthquakes recorded at Shide and at Distant Stations,

The preceding table shows the earthquakes which were recorded in the
{sle of Wight and also at distant stations. When comparing the records
at one station with those taken at any other station, consideration must
be given to the dates on which these stations commenced their observa-
tions. For example, the Kew entries corresponding to those at Shide lie
between Nos. 195 and 271 or April 25, 1898, and March 25, 1899. Just
as comparisons may be made between the Isle of Wight list and that from
Kew, showing that many earthquakes were recorded at the former place
which were not recorded at the latter, exactly opposite comparisons might
be made. For example, whilst the above list indicates that Kew only
recorded forty-two disturbances out of fifty-seven noted at Shide, the
complete register for Kew (p. 166) indicates that at that place seventy-five
disturbances were noted, and it is possible that more than forty-two of
these were common to other countries.

Although the Indian stations have recorded earthquakes which have
also been observed in other parts of the world, in consequence of difti-
culties largely the result: of a tropical environment the value of many
seismograms has been impaired. Until these difficulties have been over-
come the frequency of earthquakes common to India and other parts of
the world can only be imperfectly indicated.

Although the instruments at Bidston and Edinburgh have yielded
excellent results respecting slow changes in the vertical, and as such are
important adjuncts to a seismological laboratory, yet the above table
indicates that they fail to pick up many earthquakes.

Analysis of the Table from a Seismometrical Point of View.

The last line of the table shows that Kew, Toronto, Victoria,
Bombay (?), Nicolaiew, Potsdam, and Trieste have recorded more earth.
quakes in common with the Isle of Wight than have been recorded at the
Ttalian stations. This conclusion is more clearly indicated in the follow-
ing table :—

Out of 57 records at Shide 42, or 73 per cent., are common to Kew
61 Ld hol of ra Toronto

” ” ” ~

je moe + PP 18 ,, 56 - 35 Victoria, B.C.
” 42 ” ” 9 ” 21 ” 99 Batavia

ey aD) 35 rs 25 ,, 58 > 5 Nicolaiew

Py oy tees as - 29 ,, 60 Fe a Potsdam

a re i A 13 ,, 65 Ho 5 Trieste

” 66 ” ” 25 ” 38 ” ” Italy

If the Italian stations are taken separately the percentage for each is
lower than that for Italy as a whole. When we compare the twenty-four
earthquakes recorded at Shide, Nicolaiew, and Potsdam which lie between
Nos. 182 and 250 with those noted in Italy, we see that six of these, viz.
Nos. 182, 185, 210, 231, 248, and 264, apparently escaped observation in
the latter country.

Again, out of thirteen disturbances noted in Trieste and in the Isle
of Wight, only six of these, viz. Nos. 255, 257, 259, 260, 264, and 266, are
found in the Italian register. It will also be observed that some of the
shocks which escaped the Italian instruments were well recorded in Toronto,
Victoria, B.C., Batavia, and other places; and it may be added that
if we except Nos. 182, 260, and 266, the seismograms representing these
shocks from Shide, Potsdam, and other places are of marked magnitude.

218 REPORT—1899.

Although it may be suggested that these omissions in the Italian
registers of earthquakes which have spread over large portions of the
world are due to a want of sensibility in the instruments employed in that
country, such an explanation does not accord with the fact that these
same instruments with their frictional indices pick up the small pre-
liminary tremors of large earthquakes with apparently the same exactitude
as the seismographs do which record photographically.

Whatever may be the true explanation of these Jacune, it must be
remembered that the open diagrams from the Italian instruments furnish
information not obtainable from the majority of the photographic appa-
ratus, and they are, therefore, indispensable to fully equipped labora-
tories.

Time Intervals between the arrivals of Earthquakes in Victoria, B.C.,
Toronto, and Shide.

1. Intervals in Minutes between the arrival of P.T’s and L.W.’s at Toronto and Shide
after reaching Victoria.

No. of Shock ‘Toronto Shide Toronto Shide
M. M. M. M.
235 oP Ale 14P es = =
239 S. ess (isda As — —
246 5 Vea 2a is — —
248 Os; Taek. 2L.W.’s 28 L.W.’s
250 — — BHO 31 Origin, Mexico;
266 Jeans 30 ess — —
268 6s LO wae go! — —

As itis known that No. 250 originated in the vicinity of Mexico it may
be inferred, from the similarity in time intervals, that No. 248 originated
from the same region. No. 246 probably travelled from the Pacific in an
east direction through Victoria across North America to Toronto and on
to Shide. Nos. 235 and 239 had similar origins well out in the Pacitic
considerably to the south of Victoria. The group, as a whole, apparently
represents adjustments along the western frontier of the North American
continent.

2. Intervals in Minutes between the arrival of P.T.s and L.W.’s at Toronto and
Victoria after reaching the Isle of Wight.

No. of Shock Toronto Victoria Toronto Victoria
M. M. M. M.
188 — — P.T’s 9 — LW.’s
252 — — 12 16 *
254 — — » 15 19 ¥
256 —_ ars a3 z2+6,,
259 5) Tish es 13 —

The above shocks probably originated on the eastern side of the Mid-
Atlantic, along the line of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands, or off the
coast of Norway.

3. Intervals in Minutes between the arrival of P.T’s and L.W.’s at Victoria and
Shide after reaching Toronto.

No. of Shock Victoria Shide Victoria Shide
M. M. M. s.
264 — — P.T.’s. 1 28 L.W.’s.
270 2 9) aes 14 42 4

Origins probably in the Mid-South Pacific.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 219

A shock from Japan, No. 263, reached Victoria first, whilst two and
four minutes later it reached Shide and Toronto.

Illustrations of Seismograms.

The following illustrations of seismograms are only to be regarded as
sketches of the original photograms. They show the range of motion and
principal characteristics of wave-groups, but they do not show details like
small serrations clearly exhibited in the records from which they are
derived. The numbers correspond with the numbers given for particular
earthquakes in the preceding text. The arrow with its time-mark gives
the time for a particular phase of movement, which is usually that of the
commencement. The number following the letter S gives the time-scale
in millimetres per hour. Thus S=60 means that 60 millimetres equal
one hour.

The locality at which a seismogram was obtained is indicated by the
following initial or initials :—

Isle of Wight . s + JW. Bombay : ‘ “eb:
Kew F ' : K Calcutta 3 : 5G:
Toronto F 2 be ale Batavia ae dies
Victoria, B.C. . 4 HV. Mauritius 5 mya ils
San Fernando . ‘ 5 ase t Potsdam : : a, Rs
Madras . . $ . Mad. Philadelphia . ry peenestie
8.21.1. 7.88.35.
re $<
~ rn
No, 182.—ILW. S=59. No. 185.—IL.W. S=59°5.

No. 182.—P. S=20.

12.37 lve ’
v

E—

Ht
No. 188.—I.W. S=59. No, 189.—LW. S=59°5.
12.44.40. 7.48.0.

No. 188.—T. S=58'25, No. 189.—P. S=20.

No, 193.—I.W. S=59,

No. 193.—T. S=585,

220 REPORT—1899,

2351.0.
moray
4
No. 193.—P. S=20.
16.39.4,
Se es
+

No. 196.—I.W. S=59°75.

pT

No. 196.—T. S=59.

16.30, 0. 16.37.18.

No. 196.—P, S=20- No. 196.—S.F. S=60.

6.4.6,

No. 199.—ILW. S=59.

5.57.0.

No, 199.—P. S—20.

6.0.42.

oe

bi

i
No, 199.—T. S=59.
17.14. 44,

en

t

No. 210.—I.W. S=60.

17.0.0.

Np
+

No. 210.—P. S=20

.
—
ord
ao
~~
ao
nm

17.46.15.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 221

> 3
= 3
i
FS n
cS .
a is)
bo !
e Ss
3 a
S 3
2 %
ad
—
Ss
o

No. 215.—P. S=20,

8.53.30.

—————————— SEE nc
1}

1

No, 221.—I.W. §$=59°5. No, 225.—I.W. S=59°5.

999, REPORT—1899.

No. 221.—P. S=20. No, 225.—P. S=20.

20.5.2,

20.4.0,

No. 230.—K. S=61,

A
< Fi a fof SSS ee
Wi
No. 230.—Ba. S=60°5.

16.21.57,

t
No. 231.—LW. S=59'5,

3.54.0. Aim

No. 231.—P. S=20.

18.21. 45,

le sh mere ete

No, 232.—T, S=59.

16.58.52.
OI I Ot ee
T
No, 235.—I.W. S=59'5.
16.47.29.
is y

No, 235.—T. S=68.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 228

No. 238.—B. S=59.

12.51.18.

»

Toronto, Oct, 21. S=58'25,

13 14.19,

No. 239.—B. S=59.

12.48.16.

rr TE
a

No. 240.—I.W. S=59.

12.42.0. ff bras

¢ ye
No. 240.—P. S=20.

12.43.17.

No. 240.—B S=59.

19.11,9.
ee

+
No, 245.—I.W. S=58.

19.9.8.

No. 245.—T. $=58°75.

3.58.18.

t
No. 246.—LW. S=58.

3.47.51.

oe
+

No. 246.—T. S=58.

3.35.16.

No. 246.—V. S=60°5.

2.48.55,

No. 248.—LW. S=58,

224 REPORT—1899. ;

No 248.—V. S=60.

23.47.24

== eg esate

s

23 50.24.

No. 263.—1.W. S=58:25,

No, 263.—T, S=59,

to
bo
qt

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION,

9.55.10

ot

No. 264.—I.W. S=58'25.

9.52.11.

No, 264.—T.

10.45.16.

a
‘

No. 268.—I.W. S=58'5.

10.41.52.

No. 268.—T. S=58'25,

11.17.17,
oC rr I
} t

No. 268.—V. S=60'5,

14.57.41,
EE ——

No. 269.—I.W. S=58'25.

15.5.11,
——_—_—$VP————————

a
'

No. 269.—YV,.

14.53.19.
t

No. 270.—I W. S=58'5.

15 0.12.
ee ee ae Sa

t

No. 270.—V.

14.46.57,
nL
1

No. 270.—T, S=59.

IV, Varieties of Earthquakes and their Respective Durations.

Those who live in a country where earthquakes are frequent must
have observed that the shocks they feel may at least be divided into two
groups. The members of one of these groups are phenomena characterised

1899, Q

226 REPORT—1899.

by their short duration and by the rapidity of their vibrations. The other:
group, which in Tokio form about 5 per cent. of the whole, can be felt for:
several minutes, and the period of movement is long. With many persons.
earthquakes having this character produce feelings of nausea, and there is.
abundant evidence to show that they represent undulations of the surface:
of the ground. By the former of these groups, although they may some-
times alarm a city, free horizontal pendulums, unless constructed like a
bracket seismograph, are seldom disturbed, whilst the latter throw such
instruments into violent and fitful motion which, rather than extending:
over two or three minutes, continues for as many hours.

One class of earthquake consists of what are practically elastic vibra-
tions, which have a short life and do not travel to great distances from
their origin, whilst the other class gives rise to surface waves which are
propagated to very great distances.

The earthquakes which are merely elastic shiverings may possibly be
represented at their origin by a blow delivered on a small surface, whilst
those which are shiverings accompanied by surface heaving are the result
of collapse in and along an extensive region.

If we divide earthquakes into these two groups, between which con-
necting links, if they exist, are very rare, we then see an escape from the
prevalent idea that as earthquakes radiate their duration apparently
increases.

Although we know that preliminary tremors outrace large waves, that
both of these forms of movement increase in period, and that a single ~
wave at one station may at a more distant station be represented by two
waves, all of which phenomena tend to the spreading out of a disturbance,
it 1s difficult to realise that an earthquake recorded in Japan as having a
duration of two or three minutes should, when it reaches this country, be
represented by movements continuing over two or three hours. The
circumstances which have led to this supposition are twofold. First, no
distinction has been drawn between the two kinds of earthquakes ; and,
secondly, the duration of a disturbance near to its origin has been deter-
mined by a method very different from that by which it was determined at
a distance.

When these considerations are neglected the results we may arrive at
are well illustrated in a paper on ‘ Earthquake Duration’ by Dr. E. Odone
{‘ Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei,’ vol. iv. fas. 10, p. 425). We
here find a list of twenty-four earthquakes, the origins of which were at
distances varying between 25 and 11,170 kms. from Rocca di Papa,
Rome, and Siena. At these places the duration of these shocks were-
noted by fairly similar seismographs of the heavy pendulum type. A
glance at this table apparently indicates that the durations of these earth-
quakes had steadily increased with the distances of their origins from the
observing stations. With an origin at a distance of, say, 25 kms., we find
a duration of about 70 seconds, whilst if the origin was at a distance of
9,000 kms. the duration becomes 4,800 seconds.

Fer the first members of this series, which I will call local shocks, had
the instruments employed been free horizontal pendulums it is very
doubtful whether they would ever have been recorded, neither would they
have been noted had the pendulums with their multiplying indices been at
distances of a few hundred kilometres from their origins, The common
experience, based on seismographic records of local shiverings in Japan, is
that the duration of movement decreases with distance from an origin, and

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 227

it is only very large earthquakes which can be recorded with steady point
seismographs at distances exceeding 300 miles.

Directly we come to the other members in the list we are apparently
dealing with the duration of earth tilting, and with regard to any par-
ticular earthquake we may ask for information respecting the duration of
the same near to its origin or at stations between this point and Central
Italy, or in countries further afield. The information we have on these
points is, however, scant, but such as exists is far too definite to be
ignored, For example, Dr. Odone gives in his list the Japan earthquake
of March 22, 1894, on which occasion the seismographs at Rocca di Papa
and at Rome were respectively agitated for lh. 3m. and Lh. 20m.

Because the duration of this earthquake as recorded by a bracket
seismograph in Tokio was ten seconds, it must not be assumed that we
have here an illustration of a seismic movement increasing in its dura-
tion as it radiated. On this occasion, after feeling the first heavy move-
ment, I went to my observatory and watched the boom of a horizontal
pendulum follow very irregular heavings of the ground for some fifteen
minutes, when I was joined by my colleague, Mr. C. D. West, and we
continued to watch the erratic, fitful movements for lh. 47m. longer.

We have in this instance—and others might be quoted—distinct
evidence of earth movements near to their origin continuing for a very
‘much longer period than they were observable at distant localities. What
was noted in Europe were the earthquake precursors or preliminary
tremors, the duration of which increases with distance from an origin,
and, after that, the earthquake echoes with possible traces of waves
which had travelled round the world in a direction opposite to that con-
stituting the maximum phases in the seismograms, In Tokio, although
the preliminary movements were of shorter duration than in Europe, the
total duration of the disturbance in that city, on account of the great
length of the concluding vibrations, seems to have exceeded that which
was recorded in Italy.

The shiverings of our world recur on the average every thirty minutes,
but the heavy breathing or true ground swell does not happen more than
once a week. Popularly they are both earthquakes, but they differ in
their character, in their duration, and probably in their origin, and as
they radiate, their life, as exhibited at stations farther and farther remote
from their origin, rather than increasing becomes less.

V. Earthquake Echoes.

(This and the following Section are in part abstracted from Notes published in
‘Nature,’ February 16 and March 1, 1899.)

An earthquake disturbance as recorded at a station far removed from
its origin shows that the main movement has two attendants, one which
precedes and the other which follows. The first of these by its charac-
teristics indicates what is to follow, whilst the latter in a very much
more pronounced manner will often repeat at definite intervals but with
decreasing intensity the prominent features of what has,passed. Inas-
much as these latter rhythmical but decreasing impulses of the dying
earthquake are more likely to result from reflection than from interference
I have provisionally called them Echoes.

When an earthquake is comparatively small, and has originated as a
single effort at no great distance (one or two thousand miles) from the

Q2

228 REPORT—1899.

observing station, the seismogram shows a single set of preliminary tremors,
of short duration, a single set of pronounced vibrations corresponding to
irregularly delivered originating impulses, and finally a series of concluding
vibrations which rise and fall in value every three or four minutes. That
which appears on a seismogram as a two-blow earthquake terminates
with dual reinforcements. As illustrative of this I may refer to the Isle
of Wight seismogram of the South Indian Ocean earthquake of August 31,
1898 (see Earthquake No. 230). We have apparently here two large dis-
turbances—the first I regard as the shock, and the second as its echo.
They are followed by pairs and groups of echoes, If we closely examine
the group of movements which I call the shock, and compare the same
with its echo (the second pair being too small to exhibit details), we find
that the sub-divisions of each roughly agree in character ; each shows five
phases (three of which are very distinct) of the same relative magnitudes.
After this we get another five-phase group, followed by two groups each
of four phases, beyond which point rhythmical recurrence is lost.

Fig. 2—Shide, Isle of Wight, August 31, 1898.
Duration, 2h. 18m. Os. Max. Amp.=9 mm.=5''-4.

A very good illustration of what may be multiple echoes is found in the
Isle of Wight seismogram for June 29, 1898 (see Earthquake No. 215).
This is a very large earthquake which probably caused the whole of the
earth to pulsate, and the duration of its preliminary tremors indicates that
it originated at a very great distance. It had a duration exceeding three
hours. The main disturbance shows more than fourteen maxima of motion
which have a fairly symmetrical arrangement to the right and left of a
central dividing line. In the accompanying figure (Fig. 3), which is an
enlargement (1-7 times) of the central portion of the original seismogram,
the line of symmetry is marked SS. To the left of this is the main shock 1,
and on the right is its echo, 1’, a repetition common to many earthquakes.
That violent shocks are, a few minutes later, sometimes followed by a
second severe movement, is well recognised in certain earthquake coun-
tries. In Japan they are called the Uri Kaishi, or return shaking, and
conditions leading to their production are readily imagined. All that can
be said about 2, 3, 4, and 5 is that they have approximately the same
characters as 2’, 3’, 4’, and 5’, but inasmuch as the first series have

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 229

travelled more quickly than 1, whilst the latter have travelled more
slowly than 1’, it is difficult to recognise the latter as echoes of the former.
Beyond 5/ the vibrations suddenly become small, but they apparently
show such a marked repetition in form and uniformity in their time of
recurrence that these characteristics can hardly be the result of accident.
To facilitate comparison these have been enlarged, and are here reproduced,
the later group being placed beneath those which arrived earlier. (Fig. 4.)

The triangularly-headed echo 2’ is not unlike 2 ; its spherically formed
successor 3 is repeated in 3’ ; and so we may continue through the series
until we reach the gourd formed 9 and 10 reflected in corresponding shape
by 9/ and 10’.

The time intervals between these corresponding groups are from twenty-

Fig. 5.

eight to thirty-one minutes. We here appear to be dealing with a
series of vibrational groups each of which took almost exactly half an
hour to travel to and fro between two reflecting surfaces or districts. If
the waves were compressional in character the distance between these
surfaces would be about 8,000 kms., but if they travelled with the velocity

Fia. 4.

of the waves of shock this distance would be reduced to something under
3,000 kms. From their period and amplitude it is probable that the
distance lies between these values.

The main point at issue, and the one to be answered before we enter
into further speculations, is whether seismograms showing this musical-like
repetition can be interpreted in the manner here suggested. The con-
eluding vibrations of an earthquake have usually been regarded as a
disorderly mob of pulsatory movements resulting from spasmodic impulses
which gradually grew feebler as the activity at a seismic centre became
exhausted. The question before us is whether an earthquake dies by a
process analogous to repeated and irregular settlements of disjointed
materials, or whether it is simply a blow or blows which come to an end

230 REPORT—1899.

with musical reverberations inside the world. For the present my opinion
inclines to the latter, and I see in the earthquake followers the likeness
of their parents.

VI. Larthquake Precursors.

The series of movements to which I now refer is the procession of
vibrational groups which run before the main disturbance, with the
smaller of which, under the name of preliminary tremors, we are already
more or less familiar. These precursors have in several respects char-
acters which are exactly the opposite to those of the earthquake followers.
They have a definite commencement, and with large earthquakes group
after group usually increases suddenly in amplitude and period.

Another characteristic of the precursors is that whilst group after group
may grow larger, they become more and more irregular in their contours.
The first of the preliminary tremors, if they ever had any /frétillements
have lost the same, whilst those which follow carry serrations which are
marked. This observation, together with that of growth in amplitude,
suggests the idea that each group of precursors starting from a common
origin has reached an observing station by different routes: the first
have come along the path of least time, and the latter, culminating in the
shock, along paths continually approximating to that of free surface waves.

Now and again we see in groups of preliminary tremors a likeness in
contour and arrangement of what is to follow. Near to an origin they
may have a duration of from 1 or 2 up to 10 or 20 seconds, and their
period has been recorded at from } to ;), of a second. When they are
preceded by a sound wave, we have evidence of a very much higher
frequency. If these vibrations have travelled long distances and through
our earth, most records indicate a period of 3 or 4seconds. Records from
Rome have shown periods of less than half a second, but even these are
probably much too large. My own records only indicate a slight switch-
ing at the end of a light elastic boom, or that the same has been moved
very rapidly to and fro relatively to its steady point. Until a steady
point seismograph with extremely light multiplying indices or some other
special form of apparatus has been employed as a recorder, our knowledge
of this end of the seismic spectrum is not likely to increase.

The last points connected with the earthquake precursors are the
intervals of time which elapse between the arrival of the first tremor and
the largest wave or waves corresponding to the originating impulse and
the duration of the first series of preliminary tremors. As measured on
seismograms for disturbances which have originated at different distances
from the Isle of Wight Observing Station, these two intervals are given
in the following table :—

First P.T. to Duration of first

+s Distance ; :
Origin é Max. motion in roup of P.T.’s

: in degrees minutes ‘ in eee
Iceland . . . 5 Le 4or5 14
Greece . ‘: ‘: 3 22° 6 3
Tashkend : ‘ : 48° 14 8
Hayti . , H : 62° 30 Up yo
Japan . 3 ¢ : 84° 47 85
Borneo . : ‘4 4 112° 55 6:0

* his is dependent on a single observation, and may be too high.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 231

These figures are too few in number to be used as a foundation for any
certain conclusions, but they may possibly indicate results to be sought for
‘in future records. With regard tothe first set of intervals, we know that
for distances up to 8° from an origin that the time by which tremors out-
race the main movement may be reckoned by seconds. Adding this fact
to our list, it seems that here we have a table which indicates that as
earthquakes travel at first the tremors only outrace the large waves at a
very slow rate, but as the distance from the origin increases this rate
increases. This goes on until a point between 48° and 62° distant from
‘the origin has been reached, after which the rate at which the large move-
ments are left behind decreases.

One explanation for this is 10 suppose that the first precursors came
through the earth with an average velocity which observation shows to
increase approximately with the square root of the,average depth of the
chord joining the centrum and the observing station, whilst the large
waves travelled round the surface. One objection to this view is that
observations exist which show the large waves have apparently travelled
over paths varying between 20° and 110° at rates which, rather than being
constant, have increased from 2:1 to 3:3 kms. per second.

The velocities giving this comparatively slight difference were however
determined on the assumption that the times at which various earthquakes
originated were known, and there is therefore a possibility that they may
be apparent rather than real.

Also it must be remarked, as pointed out by Dr. C. G. Knott, that if
we regard the large waves as being distortional, inasmuch as the coeflicient
of elasticity determining the velocity of propagation of such waves may
not be greatly influenced by pressure, it is quite conceivable that they
should follow the preliminary tremors through our earth. The question
then arises, whether these larger movements would be left farther and
farther behind their precursors in the manner indicated.

When we come to our second set of intervals, which indicate the
duration of the first preliminary tremors before they are eclipsed by groups
of vibrations, which usually grow in size, and appear from their periods
to be distortional, we see that up to a point about 62° from an origin
these figures apparently increase, but beyond that point they grow less.

What we have to explain, in addition to this fact, is that of the
continuity and growth in magnitude of what very often forms a long and
continuous series of preliminary motions. As I have already stated,
their very appearance indicates that they have travelled on different
paths. The first have followed a path entirely through our earth, whilst
its successors have travelled shorter and shorter distances through the
earth to meet a crust, through which they have completed their journey
to the observing station. The first followed Knott’s brachistrochronic
path, or that of least time, whilst the successors took paths the latter
parts of which were along arcs of increasing length. The result of this
would be that at an observing station vibrations would arrive in series,
each group corresponding to an originating impulse. The last of the
rabble would be the series representing that portion of the main shock
which had travelled entirely round and through the crust.

To complete this hypothesis, I here reproduce a sketch given to me
by Dr. C. G. Knott, showing the probable form of wave fronts and paths
of compressional vibrations passing through our earth.

The assumption on which this is based is that the square of the speed

932, REPORT—1899.

of the movements is a linear function of the average depth, which7corre-
sponds, as already indicated, with observation.!

The result at which Knott arrives indicates that the square of the.
speed increases at 0-9 per cent. per mile of descent in the earth, the.
formula being

v?=2°9+°026d in mile second units.

With an initial velocity of 1-7 mile per second the velocities at depths
of 400, 800, 1,200, . . . . 4,000 miles, are 3-7, 4-9, 5-8, 6-7, 7-4, 8-1, 8-7,
9:3, 9°8 and 10°3 miles per second. The times taken for wave fronts to

Fic. 5,

BCH
SFE
i

V

i.

ee
</

gq

reach the positions shown are indicated in the diagram, the time takem
to pass through the earth being twenty-two minutes.

I assume that when a wave has passed from its origin beyond the
region vaguely referred to as the crust of our earth, it then spreads in all
directions through a mass in which there is only an extremely gradual
change in elasticity and density with regard to its centre. All wave
paths, however, before they emerge at the surface, encounter at varying
obliquities the under surface of this crust. For purposes of illustration
we will assume this region of abrupt change to lie on the 400-mile circle.
The path P, meets this nearly at right angles, whilst P, P, meet the same
at decreasing angles less than right angles. After each of these incidences
a condensational wave will be refracted and split up into condensational
and distortional rays. Now it will be observed that these two waves,
which I will call c and d, will have different distances to travel before

1 See Lrtt, Assoc. Report, 1898, p, 221,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, 233

actual emergence, which distances will increase from P, towards P3.
Directly d, emerges, not only will c, be eclipsed, but also cy c3, coming
from the direction P, P3, will also be hidden.

At some point like P;, when the duration of the preliminary tremors
reaches a maximum on towards the origin, the quantity will decrease, if only
on account of the fact that the velocity along the brachistrochronic ray
differs less and less from that of the distortional wave within the crust.
Such a view may possibly explain the rise and fall in the values of our
last column.

The growth in amplitude of the groups of tremors may be due to the
fact that the first group has travelled on the path OP,, whilst the second:
has travelled OP, P,, &c., whilst the crests of these groups, especially of
those immediately in advance of the large waves, should roughly agree
with the impulses which these represent.

VII. On Certain Disturbances in the Records of Magnetometers and the
Occurrence of Earthquakes. By Joun Miwe.

In the ‘British Association Reports for 1898,’ pp. 226-251, a large
number of records were brought together, showing what has happened at
or about the time of large earthquakes to magnetic needles at various
Observatories. These records may be classified as follows :

1. Those which show that magnetographs have very frequently been
disturbed at the time when their foundations have been moved by the
large but unfelt waves of earthquakes originating at a great distance.
Examples of such movements are to be found in the registers from
Utrecht, Potsdam, and Wilhelmshaven. For the particular kind of earth
‘movement referred to, magnetic instruments at these places furnish
records of value to the seismologist.

2. Those which show that magnetographs are seldom, and then only
very slightly, or in some instances apparently never disturbed at the time
of large earthquakes. This appears to be the case at Greenwich, Kew,,
Falmouth, Stonyhurst, Pola, Vienna, Copenhagen, and Toronto.

3. Those which show that magnetic needles have exhibited perturba-
tions, frequently of considerable magnitude, a short time before the occur-
rence of large earthquakes. As illustrative of such observations, reference
may be made to the registers from Zikawei, Mauritius, Utrecht, and
Greenwich. Similar observations have been made in Japan.!

On pp. 248-251 of the above-mentioned report, an attempt is made to
explain these observations, whilst to extend the same I append the
following table received from P. Barrachi, Director of the Melbourne
Observatory.

Declinometer Disturbances observed at the Observatory, Melbourne.
P. Barracut, Esq., Director.

The magnetographs at Melbourne are of the same form and dimensions
as those at Kew. The value of an ordinate of 1 inch in the curves is very
nearly 29’, and the time scale corresponds to 14:7 inches for twenty-
four hours.

In dealing with the curves for Observatory purposes—as, for instance,
taking mean values, &c.—oscillations whose amplitudes are less than 2’

? See Seismology, Int. Sci. Series, pp. 225, 226.

234 REPORT—1899.

are not considered disturbances, but much smaller oscillations than these
can easily be detected in the curves. In order to avoid any arbitration
as to what disturbance should be singled out for the purpose of comparing
~with the list of earthquakes, in cases where the curves appeared to be
generally disturbed, or where more than ene disturbance occurred, or
where several disturbances presented different characteristics, Mr. Barrachi
has put down in the following notes all the distinctive features of the
curves occurring within several hours, in some cases 10 or 12 hours, before
and after the times specified in the earthquake register, noting also every
appreciable oscillation, however small, so that those who make com-
parisons may discriminate for themselves. All times in the list are
indicated as Melbourne Mean Astronomical Time, the day commencing
at Melbourne noon, the hours being reckoned from 0 to 24. By
amplitude is meant the whole range of displacement. Period means
the time taken for the double swing. When there is a movement from
the neutral line upwards and back to the same, followed some time later
by a movement downwards and back to the same, the latter is said to be
in the ‘opposite phase’ to the former. As these two movements may be
independent of each other it will be recognised that the term ‘ opposite
phase’ is one of convenience. ‘Superimposed waves’ means that there
are small waves which appear as regular or irregular, large or small,
serrations on the trace of larger waves.

The earthquake list referred to by the numbers, dates, and times in the
first three columns is given in the ‘ British Association Report’ for 1898,

. 227,

Melbourne astronomical time is 9h. 39m. 53°8s. in advance of
Greenwich.

1889.
M.M.A.T
Ha. OM,
4 | Aprills. a Wabi IL Minute wave from lh. 40m. to lh. 45m., amp. under 30”
followed by still minuter waves from 2h. 0m. to 2h. 20m.
2) July1l. 20 2 | Minute oscillations commenced 13h. 45m. to 14h. 5m.,

amp. under 20", larger oscillations of longer period, amp.
above 2’, from 14h. 15m. to 17h. 45m., maximum amp.
at 17h. 20m. about 3’.

5) | peace ws) 13 10 ,| Slightly disturbed from 15h. 40m. to 18h. One oscillation
of long period from 15h. 0m. to 15h. 22m., amp. above 2’,
followed by minute waves of shorter period. Com-
mencement (more accurately), probably 15h. 35m. No

4 aay CER 15 40 other disturbance before that hour appears on this curve.

5 | Aug.25 . 17 17 | Decided disturbance commencing 9h. 50m., with one oscilla-

tion, amp. 33’, period 40m., followed by another wave,
amp. 53’, time of max. amp. 11h. 5m., then followed by

less marked and irregular oscillations for 6h., gradually
| becoming normal shortly after.

1891.

| Curve disturbed from 7h. 5m. max., disturbances at 7h. 5m.,
| with a large wave amp. 6’, period 33m., and at 14h. 40m.,
| with a large wave in opposite direction, amp. 7’, period

47m., followed by minute waves of very short period till 22h.

BOct. 275.) 719 a8

13892.

Slight, but well marked disturbance, commenced 8h. 30m.

ending 9h. 35m., consisting of two waves, amp. from
4' to 5’.

7 ) Mar. 16.

sia

12

13
14

15

“16

17
18

19

26
27

28

”

”
”

”

31.

ay

”

M.M.A.T.
H. M.
1a) 2

9 10
3 23
pa |
15 4
15 37
22 59
22 14
21 26
1 59
22 19
14 47
16 44
15 53
19 20
20 40
14 40
2 57
9 44
4 53
ll 58

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 235

Curve very slightly disturbed, from 12h. 50m., showing
minute waves of irregular period and amp., but less than
2’. Almost normal after 15th.

No disturbance.

Minute, sudden, and very short disturbance commencing
23h. 45m., May 11, duration 6m., consisting of two
minute waves, amp. 1’.

Sudden decrease of E. declination indicative of sudden dis-
turbance, commencing lh. 10m., max. amp. of disturb-
ance 6’, followed by minute waves of two hours, amp.
only a few seconds of arc. Very considerable disturbances
from 6h. 10m. continued for many hours after.

Disturbance, commenced 11h., with a large wave, amp. 11’,
period lh., followed by another large wave, amp. 6’,
period 25m., minute and irregular waves between.

No disturbance preceding, but minute oscillations shown
after 17h. 30m., amp. about 1’.

Slight disturbance at 19h., Dec. 7, consisting of a wave,
amp. 33’, period 1h. 20m., commencing 18h. 20m.,
followed by very minute oscillation of amp. under 1’.

Very minute disturbance at 19h. 37m., consisting of asmall
wave, amp. under 2’,

1893.

Minute and irregular oscillations commencing at 17h. 10m.,
amp. generally under 1’, but in one wave at 19h. 10m.,
and in another at 19h. 34m., the amp. is 3’.

No disturbance.

Very slight disturbance shown, consisting of minute oscilla-
tions, commencing at 19h.27m., max. amp. 2}' at
20h, 15m.

Curve considerably disturbed from about 11h. 30m. Sudden
and more marked disturbance at 12h. 0m., amp. of oscil-
lation being 9’, another marked oscillation at 14h. 47m.,
amp. 73’ in opposite phase from the former. Followed
by a large wave, period lh., amp. 6’ in opposite phase to
the preceding. This wave is superimposed by minute
oscillations.

Minute waves of very short period following after from
16h. 30m. for several hours afterwards, amp. from under
1’ to 24".

Very minute oscillations from 17h. 50m. continued for
more than 4h., max. amp. about 13’. Only one of these is
somewhat more conspicuous than the others, this occurring
at 18h. 55m. and perhaps another at 20h. Om.

No disturbance.

Curve disturbed considerably from 22h., Feb. 15, but shows
no special characteristic to indicate the commencement of
a sudden disturbance. The curve shows a series of waves
of irregular period and slightly varying amp. not exceed-
ing 3’ generally; but one wave is quite conspicuous.
This occurs at 8h. 40m. max. phase, period 1h. 20m.,
amp. about 10’ (ten minutes of arc).

No disturbance preceding a wave, amp. 3’, commences
6h. 25m., ends 6h. 57m., followed by two minor very
minute waves ending 7h. 45m.

Curve almost normal, a few very minute oscillations, amp.
under 1’ occur from 11h. 10m. and continue for nearly
12 hours after; of these only one is somewhat more
conspicuous than the other. This occurs at 13h. 25m.,
amp. about 2’,

30
31

Feb. 22.

=
»
ge
to

we ae

M.M.A.T.
H. M.
20 56
20 46
4 0
14 50
18 23
M231
3 28
11 12
15 42
7 38
12, 19
22 43
18 18
14 5
19 50
1s 49
8 45
4 27
7 45
9 4
9 54
Oa
Bbp rae
17 ; 22
18 49
17 28

REPORT—1899.

Minute oscillations occur throughout for about 13 hours
preceding this given time. The most.conspicuous of these
small and irregular oscillations occurs at 11h. 35m.,
period 28m., amp. 3’.

Very minute oscillations commence at 18h. 25m., continued
till 22h., amp. under 2’.

No disturbance preceding. The curves commence to be
disturbed at 7h. 30m.; oscillations at first very small,
but greatly increasing after 11h. 30m., considerably dis-
turbed for more than 30 hours after.

No disturbance whatever.

Very slight disturbance commencing 15h. 20m., consists of
a small wave, period 5m., amp. 13’, followed by other
very minute waves, amp. under 1’,

Decided disturbance commenced at 7h. 0m., consisting of a
large oscillation, period from 7h. Om. to 8h. 27m., amp.
73', with some minute waves superimposed,

Very slight disturbance at 2h. 15m., showing a small
oscillation, period 15m., amp. 13’, followed by a few
almost inappreciable waves, amp. only a few seconds of
arc.

No disturbance.

Disturbance commencing 8h. 30m. consisting of two con-
secutive waves, period about 25m., amp. 4’, followed by
afew very minute oscillations.

No disturbance.

Disturbance commencing 12h. 19m., ending 15h. 10m., con-
sisting of a sudden small oscillation amp. under 2’, followed
by four waves, period 45m., amp. 3’.

Small oscillation at 22h. 25m., period 10m., amp. under 2’,

Very slight disturbance, commencing at 17h, 15m., amp. of
oscillation about 2’, period one hour.

No disturbance.

Curve for this day slightly disturbed throughout its length.
No particular disturbance shown for some hours before or
after the given time.

Curve for this day slightly disturbed throughout its length.
No particular disturbance shown for some hours before or
after the given time.

No disturbance.

Very slight disturbance (if it can be so called) at 3h. 45m.,
consisting of a small oscillation, period 20m., amp. about
1’. This curve shows oscillations of this kind throughout
at irregular intervals. Probably this should not be called
a disturbance.

Minute oscillations throughout the curve. No special dis-
turbance showing.

No disturbance.

No disturbance.

Disturbance very slight at 18h. 15m., consisting of a small
wave, period 30m., amp. under 2’.

Very minute disturbance at 16h. 55m., consisting of a small
wave or oscillation, period 9m., amp. under 2’.

This curve is very much disturbed throughout; but it shows
two very conspicuous and larger disturbances, viz. :—One
from 8h. 20m. to 9h. 50m. with amp. of 17’, and another
with amp. of 11’, at from 10h. 5m. to 10h. 40m.

Minute disturbance commencing at 19h. 55m., consisting
of a series of minute waves, max. amp. 14’.

Disturbance commencing at 5h. 10m. and continuing till
17h., but gradually decreasing in amp. from 53’ to
nothing.

ii
or

66
67

68

09

Mar.

39

June20 .

July

Jan,

July

Aug.

Nov.

June 16.

29 .

10.

Hee.

13.

M.M.A.T.
H. M.
8 17
15 22
17 35
Ay OS
3 25
8 10
1l 57
9 20
6 40
18 48

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 937

17

18

11

1894.

Large disturbance commencing suddenly (after a long
series of minor oscillations) at 5h. 30m., max. amp, 21m.,
curve disturbed throughout its length.

Curve somewhat disturbed throughout, but a slightly more
marked disturbance is shown at 14h. 0m., with an amp.
of 43’,

Disturbance (slight) at 9h. 55m., rather sudden displace-
ment of 33’, followed by a series of oscillations of very
small amplitude and long period.

Very minute series of oscillations commencing at 23h. 10m.,
April 28, ending at 23h. 55m., amp. under 2’.

Small oscillations appear throughout the curve. No special
disturbance noticeable.

Same as above, but a slightly larger oscillation occurs at
from 6h. to 7h., amp. 33’.

Disturbance at 9h. 20m., rather sudden displacement of 5’,
followed by a series of minute oscillations.

Disturbance commencing 8h. 0m., with a displacement
attaining its maximum of 6’ in 20m., then followed by a
long series of minute and short waves for four hours.

Disturbance at 11h. 4m., rather sudden displacement of 4’,
returning to normality at 12h. 40m.

Disturbance commencing 11h. 15m., curve continued dis-
turbed for 11 hours after; but there are two oscillations
more conspicuous than others; one of these occurs at
15h. 20m., amp. 6’, period 50m., and the other at
18h. Om., amp. 5’, period 35m.

1895.

| Curve slightly disturbed throughout, viz:—From 22h,
January 17 to 22h. January 18; but shows two waves, or
displacements a great deal more conspicuous than all
others. One of these occurs at from 7h. 20m. to 7h. 55m.,
being a wave of 4’amp. The other is a sudden displace-
ment of 83’, and occurs at 18h. Om.

Curve slightly wavy throughout. No special disturbance
noticeable. ;

Large disturbance from 5h. to 7h. 30m., consisting of a
single wave, amp. 11’, superimposed by minute and
irregular waves, amp. under 2’.

| Curve disturbed at several places. The most conspicuous

displacement occurs between 17h. Om. and 18h. 0m.,

consisting of a wave of 10’ amp., followed by short minute
waves for several hours.

1896.

Disturbance commencing at 8h. 5m. showing a wave,
period 45m., amp. 8’. Another larger displacement
commences at 10h. 40m., amp. 12’, curve considerably
disturbed for the following 12 hours.

Curve very slightly wavy (minute oscillations amp. under 2’)
from 16h. to 22h. No special disturbance.

Slight displacement commencing 11h. 55m., ending
13h. 30m., amp. 5’, followed by a series of minute oscilla-
tions, amp. less than 1’.

No disturbance.

Curve disturbed largely at several places, conspicuous
isolated disturbance at from 6h. 20m. to 7h. 15m., amp.
12’. Another at from 14h. 40m. to 15h. 5m., amp. 8’,
followed by minute and short waves till 20h.

REPORT—1899.

Slight disturbance at Gh. 55m., being a wave period 20m.,
amp. 23’.

15 Me 2 33 Conspicuous isolated disturbance at from 6h. 30m. to
7h. 30m., being an oscillation with amp. =113’.

76 | Nov. 1 2. 68 | No disturbance.

1897.

77 | Jan. 10. 18 58 Very minute oscillations, amp. under 2’, commencing
14h. 8m., continued for 5 hours, then at 19h. 40m. a
slightly larger oscillation occurs, amp. 23’, followed by
another of same amp., but opposite phase.

78 | Junel2 . 9 9 | No disturbance.

79 | Aug. 4.| 22 2 | Very slight oscillations of small amp. about 2’, and long
period, commencing at 14h.50m. Hardly to be called a
disturbance.

80 | Sept. 20. 17 4 | No disturbance.

81 pieeka 3 8 | No disturbance.

82 | Dec.28.| 18 34

83 he ce 9 20

VIII. Form of Reports.

It is desirable that Reports on Earthquakes should contain the follow-
ing information :—

1. Greenwich Mean Civil Time (midnight = 0 or 24 hrs.) of the com-_

mencement of motion.

2. The duration of the first preliminary tremors (P.T.’s) usually repre-
sented by a broadening of the normal line.

3. The interval between the commencement of motion and the maxi-
mum motion.

4. The interval between the maximum and its apparent repetition,
which, when it occurs, does so a few minutes later. This is the interval
1 to 1’ seen in fig. 3, p. 229.

5. The amplitude or half-range of the maximum motion expressed in
millimetres and seconds of are.

6. The total duration of the disturbance.

7. For large earthquakes a contact print, or at least a tracing of
the disturbance, may be appended.

8. The time, duration, and amplitude of isolated broadenings of the
normal trace. These must not be confounded with air tremors.

For the ordinary working of the instrument, see ‘ Brit. Assoc. Report,”
1897, p. 137.

Photographic Meteorology.—Report of the Committee, consisting of

Mr. G. J. Symons (Chairman), Mr. A. W, CLAYDEN (Secretary),
Professor R. Mreupota, Mr. Jonn Hopkinson, and Mr. H. N.

Dickson, appointed to apply Photography to the Elucidation of

Meteorological Phenomena. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tur work of the Committee has for some years past been practically
limited to the photographic measurements of cloud altitudes by the Sec-
retary. During the year just brought to a close very little progress has

——

a

ON PHOTOGRAPHIC METEOROLOGY. 23%

been possible with such systematic observations, but some particularly
good examples of rare types of cloud have been photographed, and some
valuable studies of lightning have been secured. So far as these latter
have been examined they fully confirm the conclusions of this Committee
as expressed in the reports for 1891, 1892, and 1893, which may be briefly
summarised thus :—

1. The reality of the narrow ribbon structure. ~
2. The existence of visible multiple discharges.
3. The compound nature of many discharges.
4, The long duration of many discharges.

During a storm which passed over Exeter on July 22, about sunset,,

a phenomenon was many times observed which seems to deserve further
study.
This was a narrow ribbon flash of somewhat long duration (1°5 to
2°5 seconds) which broke up into a long train of sparks like the trail of a
rocket. These sparks faded away gradually, some of them lasting for a
second or two.

The phenomenon does not seem to have been recorded photographically,
but is doubtless the explanation of the beads of extra bright light shown
on some photographs of lightning.

It is worthy of note that the beaded discharges referred to accom-
panied exceptionally heavy rain. This suggests that the explanation may
be the dissociation of water and recombination of the liberated gases.

The appreciable duration of the combustion may be due to the greater
diffusibility of the hydrogen carrying some of it beyond the oxygen and
thereby slackening the velocity of combination. ach dissociated drop:
would give a ball of mixed gases in proportions exact at the centre, but
departing more and more from exactness towards the margin, where the
time of combustion would be correspondingly prolonged.

The relation between the thunder-cloud and lightning has been very
clearly visible on several occasions. The cloud has always a peculiar
structure, which may be described as a lower cumulus disc uprising as a
thick column in the middle, which spreads out again at perhaps twice as
great an altitude in a more or less cirriform disc. Insuch a storm, which
is typical, the majority of the discharges pass between the margins of the
upper and lower discs, or from one side to the other of either disc. Such
flashes seem to be generally of a comparatively simple type. They may
branch or twist about or resemble the ordinary discharge of an induction
coil or Wimshurst machine.

These flashes are often accompanied by, or immediately followed by
more brilliant discharges between the lower disc and the earth. This is
the ‘impulsive rush’ of Dr. Lodge, and it is in such discharges that the
phenomena of multiple and beaded structures are presented. They are
analogous to the discharges between the knobs of two oppositely charged
Leyden jars whose outer coatings are imperfectly connected.

- No grant is asked for; but the work of the Committee cannot be
regarded as complete until a much larger number of measurements of
altitude have been made, and they therefore ask for reappointment.

240 REPORT—1899.

Hzperiments for improving the Construction of Practical Standards for
use in Electrical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Lord RAYLEIGH (Chairman), Mr. R. T. GLAZEBROOK (Secretary),
Lord Ketvin, Professors W. E. Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. ADAMs,
OLIVER J. LopGE, and G. Carey Foster, Dr. A. MurrHeap, Sir
W. H. Preece, Professors J. D. Evererr and A. SCHUSTER,
Dr. J. A. Fiemine, Professors G. F. FirzGrratp and J. J.
THomson, Mr. W. N. SHaw, Dr. J. T. Botromuey, Rev. T. C.
FirzpaTRick, Professor J. Viriamu Jones, Dr. G. JOHNSTONE
Stoney, Professor S. P. Toompson, Mr. J. Rennie, Mr. E. H.
GrirFiTHs, Professor A. W. Ricker, and Professor H. L.

CALLENDAR.
APPENDIX PAGE
I. On the Mutual Induction of Coaxial Helices. By LORD RAYLEIGH . 2, 2a
Il. Proposals for a Standard Scale of Temperature based on the Platinum
Resistance Thermometer. By Professor H.U.CALLENDAR . 242
III. Comparison of Platinum and Gas Thermometers. By Dr. P. CHAPPUIS
and Dr. J. A. HARKER. 243

IV. Onthe Expansion of Porcelain wi ith Rise o of Temper ature. By 4k G. BEDFORD 245

Tur Committee have been engaged during the year on the consideration
of the details of the new ampere balance, for which a grant of 500/. was
voted at Bristol.

Professors Ayrton and Viriamu Jones have ere | the plans and
specifications, and the construction of the balance has been authorised.

An important addition to the plan proposed at Bristol consists of an
arrangement for adjusting accurately the position of the fixed coils. Sir
Andrew Noble has generously undertaken to have this constructed at
Elswick free of cost, and the Committee desire to thank him for the offer,
which they have gladly accepted.

In consequence of the fact that the balance is not yet completed, the
grant of 300/. made last year has not been expended, and the Committee
apply for its renewal.

An appendix to the Report contains a proof by Lord Rayleigh of a
theorem due to Professor J. V. Jones, on which the mathematical theory
of the new balance is based.

Details of the balance are reserved until it has actually been con-
structed.

Professor Callendar has brought before the Committee proposals for |
the adoption of a standard scale of temperature based on the Platinum
Resistance Thermometer. These are printed in an appendix and formed
the basis of a discussion in the Section. A sub-Committee has been
formed to consider these proposals and to report to the Committee.

The ordinary testing of standards has been interrupted by the removal
of the Secretary to Liverpool, and still further by his proposed removal
to Kew. With respect to this the Committee have passed the following
resolution :—

That Mr. R. T. Glazebrook, as Secretary of the Committee, be

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 241

nuthorised and requested to retain the custody of the Electrical Standards
of the Association, and to remove them from Liverpool to London when
he takes up his post as Director of the National Physical Laboratory.

The removal of the Standards and the investigations of a Platinum
Thermometry will necessitate some expenditure during the year.

The Committee therefore recommend that they be reappointed, with
the addition of Sir William Roberts-Austen and Mr. Matthey, and with a
grant of 25/. in addition to the unexpended balance (300/.) of last year’s
grant, and that Lord Rayleigh be Chairman and Mr, R. T. Glazebrook
Secretary.

APPENDIX I.
The Mutual Induction of Coaxial Helices. By Lord Ray eicn.

Professor J. V. Jones! has shown that the coefficient of mutual induction (M)
between a circle and a coaxial helix is the same as between the circle and a
uniform circular cylindrical current-sheet of the same radial and axial dimensions
as the helix, if the currents per unit length in helix and sheet be the same. This
conclusion is arrived at by comparison of the integrals resulting from an applica-
tion of Neumann’s formula; and it may be of interest to show that it may be
deduced directly from the general theory of lines of force.

In the first place, it may be well to remark that the circuit of the helix must
be supposed to be completed, and that the result will depend upon the manner in
which the completion is arranged. In the general case the return to the starting-
point might be by a second helix lying upon the same cylinder; but for practical
purposes it will suffice to treat of helices including an integral number of revolu-
tions, so that the initial and final points lie upon the same generating line. The
return will then naturally be effected along this straight line.

Let us now suppose that the helix, consisting of one revolution or of any
number of complete revolutions, is situated in a field of magnetic force sym-
metrical with respect to the axis of the helix. In considering the number of
lines of force included in the complete circuit, it is convenient to follow in imagi-
nation a radius-vector drawn perpendicularly to the axis from any point of the
circuit. The number of lines cut by this radius, as the complete circuit is
described, is the number required, and it is at once evident that the part of the
circuit corresponding to the straight return contributes nothing to the total.*
As regards any part of the helix corresponding to a rotation of the radius through
an angle d@, it is equally evident that in the limit the number of lines cut through
is the same as in describing an equal angle of the circular section of the cylinder
at the place in question, whence Professor Jones’s result follows immediately.
Every circular section is sampled, as it were, by the helix, and contributes
proportionally to the result, since at every point the advance of the vector
parallel to the axis is in strict proportion to the rotation. It is remarkable that
the case of the helix (with straight return) is simpler than that of a system of
true circles in parallel planes at intervals equal to the pitch of the helix.

The replacement of the helix by a uniform current-sheet shows that the force
operative upon it in the direction of the axis (¢M/d.x) depends only upon the
values of M appropriate to the two terminal circles.

If the field is itself due to a current flowing in a helix, the condition of

? Proc. Roy. Svc. vol. 1xiii. (1897), p. 192.

* This would be true so long as the return lies anywhere in tke meridional plane.
In the general case, where the number of convolutions is incomp’ete, the return may
be made along a path composed of the extreme radii yectorcs a”d of the part of the
axis intercepted between them.

1899. R

24.2 REPORT—1899,

symmetry about the axis is only approximately satisfied. The question whether
both helices may be replaced by the corresponding current-sheets is to be
answered in the negative, as may be seen from consideration of the case where
there are two helices of the same pitch on cylinders of nearly equal diameters.
In one relative position of the cylinders the paths are in close proximity through-
out, and the value of M will be large, but this state of things may be greatly
altered by a relative rotation through two right angles.

But although in strictness the helices cannot be replaced by current-sheets,
the complication thence arising can be eliminated in experimental applications by
a relative rotation. For instance, if the helix to which the field is supposed to
be due be rotated, the mean field is strictly symmetrical, and accordingly the mean
M is the same as if the other helix were replaced by a current-sheet. A further
application of Professor Jones’s theorem now proves that the first helix may also
be so replaced. Under such conditions as would arise in practice, the mean of
two positions distant 180°, or at any rate of four distant 90°, would suffice to
eliminate any difference between the helices and the corresponding current-sheets,
if indeed such difference were sensible at all.

The same process of averaginz suffices to justify the neglect of spirality when
the observation relates to the mutual attraction of two helices as employed in
current determinations.

APPENDIX II.

Proposals for a Standard Scale of Temperature based on the Platinum
Resistance Thermometer. To be submitted to the Electrical Standards
Committee. Drawn up by Professor H. L. Catuenpar, JLA., FBS.

The following proposals are submitted in consideration of the importance of
adopting a practical thermometric standard for the accurate verification and
comparison of scientific measurements of temperature. The gas thermometer,
which has long been adopted as the theoretical standard, has given results so
discordant in the hands of different observers at high temperatures, as greatly to
retard the progress of research.

The arguments in favour of the adoption of the platinum resistance thermo-
meter as a practical standard were given by Professor H. L. Callendar, in a paper
‘On the Practical Measurement of Temperature,’ communicated to the Royal
Society in June 1886, and published in the ‘ Phil. Trans.’ in the following year.
These arguments have since been confirmed and strengthened by the work of
many independent observers,

The Electrical Standards Committee of the British Association has done so
much in the past with reference to the adoption of the present electrical standards,
and more recently in connection with the adoption of the jowle as the absolute
unit of heat, that it would appear to be the most appropriate authority for the
discussion and approval in the first instance of proposals relating to an electrical
standard of thermometry.

The suggestions for the standard scale of temperature here proposed may be
embodied in the following resolutions :—

(1) That a particular sample of platinum wire be selected, and platinum
resistance thermometers constructed to serve as standards of the platinum scale of
temperature.

(Note.—A degree centigrade of temperature on the scale of a platinum resist-
ance thermometer corresponds to an increase of resistance equal to the hundredth
part of the change of resistance between 0° and 100°C. In other words tempera-
ture pt on the platinum scale is defined by the formula

pt=100 (R—R°) | (R’--R°),

in which the letters R, R°, and R’ stand for the resistances of the thermometer at

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 243

the temperatures pt, 0°, and 100°C., respectively. The melting-pomt of ice is taken
as the zero of this scale in accordance with common usage.)

(2) That the scale of temperature ¢ deduced from the standard platinum scale
by means of the parabolic difference formula,

t—pt=d(t | 100—1) t] 100,

which has been proved to give a very close approximation to the true or thermo-
dynamic scale, be recommended for adoption as a practical standard of reference,
and be called the British Association Scale of Temperature.
(Note.—The gas thermometer would still remain the ultimate or theoretical
_ standard, and the exact relation of the British Association scale to the absolute
scale would be the subject of future investigation. In the present state ot
experimental science, the difference between the two scales over the greater part
of the range is less than the probable errors of measurement with the gas
thermometer, and the possible accuracy of measurement with a platinum thermo-
meter, especially at high temperatures, is of a much higher order than with the
gas thermometer. Measurements directly referred to the British Association scale
would therefore be of greater permanent value, because they could be subsequently
corrected when the relation between the scales had been more accurately
determined.)

(3) That the value of the difference-coefficient din the parabolic difference-
formula be determined for the British Association standard thermometers by
reference to the boiling-point of sulphur as a secondary fixed point in the manner
described by Callendar and Griffiths, ‘ Phil. Trans. A, 1891.’

(Note.—It is probable that this method gives the best results over the whole
range at temperatures above —100°C. At very low temperatures there appear to
be singularities in the resistance variation of metals which require further investiga-
tion. The boiling-point of liquid oxygen would be a more convenient secondary
fixed point to choose for low temperature research, especially for testing thermo-
meters the construction of which did not permit their exposure to a temperature
as high as that of boiling sulphur.)

(4) That the temperature of the normal boiling-point of sulphur under a
pressure of 760 mm. of mercury reduced to 0° C., and latitude 45°, be taken for the
purposes of the British Association scale as 444:53° C., as determined by Callendar
and Griffiths (doc. cit.), with a constant pressure air-thermometer,

(Note.—Until the relation between the various gas-thermometer scales, and
the expansion of glass and porcelain, have been more accurately determined, it
does not appear that anything would be gained by changing this value to which
so much accurate work has already been referred.)

APPENDIX III.

A Comparison of Platinum and Gas Thermometers made at the Interna-
tional Bureau of Weights and Measures at Scvres. By Dr. P.
Cuappuis and Dr. J. A. Harker.

Professor Callendar in 1886 investigated the method of measuring temperature
based on the determination of the electrical resistance of a platinum wire.

He pointed out that if R, denote the resistance of the spiral of a particular
platinum thermometer at 0°, and R, its resistance at 100°, we may establish for
the particular wire a scale, which we may call the scale of platinum temperatures,
such that if R be the resistance at any temperature T°, this temperature on the

R-R,
R,- RB

platinum scale will be x 100 degrees. For this quantity Callendar em-
ploys the symbol pt. :

R2

244 REPORT—1899.

Tn order to reduce to the standard scale of temperature the indications of any
platinum thermometer, it is necessary to know the law connecting pt and T.
These are identical at 0° and 100°, but the determination of the relationship
between them at other temperatures is a matter for experiment.

The work of Callendar established for a particular sample of platinum the
relation

ne
a= 1 - pt = {199 - 00 |
|

over the range 6° to 600°, T being measured on the constant pressure air-scale,
and 6 being a constant.

Later experiments by Cailendar and Griffiths showed that this relation holds
for platinum wires generally, provided that they are not very impure. They
propose that the value of 6, the constant employed in the formula, should be
determined by taking the resistance of the thermometer in the vapour of sulphur,
and a new determination by them of the boiling-point of this substance, under
normal pressure, gave 444°°53 on the air scale.

The present communication gives a short account of some experiments which
are the outcome of the collaboration of the Kew Observatory Committee and the
authorities of the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures at Sevres, for the
purpose of carrying out a comparison of some platinum thermometers with the
recognised International Thermometric Standards. A. full account of the
work will shortly appear in the ‘Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society’ and in the ‘ Travaux et Mémoires du Bureau International des Poids et
Mesures.’

A new specially designed resistance-box, together with several platinum
thermometers, and the other accessories needed, were constructed for the Kew
Committee, and after their working had been tested at the Kew Observatory,
they were set up at the Sévres Laboratory in August 1897. The resistance-box
in its general design was very similar to the one previously described before this
Section by Mr. Griffiths, but the plugs were replaced by a special form of contact
maker, and the coils were of manganine instead of platinum-silver. The methods
adopted for the standardisation of the apparatus only differed in a few details
from those of Callendar and Griffiths.

The comparisons made between the platinum thermometers and the standards
of the Bureau may be divided into several groups. The first group of experi-
ments covers the range (— 23° to 80°), and consists of a large number of com-
parisons between each platinum thermometer and the primary mercury standards
of the Bureau, whose relation to the normal hydrogen scale had previously been
studied by one of us.

Above 80° the mercury thermometers were replaced by a gas thermometer,
constructed for measurements up to high temperatures.

We at first attempted to use hydrogen as the gas for these measurements, but,
owing probably to a slow chemical action taking place between the gas and the
glass reservoir in which it was enclosed, we were afterwards compelled to sub-
stitute nitrogen, which we have not observed to exert any action on the material
of the envelope up to a full red heat.

The comparisons between 80° and 200° were made in a vertical bath of stirred
oil, heated by different liquids boiling under varying pressures. For work above
200° a bath of mixed nitrates of potash and soda was substituted for the oil tank.
In this bath comparisons of the two principal platinum thermometers with the
gas thermometer were made up to 460°, and with a third thermometer, which was
provided with a porcelain tube, we were able to go up to 590°, the glass reservoir
of the gas thermometer being replaced by one of porcelain, whose dilatation had
previously been measured by the Fizeau method. Comparisons of the platinum
and gas scales were carried out at over 150 different points, each comparison
consisting of either ten or twenty readings of the different instruments.

By the intermediary of the platinum thermometers a determination of the

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 245

boiling-point of sulphur on the nitrogen scale was also made. Three independent
sets of determinations of this point gave the following results:

(1) Platinum thermometer K. 9, and glass cas-thermometer, 445°97,

(2 * $ Keo; porcelain Fr 445°26.
(3) ” ” K. 8, eB) ” 445:29,

The mean of these, 445°-27, representing the temperature on the scale of the
constant volume nitrogen thermometer, differs only 0°-7 from that found by
Callendar and Griffiths for the same temperature expressed on the constant
pressure air-scale. ;

If, for the reduction of the platinum temperatures in our comparisons, we adopt
the parabolic formula, and the value of 5 obtained by assuming our new number
for the sulphur point, we find that below 100° the differences between the
observed values on the nitrogen scale and those deduced from the platinum ther-
mometer are very small, seldom exceeding 0°01, and that even at the highest
temperatures the difference only amounts to a few tenths of a degree.

APPENDIX IV.

On the Expansion of Porcelain with Rise of Temperature.
By T. G. Beprorp, B.A. Cambridge.

In direct comparisons of the scales of temperature given by air and by platinum-
yesistance thermometers at high temperatures, the expansion of the porcelain
envelope enters as a small correction.

In the experiments described in this paper, a direct determination of the linear
expansion of porcelain was made at temperatures from 0° C. to 830° C. The
method used was essentially the same as that described by Callendar (‘ Phil. Trans.’
1887, A. p. 167).

On a tube of Bayeux porcelain two fine transverse marks were made at a
distance about 91:3 cm. apart. ‘The tube was heated to as high a temperature as
possible in a gas furnace, and was then slowly cooled by diminishing the gas
supply. During cooling the variation in the distance between the marks was
determined by a pair of reading microscopes which were mounted on stone blocks
and not touched except by the screw-head during an experiment. The readings of
the microscopes for a standard length (a glass tube kept in melting ice) were taken
at intervals,

The temperatures corresponding to the length measurements were deduced
from the resistance of a platinum wire running from mark to mark in the axis of
the tube and supported on a plate of mica. The resistances in ice and steam were
taken after each exposure to a high temperature. The sample of platinum wire
from which the piece used in these experiments was cut is known to have a value
of 5, in Callendar’s formula, from 1:50 to 1:51. The value 6= 1-505 was used, and
thus a direct determination of the resistance at the temperature of boiling sulphur
was avoided. An error of ‘01 in 6 causes an error of less than 1° in the calculated
value of ¢ at 1,000° C.

Four main experiments were made ; the results were plotted and are reproduced
on the accompanying slide.

From 0° C. to GOC° C, the results are represented fairly well by the formula

1,=1, (1+ 34:25 x 10-%¢ + 10°7 x 10-1?).

Above 600° C. the points are more erratic, but still do not depart far on either
side from the curve given by the above formula.

A length of about 6 cm. at either end of the tube was not directly heated by
the furnace. Hence there is an uncertainty due to the ends (greater at the higher
temperatures), since the coefficient of expansion varies with the temperature.

For cubical expansion the above formula gives

%y=v (14+ 102°75 x 10-74 + 82°4 x 10-1%?),

24.6 REPORT—1899,

Heat of Combination of Metals in the Formation of Alloys.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Lord KeEtyin (Chairman), Professor
G. I’. FirzGeratp, Dr. J. H. GLapstone, Professor O. J. LopGE,
and Dr. ALEXANDER Gat (Secretary).

At last year’s meeting at ‘Bristol Dr. Galt submitted to Section A an
account! of some experiments which he had made on the heat of com-
bination of zinc and copper. The Association then granted 20/. for the
continuance of the experiments. The work was accordingly continued by
Dr. Galt, and the Committee have received from him the following
account of his experiments made since the Bristol Meeting :—

Altogether twenty-two different alloys of zinc and copper, whose com-
position varied from 5 to 90 per cent. of copper, were made for this
investigation from practically pure metals, and their analyses determined
by Messrs. Johnson, Matthey, and Co., London. The first set of five, num-
bered A, B, C, D, E, was sent on March 16, 1898 ; the second set, of
seven, numbered 1-7, on December 1, 1898, and the third and final set
of ten, numbered L—V, on March 8, 1899. With these alloys and with
the corresponding mixtures of the metals, all in fine filings, the experi-
ments were carried out. The procedure adopted was exactly similar to

that described in detail in last year’s paper, and each experiment was |

repeated from three to six times, until consistent results for the heat of
solution in each case were obtained, and the mean of these was taken.
The heat of solution of zinc alone and of copper alone was also ascertained
in a similar manner. The total weight of the whole apparatus (excluding
acid and metallic filings) was 42 grammes, and its water equivalent
was found to be 5:7 grammes. The specific heat of the nitric acid used,
density 1°360 at 15° C., was determined, and the mean of several values
was ‘658.

A tabular statement of results is appended. The absolute amount of
heat evolved in dissolving 1 gramme of metal is calculated from the
following formula :—

H=?#{(v.g.s.) +c}, where

¢ = increase of temperature in Centigrade degrees of the acid used
per gramme of metal dissolved,

» = volume of the acid in cubic centimetres,

g = density of the acid,

s = specific heat of the acid,

*c = water equivalent of the apparatus.

The specific heat of the metal used is negligible, and is not taken into
account.

The heat units evolved by the solution of 1 gramme of each alloy
and of the corresponding mixture are shown on fig. 1, values for mix-
tures being denoted by a small circle, those for alloys by a small cross.
On the same figure are shown the results for 1 gramme of zinc alone, and
also for | gramme of copper alone, and on joining these two points by a

1 Brit. Assoc, Rep. 1898, pp. 787, 788.

™

{.

7s |

HEAT OF COMBINATION OF METALS IN FORMATION OF ALLOYS.

Sept. 1899.

Ss.

Fig. 1.—Heat of Solution of Copper-Zine Mixtures and Alloy

be oe ee

ARB Be Ae

7 8

as) hl sed sles a
Pre eere rere yee

NS S x

ieee.

1301

=

“IPRABIQMOH S}IUU-quay (.19wVM-sTIUIBAS) UT passoadxo
‘SOT[B JO WUIVIVAS T PUG AIMAXIUT JO OUIMMIBAG | SUTALOSSIP UT PIATOAS JBaT] JO JAMMOUTY ayNTOsqy

° Mixtures.

x Alloys.

Fic. 2.—Heat of Combination of Copper-Zine Alloys.

=
34/9180 ancl

‘apvastauay sqiun-jvaty (c97v\

-OMUIVAS) UL possoidxo ‘NoT[B JO auIMMBAS T Surors0y uy aod
pue ourz Jo LoTVUIQuLOD a1]1 Aq PaaToAd Yuoy Jo JuMoUIY aqUI

ro)
sy

248 REPORT—1899.

straight line one might expect all the results for mixtures to lie on this line ;
and this is approximately true for all, except in the case of those mixtures
containing from about 15 to about 40 per cent. copper which indicate a
drop, probably due to unavoidable errors in the experimental work.

The difference between the absolute heat of solution of 1 gramme of
each mixture and its corresponding alloy indicates the heat of com-
bination of the metals in forming 1 gramme of alloy. These differences
are shown on fig. 2, and they indicate that the heat of combination is
at first negative, which reaches a maximum when the alloy contains about
16 per cent. of copper. With greater percentages of copper the negative
value of the heat of combination rapidly falls to zero and then becomes
positive. The maximum positive value is very soon reached at about.
38 per cent. copper, which is near the formula Cu,Zn;. Beyond this
point the heat of combination gradually kecomes less, until at 90 per cent.
copper it almost vanishes.

} | Seu |
i | ofS Bt!
{ | } 5 OS 9 |
i | ; | Absolute = = ae
| | Weight Qunas | amount of By Qa
| of hs \ . | heat evolved |“ £3 2
j Nee metal | tity of} | Mean increase of in’ dissolving] Steuaee
| Percentage dis. | acid | temperature of acid |) ect |= 25 5 |
| Composition solved Used in} per gramme of metal | a dee Aa 5 a
: | each | dissolved, expressed | BP) CE ul oapuonen
5 in each Alc art | pressed in Bao
No. of exper}.| €XPeri-| 10 degrees Centigrade S53 0x
Alloy xper ment | (gramme- | 3 2% bo
) ment | | water) heat- |; Eps
| units Cent. | 2 5
{ | | 2 SS)
3 bs
1 20.8
| eae se ab at
| Cubic | | | Saas
| | | Cubic | yrix IDiffer-| Mi Se ae
: : ix- iffer- Mix- soo
i Hi P ann | @ = £ Allo He 8
_ Copper Zine | Grm, | centi rege | Alloy Nience | ture y 3a a
/ | metres on
i | |
| J | 5.00 (95-00 | 100 14°52 14:47)4+0°05 1385 {1380 +

2 10°50 |89°50 95 14:77} 14:85 }--0-08 |1340 [1347
3 16:00 |84:00
4 20°50 |79°50
A 25°14 |74:°36

oOn-

4

4

4 80 16°65 | 16°95 |—0°30 |1287 {1310 -

4 85 15°23) 15:40|—017 |1244 |1258 _

5 $0 13°94} 13:90) +0°04 |1202 |11985) +

5 | 100 12°54) 12:50 + 0-04 1176°3 1192°5| +

5 90 13°84) 13°74) +010 1194 11854) +

5 5;+0382/1171 |1144 +27

N 33:00 |67-00 Es 80 14°60) 14:14/+0°46 1129 |1094 +35

oO 54°50 |65 50 5 80 14:52| 14:04) +0°48 |1123 |1086 +37

6 13800 |62-00 no) 90 12°74| 11:98] + 0°76 |1099 |1034 +65
5
5
5
5
5)
5
5
5
iy

Lee So)
Ob 9 09 He OD CD He

5 26°50 |73 50
|71 25
M 3000 |70:00

mo

ie)
i]
oe
or
ie]
to
lord

3 38°38 |61-62 90 | 12°66) 12°00) +0°66 |1092 {1035 +57
P (43.00 |57:00 90 | 12°36) 11°72|+0°64|1066 {1011 +55
80 | 13:54) 12°84)+0°70|1047 | 993 + 54
80 | 13:14] 12-48)+0°66)1016 | 965 +61
75 | 13:58|,.1290/+0-68| 988:8| 939-8) +49
70 | 13°94] 13-°32/+0°62| 952°8/ 910°8| +442
70 | 13-40] 12°88|}+0:52) 9158) 880-8} +35
70 | 12°68! 12-28) +0-40) 866°8| 839°8} +427
70 | 11-82] 11:52|+0-30

| 7 45°50 |54°50
} J 49°10 |50-90
Q 52°50 |47°50
t 58:00 |42-00
D 62°27 137 73
) 31:00
i 75:225 |24:775

w:
=
Sy
S
i=)

807:9| 787:9| +20
YT 81°50 |18:50 5b, © | 710 11-16} 10:92} + 0-24 7626) 7466) +16
Vv 90:25 | 9:75 a Ih AG) '+0:16) 6955) 6845) 411

i=)
—
io 2)
nm
=
i=)
tS

Zine | _AWEIDO Eee 190 1660) 4) ) 2 14g | ee =

HEAT OF COMBINATION OF METALS IN FORMATION OF ALLOYS, 24%

The experiments were made according to the method fully described
in a paper by Dr. Galt, on “Heat of Combination of Metals,” com-
municated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, on March 7, 1898.!
In each case of solution the nitrous products remained in the liquid, the
vessel in which the solution took place being kept closed by a cork. The
importance of this arrangement is illustrated by the following statement
extracted from the paper just referred to :—

“Tf the method of pouring the acid on the filings or of dropping the-
filings into the acid had been adopted, a violent action would have
occurred, and it would not have been pessible to prevent the loss of heat
due to escape of fumes. But the plan adopted effectually got rid of this
difficulty by the almost instantaneous projection of the bulb containing the
filings to the bottom of the acid.? It was very interesting to watch the
scouring effect in the bulb due to the chemical action ; the filings were aimost
instantaneously expelled from it by the rapid evolution of gas, the removal
being facilitated by the existence of the two apertures already described.
The gentle rotatory motion given to the acid was kept up while solution
was going on, and when it was complete the thermometer reading was
again noted. The time required to effect solution was 50 to 55 seconds,
and it was observed that complete solution and maximum temperature
were reached about the same time.”

Addition by the Chairman.

The Committee has carefully considered an objection to the method of
experiment which was suggested after the reading of the Report at the
Dover meeting, to the effect that nitrous products evolved from the
solution might be different in the cases of the solution of the mixture
and the solution of the alloy. It seems not probable that even if gaseous.
products had been allowed to escape, they would have been different in
these two cases ; but as the whole nitrogenous products remained in the
solution in each case, it seems scarcely possible that there can have been
any final chemical difference in the solutions. As, however, the question
has been suggested, a chemical investigation of the solutions in the two
cases might be interesting. K.

Addition by Dr. Gladstone.

This suggestion of the Chairman seems to me most important, and one
that ought to be carried out, as there is reason to believe that the chemical
products in the two solutions would be different. os Ehe G,

Addition by Professors FitzGerald and Lodge.

The above report was drawn up by Dr. Galt, and though we consider
it most interesting, and have reason to believe that if the experiments
were repeated the results would not be very different, yet, as it has been
suggested that the chemical products resulting from actions on the mixed
metals and on the alloy might be different, we do not feel justified in con-
cluding that the heat of combination of the metals can be safely deduced
from these results in the simple way suggested. G. F. F.-G., O. J. L.

' Proc. RS.H. vol. xxii., 1898, p. 137.

* Andrews'’s Scientific Papers, p. 214. Every chemist is familiar with the violent
action of nitric acid on zinc and copper, and the abundant evolution of gas which
accompanies it. But the facility with which the gases miy be condensed by the
acid solution is probably not so generally known, and whcn the experiment is made
for the first time it cannot fail to excitessurprise.

250 REPORT—1 899.

Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Lord McLaren, Professor A. Crum Brown (Secre-
tary), Sir JOHN Murray, Professor CopELAND, and Dr. ALEXANDER
Bucnan. (Drawn up by Dr. Bucway.)

THE Committee was appointed as in past years for the purpose of co-
operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making meteorologi-
cal observations at the two Ben Nevis Observatories.

The hourly eye observations, made by night as well as by day, which
are a speciality of the Ben Nevis Observatory, being as yet not attempted
at any other first-class meteorological observatory in the world, were
made with complete regularity by Mr. Angus Rankin and his assistants.

The health of the staff at the high level Observatory continued good,
and the heavy work of the Observations has been carried on without the loss
of a single hour’s observations. The Directors desire to express their very
cordial thanks to Messrs. J. S. Begg, M.A., P. S. Hardie, W. A. Bartlett,
Andrew Hunter, and T. Kilgour, for the invaluable assistance they
rendered as volunteer observers, thus enabling them to give the members
of the staff the relief they ereatly stood in need of, Special thanks are
due to Mr. Begg for the great service he rendered in taking at no small
personal risk the place of observer at Fort William during the time of
the influenza there, which was of an exceptionally severe character.

The observations at the intermediate station on Ben Nevis, 2,200 feet,
were again undertaken by Mr. T. 8. Muir, M.A., assisted by the late
Mr. Campbell Irons. These observations, together with those made in
1897, are being discussed by Mr. Muir, ‘under the superintendence of
Mr. Omond. “Arrangements were made for the resumption of these
valuable observations “during the current holiday season. The observa-
tions will be made on the lines indicated in your Committee’s Report of
last year.

The principal results of the observations of 1898 are detailed in
Table I.

TaB_eE I.

1898 | Jan. | Feb. |March| April | May | June | July | Aug. ) Sept. | Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Year

Mean Pressure in Inches.

Ben Nevis Ob- | 25-439) 25:097) 25:262) 25:207) 25°273) 25°413) 25°547| 25° 394) 25°473) 25-274 25-180} 25°149/25-309
servatory | |
Fort Wiliam | 30:049) 30°063) 29°866) 29-958) 29-779) 29-735) 29°716/29°858

feast 29: 896, 29°770 | 29°830, 29°914

Differences .| 4°610| 4°623| 4°634) 4-563! "4557 4501| 4516] 4°472| 4°485| 4°505| 4-505| 4-567 4°549

Mean Temperatures.

. o, | °o ° ° ° | ° ° ae ° Ce,
Ben NevisOb-| 29°3 | 224 | 23:4 | 29°38 | 313 | 388 | 41:0 | 40°9 | 42°6 | 35:7 28°9 | 28:2 | 32-7
servatory | |
Fort William | 44-2 | 39°5 | 40°71 | 47-1) 48:2 | 55°1 | 56:5 | 57-0 | 55:2 | 506 | 42:7] 43:8 | 48-4
Differences . | 14°9 | 17-1 | 16-7 | 17:°3 | 16:0 | 16°3°| 15:5 | 16-1 | 12°6 | 149 | 13°8 | 15°6 | 157
Extremes of SOMITE Maxima.
Jo co [MRS oinlltitordieeo |’ bo Des or| ol Yt gti ronal aes °
Ben NevisOb-| 39:0 | 37-9 | 37:1 | 41°3 | 51°2 | 52°1 | 55°9 | 55°3 | 62°6 | 57* 43°9 39°3 | 62°6
servatory | | | |
Fort William | 53:0 ; 52°41 51°7 | 60°6 | G43 | 72:0 | 746 | 76:9 | 79-7 | 73:8 | 5599 | 53:2 79°7
Differences .| 14°0 | 14:5 | 14:6 | 19°3 | 13°1 | 19°9 | 187 | 21°6 | 17-1 | 6 | 12°0 | 18:9 | 171

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 251

TABLE I.—continued.

1898 | Jan. | Feb. |March| April | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year
Extremes of Temperature, Minima.
° ° °o ° ° ° | ° ° ° ° ° | ° °
Ben NevisOb-} 21:2 9:6 | 131 | 152 | 19°38 | 26°5 | 30°1 | 29:0 | 29°0 | 23:5 | L1-1 | 164 96
servatory |
Fort William | 31°9 | 26:2 | 26:7 | 286 | 32°3 | 42°8 | 42°0 | 43:7 | 35°9 | 36°0 | 21°1 | 273 21:1
Differences .| 10°7 | 166 | 13°6 | 13-4 | 13°0 | 16°31 119 | 147 69 | 12:5 | 10°0 | 10°9 | 115

Rainfall, in Inches.

Ben Nevis Ob- | 27° oy 30°09 | 19°07| 10°76| 8:74) 10°37 ed 18°61 | 24°81] 13°86! 21°27) 43°65 |240°05

servatory |

Fort William | 14 »2 | 11-36; 7°41 err | 2-91} 4:27] 2°84! 7:30] 10°60) 6°83) 7:99) 24:01 /106°51

Differences .| 12°86| 18°73| 11°66! 3:99) 5°83) 610| 890 | 11°31 | 14:21| 7:03 | 13:28 | 19°64 }133°54
Number of Days 1 in. or more fell.

Ben NevisOb-| 12 15 6 2 1 3 6 6 7 4 6 18 86
servatory |

Tort William 4 1 2 1 0 0 1 1 3 1 2 10 26

Differences . 8 14 4 i 1 3 5 5 4 3 4 8 | 60

Number of Days 0:01 in. ov more fell.

Ben NevisOb- | 27 24 27 21 22 7 22 | 27 21 21 23 29 | 281
servatory

Fort William | 2 25 25 23 19 15 16 24 20 9 23 30 265

Differences .; +1 1 4 0 3 0 1 ah al 0 3 +1 26

Mean Rainband (scale 0-8).

Ben Nevis Ob-; 2°5 2°3 15 2°8 2°3 1:9 30 2°9 23 ; 2:0 21 21 23
servatory | |

Fort William! 41 a4 at 43 4°2 3°6 34 37 36 | 38 | 36 3:7 37

Differences .; lt | ll 19 15 19 nis 4 | 8 ik& Ls 1 16 1°4

Number of Hours of Bright Sunshine.

BenNevisOb-| 11 19 | 43 33 | 149] 116 | 141 44 88 76 33 | 12 765
servatory

Fort William 14 48 | 104 117 213 170 | 198 119 125 90 32 11 | 1,241

Differences . 3 291 61 84 64 54 | 87 75 v7 14 aol acid! 476

Mean Hourly Velocity of Wind, in Miles.

Ben NevisOb-| 15 7 | 14 19 10 8 6 10 12 21 16 20 14
servatory | | | | | | | | | |

Percentage of Cloud.
BenNevisOb-| 95 | 95 | 91 | 92 | 76 | 79 | 76 | 90 | 77 | 76 | 82 | 94 | 85

servatory
Fort William | 86 79 74 76 65 69 68 77 64 67 72 81 73
Differences 9 16 17 16 11 10 8 13 13 9 10 13 12

Table I. shows for 1898 the mean monthly and extreme pressure and
temperature ; amounts of rainfall, with the number of days of rain, and
the days on which the amount equalled or exceeded one inch ; the hours
of sunshine ; the mean percentage of cloud ; the mean velocity ‘of the wind
in miles per ‘hour at the top of the mountain ; and the mean rainband at
both Observatories. The mean barometric pressures at Fort William are
reduced to 32° and sea-level, but those at the Ben Nevis Observatory
only to 82°.

At Fort William the mean atmospheric pressure for the year was
29°858 inches, being 0-014 inch higher than the mean of the forty years
from 1856 to 1895. The mean at the top was 25°309 inches, being
0-013 inch above the average of the Observatories made since the opening
of the Observatory in 1883. The difference for the two Observatories
was thus 4:549 inches for the year, being nearly the average difference of

252 REPORT—1899,

past years. At the top of the mountain the absolutely highest pressure
for the year was 25°992 inches on June 10; and at Fort William
30°458 inches on January 23.

The differences from the mean monthly barometric pressure greatly
exceeded the averages in January and July, the excesses being respec-
tively for Fort William 0-231 inch and 0°196 inch, and at the top of Ben
Nevis 0°227 inch and 0°183 inch. On the other hand the reverse held
good in February and April, when the defects from the averages were:
respectively for Fort William 0:174 inch and 0-146 inch, and at the top
of Ben Nevis 0:177 inch and 0-104 inch. The excesses occurred when
the general type of weather was anticyclonic, and the defects from the
pressure when it was cyclonic.

The following shows the deviations of the mean temperature of the:
months from their respective averages :—

Fort Top of

William. Ben Nevis, Difterence:
Oo ° fo}
January . 5:2 55 0-3
February 03 15 18
March 02 O-4 0:2
April 18 2:3 05
May 21 17 0-4
June O1 0:5 0:4.
Jnly 06 03 03
August : ; 06 0-9 03
September : 5 27 46 9
October . ; 4:0 ay O1
November 06 03 0-9
December 37 3:2 0-4
Year 12 14 0-2

The absolutely highest temperature for the year recorded for Fort:
William was 79°-7 on September 6, and at the top 62°°6 on the same date.
The absolutely lowest temperature was 21° on November 29 at Fort
William, and 9°-6 on February 20 at the top of the mountain. A notice-
able feature of these maximum temperatures in September, when the type
of weather was strongly anticyclonic, was the lateness of the season when
they occurred, and, besides, they far exceed any previously recorded in
September at either of the Observatories.

In Table IT. are given for each month the lowest observed hygrometric
readings at the top of Ben Nevis :—

Tas_e IT.
= Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April} May | June} July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Noy. | Dee.
|
o { ° °o ° ° | °o ° ° ° o co] °
Dry Bulb . » | 25:0 | 193 | 25:0 | 388] 31:0 | 45°5 | 47:2 | 34:1 | 53°0 | 57-1 | 41°4 | 20°2
Wet Bulb + «| 82:2 | 17°3 | 22°6 | 30:7 | 24:3 | 32:0 | 33:2 | 26:3 | 36:5 | 46°3 | 30°0 | 16:9
Dew-point . ~ edo: | + 27 93 | 20:2 62 | 15°38 | 175 | 12:3 | 20:0 | 36:4 | 15°2 | -6°5
Elastic Force . - | °079 | *049 | -065 | °109 | °057 | -089 | *096 | -075 | -108 | °215 | °086 | 032
Relative Humidity 59 47 49 46 33 29 23 38 27 46 33 29
(Sat.=100) |
Day of Month 3 3 24 30 22 6 28 9 9 24 3 19 8
Hour of Day . + (6 am. |3 a.m. | 8 a.m.'6 a.m./11p.m.7 a.m. /9 a.m. |4 a.m.} 1 p.m.'5 Pe p.m./9 a.m.

Of these lowest relative humidities, the lowest 23 occurred in July with
a dew-point of 17°°5, and the highest 59 in January with a dew-point of

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS, 200

13°:3. Itis to be noted that with these humidities the accompanying dew-
point fell only once below zero, viz., to —6°°5 on December 8, being in this
respect very different from the low humidities of previous years.

The registrations of the sunshine recorder at the top 765 hours out of
a possible 4,470 hours, being 48 hours fewer than in 1897. This is
17 per cent. of the possible sunshine. The monthly maximum was
149 hours in May, and the minimum 11 hours in January and 12 hours
in December. At Fort William the number of hours was 1,241, being
the largest hitherto recorded. The maximum was 213 hours in May, and
the minimum 11 hours in December. The annual number of hours,
1,241, is 36 per cent. of the possible sunshine at Fort William.

At the Ben Nevis Observatory the mean percentage of cloud was 85,
which is nearly the average, the highest being 95 in January and
February, and the minimum 76 in May, July, and October ; and at Fort
William, the mean was 73, the highest being 86 in January, and the
lowest 64 in September.

The mean rainband observation (scale 0O—8) was 2-3 at the top for the
year ; the maximum being 3:0 in July and the minimum 1:5 in March.
At Fort William the mean for the year was 3°7, the maximum being 4°3
in April and the minimum 3-4 in February, March, and July.

The mean hourly velocity of the wind was at the top of the mountain
14 miles per hour, the maximum velocity being 21 miles in October, and
the minimum 6 miles in July, being the lowest mean yet recorded on
Ben Nevis. The means of 10 miles for May, 8 miles for June, 6 miles for
July, and 10 miles for August, were the lowest means yet observed in
four consecutive months, thus forming a striking feature of the meteorolog
of Ben Nevis during the summer months of 1898.

The rainfall for the year was 240-05 inches, which is by far the largest
rainfall of any year yet observed on the top of Ben Nevis, being
59 per cent. above the average of the observations made since 1881. This
high percentage above the average was approximated to at several
stations in this part of the West Highlands. The largest monthly
amount was 43°65 inches in December, and, as will be seen from Table I.,
the amount for six of the months was exceptionally largé. Another
singular circumstance is that the amounts for each of the months exceeded
their average. The heaviest fall on any single day was 5°39 inches on
November 2. At Fort William the amount for the year was 106-51 inches,
the largest yet observed here, being 38 per cent. above the average. The
largest monthly amount was 24:01 inches in December. The heaviest fall
on any single day was 3:66 on December 4.

On the top of Ben Nevis rain fell on 281 days, and at Fort William
on 265 days. At the top the maximum number of rainy days was 29 in
‘December and the minimum 17 in June ; the numbers for Fort William
being 30 days in December and 15 in June.

During the year the number of days on which 1 inch of rain or more
was collected was 86 at the top and 26 at Fort William, these being very
greatly above the averages, the percentages excess being 80 and 69
respectively. In December, at the top, more than 1 inch of rain fell on
eighteen days andin February on fifteen days. The prominent feature of
the meteorology of Ben Nevis in 1898 was the unprecedented number of
days characterised by heavy rainfalls, April and May being the only
exceptions,

Auroras are reported to have been observed on the following dates :—

254 REPORT—1899.
January 12 ; March 26 ; ng 15 ; August 16, 17 ; September 16, 17, 22,
23, 24, 25 ; November 2 2 1, 22, or thirteen nights es all.

St. Elmo’s Fire was seen on February 6, , 12, 13, 26, 27, 285
March 14 ; July 2 ; September 18, 28 ; erie e 2, 4, 3; December 7, 9,
—seventeen times in all.

Zodiacal Light, not observed.

Thunder and lightning were reported June 21 ; J aly ie 2; November 3 ;
December 26. Lightning only, EebeaeTye 2) - October 2

Solar Halo, January ie 3; February 5, 24 March = ; May 2, 7, 17,
24, 27; appe 16, (175 July 9; 2805 August 9, 11; September 23 ;
November 2 22 ; December 8.

Lunar Halo, August 6,7, 9; December 29, 30.

Much time continues to be given to the discussion of the hourly
observations of the two Observatories. The work of reducing and entering
these observations for every day, side by side, so as to present a direct and
easy comparison of the two, is far advanced, "being brought down to the
end of 1897. The number of daily sheets finished is ii 710, and, as each
sheet contains twenty-two columns, the laboriousness of the work may be
in some degree appreciated.

As explained in previous Reports, the rainfall, fog, thunder, lightning,
halos, aurora, and other phenomena observed at 120 stations on each day,
are entered on a map of Scotland for that day. The whole of these maps
are now completed down to December 1898, the number of the maps
amounting to 2,922. A beginning has been made to enter on these maps
the gales and storms which have occurred at the sev enty lighthouses round
the Scottish coasts. _ Care is taken to note the hour of commencement of
each storm, so that a comparison may be made as to the commencement
and violence of storms and the related forecasts issued by the Meteoro-
logical Office in London.

Storms which strike the Scottish coasts may be conveniently divided
into these chief classes, viz. : storms which overspread the whole of Scot-
land ; storms over the west coast only ; storms over the east coast only ;
and storms more restricted as to the area they overspread, such as only
from the Tweed to the Tay, from the Tay to the Moray Firth, over the
Hebrides, and those confined to Orkney and Shetland. As _ regards.
the intensity of storms, since this depends on the barometric gradients
formed within the cyclones, these gradients will be specially examined in
the relations they stand to the vertical gradients of pressure, temperature,
and humidity formed in the stratum of the atmosphere between the top
and foot of Ben Nevis.

The Ben Nevis observations indicate that the great majority of
cyclones show the winds both at the top and bottom of the mountain
blowing vorticosely inwards upon the central area of the cyclones. But.
no inconsiderable number of cyclones passing over Ben Nevis show that.
while the winds at sea level blow inwards upon the cyclone, the winds at
the top of the Ben blow outwards from the cyclones. Now the vertical
gradients of pressure, temperature, and humidity, as disclosed by the two
Observatories, open up very important lines of inquiry in the investi-
gation of these different types of cyclones.

Again, the frequent sudden changes of these vertical gradients suggest
lines of inquiry of no less importance as to the relation of these changes
to the manner of: distribution over the stations of the rain accompanying

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 255

the cyclones and many of the smaller barometric depressions. In several
respects this remark applies also to the distribution of fogs.

Among the results indicated by the observations made during the past
four summer seasons at the intermediate station compared with the
observations made at the two Observatories, the more important referred
to in our last year’s Report is this : When the reduced barometer at the
top of Ben Nevis, for a series of observations, comes higher than that of
Fort William, the accompanying disturbance of temperature takes place
in the lower half of the mountain, that is below the intermediate station,
and denotes the approach of an anti-cyclone. Conversely, when the
reduced barometer at the Ben Nevis Observatory reads lower than that
of Fort William, then the disturbance of temperature takes place in the
upper half of the mountain, and denotes the approach of a cyclone.

The hourly and other observations at the two Observatories from
January 1888 to December 1896 are now in the press, together with a
general discussion of the results, and other discussions of separate inquiries
raised by observations, nearly all of which have been resumed in the suc-
cessive annual reports of your Committee.

Arrangements have been made for the publication during the next
three years, in the ‘Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,’
of the hourly observations made at the Observatories from 1888 to 1901,
the time to which it is proposed by the Directors to continue the obser-
vations. The observations will fill three large quarto volumes, the cost of
publishing which will be a little over 1,000/7.. Your Committee have much
pleasure in adding that the Royal Society of London have agreed to give
500/., being half of the whole expenditure, the balance being met by the
Royal Society of Edinburgh ; and that Mr. Mackay Bernard of Dunsinnan
has by another donation of 500/. enabled the Directors to continue the
observations for another year. These handsome gifts, the first two by the
two leading Scientific Societies of the country, and the third by a generous
_ private person, are announced by your Committee with great satisfaction.

Water and Sewage Examination Results.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor W. Ramsay (Chairman), Dr. 8. RipeaL
(Secretary), Sir W. Crookes, Professor F. CLiowrs, Professor
P. F. Frankiann, and Professor R. Boyce, appointed to establish
w Uniform System of recording the Results of the Chemical and
Bacterial Heamination of Water and Sewage.

The Committee beg to report as follows :—That it is desirable that
results of analysis should be expressed in parts per 100,000, except in
the case of dissolved gases, when these should be stated as cubic centi-
metres of gas at 0°C. and 760 mm. in 1 litre of water. This method of
recording results is in accordance with that suggested by the Committee
appointed in 1887 to confer with the Committee of the American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science, with a view to forming a uniform
system of recording the results of water analysis.!

2. The Committee suggest that in the case of all nitrogen compounds

1 Brit. Assoc. Report, 1889.

256 REPORT—1899,

the results be expressed as parts of nitrogen over 100,000, including the
ammonia expelled on boiling with alkaline permanganate, which should
be termed albuminoid nitrogen. The nitrogen will, therefore, be re-
turned as—

(1) Ammoniacal nitrogen from free and saline ammonia,

(2) Nitrous nitrogen from nitrites.

(3) Nitric nitrogen from nitrates.

(4) Organic nitrogen (either by Kjeldahl or by combustion, but the
process used should be stated).

(5) Albuminoid nitrogen.

The total nitrogen of all kinds will be the sum of the first four deter-
minations.

The Committee are of opinion that the percentage of nitrogen oxidised,
that is, the ratio of (2) and (3) to (1) and (4), gives sometimes a useful
measure of the stage of purification of a particular sample. The purifica-
tion effected by a process will be measured by the amount of oxidised
nitrogen as compared with the total amount of nitrogen existing in the
crude sewage.

In raw sewage and in effluents containing suspended matter it is also
desirable to determine how much of the organic nitrogen is present in the
suspended matter.

In sampling, the Committee suggest that the bottles should he filled
nearly completely with the liquid, only a small air-bubble being allowed _
to remain in the neck of the bottle. The time at which a sample is
drawn, as well as the time at which its analysis is begun, should be noted.
An effluent should be drawn to correspond as nearly as possible with the
original sewage, and both it and the sewage should be taken in quantities
proportional to the rate of flow when that varies (e.g. in the emptying of
a filter bed).

In order to avoid the multiplication of analyses the attendant at
a sewage works (or any other person who draws the samples) might be
provided with sets of twelve or twenty-four stoppered + Winchester
bottles, one of which should be filled every hour or every two hours, and
on the label of each bottle the rate of flow at the time should be written.
When the bottles reach the laboratory quantities would be taken from each
proportional to these rates of flow and mixed together, by which means a
fair average sample for the twenty-four hours would be obtained.

The Committee at present are unable to suggest a method of reporting
bacterial results, including incubator tests, which is likely to be accept-
able to all workers.

Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—Interim Report of the Committee, con~
sisting of Professor H. McLerop, Professor Sir W. C. Roserts-
AusTEN, Mr. H. G. Mapan, and Mr. D. H. NaGeu.

Tue collection and verification of titles of papers has been proceeded with,
and the Committee hope to be able to continue the work untii it can be
taken up by the compilers of the International Catalogue of Scientific
Papers.

The Committee therefore ask for reappointment.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 257

On Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.
—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. i. Roscor (Chair-
man), Dr. MaRsHALL Watts (Secretary), Sir J. N. LOCKYER, Pro-
fessor J. Dewar, Professor G. D. Liverne, Professor A. SCHUSTER,
Professor W. N. Hartvey, Professor WoLcoTr Gixns, and Captain
ABNEY.

CHLORINE (VACUUM-TUBE).
Eder and Valenta: ‘ Denkschr. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ Bd. lxviii. 1899.
S. = Salet; P. = Pliicker; T. = Thalén; H. = Hasselberg.

Pres- }
Pressure Pressure sure 70 | Reduction |
10 to 20 mm, 30 to 40 mm. | to 100 ito Vacuum
mm. 2 ill tion
| | Previous Measure- |—-——_— iedtnce
aiave. a Wat. tate | Bee ments (Rowland) a WOO
length | j,q | length rae ann Veo (eae
een) Cha: | (PO }cha. | \Cha- “ee
(a) racter| land) (b) | acter | racter |
5672-2 a4 155| 4:8) 17625
3571 lb 1-54] ,, 741
25°5 Zz | 153)! a
23°1 z H | ” ” 79
5580-1 ween 5597-5 P., alsoT. | 1°52) 4-9 916
70-4 a ABC: [Ree Al bee 48
a | n | 380 12h | ” ”
5457-70 | 2 57-70 | Abr | | | ( 88-la
57-28 | 3s | 57:30 | 3by |'b (54578H.,alsoS.P.T. 1°49] ,, 89'5a
|} 56391! 2s | 5649 | obj} | | 92-4a
4512 | Is | 45-1 In | { 18029°0a
44-412| 3s | 4452 | 4by |'b | 45-0H.alsoS.P.T.| 5, | 5:0|) 362:5a
45:587 Be 43-64 | 6b | | | 65-28
703| 2s | 23-7 4br 432:6a
93-441| 6s | 23-4 | 10b" b | 26H, alsoSP.T 148), || “33.5q
5392300} 4s | 92:3 6b \5393°7 H., also S.P.T.| 1°47) 5-1 539°9a
5285°8 5 (3285'°9 H., also P. T.|_,, i 913
5221-48 | 4s 21:54 6b b | 208H.,alsoS.P.T., 144) 5:2| 191465a
1807 | 33 | 1816 | 8by | b | 170H.,also P.T.| 1°43] ,, 59:0a
5193-6 an | 15195°6 P., also T. | 1°42) 5:3} 249
89:74 | Ib | | $9:8 H.,alsoP.T.} 5, | 5 63°5
76:0 3 Wet Pi also Titel) sch, 315
pie: § 734 In | 73:2 alone Ls ml ae me 24
-- | GU6H., also P:T.) 3. |} =
62°50 1 | s6a°0 Pe ” ” 65:2
| 589 in teat ye 79
Ae: 13°3 In 13°6 H., also P.T.| 140] 5:4) 551
510518 | 2s | 0318 | 4b | OF0 Hieitap Pet bie, 90°2a
5099°36 | 1bt 5098:8 H., also S.P.T.| 1:39} ,, | 604-9
896 | gn | a | 43
e 83:59 | 1 i. 65:7
| 5078361) 4s | 78:38 | 4br 78:3 H.,alsoS.P.T.| 1:38} ,, 86-0a
4995°7 In 149987 H.,alsoS.P.T| 1°37} 55} 20012
70°3 In | 73:3 H ,alsoS.P.T! 1:36} 114
ABT ih 2 | 462 H.,also P.T! 1-35! 5-6| 225
| — | SUOwMbawesOnie dees). | sy cae

1899. F

958 REPORT—1899.
CHLORINE (VACUUM-TUBE)—continued.
| Pres-
Pressure Pressure sure 70) | Reduction
10 to 20 mm. 30 to 40 mm. | to 100 to Vacuum
| mm. | 2
Previous Measure- | oF So ae
Wave- pe, Wave- Su ea ments (Rowland) } re: ees
length aaa length faa eal DVe Ea | es
(Rowland) qya- (EOWS eGine tne une | r
(a) racter land) ( racter racter }
|
| 49273 3 | 56} 20289
| 24:90 In 4926-1 H.,also S8.P.T., 1:35) ,, 99-4
4917°870 2s 17°84 3b 17°5 T., also P. | ties 328-4a
04£905 4s 04°85 4br 05-4 H.,alsoS.P.T.; 1: 34 4 82-2a
4896:905| 5s |4896-90 5br 4897°6 H., also S. Te low hy 415:5a
19'628) 9s 19°63 | 10b 20°3 H,, also S.P.T.) 1°32 | 5:7 742°-8a
10:194' 9s | 10:19 | 9b 10°5 H., also S.P.T., (Pre 85-la
4794665 | 10s |4794°63 10b 4794°5 H.,also S.P.T. bbe Hy" et 850°8a
85:41 4s 85°5 In | 91-la
81:49 | 5s,| 81-44 | 5s 834 P.,also8. | » | 58 | 908-2a
79:06 3s 79:07 | 3s 81'8 H., also P.T.| ,, » | 18°8a
71-22 | 2s | 71:19 | 2n 746 P. fo Siegel 53-2a
68:80 | 4s | 68°76 | 4s 70:0 H., also 8.P.T. | fear | 63°8a
559 | In 54:0 P. 1:3 » | 21021
40505) 3s 40°52 3br 40°5H.,also8$.P.T.| ,, FP 89-0a
466138 | Is 4660°9 T. 1:28 | 5:9 447-0
543 of 1 48'S T. Whe ts eas 80
491) 4 40°9 T., also P. » [os 504
| 2423 | 3 28°3 P. GEO 619-2
0119 | 4br 07:2 P., also T. 1261) (275
a 4595°8 P., also T. Baa oe’ BS
458505 | In 90:7 Ps also 8PT- Ab an | 5. Pome
7279 | & 72-1 P. B25 ike,” | 62°5
70°16 3 66°5 PB: ” ” 751
BO! ee | 37:0 P. 1:24) G1); 22035
26:44 | 5br | 26:0 P., also T. flray 18h 86:3
194 x 4 121
10°6 2 os 64
04°50 4 056 P. 0 Pe 93°9
4497°45 4 4497-2 P. tits Ay 2287
91:25 | 3b | 62 59:3
90°16 8b 90°4 P. ” ” 64:7
75498) 4s by 5 Ay 337°7
69°569 | 5s Ss a 67°3
4446348 2s 46°30 2s b ag 2 484:2a
46096 2s 46:10 2s b a ‘n 85-4
38:°735 | 4s 38°72 2s by Si co 522°8a
17:0 gn 1-21] 6:3 | 634
03:210| 5s 03:22 5s), len ae i 55 704-4a
02°672; Is 02°79 4b a5 +H O7:2a
4399:765! 1b rs cS 22°2
99°373| 2b '- 3 24°2
439112 3 IP20)) ay 66°9
' 90°566| 3s 90°572) 3s s 3 3 69°8a
89-949) 8s 89°941 6s by as an 73°0a
87°730| 5s Sigil o2 || | FA ren 84:5a
80075} Ss | 80097] 5s s hl 824-3a
73:119| 6s Moule Lie SS b ‘ A 60°7a
Wet loipmas 71-740} 2 ” ” €8-0a
69°676| 6s 69°690| 6s s “s an 78:7a
63°457| $s 63°462} 55 | bY ee i¢ 4 911:2a

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 259

CHLORINE (VACUUM-TUBE)—continued.

Pres- |
Pressure Pressure sure 70 ' Reduction |
10 to 20 mm. 80 to 40mm. | to 100 'to Vacuum |
a : Oscillation
Z Previous Measure- | Frequency
‘Inten- |Inten-| Inten-| ments (Rowland) | in Vacuo
Wave- sity rave: sity | sity ly
length fand| 227sth | ona | and | at | =|
eeeiera| 0, | Cha- | Cha- coped
(a) 3 land) (b) | ccter iz
racter racter | racter | |
4343°822| 10s |4343°82 | 10sr 43471P.,alsoS. | 1:19 64) 2380148
36°371| 5s 36°39 5s s 39°4 P. ane, atl gs | 54-4a|
33125] 1. . ea tene 77
23°523| 6s 23°54 4s ry = | boat] { 122-9a
09-139] 3s 09-19 4b b i 137 iB also 8. 118) 5 | | 99:8a
07:593| 6s 07-627| 8s Ss b 6S 208 3a
04:211 4s 04:20 6s 58 4) 5 26-6a
4291°361} 5s |4291°884, 6s s 4295-6 P. Vit, | a 93-4a
80°615}| 3s 82°6 P. e174) 35 3547
76628 | 4s 76°719| 3b* by 78:8 P. Nek ” 76:4a
70'725 |. 3s 70°855 | 2be [she 3 . 408°7a
_ 64740) 3s 64-769 | 2s n % 7 41-6a
61:°350| 3s 61421) 4b b Bs ” 60°2a
59°628| 4s 59°640| 5s s D0-< P-5 also) 94 URIs, ” 69°7a
53'532 | 9s 53°638 | 10b¥ by ie 4! (6:6 503:3a
41°435| 8s 41:474| Sby by SL GH gs TO-3a
35°608) 3s 35°683 |} 4b’ le, af 602°8a
34187} 5s | 34-198] 5br Nae |e 10-9a
26°580| 7s 26°585| 4s s ets is 53:2a
25:139) 1 i Sa | ae 61:3
09-866) 5s 09°861| 4s ts; Be 7T47-1a
08160} 4s | 08-209) 3b* b aes | ee 56°8a
1189379} 1n | 1-15] G7] » 863-2
4158-021) 4s 58°001| 5b } 114 ,, |r 24643-2a |
49°631| In ee Fe 91:8
47-203| 4s 47°356| 5Sbr LY | » | 68] 105°9a
33°834| 3s | 33-955] 3 eel 83:8a
32°680| Ss 32°719| 9bv br |4130°8 S. cs ” 90-6a |
30991, 4s 31-088} +bv PSA is 200-5a
30°34 | In 30°304|} In br ie reson (teary OL Ba
24153} In PIG) Asie 406
04965, 4s bagi e Th a2) 354-0
4054:242| 2n } 111) 6-9} 658:°6
| 40-710} 2n L Ta |] TON) 74
4032-330) 5s 32-368) 3s poh er an | eee 92:6a
13991°625| In } 1:10) 71) 25045-4
82:060| 3n | eth: a a 105°5
6.770} 2n 109) ,, | 284-1
55°582| 3n | Peds. Say sleet (3:5
3917:721)| 2s 17762) 4s by TFOSHI-;, 517-9a

16832) 4s 16°870| 5s bee 23°6a

14055} 5s | 14105| 6br |: by | a ie 41-Ta
3884:045| 2b | br }107) 73}! 7391

83'454| 2* | 5 Laer = 43-0

71:537| 4b | b Really ho 8222

68°344| 6s | bY een 402

66103) 1s bie. 586

63°'726| 2b b> a i+4
3861008 10s | 61:006! 10s | br | ie | 92:7 |

* Possibly not due to Chlorine.

260 REPOKT—1899.

CHLORINE (VACUUM-TUBE) — continued.

7
|

Pres-
Pressure Pressure sure 70 Reduction
10 to 20mm. 80 to 40 mm. | to 100 to Vacuum
eter | Oscillation,
| Previous Measure- |————_—. Frequency
W. \Inten- Ww Inten- va ments (Rowland) in Vacuo
ave- if ave- sit sit
length | if length 5 7 | 1
| (Rowland) Chi (Row- Cl ee | ne | cei
2 lead) (lb): |x aes ened
(a) racter racter | racter |
385883 | 2 | | 107} 7-3} 259073
5-738] 23 aa | 1-06) » 28-1
55000; 4b | rate ee 33-0
54-21 In | PhS Ae 38-4
53°63 | In / ae 42:3
51751; In 51°8 In | eee 54 9ax
51531! 8s 51°536| 8s > bY 4 :- 56-4a
61:165/10s | 51:172| 103 | f Bal as 58-8a
49-299] 2s | Fe leas 715
48:°034| 2s a 80:0
45'825| 8s 45°83 8s | | | >. es 94-9a,
45°545| 8s 45°56 BS) bx = 5 96°S8a
43-390| 5s | 43:398| 63 | yl | 6011-40
38:482| 3s + AS 44°7
36°658| 2s . . 57-0)
33°502| 8s 33°510| 6b | bY Ss 78 5a |-
30/962} Qn | | em | 95:8
29°550} 2n | * ef 105-4
27802) 5 | ay 33 174
21°850; 12 | oR, ' 58:0
20-404} 5 | 4 5 68-0
18°577| 3 | » | os 80°4
FO:215 > 2b | 1:05 | 7:4 237'9
(9697| 4 | ee 41-4
05°384] 6 | a 7 71:2
OO 7705)" i Fe baa 307'7
3798-991 5br \ | ” ” 15-4
87-262) In | He iban 96:9
81378| 65s ae 438-0
74:324| 4 r 104) ,, 87-4
73°813| 2 3) ol) 9s 91:0
69°187| 1s = 75 523-4
68 228) 3s | . Se 30°2
67647) 4s if a A 34:2
50°7102/ 5s 8 is “| 658°5
48594] 2s br +5 * 69°2
} 43-206; 1 5 ’ T7075
26688} 3s |} b | 31:03| 7:6 825°9
25'912| 33 | 5 . a 315
22°4 la | s , 57
20-4 In é Ai ral
O74 In | & p 965
05°5 yn | t eh 979.
3689°2 In | 102] ,, | 27099
836 Tn | 5 a3 140
82:1 Ine) 4 Pe 61
73:9 In | » fom 211
(HST = oe sahara | - x 54
63948) 2s | | . eT; &5°3
| 59:913| 25 | oo tie 3151
58499! 33s | at Jee 25°9 |

‘ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 2

CHLORINE (VACUUM-TUBE)—continued.

(>>)
ee

| Pres-
Pressure Pressure jsure 70 Reduction
10 to 20 mm. 30 to 40 mm. | to 100 to Vacuum
TER Oscillation |
—___—_ | _—_—_—_—_—_;-_—__| Previous Measure- Frequency
18 Tinfen:| Wave- Inten-|Inten-| ments (Rowland) in Vacuo
; = | sity fer eihs sity | sity | 1
(Rowla nd) | and (Row- and | and | oo ea er
Cha- | | Cha- | Cha- |
(a) | racter land) (b) | racter | racter |
3650-243| 43 | 1-01] 7:7| 27387°8
24:3 cae | | a - 634
22:7 =o) 1} ” 78 96
139 zo . Be i 663
eae een a baste Maas
3577 2 1 | + TY 954-7
68°08 3b | ” ” 28018°4
22-04 3 rr 8-0 | 3846
09:09 4 Pe 8-1) 489°3
3479°82 | 1 ws |» 729-0
3353 45 5s | ” 85} 29811°5
33-74 | Qs e sb e 987°8 |
29-14 5b | . » | 30029°3
16°83 4 A 86 1407
0790 | ib P|? elega
; H ' Ps of 222-1
O06 44 3b PA is 35-4
} 327679 In | | * Py 5098
' } if
. Mo.LyBpENum.
Exner and Haschek: ‘Sitzber. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ civ. 1895,
ev. 1896.
| Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity | Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and aeet wat ; Frequency
Spectrum Character | x iB in Vacuo
| re
5060 0 In | 1:35 54 19757
005 lb | is 5D 992
4979-0 Jo 1-36 A 20079
64:0 Jn | - . 139
57-5 In Fe | a “ 66
50°5 In | 133 7% 94
41-4 In | 56 232
33°0 In ” ” 66 i
26-2 1 eee ” 4 .
ion = 1°34 is 365 |
ri n f Ti |
03-5 In 3 i He
sen i ‘s - | 459 t
aby n Ps Aj 67 f
780 | In 133 a | 95
G7 $ 4 a me | 5358
0:0 In | é 57 70
581 dn | 78

to
ior)
lo

REPORT—1899.

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

| Reduction to
|

Wave-length Intensity Vacwan Oscillation

Spark and j ae Frequency

Spectrum | Character ae Lee in Vacuo

| 4853-5 | 2n Rasen | 7. | 20598
| 44°8 In 5 5 635

43°7 In a 3 40

39:2 in 1:32

337 1 82

32°5 Jn

3BO'4 . 4 96
TS

733

| ” ”

| 19-0 4 i - 745
109 2 - = 80
{ 078 In ” ” 94

05°5 In 5, # 804

as In 131 i it
4798-0 In ‘5 » 36
| 96:3 1 i | a 44
le 1 ot ei ieee 57

70-5

88:0 In 3 | i 80
| 865 In ” | ” 86
! 85 0 a z 93
82:8 E 58 902

76:0

ll all ell ell el oe

5
%

ox
er

69-3
63:3.
61:8
59-9,
5-0
50-2
443
42-3 {

40-0
352
23:0
31-3
304
29-0
28-2
250 -
23-0:
18:8
178
16°8
14:3
12°7
08-2
07:3
06-1
003

46991 |
96-0
93°9
909
90-1

“a
lo

re

Lei ie Pat aly et bth
3
~
S)
ro)

65
—
w

SE AS a OSE

ee Oo ell el ll el el oe
to
=)
7

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave length
Spark
Spectrum

4689°4
88:2
87:3
858
83°8
81:8
80°6
(3'F
71:8
67'°3
62:9
61:7
60°8
599
57:7
56:3
53°2
§2'5
50'S »
AT'S
38:1
3671
35:0
34:4
33:2
27:9
26-7
23°8
DBE
22:7
21:3
21:0
20°6
19°65
181
166
14-7
13-4
12:9
11-4
10:8
101
09°1
046
03°8
4599°3
98:5
98-1
95:3
93-7
92°3
88°3
87:5
87:0
86'8

MOLYBDENUM— continued.

| Reduction to
Vacuum

Intensity Oscillation
and ;: ra = Frequency

Character | | 1 in Vacuo

A+ =
A

1 | eB A) Bah | 21319
2 | ” | ” | 24
1 ” H ” | 28
1 » | %9 35
1 = . 44
1 be) ” 53
1b | ay | ro 59
1 } ” { ” | 90
2 | ” | ”» | 99
In *5 | or { 420
3 i | 2 40
1 | ” | ” | 45
1 “i H a { 50
1W fe 5 | 54
1 | ” ” 64
1 pe pe 70
1 1:27 ; a 85
1 ” | ” 88
1 | ” | ” | 96
1 es Se 510
2 | = | 5 55
1 ” ” | 6
1 a { 6:0 | 69
1 ” | ? | 72
1 oH | 5 i
1 3 : an | 602
2 6 | Fs | 08
1 ” | ” | 21
1 5 } ss | 24
1 ” 3 26
1 ” ” 33 ‘
In ay a 34
In 3 ag 36
In ” ” 41
1 5 a 48
1 1:26 99 55
1 ” 9 64
1 ” ” 70
In ” ” 72
In a oH 79
In 5 ee 82
4 is 4 $5
In ” ” 90
1 ” ” 711
1 »” ” | 15
1 ” ” | 36
1 ” ” ) 40
1 ” ” 42
2 ” ” | 55
1 ” ” ! 63
1 95 phe | 70
1 *5 z | 89
In ” | ” | 92
1 Lied be 95
1 ” | ” | 96

264

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

4586'3
84-5
82:7
811
80:1
790
78:2
768
76:2
75°6
74:8
70°2
69-2
67:9
66:1
64:9
60°4
60°1
58:9
58°3
53°5
495
48:1
46°4
43'8
41°8
41:0
38°8
371
36'1
35°6
35:1
34:8
313
29°6
28°8
26:7
258
24:5
23:9
22°65
21-2
198
186
17:2
166
155
146
12°5
11-4
088
06°9
0671
05°5
03 8

REPORT—1899.

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

Reduction to
Vacuum

Intensity Oscillation
and + . Frequency
Character ins in Vacuo
A+ x .
1 1:26 | 60 21798
in os ms 807
1 ” yy 15
l e | a 23
1 1-25 | i 28
1 7 A 33
1 = " 37
2 ” ” 43
In ” ” 46
1 ” ” 49
1 ” 9 53
1 o » 70
1 7 ” 80
1 » ” 86
1 - = 94
1 ~ 61 900
1 ” ” 22
1 . x 23
1 5 4 29
1 HA : 32
6 ” ” 55
1b ” ” 74
In ” ” 81
1b i : 89
1 ” ” 92
1 1:24 B 22012
Jn ” ” 15
1 ” ” 26
4 ” ” a4
2 eo a: 39
1 ‘ i 42
1 : 44
4 s - 46
1 ” ” 62
If o” ” 71
1 3 on 75
1 oe + 85
1 bs - 89
2 ” ” 96
1 “5 5; 99
1 He F 106
In Pe 3, 12
1 a # 19
In ” ” 25
9 is 4 3L
1 x ss 34
1 3 .; 40
1 : * 44
2 ” ” 55
1 i x 60
In ” ” 73
1 7 4 82
2 5 7 86
1 1-23 ¥ 89
1 # » 97

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

MoLYBDENUM—continued,

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

4501-5
007
4499°8
98-5
94-7
94:2
95°8
9L9
916
90°6
89°6
892
87:3
85-3
84-4
817
791
739
749
73°5
723
720
68:5
678
65°6
65:2
64:2
62:1
60°8
58°8
5TT
56°3
56'S
543
52:9
52:3
50:1
49°3

Intensity
and
Character

WI SRR eRe Ne eee ee

P

*
>

SS pie ee ee ee eb

re ts}
Oo @

Nee REP RW RR RL eS
be A
o

-
2

to

Reduction
Vacuum
A+ =
1:23 61
” ”
” ”
” ”

Ney

” cad
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” Lhd
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ba)
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
1:22 5
” ”
” ”
” ”
AJ ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
ye ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” Lad
” ”

;

” ”
” ”
” yw
” ”
” ge

1-21 3
” ”

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

22209
13
17
23

265

REPORT—1899.

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

4423°2
22:4
21-0
15:3
131
12°5
11°9
10-2
09°7
078

Reduction to

Intensity Vacuum
and

Character 1

At a

In 31° | 63
In ” | ”
In 2 | ”
9 |
pad ” | ”
2 ” / ”
2 37 j ”
6 ” | ”
it J ”
J ” ”
2 ” ”
1 ” i ”
in ” ”
2n Fe a 5
In ” | ”
1 ” | ”
40 ” %
1 ” | ”>
1 ” ”
uv ” | ”
1 ” ”?
2 ” | ”
2 ” | bh
2 ” | ”
1 1;20 | 9
1 » | ”
2 ” »
1 ” | ”
1 ” | ”
1 ” | 9?
1 » ”
1 ” { ”
1 ” | ”
1 ” j ”
1 ” | ”
1 ” | >
1 Fe ” ”
1 $9 ”
1 ” 33
4 2 | ”
1 tb) ”
2 ” ”
1 ” | 9
1 ” ”
6 ” ”
2 ” | ”
2 ” ' bby
1 ” i 7°
1 ” } 2”
1 ” | ”
1 ” | ”
2 ” ”
ln 3 i 6-4
In ” ”
8
i

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

- a eee

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 267

MoLyBDENUM —continucd,

Reduction to
Wave-length | Intensity Vacomm pap
Spark ) and r requency
Spectrum | Character A+ lw: in Vacuo
matt 2:

4359°8 1 1:20 64 22930
58:3 6 x + 38
561 ik 119 ae * 50
554 1 e - 54
53°4 a 3 z 64
51°6 In } ” ” 74
50-4 2 0 5 80
44:9 1 | a ‘3 23009
416 2 | * = 27
40°9 1 | on “4 30
40:0 1 | ; . 35
39°4 1 =p a | 38
38°8 1 3 _ 41
368 1W? oh BS 52
35°3 2W? » 29 60
34:9 i 1 5 - 62
33-4 1 3 ie 70
32°7 1 5 om 74
29°9 1 or ce 89
29°6 1 = os 90
28°3 1 3 eo 97
271 2 3 “ 104
26°3 H 4 as $5 08
261 1 ” ” 09
25°6 1 a A: 12
24-7 In sf 3 17
23°6 1: 3 a 22
18:7 1 1:18 & 49
18:1 2 id 4 52
17-4 i 34 Fi 56
15-4 1 i a 66
13:7 In a | 76
13:0 1 . i 719
126 | 1 | 3 f 81
11:8 4 ; a 86
11:2 4 3 i 89
10°6 1 .» he 92
08:9 1 ” 65 201
05:1 eg eee ‘ 22
04:2 1 | » ” { 27
02:8 1 oe i H 34
02:2 1W =. e 37
O15 1 i ¥ 41
00:9 In a | be 44

4299-4 1 i 5 Z 53
99:2 1 lanes 4 Bd
98-2 In | 5 B 59
97:7 In | ; A) 62
96:8 1 i * A 67
96-4 1 | : _ 69
94°9 2 | 3 i 77
94:2 2W 1 i i 81
93:4 4 rn is 85
92-4 2 » ” 92

268

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

4291-9
91-4

90°4 -

89-9
89°7
88:9
87:2
83°9
84-9
82:0
80-7
80-2
79:2
775
772
76:4
75°8
746
73°4
T24
72:0
71:2
69-4
68-2
66°8
66-4
65-2
64:8
63°6
62:6
616
611
60°8
60°
59°5
58°9
58-0
56:9
55:2
54°6
53°6
52°6
52°1
50°6
467
46:2
44:9
43 2
409
40°4
403
39:2
38°5
B74
35°1

REPORT—1899.

MOoLYEDENUM—continued.

Reduction to
Vacuum

|
Intensity | Oscillation
and | Frequency
Character | = ay ts in Vacuo
| a
cilia ede 8 3 Ii a
1 | 1:18 65 23293
1 ” i 96
1 ” ae 301
| 1 | ’ Fy O04
1 | + a 05
4 ” Fr 10
1 ” . 19
1 ” ” 26
1 ” Bs 31
al s se 47
1 117 - 54
1 ” a 57
6 ‘es c 62
6 ” ” 72
| 6 ” ” 7s
1 ” 3 | 78
1 £ sé 81
| 2 | ” Me 87
i ” ” | 94
| 1 sp a 99
1 ” “5 402
1 ” a2 06
{ 2 W ” ” 16
I . e 23
| 1 a 30
| 1 és 4 32
1 ees 2 39
] ” e 41
In ‘> . 48
| In | iF * 53
) ] ” ” if 59
| \ ” ” 62
1 5) = 63
i Te ” ” 65
In “A és 70
In ” + 74
In we a 79
1 ” ” 85
2 ” as 94
| 1 ay - 97 |
| In Pe 6-6 503
| In es es 08
2 “0 " 11
6 Fe s i: 19
J ” | ” 41
1 a8 a 44
4 - 51
2 1-16 60
1 ” ” 73
1 1 | 33 16
| L ” | ” Tete |
In ” ” 83
In id ¥ 87 |
In Y if 93
1 3) See 606 |

See eee ee

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 269

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

4233°6
32:7
269
251
24-1
23:1
22°6
211

paw wne <

AWA

toto or DH

on

CLE

MoLyBDENUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

Reduction to

Q
)

=]

Reet cya inet teeter ot py eal ae hg gna ne

*
~

Fe at ages inc ena es era be atte FB
i=]

mee tees

Vacuum
1
proses ze
A+ | x
1:16 66
” >
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 29
” 39
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 99
” )
ba) ”
115 os
” | :
> | ”
” ”
”» =f
he 67
” ”
” ”
” ,
” ”
” | ?
rr } ”
, } ”
” ”
” ”
” | ”
” | ”
> | ”
” | ”
” | ”
” } ”
” t ”
” ”
” | ”
114 | ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 9
” ”
” ”
>» } ”
” | »

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

270 REPORT—1899,

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

| Reduction to |
Wave-length | Intensity Vaeuum | Oscillation
Spark and nl Frequency
Spectrum | Character es md | in Vacuo
a

41510 ln 1-14 7 | 24084
49-2 2 | “5 94
AT‘1 2 > 638 106
46°3 2 9 » 11
439 6 ; » 25
41°6 2 as 2 38
40:0 2 ” ” 48
38°8 In ” ” 55
38-0 1 a a 59
37-0 1 ec ; 65
35°7 1 | 5 + 73
33:1 In } a = 8s
32°4 1 : "9 F, 92
32-2 1 Were: : 93
311 In 43 a 200
30-4 In fe es 04
29:0 1 : 4 12
28°4 1 cs x 16
28°2 H 1 es 5 17
27:5 ln 4 > 21
26-7 1 ; 5 26
26:5 1 5 5s 27
25°7 / l $ a 31
24-8 / 1 ss 4 37
23-7 | 1 : ‘ 3
22-4 4 é ; 51
203 | 4 4 ; 3
199 4 e 66
19-1 | 2 | " | + 70
18:7 | 1 / , iy H 73
16-9 1 if ‘. $3
161 1 i j 88
15-2 | 1 i ae ‘ 94
146 In c 97
14-2 In Be 5 99
11-9 1 - i, 313
10°9 1 as . 19
10-4 In 33 + 22
08:9 1 ” ” 31
07-5 4 E i 39
05-7 } 1 | of * 50
03-5 1 ‘ ‘ 63
03-1 1 cr ie ¢ Ga
02:8 1 W iy EA 67
0271 2 | s Fa 7
00-4 1 | a a 81

4098-9 1 i 69 | 90
98-4 2n 3 ; | 93
97-0 | 1 ee | A401
95°7 il x a 09
94-9 1 a | ’ 14
94:5 1 y ae | 16
92-9 1 112-4] 4 | 26
es 1b 5 = 36
88-9 ln \. i 50

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 271

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

Reduction to |
Wave-length ea Vac Oscillation
Spark an F Frequency
Spectrum Character | _ 1 in Vacuo
+ Ac
4087°3 1 114 6-9 24459
86:2 1 3 bi 66 |
84:5 4 - is 76 |
81-7 4 ” ” 93 |
81:3 1 of | 55 | 95
779 1 3 “5 515
76°23 1 H ” 9 25
757 1 % Bs 29
755 1 33 | “F | 30
74:5 2W a a 36
71:9 2 ” ” 52
67:9 1 ” ” 76
612 In 4 hae 80
64 1 ” ” 85
64:8 if fr | ” 95
64:6 1 py | oy 96
63'8 1 ” ” 601
62°3 4 ” ” 10
598 1 i bs 25
58°7 1 a hg 31
576 2 “5 ” 38
56-4 1 LP eas :s 45
560 2 | f 48
51-4 1 (a) eg alesT! 70 | 76 }
50:2 1 es ck 83
49°8 1 i % 86
476 In sf Mr 99
46-9 ] 1 in Vile laden © Be) 703
46°8 1 or , | 04
a8 1 Fe ae ie 10
45-6 1 si | * 11
43°7 1 a Be | 23
42:9 1 . ms | 28
41-2 1b i f, 38
38-9 1 eA 52
38:2 1 FA 3 56
a? l ” koe 58
36°6 1 ” / ” 66 |
35°7 2n . i, 72
23°6 1 3 | °; 85
32-5 In reo eee S 92
31-4 In 2 is 98
30°9 In - 4, sol
28-7 In es A 15
27-7 In y | 21
27-0 In di 39 | 25
26:0 In zh o 32
258 1 elites ts 34
24-2 i Sera Uses Ti 43
23-6 1 ms , 46
20:9 1 i ei 63
20:5 J : :, 66
17-8 1 > i 82
17-3 ) 1 He tees 85
161 In zy | Z, 93

ae REPORT—1899.

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

{ Reduction to |
Wave-length teeny Vacuum Oscillation
| Ss ark anc aaa gest es Sa) ae | requenc
| Bpedirom Character | Ka | pS in Tee
j | rv |
!
4015-2 1 LOR Me eo"! | 24898
14-4 1 , bs 903
13:2 2 ; ; 11
| 119 Jn Cee bs 19
! 10°3 1 by 55 29
09°4 1 " x 34
08:7 CW), os 39
08:0 1 » ” 43
06°8 | 1 a 51
06°5 1 | s | . 52
| 060 1 E: | 5G
| 05-0 1 (Fe) " f 62
i 02°9 1 A | ra | 15
1 00°5 1 = i ; a9)
' 00-0 1 4 ; 93
3998-6 1 id ; 25002
984 1 =f t . 03
94-0 1 ap 31
93:1 1 ze 36
. 91°8 1 df Wath, So 44
91:4 1 ~ \ AT
90°9 2 » ; 50
89°9 ] 3 56
89°5 Ja e | 59
8671 4 nd | , 80
i 82°6 In % 102
82:1 In e : 05
: 81°6 i! i _ ; 08
| 80:8 1 ts | a 14
804 1 oa 16
79-4 | 1 ee ee ey: 29
V9 1 iy | 5 39
| 76:4 } } i é | 4)
74:8 i i 1-09 va 51
738 4 a , 5S
73-4 | 4 = = | 60
i 730 | In i se 63
| Ts5 | In ie | 72
| 7h In Se | "5
| 68:6 j 8 Ca te o4
67:9 | I 3 4 95
eM ee a2 oh "
| 64-1 1 a ae 19
ae ‘ BoC) | ae 22
62:9 2 ¥ A 27
61-4 10 a | 4 36
6071 In _ i i 45
98'5 | 1 + | ; 5S
. 556 I Es aay fe 73
540 I i | ‘ $4
52°9 2 a 91
| 51-0 1 e > 302
48°7 1 - s 8
AT 4 a4 | 95 \ 26

MOLYBDENUM—continued. —

| Reduction to |
: * Vacuum ia |
i a a |
ar’ Sreqt
Specuec Character ane t= | ; in Vacuo |
39471 a pie 1:09 7:2 | = |
47-0 1 ke 7 20 |
45:3 | Li ii fs 39 |
45°1 1 _ As a |
44°] 2 a rd ai
436 1 A a oi
43:1 2 A: pe ue
42°9 4 Pe 3 |
pee 6 3 een a |
: 38°7 t 7 ” 53
37°6 n - ¢
368 1 1:08 é a
35'1 1 i ” ’ ae
35:0 2 | oy) op Z
BENE 8 (W) | of 3 Ue
31-4 1 ” ” 2
30-9 i i % =
30°4 | 1 ” 0 oO
29°7 1 i 3 40
28'S 1 “p 3 46
CHR ib ” ” a
271 1 ” ” a
264 In of 34 61
25°9 2 ” ? 65
{ 258 1 0 7 ( 65
‘ 23-7 1 ” ” 79
© 223 1 . 33 88
216 1 ” 0» 93
21-0 1 = 55 ea
¥ 20°3 in ” ” 50
. 17-9 1 2 ” aly,
176 1 ” » 19
* ingeat A ” ” oa,
165 1 ” ” 26
“ 15-4 4 ” ” 33
13-7 i 2 ” 44
>. itt 1 3 = 61
101 1 5 - as
5 1 ” ” a
O86 2 » 73 77
06°8 ll ” 37 89
06-4 1 Pe 92
05°5 1 “ fe 98
04-9 = 2n ” ” 601
03-0 1 : = 14
O19 2 3 2 21
3897-9 1 2 47
96:9 1 1:07 a 54.
96°5 I fi 57
D4] 1 : 9 73
940 1 e 73
93°5 1 “ qT
92°4 1 as A 4
92-0 } 4 1 ” 2 86
91-4 1 - - 90
1899.

SI

oe

REPORT—1899.

MOLYBDENUM— continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark / and Frequency
Spectrum Character ih in Vacuo
A+ a
3891°2 1 1:07 3 25692
90°7 1 3 = 95
90°6 1 on - 96
89:0 1 5) Fs 706
83-4 In ” » 10
881 1 $ i 12
878 1 a - 14
87-1 1 o re 19
85°7 In - “ 28
83°5 1 = 43
83°4 1 ” ” 43
83:0 1 a _ 46
82-4 2 9 ” 50
815 | 1 ‘ A 56
80°1 if + ‘ 65
79°8 1 ” ” 67
791 1 s s 72
78:7 1 = i 74
76°9 1 e a 86
7574 1 ES ‘ 96
13° 1 as 810
72:1 1 + = 18
71-6 2 . ps 22
69-2 2 2 38
68-0 1 ¥! i 46
678 1 af "4 47
66-9 1 ‘ : 53
65:7 1 =" & 61
642 10 oe Me 71
62:7 1 ad ie 81
615 2 = = 89
60-0 1 3 >» 9
58-9 1 fe i. 907
58-4 1 ” ” 10
56-7 In 1:06 rt 22
561 In - S 26
550 1 a | 3
54:8 1 > 4 34
53°6 il 5 <i 42
53-4 1 ” 93 44
52°8 1 ss % 48
52:2 1 A > 52
516 1 ¥ - 56
50°9 1 * o 61
49°9 1 ” 9 67
48°5 2 *8 y; 77
47-4 2 o oA 84
46°3 1 = * 92
4671 | 1 a 93
44:2 1 = - 26006
43:2 1 5 a 13
428 1 - a 15
42-1 iin = a 20
40-6 ib | A x 30
40-0 In | 34

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

3839:7
391
38:8
37-4
354
35-1
34:7
343
33-9
33:7
3255
32:3
321

- 311

31-0
301
30:0
28-9
28-5
28-4
28-0
27°3
26:8
26-0
255
25:0
24-6
23-7
23-1
23-0
225
22:0
21:8
19:3
19:2
18-7
18-4
181
175
172
16-7
15-9
15:3
152
146
14-0
125
123
12-0
115
11-0
10-2
09-9
09:3
08:8

Wayve-length
Spark
Spectrum

Intensity
and
Character

MOLYBDENUM —continued.

Reduction to

Vacuum

.

CN ce cl el So oD ee cee oe Ce Cr ee er ee ry

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

276 REPORT—1899.
MoLYBDENUM—continued.
Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity =| Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and i 7 Frequency
Spectrum Character ao Ss in Vacuo
A
3807°8 in 1:05 74 26255
O71 il a 4 59
06:9 1 a os 61
06°1 1 e . 66
05°5 In By « 70
04:6 1 Fy +5 77
03° 1 iS he. ; 84
02°5 1 . 7 91
02:2 | 1 _ a 93
01:8 2 ! = 96
O11 a a < 301
00-4 1n | Pe ss 06
3798°3 10 | 3 * 20
| 97°4 1 . 7 26
97:2 i | 35 + 28
96°7 2 | By eS 29
96:2 1 = “3 35
95-7 1 As 3 38
95°4 1 | on 5 40
951 il | 55 + 42
94:5 1 | - 3 AT
93°8 1 4 a 51
92°3 1 | a as 62
92°71 1 5 is 63
91°8 1 a ss 65
915 1 ” 9 67
90°5 In | a e 74
88-4 2 R. Ms 89
88:0 1 | “A s 92
87:4 if | he ts 96
86°6 | 4 | * i 402
85:7 i 3 s 0s
85:3 1 b = li
83°3 4 se 25
| 82:2 | 4 - | es 32
81:8 2 ¥ x4 35
814 1 3 3 38
8h1 1 } AS > 40
81:0 | i . a a 41
798 2 | = . 49
78:1 1 i i 5 61
178 1 a 5 63
770 1 1:04 = 69
768 | il a 5 70
76:3 1 ss A 74
758 1 a 35 TG
748 1 5 ” 84
739 1 ne a 90
732 1 55 103 96
72:2 2 . : ‘ 502
71-7 | 1 a a 06
70-7 / 2 ” / ” 13
70:2 / 1 | Ag of 16
69°3 1 a is BEN
68°8 1 26

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

Wave-length
. Spark
Spectrum

3768-0
67-4
66°5
65:9
65°5
65°3
64:7
64-2
641
63-1
62-4
62:1
61-4
61-0

— 60-9
60:3
59:5*
58-7
58:3
57-0
56-5
55:6
55-4
54-9
54-0
53-9
53:5
52:3
51-7
51-1
50-4
48-6
48-2
47-6
47-3
47-2
46-5
46-0
45-6
45-5
45-0
44-5
43-9
43-5
43-1
42-4
41:9
39-0
37-9
37-2
36-5
36°3
361

Reduction to

Intensity cf Vacum®
and ro ‘i.

Character | ee lod,

| A
ae tes =

2 | 1-04 T5
1 ” »”
1 s9 ”
1 oh] ”
1 ”? ”
1 bid ”
1 ” ”
l! ” ”
1 ” ”
1 ”? ”
Z ” ”
2 %? ”
1 ” ”
1 7 ”
1 ” 7
1 ” ”
1 7 ”
2 ” ”
2 ”? ”
L » ”
1 7 ”
4 ” ”
1 ” | ”
2 ” | ”
1 ” ”»
: ” ”
Sy ” ”»
1 ” ”
1 ” ”
2 ” ”
1 7? 39
2 ” 9
— ” | nr
L ” ”
L ” ”
1 ” Lh
2 ”? ”
1 : ” ”
L ” ”
1 ” ”
1 ” ”
4 ”? 9
1 bi) ”
1 ” ”
1 ” ”
6 ” i ”
1 iB] | ”
1 ~ j ”
1 1:03 | PA
2 ” vw
2 ” ?
2 ” ”
1 ’ *

*Double.

Oscillation

Frequency

in Vacuo

9

“=

77

26532
36

278

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

REPORT—1899.

MoLYBDENUM—continuced.

Intensity
and
Character

37358
34:8
34-4
34:0
39 5
33:1
32°8

25°7

tom hw by to

bo 09 GS CO He Oe
we Coe OO Oe

ee ol er eee ee i ee ee en eee
56

f=]

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 279

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

Intensity
and
Character

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

3698-7
97-8
975
97'1
96-0
95°
94-6
93°8
92:7
92-2
91-7
90:7
90°5
90-0
89-0
88:3
87:6
87-1
86-7
86:1
85°8
85:2
84:3
83:1
82:7
81-6
80°6
80-4
80:1
79-4
79:2
78°8
78:1
779
76:4
75:5
73-9
721
7-9
709
70:7
706
70-0
$69°5
68-5
68-4
681
67°8
67°5
67-0
66:7
65°8
65-0

_
Cel etl eel ell eel ce el ce ce ee om ee

5B

seg cel Maal aa ell 3 al wall

+ Coincident with an iron line of the comparison spectrum.

280 REPORT—1899.

MOLYBDENUM—continucd.

j— a —— —— = = —

: Reduction to
Wine len eth Intensity Vacuum | Oscillation
Ne ae 7 and a Sa = Frequency
Ss Spar : | Character | 1 | in Vacuo
pectrum Fyte at
A

36645 | 1 1:02 Ot 27281
641 1 k. - 84
63°8 / 1 5; 86
63-4 1 ” » 89
63-0 1 0» ¥8 92
623 1 3 - 98
618 1 * i 301
611 1 ” ” | 06
59°6 2 "9 : 18
590 4 . | +5 22
58-4 4 a | 4 27
ATD 5(W) 101 =| a 33
56-2 1 ‘ : 43
559 | 1 mA x 45
551 1 ” ” 51
546 1 : : BS
54-4 1 ” ” 57
539 1 °, p 60
SBe7l 1 3‘, a 62
52:5 6 ; : 71
51:3 6 e ~ 80
50:2 2 Bs . 8s
49°6 1 4 a3 93
48-6 1 - ‘ | 400
48-0 1 Mies ia | 05
F476 1 < x | 08
47-1 1 a Pes ey
47-0 1 ne =n | 12
46°3 In (W) ‘ R= 17
45:9 1 e . Bs 20
43-7 2 ‘ 5 37
431 1 As ; 41
42°9 1 2 ps 43
416 1 pe, 53
41:2 1 * | os 56
40°8 1 _ a 59
40°5 1 a i 61
39°9 2 ” 29 66
38°5 1 i T38 76

38°3 1 ” ” 7
379 1 o <, 81
377 1 ” ” 82
36:8 1 : fo sy
35-4 2 Z » 99
35'2 1 : o 501
B45 1 & * 06
33:5 2 a < 14
31-6 1 é : 28
4313 1 2 31
295 1 ” " 44
288 1 - ‘ 50
28°6 | 1 a “i 51
27.5 2 “4 i 59

¢ Coincident with an iron line of the comparison spectrum.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length
Spark
| Spectrum

Intensity

Character

3626-4
25°8
24-7
23:9
23-4
23:1
22°6
20°4
19°6
19-0
18:6
177
17:0
16°9
16°2
15°9
15:3
14:9
14°4
13°8

and

SSE |

ee
BE

OB

Ean eames SAG eee esa ag nr ae, Pens Fe RNS FAG Ft Ft feta td BFS PRD I

MoLyYBDENUM—continued.

281

Reduction to

Vacuum Oscillation

Frequency
in Vacuo

282

REPORT—1899.

MoLYBDENUM—continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Tey Vacuum Oslin

ark an a 7 aS ‘requency

ereean Character | mae mye in Vacuo

r
35923 1(W) 1:00 138) 27829
92°0 L ” 2» 32
SUCE 2 on is 34
916 1 % a 35
90°8 2 EX i 41
90-1 2 4 ‘3 46
89-4 2 - if 52
89-0 1 f t, 55
88:1 1 4 &, 62
86°8 1 is . 72
85-9 2 i 4 79
85°6 4 i a 81
84-2 1 Ps a 92
831 1 ‘5 ‘ 901
82:7 uu > = oO4
82°5 1 x P 06
81:9 1 . i 10
813 1 ‘ = 15
80°7 1 a a 20
80:3 1 * s 23
79-0 1 a ae 33
175 1 gag. 4). ©." AB
77-0 1 a | ae 48
762 1 ” ” 55
15-7 1 4 - 59
745 1 Ber lee ot: 68
741 1 @ ‘ 71
73°8 J ” ” 74
72°5 1 CW) ” ” 84
713 1 aed . aes 93
70°7 2 ee 98
70°1 1 # i 28003
69°6 1 i : 06
68:7 1 ‘ . 14
68'1 In 3 % 18
67-1 1 % is 26
66'8 i 3 e 28
66°3 1 % = 32
66-0 1 re ps 35
65-4 1 . * 39
64:5 1 . . 47
643 1 :. i, 48
63-9 1 5 < 51
63:2 2 ” ” 57
62:1 1 f » 65

619 1 d es 67
613 2 . 4 72
60°0 1 is “ 82
59:7 1 » ” 84
59°2 1 ” ” 88
58°8 1 “! ; 91
58°6 1 fi i 93
581 2 ” ” 97
57-0 2 31 106
56:3 2 11

i ee Ae

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

MoLyBDENUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

Reduction to

Vacuum

9

8

9
oP

Oscillaticn
Frequency
in Vacuo

3555 5
54:2
53°8
53°2
52-7
52°5
521
51:5
51-0
49:1
48°8
48:0
475
AT ‘1
45:9
43°8
43:3
42-4
4271
41-1
40°8
40-4
39°6
38:9
3T 1
36°65
35-2
347
33:1
32°5
315
313
309
29°8
29°5
28°8
28:0
266
26°4
26:0
24-9
24°6
24-0
22°5
22-2
216
20°2
19:8
18-6
183
175
167
158
15-1
14-9

eee)

5

en oe

ft RD RD Bb at at et 80S RS et tt BS BO tt BB

28118

28

284 REPORT—1899.

MOLY BDENUM—continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity | oes . Oscillation
Spark and 1S Aci een RE gl! Frequency
Spectrum | = (Character ~ |) aye ‘ad in Vacuo
A

3513'8 1 | . 0:98 8-0 28451
cai) 1 5 » 57
11°8 In a + 67
108 1 a = 76
10:2 1 a 81 80
10-0 1 ” ” 82
09°3 1 ” ” 88
08°5 1 Ag 7 94
O81 2 ” ” 97
07:3 1 Pa a 504
06:6 1 Ae a 10
05-4 2 o ; 19
O45 2 - nd 27
02°7 1 B “5 39
01:9 4 . - 48
01:0 1 A 4 55
00:0 2 = a 63
3499-0 2 0:97 (ll
98-4 i a is 76
981 1 9 ‘4 79
97-1 1 5 A 87
96°8 1 - 45 89
95:1. In a = 603
94:3 1 a rd 10
93°4 if Ps 5 17
92:0 1 = 29
91:3 In aS 5 35
90°6 1 55 a 40
90-4 1 a : 42
§9°5 1 sf a 49
88:7 1 = Bs 56
88:2 2 ‘3 oH 60
87:9 2 S: ms 62
85°9 1 PA a 79
85'8 2 as n 80
84-4 2 ay i 91
83:9 1 ‘ “A 95
83°8 1 is 5 96
82°8 1 a i 704
82°5 In S ai 07
81:8 1 ” ” 13
811 In as + 18
80:2 1 a 7 26
79°5 in =n ES 32
176 In nf ty 47
756 1 “a fF 64
T5'1 2 ‘9 “5 68
74:8 In - 3 71
T41 In " fs 76
733 In BS oD 83
717 1 ” es 96
710 2 39 82 802
70'8 In a 9 04
69'7 1 oy a 13

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

MOLYBDENUM—continued.
Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity Vacuum
Spark and
Spectrum Character i Lt
A
3468°5 1 O97 | 8&2
68°3 1 i | i
68:0 2 : i
67:0 1] 2 .
66°8 i sf
66:3 1 ” ”
65°9 uJ ” | ”
65:8 5 | fe | -
65°0 In LE) ”
64:5 In & 2
63:9 1 oe .
63°7 1 ae 7
63:5 2 es ‘
62:2 2 ke vi
60°9 2 Ls .
60°3 1 Be a
60-1 1 i 4
58°9 1 0:96 z
58-2 il 4 b
57-7 il a :
575 1 a Ze
56°5 2 _ | .
56:3 2 f ) 3
55:9 1 nS if
56'5 iT ds | 4
55:2 1 ha | 2
54:3 1 & 4
53°5 1 ” | ”
53-0 2 ” ”
52°8 > - | 4
51°8 1 a E
50°9 i ce | a
506 at ¥ | 2
50:0 1 ae | 5
49-1 2p ‘ | 2
48°6 2 bs . .
48-1 u ” ”
471 2 a 4
461 4 a 4
455 2 a4 =
45-4 il ie .
45:2 i x 3
44:4 1n | i *
44:0 ln | $ a
43:3 14 / ss | id
42-7 1 | ” | ”
ane Spare YL ere
42-0 1 x fs
41°5 2 as 7
41:1 In os .
40°7 1 a is
40°6 i} A nw
40°2 ln at -s
39:9 if ds | ‘
39°6 1 |

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

28823

24

77
85
59
93
29002

286

REPORT—1899.

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

Wayve-length
Spark
Spectrum

Intensity
and
Character

|

|

Reduction to

Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

rT
i=)

~

i=]

Le Snel SO SO So Sl ell ll el ell eel ol el el el ol ol lel ee ee ere er

|
|

29069

* MOLYBDENUM—continued.

N WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation

Spar and Frequency

Spectrum Character A+ a in Vacuo

A
3400°3 1 0°95 $3 29401
3399°2 a rs a 10
98°3 2 oy i 18
97°9 1 i a 22
97-0 1 Bs SA 29
96°8 1 > “e 31
95°5 2 = 8-4 42
95-0 il 5 . 47
93°8 1 3 Ae 57
93:3 1 os a 61
93-1 1 nf » 3
92:0 4 ” ” 73
90°3 1 oH “A 88
89°8 1 A cf 92
88-9 In 5 et 500
88-0 I os ” 08
87°3 1 ” ” 14
87:2 1 rf a 155
86-4 1 of As PAL
86:0 1 3 aS 25
84:7 2 h = 36
84:0 2 Ap f 42
82:7 2 an O° 54
826 1 3 oy 55
82-0 1 53 if 60
80°5 4 ” ” 73
1379 4 ee ne 78
TST 1 3 Fe 89
784 1 ” ” OL
768 1 0-94 ne 605
1b: ay saa S 15
15:3 1 A os 19
75:0 1 + “5 21
74:8 1 ee “a 23
731 i Ap Be 38
728 1 » ” 41
718 2 yi FY 49
70-7 i i rs 59
701 1 =f fe OF
69'S mf %) ” 67
69°5 is o a 70
68-0 4 on BA 83
66:3 i 5 4 98
655 1 9 4 705
65-2 1 ” ” 08
63°9 2 ” » 19
63°8 1 cf Fy 2

63-0 2 co A 27
62°6 if a Pn 30
61:3 I fe — 42
60°3 2 - 85 51
58:5 ig > “ 67
58:3 2 ” 9 Gs
58°1 1 c . 70
67'1 1 an 73

287

REPORT—1899.

MOoLYBDENUM—continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity ib iSeias ae
Spark and erednens
Spectrum Character aA ok
a

wee 1 0-94 85 29792
a 1 % + 97
ae 8 1 2”? be) 808
ce 1 . 16
51:9 1 = A 25
ae 1 2”? bb 33
ote 1 ‘9 s 36
50°3 1 :, | i 40
ae 1 7 oo 47
a 2 ” ” 50
aM In ” bs 60
a3 2 ” ” 66
ae 1 ” ” 68
ae 4 ” ” 74
pas a ” A 17
aa 1 ”? ” 89
ae 2 (W) > i 908
as = be ” 15
wd 1 ” 3 16
a 1 ” ” 20
ey 1 » $3 26
40'2 1 ced ” 30
38°3 In 0:93 fs 47
oe In i > 58
: ai 1 ” ” 63
361 1 ” ” 67
pee } ; “ 72
cad 2 ” ” 76
339 1 7 ” 86
ae 2 ” ” 99
ae 1 ; ; 30013
30°8 2 4 i. 14
30°3 2 : a 19
$29°3 4 ;, fi 28
28°6 1 PB ‘ 34
Ze 1 ”» »” 39
27°3 2 : a 46
25°7 2 < - 60
25°3 1 4 Se 64
258 1 >: 8°6 68
24:0 1 es is 76
ae 2 2? ” 93
ad 6 : : 104
19°6 In 22 ” 16
18:2 1 ed | ” 28
175 1 2 | ” 35
ne 1 <1. as 38
16:8 1 2? ” 41
163 1 ” ” 45
14°5 1 ”? ” 62
Bose 4 70
12°9 4 ”? ” 76
10°8 1 ”? ” 96
10:1 1 ” ” 202
09-4 1 08

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 289

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3309°0
08°3
07-0
05°8
05°5
05-2
04°5
04:3
04:0
03°5
02°6
02°4
01-0
00-4
3299°5
98°8

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

PPADS: ROLE LA SIS a aaa eR tes

B

lo”

EPR RE EE DE RE DEP ee Heb DDE RW HE eee

5

=]

BO ROHR ttt

Reduction to

Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

30212
18
30
41
44
47
53
55

58

290

REPORT—1899,

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3267-7
66°9
66:3
65:2
64-7
64:5
64-1
63°3
62-7
62°5
62°2
60°6
59°8
59-1
59°0
58:7
58:3
5T'4
56:2
552
54:7
53°8
52°8
52°2
51:7
51-4
50°7
50'1
49°3
48:2
477
474
46°3
46:0
45'9
45:4
44-7
43'2
42°5
42-1
41:5
40'8
384
38:0
37:1
370
36:3
35°4
350
34°6
343
33'8
33°3
32°7
310

Intensity
and
Character

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

=]

Fart ie el al hs

B

Pepe

LL RE E RRLODO EE eto Ee

1]

i=]

Leber MSH ll a al a aa ae ao aga

30594
601
07
17
22
24
28
35
41
43
45
61
68
75
76
78
82
91
702
11
16
25
34
40
44
47
54
59
67
77
82

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMEN'S, 291

MOLYBDENUM—oontinued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation

Spark and lon Frequency

Spectrum Character nap Hike in Vacuo

A

32306 1 0:91 88 30945
30°1 1 3 3 50
29°6 4 Pe # 55
28:8 1 F 7 62
284 1 $9 Fy 66
27'5 1 cf, 3 75
27°3 1 5 » 77
26°6 af o 9 84
25'S 1 #3 43 91
25:3 1 5 PS 96
24:7 2 ‘5 3 31002
23°9 1 A 7 10
23'6 i | 35 Fy, 12
22°9 1 > - 19
22-4 1 iz F 24
21°8 1 ys F 30
21°4 I Fr F, Bes
21:0 1 0:90 FY 37
20:7 1 3 # 40
20:2 1 ” ” 45
19°4 1 » 4 53
19:0 1 ” ” 57
18°5 2n A Fy, 62
16:9 1 ( ” F 17
16:0 2 » 8-9 86
15:2 2 5 3 93
14:3 2 5 4 102
13-2 2 + 3 13
12°6 1 5 Pr 19
12:0 2 93 Fr 24
11:7 In rf Fr 27
11:0 2 3 # B4
10°5 2n re 8 39
09°8 2 3 # 46
09:0 2 9 3 538
07-4 In 3 ¥ 69
07:2 1 a " 71
06:8 1 ” ” 75
06:3 1 ” ” 80
05°9 1 ” ” 84
05°6 1 » ” 87
05:3 1 ” ” 89
049 2 ” ” 93
03°'8 1 i Pe 204
03°4 1 a 3 08
02:8 ] "a Fr 14
O21 In . il 21
01°6 2 ‘x as 25
$003 2. ” ” 38
3199°4 1 * it 47
* 98:9 1 +s s 52
98'5 2 i » 56
97°5 1 7 ” 66
972 1 ” ” 68
96°5 1 ” ” 75

C2

92

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

REPORT—1899.

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

Nee be bb

i=)

B

te e
aca pS a a a i a Pa)

=]

NRE Re

Reduction to
Vacuum ‘Oscillation
Frequency
1 in Vacuo
A+ x |
0:90 8-9 31281
” ” 88
» » 91
” » 99
5 ae 309
” 9 12
” ” 18
” ” 23
” ” 31
is s 45
” ” 58
” ” 63
” ” 74
” ” 82
” 83
” ” 86
5 “py 92
” ” 98
” ” 405
” ” 09
” » 13
0°89 + 18
” ” 25
= 9:0 29
» ” 39
» ” 43
” ” 47
” ” 51
” ” 57
” ” 65
” ”» 70
9 ” 74
” ” 80
” ” 85
” ” 94
”? ” 500
” ” 09
” ” 14
” ” Ly
” ” 23
” ” 34
” ” 38
” ” 40
” ” 50
” ” 53
” ” 58
” ”» 59
a + 66
” ” 75
» ” 81
9 ” 91
” ” 97
a 2 600
” ” 03
10

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

Lo
io)

9

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3161°8
614
602
592
58:9
58-2
57:3
56:9
55:7
55:2
54:7
54:0
528
52:3
517
50°6
50:3
49-0
48°5
48:0
AT4
46-1
45:7
45°3
44-7
44:5
44°1
43:2
41'8
413
40°8
40°3
39°9
39'3
38°7
38°4
373
37-1
36°5
359
35°7
34:8
34-4
338
32-6
31:3
30°5
30-2
28°6
27-9
26°8
26°4
26:0
25°7
24:9

Intensity
and
Character

NR PR Re PWN NDP Re

i=}

PERO ERO DODO RDO eR to ee et ee tt tO

Reduction to

Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

94

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

- REPORT—1899.

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

5 NRHN OWE

5

i=}

Ree RRP RE RP RP HEHE RNB HEHE bP NN EP NNN RP REE ENE NEN REN RPE NBER eee

Reduction to

Vacuum
1
At x
0°88 91
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
Lb) ”
” ”
” 2
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
si 9:2
” ”
” ”
3 ”
” | ”
” | ”
” | ”
ry) | ”
” ”
” | ”
” ”
” 2
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
0°87 +

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

32000
01
08
23
30
38
43
48
55

:

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 295

=

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

Reduction to
Waye-length Intensity Vacoun Oscillation
Spark and See Frequency
Spectrum Character A+ dh. in Vacuo
A |
3089°9 In 0:87 9:2 32354
89:7 1 ” o 56
89:2 1 9 rs 62
88'8 1 ” “ 66
83:2 1 ” i 72
87:7 6 ” ” 77
86°6 1 a 3 89
86°3 1 3 + 92
85-7 2 * FS 98
85-0 1 rf Sf 407
84:5 4 ” ” 1i
84:3 1 ” 9 13
83°3 2 of = 24
83:0 ul ” 9°3 27
82:3 4 a a B4
82:0 1 5 as 37
81:7 2 % 40
80:5 2 ” " 53
80:0 2n &p ré 58
78:7 2 ; a 72
78:1 2 “6 . 78
TCT 6 a 5 83
766 1 " o 94
76°3 1 ri 97
756 L pe ay 505
75:3 1 Bs 13 08
746 1 FS er 15
74:3 2 Pr . 18
734 1 3 ‘3 28
73'3 1 “5 39 29
73:6 1 a i 32
72:5 In D #4 37
72:0 1 rr fn 43
T1L5 in 5 i 48
71:0 1 rr ch 53
70°7 1 ” ” 57
TO1 il s - 63
70:0 1 a + 64
69°2 1 hs a 72
69'0 1 $s 3 75
68°9 1 5 9 76
68°6 i | 5 oa 79
68:1 1 “ . 84
67-7 ul ” ” 88
67:3 1 ; PA 94
66:7 i) i $ 99
66-4 i 3 “ 602
65:9 1 a it 08
65:7 il K § 10
65-2 2 ” ”» 15
647 In ” ” 21
64-4 2 ” ” | 24
639 1 ” ” 29
63°5 1 Es 5 33
62°1 1 | 0:86 A | 48

296 kEPORT—1899.

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and Frequency
Spectrum Character 1 in Vacuo
| A 7
3061°6 1 0°86 9:3 32654
61:3 1 % = 57
60:9 2 # 3 61
60-1 2 p | 5 70
59-2 1 r. " 79
58-7 2 i - 85
58:0 2 is . 92
569 1 ” ” 703
56-7 1 = i 14
557 1 ” ” 17
55°6 1 ss Ne 18
55:3 1 Pa 5 21
54:9 1 a % 25
54:8 1 “ iy 27
53°6 2 ‘ a 39
62°3 2 on 9-4 53
51:3 1 a rs 63
504 1 ” ” 73
50:2 1 i A 75
49°7 1 -_ ee 80
49°2 1 ” ” 86
49:0 2 FA BS 88
48:2 2 - z 97
47-4 1 ” ” 805
46°8 1 a =. 12
46-4 2 = - 16
45°7 2 ” ” 24
44:8 ln a f 33
44-0 2 ‘ SS 42
43°5 1 ” ” 50
43:0 1 - ¥ 53
42°1 2 at i 63
41-8 2 ” ” 66
41-2 2 ” ” 2
39°9 1 “D 3 86
39°2 1 ” ” 94
38:8 1 5 3 99
37°5 1 _ B 913
371 1 ” ” 17
36:3 1 i y 25
85°5 1 » rs 34
354 1 » ” 35
35°0 2 »” ” 40
34:3 1 ” ” 47
33°9 1 ” ” 51
33°4 2 = 3 52
32:0 1 ” ” 72
30°8 1 ” ” 85
30°3 2 i s 91
30:0 1 ES E 94
29°9 1 4 s 95
29°2 1 5 5 33008
28°3 1 a 3 12
28:0 1 Ae 3 16
27:7 In : 19

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 297

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and F Frequency
Spectrum Character aH. 1 in Vacuo
A
3026'8 2 0°86 9-4 33029
+25°9 2 ” ” 39
25:0 Les ” ” 48
24:9 1 p cr 49
233 4 oa 9°5 67
22°8 2 0°85 AS 72
21°7 4 7 s 84
20'8 2 » ” 94
19'8 1 . i 105
19°1 1 cp Ee 13
18°5 4 * iu 20
17-4 2 i 46 32
169 2 ri 43 37
163 1 ] e 44
16:0 1 ” » 47
15-4 2 PS -_ 54
14-7 1 ” ” 61
143 2 . “ 64
13-4 1 ” ” 76
12°8 1 i : 82
12-2 1 i 5 89
12:0 2 44 Be 91
11-2 1 ” ” 200
11-0 2 El ¥ 02
10:0 1 “ 4 13
09:8 1 ‘ a 15
09-5 1 2 . 19
08:8 1 ee 26
08-2 4 ie ; 32
07° 1 i 37
07°4 2 - i 42
07-0 1 a . 46
06'8 1 a a 48
05°5 We ” ” 63
05+1 1 S ‘ 69
04°5 4 ” 9 74
04-0 1 ” ” 79
03:8 2 : 4 82
- 033 1 2 3 87
02:8 1 4 - 93
02-2 1 x a 99
O19 1 9 » 308
O15 1 ” »” 07
00-9 1 3 3 13
00-4 4 ” ” 19
2999°8 1 ia 4 26
1
1
1
1!
2
1
1
2
1

REPORT—1899.

MOLYBDENUM —continued,

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

2995°4:
95°0
94:5
93°9
93°6
92:9
92°8
92°3
91-7
911
90°8
90°3
89:9
89°5
888
88°6
88:0
87°4
87:0
862
860
85'2
84°9
83'9
83°6
82°7
82°4

Intensity
and
Character

=]

BEND P HEN EEN EEE EWN NNR Eee

Bp

WNHDEPENNRPEPN RRR RPE PNP NN NPN RRR PRP RRP e

Reduction to

Vacuum
1
A+ ;
0:85 9°6
” ”
” 2-93
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”»
th) ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
2 ”
” ”
” ”
” ”»
” ”
” ”
” ”»
” »”
” ”
” »
””° ”
0°84 Oe
” ”
0 ”
” ”
) ”
” ”
” ”
” 3
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
° 9”
” ”
” ”
a2 ”
” ”
” ”
of oF

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 299

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

Reduction to
Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
and a Frequency
Character i in Vacuo
A+ a

1 0°84 7 33716
HI ” ” 23
2 ” ” 31
1 ” ” 40
1 ” ” 47
2 ” » 58
1 ” ” 60
1 ” ” 70
2 ” ” 71
1 ” ” 89
1 0 ” 96
1 is A 800
2 ” » 07
2 ” ” 20
2 » » 21
2 ” ” 29
1 ” ” 37
Z »” ”» 44
1 ” ” 46
2 ” ” 56
2 ” ” 66
1 ” ” 71
1 ” ” 78
1 ” ” 87
1 ” » 95
1 5 - 902
1 ” » 03
1 » » 09
2 ” » 19
2 » » 24
ul ” ” 26
4 ” » 33
2 op 9°8 48
1 ” ” 56
2 ” 2 64
it 083 x 12
1 ” ” 74
1 ” ” 76
1 » ” 82
a » ” 89
1 ” ” 94 |
uf at rn 34001
1 ” ” 11
4n aa A 23
In ” » 29
2 ” ” 40
1 ” ” 54
2. ” be 60
2 ” ” 73
1 ” ” 84
2 ” ” 96
1 9 Ad 103
4 ” ” 14
2 ” ” 18
1 om 3 25

300

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

2928°5
27°6
269
26°2
25°5
24:5
23°4
22°8
22°2
22-0
215

2899-2
98°7
978
97°6
96°9
96°5
95°1
95:0
94-7
93°9
93:0
92°3
91-4.
91-2
89°7

REPORT—1899.

MoLYBDENUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

B

Cl le el el lel De 0 Oe en Ce Clr en Cree Crem an Crem Suan an Car area merrerm cE cy

_
B

Reduction to

A+

Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

» tien

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS,

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

MOLYBDENUM—continued,

Intensity
an

Character

Reduction to

2888'8
88-2
87:2
86:2
85:8
849
84:3
84-1
83°4
82:6
82-2
81-7
81:6
80°0
79°2
177
77-0
75'8
75:0
73'8
731
717
700
69-8
69°3
69:0
68°5
68°3
67:8
66°8
65°9
65:7
65-4
64:9
64'6
63-4
62:0
60°9
60:0
59:0
58:2
573
57:1
5671
560
64:8
54:2
53:7
53°3
51:3
50°7
49°8
49-4
48°3
46-7

5

fm a PSs aa a i

i=}

6

eo ee a eo a OS el I ll cl oe el el ae 0

Vacuum
oe =.
0°82 10:0

” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
oe ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
i 101
” ”
” »”
” >”
”» ”
” »”
%” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” »”
” ”
0°81 fe
”? ”»
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
”» ”
” ”
” ”
»”» ”»
» ”
” ”
” ”
2” ”
”» ”
” ”
” ”
” ”»
» »”
” ”
10:2

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

712

301

302 REPORT—1899.

MOLYBDENUM—oontinued.

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity Vacuum. Oscillation
Spark and Frequency
Spectrum Character ra as in Vacuo
A

2846°3 1 0:81 10:2 35123
457 1 5 - 30
45-0 1 3 a 39
445 In 53 * 46
44:0 1 BS 93 52
43-4 1 ‘ : 58
42°7 2 an ey 67
42°4 4 = 3 71
42:0 2 = iy 76
39°2 1 4 * 210
38°6 1 a * 18
38-4 1 3 33 21
37-4 1 _ a 33
367 1 a 3 42
36°5 1 % 3 45
B54 1 es 45 58
35:0 2 ” ” 638
34:5 2 A 5 69
335 i} = 3 82
32°8 2 5 us 91
32°3 2 a as 97
317 2 5 as 304
30°7 1 a a 17
30°1 1 ss os 24
29'2 1 + ey 35
29°0 1 a ‘5 38
27:9 4 5 3 52
27°3 i, zs is 59
26°7 1 - m 67
2671 1 5 a 73
259 1 a5 e Mh
25°4 1 ” ” 83
25:2 1 4 . 85
24:3 1 0:80 a" 97
24-0 1 : 4 401
23-4 2 + 10:3 09
23-1 1 ‘ 5 12
22°4 1 - : 21
221 1 i ' 24
21°9 2 ” ” 26
20:2 2n = 4 48
19°9 1 ” ” 52
176 2 a a 81
16°2 3 - 3 99
14:8 2 55 a 516
14:2 1 4 3 24.
13:7 1 _ * 30
133 1 ” ” 35
12°7 1 ” ” 43
11:2 Y ve 4s 62
105 2n » | 71
| 09:0 1 » » 90
08:7 1 y 4 93
08°5 1 : a 96
078 6 ” J ” 605

i ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 308

MOLYBDENUM —continued.

| Reduction to |
Wave-length Intensity hse: Oscillation
Spark and ae ae soa, ee Frequency
Spectrum Character Aut Hibs, in Vacuo
ar
= be
2807°2 ge 0:80 103 35612
06°3 2 ” ” | 24 |
05'1 1 ” ” 39
O4°6 nT ” ” 45
04:2 1 ” ” | 50
03°3 1 ” ” 63
02°5 1 ” ” 72
01°4 2 ” ” 86
01:2 i ” ” 89
01:0 1 ” ” 91
00:6 2 ” ” 96
00°4 1 ” 99
2799-2 2 10-4 714
99-0 1 ” ” 17
98:2 i | ” ” 27
97:2 2n ” ” 40
96'8 1 ” ” 45
95°6 1 ” ” 60
94:8 1 ” ” 70
94-2 1 ” ” 78
93:2 1 ” ” 91
92°6 i ” ” 99
91-7 1 ” ” 810 |
90°5 1 ” ” 26 |
89°0 In » ” 45
87-9 1 ” 4 ag
875 1 ” ” 64
85:1 4 ” ” 95
84:2 2n 0:79 3 907
83°3 1 » . 19
82:0 1 ” ” 35
815 AY ” 7 41 |
80°2 6 ” ” 58
794 2 ” ” 68
78°4 1 ” ” 81
79 1 ” 88
76°7 1 99 ” 36003
754 6 9 10°5 20
745 2 ” ” 32 |
738 2n 7 41
719 1 i ” 66
707 1 op 7 82
69°7 2 2 ” 94
68°8 In ” ” 106
677 1 ” ” 20
67:0 1 x 3 30
66:3 1 ” ” 39
6671 1 ” ” 42
65'2 1 . d 53
64°5 1 ” ” 63
63'8 2 ” ” 72
63'5 4 ” ” 75
62:9 2 ” ” 83
62°6 1 9 ” 90
616 1 F Fr 200

304

REPORT—1899.

MOoOLYBDENUM—continued.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

Intensity
and
Character

Reduction to
Vacuum

Rho RRR bb

ROE ee ee Bie ee

B

Le ead aS PH a rate ay

6B

ap gel ne a a ae

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

300

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 305

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

Reduction to
Wa e-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
park and Frequency
Spectrum Character Oe 1 in Vacud
A-

2716:2 1 0:78 10°7 36805
15°5 In 9 " 15
14:5 1 F 9 29
13°5 1) i is 43
13:0 1 i. By 49
12°3 2 is 3 58
115 2 7" ‘3 70
109 es _ ij V7
10-2 1 Fh 5 87
09:8 2 i 5 92
08'6 1 . - 908
07:8 1 Pe 4 20
07:0 1 “ Fe 31
06°2 1 rf a 42
05:0 1 ce a 58
04:2 1 a a 69
03:9 il A Pe 73
03:0 1 % 10°8 85
02°4 i FS fe 93
01°8 al 8 4 87001
01:3 4 ” ” 08
00°6 1 ” ” 17

2699°5 1 - FE 33
98°3 1 0:77 a 49
97'8 1 ” ” 56
97'3 il 3 3 63
96:9 2 Bs 7" 69
95:9 1 7 43 83
95:2 2 oh Pe 92
93:9 2 3 F 110
93:2 2 Fy ‘i 19
93:0 1 “ 3 23
927 2 ” ” 27
91:8 2n ” ” 40
911 1 ” ” 49
90°1 1 Fh) # 63
89:7 1 ss 3 69
88:9 1 ¢ Pe 78
88:0 4 Py *p 92
87-1 1 a 3 205
85:9 2 Ps 4 21
85:2 1 ” ” dl
84-2 2 36 - 45
83:2 2 rp + 59
825 il ” ” | 68
81:5 4 As *. | 82
80°6 In rf) ey 95
800 1 as 3 303
T'8 1 _ 5 06
78'6 1 10:9 22
I7T8 1 a 7 | 33
W71 2 i a 43
765 4 a P 55
18-7 1 as F| 62
74:9 1 | ” ! » 4 |

1299, x

306

Wawve-length
Spark
Spectrum

26729
72:0
(ii
70-1
§9°7
69°3
682
67°5
66°8
66°4
65:1
63°9
63°1
62:7
61:9
61:2

Or or Ot Ot Or Or
FD Oo Ge Or Sr
Nb woo tl

REPORT—1899.

MoLYBDENUM—vontinued.

Intensity
and
Character

fetst be tO RS vs St pe pat tet gee J eB RD DO the BO BO

6

Nt a ae a a ie a a

Reduction
to Vacuum

rae i
r

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

37401
14
27
41
46
52
68
77

209

ON WAVEsLENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 307

Spark
Spectrum

MOLYBDENUM —continued.

Intensity
and
Character

ne le Sa a a a et ll alo all alle lied aera lena HL

Reduction to

Vacuum
A+ ais
a
0-76 11:0
” ”
‘ Ill
” 0
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
”» ”
”» ”
eh ”
” ”
” $y
M9 ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 5)
” cE
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
”? ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
‘ 11-2
” n
0:75

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

37961
67

x2

308 REPORT—1899, .
MoLYBDENUM—continued.
| Reduction LA
Wave-length Intensity to Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and TEGueRey:
Spectrum Character | 1 in Vacuo
: A+ ==
26046 1 0°75 11:2 38383
03°8 1 45 5 94 7
s 03°4 1 M i 400
02-9 2 ” ” 07 :
02°7 2 ” ” 11 - a
02:0 2 ” ”» 21
016 1 ” ” 27
O12 1 9 9 33
009 1 ” 9° 37
00:2 1 - s AT
2599°6 1 Fe z 56
99-4 1 %) 9 59
98°5 1 % 5 73
97-4 2 3 sp 88
97-2 2 ” ” 92
967 1 7) 9 99
95°3 4 35 i 520
93-7 2 ” ” 44
93-4 4 ” ” 49
92°8 1 ” %? 57
91'8 2 * » 72
91:0 In ” ” 84
90°2 1 i . 96
89'8 In s > 602
88°9 2 ” ” 15
88-0 il is 113 28
875 2 ” ” 36
87:2 2 a a 41
#861 2 : 5 BT
85:2 1 xm ES 70
84:2 1 bi ee 85
84:0 1 ” ” 88
82°5 In % . 711
81-2 1 3) ” 30
80°5 In a Ed 40
79°5 2 ” ” 56
79-0 2 ” ” 63
784 2 ” ” 72
16-2 1 > 9 806
75-9 1 ” ” 10
75°5 1 ” ” 16
745 2 ” ” 31
73°8 1 3” ” 42
730 In f 2 54
723 2 ” ” 64
71-4 2 ” ”» 78
713 2 5 5 80
71:0 2Qn - Fs 84
68°2 1 3 11-4 926
67'°6 1 " 4 35
67:2 In H x f 42
66°3 1 ” ” 55
| 65°7 In ” ” 64
} 65:2 1 a 2 72
\ 64:9 1 0:74 76

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 309

MoLYBDENUM—continued.

Reduction to
Vacuum

Wave-length Intensity Oscillation
Spark and oe LO eee Frequency
Spectrum Character A+ am: in Vacuo
A
2564-4 2 0-74 114 38984
63°6 1 ” x 96
63°3 1 1» oF 39001
62°7 1 + A 10
62°3 1 + 3 16
607 1 "3 5 40
60°3 In “5 =f 47
59°7 2 - 4 56
59:2 2 ” ” 63
589 2 7 A, 68
58-2 1 ~ er 79
57:9 1 5 7 83
57-4 2 3 FF 91
56°8 1 _ ey 100
56°5 1 7 8 15
55°6 1 5 a 20
55:0 In En 3 28
53°8 In o f 46
53°2 In + 5 55
52°8 In re r 61
52°6 i tn EP 64
52°4 1 % FF 67
52:2 il 5 3 70
52:0 1 ) + 74
50°8 2 fF 7 92
493 il 3 7 215
49-1 1 + 115 18
48-2 In 3 2 32
47-6 2 7" 5. 41
47-5 2 4 3 43
45°8 il ; hy 69
45:1 1 + 4 80
44:5 1 a J 89
44:3 2 ” ” 92
43°6 ] 6 93 303
42:9 2 5 A 14
41:5 ln 4 5, 85
41-1 1 ¥ 2 49
40°7 1 ‘ v 48
40°3 1 5 rs, 54
39°5 1 x 9 66
38°5 6 : a 82
37°6 if % 3 96
36°9 1 ” ” 407
36:8 1 ss i 08
357 1 5 7, 25
35°5 In e J 28
35:0 1 i 6i 36
346 1 ” ” 4 2
33°8 1 a 3 55
32'8 1 : 3 70
32°5 1 i. P| 75
315 1 ag s oF
310 1 = 3 99
30'9 1 + 500

310 REPORT—1899.

MOLYBDENUM —continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length | Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and Frequency
Spectrum | Character | a Rie. | in Vacuo
| 4
tose te Ne) (ears 1 ee
ose... 2 0-74 11:6 3951
290 i 5 a 30
28°5 1 i F 38
27:3 2 ; ‘4 56
26°8 In | i A 64
26°5 In - e 69
25°5 1 | - " 85
248 2 % zt 95
23°9 2Qn = * 610
93°3 2. oe af 19
23°0 1 ” ” 24
22°8 a a a 27
22-0 1 a zs 39
21:3 1 ” ” 50
207 1 : : 60
19'S 1 3 e 74
19°3 1 a i 82
19°2 1 ” ” 84
188 2 - 24 90
18:7 2 * “3 91
1i7 In 0-73 ” 707
188 1 5 # 29
15°7 1 ” ” 39
15:3 1 ti ; 45
Mes 1 i 61
ois 1 . i 64
13:3 1 %” ” 7
12:7 1 * ‘ 86
125 1 . é 89
= 1 a . 94
118 1n (C) 11-7 g00
113 1 ” ” 08
ae 1 & a 19
ae 1 ” ” -
3 1(C)(? 4 ;

O73 ; (©) (2) : ‘ 5
ane 1 ; 80
063 1 ” ” 87
05°8 1 ” 7 96
<a 1 : 4 915
nae 1 ‘ 17
Ae 1 f 24
ee 2 a * 27
ms 1 ' a 35
02°3 1 a ; 51
01°8 a ” ” 59
me 1 - ‘ 64
00°8 In ” ” 75
2499°8 1 A. 9]
ae 1 a A 97
99 ‘1 1 ” ” 40003
te 1 5 i 16
98-2 2 ” ” 17
98:0 2 » ” 20
97°56 2 * E | 28

ON WAVELENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 311

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

2497°2
96°6
96°3
96:2
95°6
94:8
94:5
94:3
94-1
93°3
93-1
92°8
91'8
91-4
90:9
90:1
89:3
89:0
88°3
878
87-2
86-7
86°3
84:9
84:7
84:3
83°9
83°5
83-2
82-7
82-2
81-3
80-4
79°5
788
78°5
78:2
78:0
178
76:2
74:3
72-0
70°3
69:3
69:0
68°6
68-1
67°5
67:1
66°8
66-2
63°8
63°4
62:7
62°1

MoOLYBDENUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

i=}

BSED ks Fone bo hoy RO ey een an

6B Q

DDE EE RH D DENN ENE Ree PE

Reduction to

Vacuum
A+ a
A
0°73 Vey
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
» ”
7 118
” ”
” ”
” ”»
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 7
” ”
”» ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
”» ”
” »”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” »”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”?
” ”?
” ”
” ”
= 11°9
”» ”
” ”
” »”
0:72 ”

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

40033
42
47
49

$12

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

2461°4
61-2
60°0
58°8
57:9
57:2
57:0
565
556

REPORT—1899.

MoLyBDENUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

DERE BEE Ee DEPP REP eRe Ree

BB

Spee ae plage etal

Sg ae

i=}

Se ee ell el ll

Reduction to

Vacuum
ie: =
A
0°72 11:9
” ”
25 12:0
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
~ ”
” ”
” ”
% 12:1
2” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
n 12:2
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
0-71 ”

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

40615
18

42

58

73

85

88

96
711
39

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 93195

MoOLYBDENUM—continued.

eet

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity : Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and re Frequency
Spectium Character x Hiss in Vacuo
* A
24148 1 0-71 12:2 41399
13°5 i A +3 422
132 2 "o a 27
128 + 55 12°3 33
11:9 2 5 F 49
113 1 ” 3 58
11:0 2 - Fe 64
10°6 1 Pr ig 74
103 2 ‘ ‘ 76
08°8 2n 3 » 502
07:2 1 iM 3 30
06'8 2 ‘i rr, 37
05:0 1 is a 68
$048 1 - i 72
03:7 2 “ 3 91
02°8 1 - rr 606
02:0 2 3 a 20
00:4 1 5 5 48
$2399°5 1 ” ” 63
98:1 1 ne 3 87
97°3 1 Px 12°4 721
960 1 ‘3 J 24
95°8 1 - - 27
95°2 1 a y 38
94-7 1 5s 3 46
93°6 1 s PF, 66
92°7 2 Y, + 81
91:9 2 ” ” 95
91:0 2 .s 3 811
90°6 2 * 4 18
90:3 1 3 3 23
90:0 1 = 3 29
89:3 2 = a 41
89:1 2 . 93 45
888 2 “ e 50
88-2 1 Is a 60
87:1 2 eo is 80
86-2 1 = “a 95
84:8 1 ue 3 920
84:1 1 . a 32
83°5 1 ” ” 43
82°5 1 12°5 60
81:7 1 Ps F, 74
81:3 2 is = 80
80°3 1 = 3 98
79:0 In ‘< F 42022
781 1 ” ” 38
17°3 A: ” ” 51
75-0 1 ” ” 93
T45 1 Re 3 102
73'1 2 0:70 # 27
725 1 3 3 oie
721 1 ” ” 44
718 1 4 y 50
706 ] @ 4 71

314

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

2370°5
70°4
69:2
68:9
67:9
67-2
663
65:3
63°9
63:2

REPORT—1899.

MoLYBDENUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

B

i=}

a cae hel Wm ata re ir ae a praesent eee SM Pe Ne SDs la le

sa
BS

Reduction to

Vacuum
oa =
A

0°70 12°5
” ”
” »
” ”
es 12°6
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
9 ”
” »”
” ”
7 12°7
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” x”
” »”
” ”
be) ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
¥3 12'8
” »
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
3) ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
= 129
” ”

0-69 3

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

42173
74

96
201
19

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

MOLYBDENUM—continued.

515

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

2318-0
166
16:4
14:3
10:0
09°5
08-0
07-0
06-5
04:3
02°9

2298°3
97:0
96-6
9571
91:8
91:0
90°3
90-1
89:2
865
86:0
81:3
80°8
7674
758
75:1)
73:2
69°8
68°8
64:8
57-2
53-4
52°6
515
50:3
49-2
47-8
42:3
41:2
40'8
39-4
363
31-0
27-1

Reduction
: to Vacuum |
Intensity

and
Character

5

i=}

5

Da CO No oe Oo el St el ell oll ol SS)

6B

Dee eeED
6B

Ss Tien pilpedanas 15 tame

Pag rene eet

|

A+

'
|=

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

316 - REPORT—1899.

Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances.
—Inierim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. NOEL
HartLey (Chairman and Secretary), Professor F. R. Japp, and
Professor J. J. DOBBIE, appointed to investiqate the Relation
between the Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic
Substances.

Introduction.

In presenting an interim report on the subject of the relation between the
Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances, it
will be convenient to refer briefly to the report made to the British
Association which was drawn up by Professor Huntington and presented
at the Swansea Meeting in 1880.! It will there be noticed that the work
originated in the discoveries of Sir George Gabriel Stokes in 1852 and
1853, and of the late Dr. William Allen Miller in 1862. Next M. L.
Soret and MM. Soret and Rilliet advanced this line of research by
showing that by the increased molecular mass of the alkyl radical there
was increased absorption of the ultra-violet rays, though no absorption
bands were observed in nitrates and nitrites of these substances. W. N.

Hartley, in 1874, from a consideration that all the characteristic physical —

properties of organic substances are dependent on their molecular consti-
tution, inferred that if a large number of substances of a similar con-
stitution were examined, such as the ethereal saits of the organic acids
and homologous series of the normal alcohols and acids, evidence would be
obtained of the influence of impurities and of the variations in the absorp-
tion of the invisible rays caused by each increment of CH, in the molecule.
The work was found impracticable without the aid of photography, and
a form of camera was therefore constructed which admitted of metallic
spectra being taken with all lines in focus on a flat plate from wave-
lengths 5,400 to 2,000. It was also found necessary to employ dry-plates,
and all the known makes were tried, some of which proved to be quite
unsuitable, For the first time in spectrum work gelatino-bromide plates
were used with success. The method of experimenting at the present
time, except for a few modifications, is that described in the ‘ Phil. Trans.,’
Part I., 1879., Hartley and Huntington.?

After the examination of a large number of specially purified carbon
compounds the following generalisations were arrived at :—

1. The normal alcohols of the series C,,H,,,,,OH are remarkable for
transparency to the ultra-violet rays, pure methylic alcohol being nearly
as much so as water.

2. The normal fatty acids exhibit a greater absorption of the more
refrangible rays than the normal alcohols containing the same number of
carbon atoms.

3. There is an increased absorption of the more refrangible rays

1 Report of the Fiftieth Meeting. (See p. 303.)

2 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1879, pts. i.and ii., vol. xxviii., p. 233. Scientifie Proceedings of
the Roy. Dublin Soc., vol. iii., p. 93 (new series). ‘ Description-of the Instruments
and Processes employed in Photographing Ultra-Viglet Spectra,’ 1881, Hartley,

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 317

corresponding to each increment of CH, in the molecule of the alcohols

and acids.

4. Like the alcohols and acids the ethereal salts (esters) derived from
them are highly transparent to the ultra-violet rays, and do not exhibit
absorption bands.

At a later date it was shown incidentally in the examination of other
substances that the various secondary alcohols, isopropylic, isobutylic, and
the different amylic alcohols showed no absorption bands. The same
properties were shared by various polyhydric alcohols, such as glycol,
glycerine, mannite, cane sugar, and dextrose.

In fact no open chain carbon compound causes selective absorption.

All substances derived from a closed chain of carbon atoms of the
benzene type were found to be strongly adiactinic. It had been shown
by Sir George Stokes that one of these substances, salicine, developed an
absorption band when the solution was diluted. This matter was followed
up by the examination of allied substances such as phenol, salicylic acid,
and other derivatives of benzene, to ascertain whether they also exhibit
absorption spectra characterised by bands.

The facts elicited were the following :—

5. Benzene and the hydrocarbons derived therefrom by the replace:
ment of hydrogen, phenols, aromatic acids and amines, are remarkable—
first, for their powerful absorption of the most refrangible rays ; secondly,
for the absorption bands made visible by dissolving them in water or
alcohol ; and thirdly, for the extraordinary intensity of these absorption
bands even in very dilute solutions.

6. Isomeric substances containing the benzene nucleus exhibit widely
different spectra, inasmuch as their absorption bands vary in position and
intensity.

7. The photographic absorption spectra can be employed as a means of
identifying organic substances, and as a most delicate test of their purity.
The curves obtained by co-ordinating the extent of dilution, or in other
words the quantity of substance, with the position of the rays of the
spectrum transmitted by the solution, form a strongly marked and highly
characteristic feature of very many substances.

Observations were extended to the essential oils, because they are
known to consist for the most part of hydrocarbons which are physically
isomeric, and which differ therefore in constitution from benzenoid hydro-
carbons and their derivatives, though in a manner closely related to
benzene. A large number of specimens were thoroughly examined.!

According to the classification employed at that time there were three
groups, the second and third being polymers of the first, as shown by their
formule,

CioHi¢, Cy5H2y, and CyoH3p.

No absorption bands were discovered in any of the following specified
substances or in the hydrocarbons derived from them by distillation ; but
the extent of the absorption of the ultra-violet rays was found to be
greater the larger the number of carbon atoms in the molecules ; such
increase in the number of carbon atoms being due to the side chains
when the nucleus of the compound was of the ring-form :—Terebene

' Proc. Roy. Soc. yol. xxxi. pp. 1-26, 1881, Hartley and Huntington.

318 REPORT—1899.

or pinene (which was shown subsequently to be camphene chiefly),!
australene, terebenthene, hesperidene, cajeputene dihydrate ; the oils
of lign-aloe, Indian geranium, santal wood, cedrat, birch bark, juniper,
rosemary, rosewood, lavender, vitivert, turpentine, cubebs, patchouli,
citronella, elder, Melaleuca ericifolia, and cedar wood oil ; the hydro-
carbons extracted from cedrat, nutmeg, caraway, otto of rose, and otto
of citron and menthol.

The presence of cymene, a benzene derivative, in some small propor-
tion, in the hydrocarbons from thyme, lemon, and nutmeg, in the blue oil
from patchouli, and also in one specimen of the caraway hydrocarbon,
was proved by the absorption bands characteristic of that substance.

It was not within the scope of the Report of 1880 to treat especially
of the relations between the absorption spectra and chemical constitution
of organic compounds, but the conclusions just quoted must necessarily
be taken into account, first in connection with the researches of Wallach
and others on essential oils, and subsequently in the accounts of other
investigations of absorption spectra which have since been published.

EssENTIAL OILS AND THEIR CONSTITUENTS.

That essential oils of the terpene class are related in a certain manner
to benzene was indicated in a general way by their powerful absorption,
though their spectra are free from bands. Chemical researches have since
thrown much light upon their constitution, and shown the nature of their
relations to benzene, the hydrocarbons being hydrogen-addition products
of cymene or some other benzenoid derivative.

It is now known that cymene is p.methyl-isopropyl benzene. By
fractional distillation cymene had been separated from orange oil, French
turpentine, and Russian turpentine ; it was believed that these substances
were largely composed of cymene, that it was in fact one of their constitu-
ents. It was shown, however, by their spectra that no cymene was contained
in the first two and but 4 per cent. in the last. The inference was distinct
and clear that the cymene found was the product of the chemical treatment
to which these terpenes had been subjected while under investigation,”
and in connection with the most recently made investigations of this nature
it is a point of some importance.

But there were substances in essential oils characterised by very
powerful absorption bands, and it was concluded that they were composed
largely of true benzene derivatives or benzenoid hydrocarbons. These
were the oils of bay, thyme, peppermint, bergamot, cloves, aniseed, cassia,
carvone, myristicol, and otto of pimento. It was, however, generally
admitted that eugenol with the constitution C,;H,(OCH;)(C;H,)°OH
is contained in the oils of bay, pimento, and cloves; that anethol,
C,;H,(OCH,;)C,H;), is contained in aniseed, and that thymol,
C,H3(CH;)(C3;H,)*OH, is a constituent of oil of thyme (1:4:3
hydroxy-cymene) and may thus be represented :—

Cee fete cH (CH;),
Ta

The constitutions of the oils of bergamot and peppermint were unknown,

1 J. Chem. Soc.vol. xxxv. p. 758, 1879.
? Thid. vol. xxxvii. p. 676, 1880, Hartley.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 319

as likewise those of the substances menthol, carvone, and myristicol, but
the latter three were said to be isomeric.!

From the character of its spectrum it was shown that the nucleus of
menthol was a terpene, while carvone and myristicol were concluded to be
strictly benzenoid derivatives. Furthermore, a close examination of the
absorption spectrum of myristicol led to the conclusion that it was a
mixture of two substances, one only of which was capable of causing
selective absorption. It was concluded that carvone was really a benzenoid
Gerivative, oil of peppermint almost entirely so, while bergamot was
shown to be a mixture of a terpene with a benzenoid derivative. Shortly
these deductions were arrived at by considering that if a substance which
shows absorption bands is not a mixture, no repeated fractional distillation
will show any variations in the intensity of the absorption, or variations
in the position of the bands in several fractions.

It was also pointed out that the refraction equivalents, as determined
by Dr. Gladstone, are abnormal in carvone and myristicol, like those of
substances derived from the aromatic nucleus.

The conclusions which were drawn at the time as to the constitution
of those carbon groupings which can alone give rise to absorption bands
have been fully justified, not only by purely chemical investigations, but
also by more recent research into the absorption spectra of closed chain
carbon compounds of different characters.

For instance, it was shown by Hartley ? that camphor and benzene
hexachloride exhibited merely a continuous absorption and no absorption
band, furthermore that tetra-hydrobenzenes and tetra-hydropyridine or
their derivatives possessed the same character.3 Referring more par-
ticularly to the substances in essential oils we have the following classifica-
tion :—

Terpenes, C,)H,, or (C;H3),,.. Hydrocarbons, of which there are some
8 or 10 only as parent substances in essential oils. The terpenes appear
all to be nearly related by constitution to benzene, being, in fact, dihydro-
eymenes, C,,H,,(H,).

Pinene and Camphene Group.

Pinene, C;)H,, liquid. Camphene, C,,H,, solid. Pinene is the chief
constituent of turpentine oil from different varieties of pine, eucalyptus
oil, juniper oil, sage, terebenthene, sylvestrene, and australene. Cam-
phenes from different sources differ from one another in rotary power ;
re is derived from terebenthene, austracamphene from austra-
ene.

Limonene and Dipentene Group, ©, Hyg.

Dextro-limonene, C,)H,,, citrene, hesperidene, carvene, the chief
constituent of cedar oil, cumin and dill oils. In oil of lemons it occurs
along with pinene. Lzvo-limonene is obtained from Pinus sylvestris.

Limonene from its reactions is probably a normal dihydro-para-

' J. Chem. Soe. vol. xxv. p. 1, Gladstone.

* ‘ Researches on the Relation between the Molecular Structure of Carbon Com-
pounds and their Absorption Spectra,’ Zans. Chem. Soc. vol. xxxix. p. 153:

* * Absorption Spectra of the Alkaloids,’ Phil. Zrans. vol. clxxvi. pt. ii. p. 471, 1885.

‘ Wallach, Anu. der Chemie, vol. coxxs. p. 225; vol. coxxxix. p- 1; vol. cexly.
p. 241; vol. cclii. p. 106, &c. ;“Ann. der Chemie, vol. coxlvi, p. 236.

820 REPORT—1899.

cymehe. Its relation to carvone shows the position of the divalent unions,
corresponding to the formula,

CH — CH,
C,H, CZ cH: CH,?
Nor en
Diperitene, cinene, ©,)H,,; inactive limonene:
Sesquiterpenes are widely distributed in the essential oils. The sub-
stances with high boiling point 274°-275° in oils of cubebs, patchouli,
galbanum, and sabine oil are of this class.

Camphor.

Japanese camphor, O,),,0, is a ketonic derivative of borneol,
C,,H,,0, which is a hydroxy-tetrahydro-cymene. Their constitutional
formule were eae oo thus :

wera’ CH, : CH(OH)
on, -cHL So-cH, 0,1, -cHZ Yc :cH,
ia) a Non ey Gens dit. SOBs ae? ae
(J apanese Camphor.) (Borneol.)
Bredt gives the following for camphor :—?
/ CH,"CO\,
CH—C(CH;),—C °CH,
\ CH, CH, /
Consequently, the formula for borneol should be written thus :—
/ CH,'CH(OH)\.
OH—G(CH;), C:CH,
OH OE,

So far as we know at present, there is nothing in the absorption
spectra of camphene and camphor which gives support to the one formula
rather than to the other.

Cineol and terpineol are isomers of borneol. The former is a con-
stituent of oils of cajeput and eucalyptus. It boils at 176°.

Menthol, or peppermint camphor, is a hydroxy-hexa-hydro-cymene.
It can be crystallised from oil of peppermint after careful distillation.
C,,H,,.OH. It yields a hydrocarbon menthene, C,)H,,. Myristicol,
C,)H,,O, is the camphor from oil of nutmeg.

Patchouli camphor, from oil of patchouli, C,;H.,0, is a sesqui-camphor.

Phenols in Essential Oils.

Thymol and carvacrol are both methyl-iso-propyl phencls, and are
derivatives of ordinary fn cymene containing the iso-propy] group.°

/CH; (1) /CH; (1)
C;H;—C3H, (4) C,H;—C3H, (4)

NOH (3) NOH (2)

(Thymol.) (Carvacrol.)

1 Goldschmidt, Berichte der deutsch. Chem. Ges. vol. xviii. p. 1733.
2 Berichte der deutsch. Chem. Ges. vol. xxvi. Pp. 3047, 1893.
8 Tbid. vol. zis. p. 245.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 321

Carvone, C,)H,,O (formerly carvol), is isomeric with carvacrol, but it
is a ketonic derivative of a dihydro-cymene.

Jo CO.
\oH=cH”’

Tt will thus be seen that a marked distinction is to be drawn between
the constitution of those substances in essential orls which are characterised
by a continuous absorption, and those which exhibit the peculiarity of
absorption bands; while the former belong to what has been termed the
hydro-aromatic group, the latter are true derivatives of the aromatic series.
The original conclusions have thus been confirmed.

Without entering into details of their structural formule in each case,
it may be stated that none of the hydroxy-derivatives, or other oxy-
derivatives, of the hydro-aromatic group exhibits absorption bands. Of
substances which were examined the following examples may be
referred to :

Citronellol,

(CH,).C : CH: CH, - CH, ‘CH(CH,) : CH, ‘CH, -OH

in rose, pelargonium, and geranium oils, and menthol, which has already
been referred to,

C,H, C CH - CH,

CH(OH):CH,
CH ‘CH,

OH,),CH :CHY
( 3)2 \cH, J CH,/

both belong to the group of camphors with the general formula C,,H,,,0.
We have next the substances occurring in the oils of cajeput, euca-
lyptus, citronella, geranium, lemon, lign-aloe, and neroli.

Cineol,
/ CH, * CH3\.
(CH;),CH ‘-C——_—O —C:CH,
\ CH, * CH, /
Citronellal occurs in rose, pelargonium, and geranium oils,
(CH;),C : CH :CH, ‘CH, -CH(CH,)-CH, - CHO
Geraniol (lemonol),
(CH,),0 : CH : CH, -CH,* C(CH,) :CH-CH,: 0H
Lign-aléol,
(OH;,),.C : CH - CH, CH, : C(CH,;) (OH) :CH : CH,

Nerolol, from oil of neroli, is believed to be identical with géraniol
These belong to the class of camphors with the formula C,,H,,,_.O0.

Note.—The absorption spectra of stereo-isomeric compounds have not
up to the present yielded any indications which serve to distinguish
between those which are levo- and those which are dextro-rotatory, or, on
the other hand, those which are inactive. In this respect there is a great
tae between position isomerism and stereo-isomerism. The reason

Y

822 | REPORT—1899.

of this will possibly be evident from a consideration of the theory which
accounts for the occurrence of absorption bands.

Two most distinct advances were made at this period which connect
the molecular structure of organic substances with their absorption
spectra. The first is the work of Russell and Lapraik and the second
that of Abney and Festing. Both of these memoirs show what change is
caused in the spectra of substances when alkyl radicals and hydroxyl are
substituted for hydrogen. About this period the following work was also
published. J. L. Schénn! examined the absorption spectra of methyl,
ethyl, and amy] alcohol in layers from 1-6 to 3-7 metres in thickness, and
observed narrow absorption bands in their spectra. Kriiss, from Schénn’s
measurements, calculated their wave-lengths. They lie in the red, orange,
and yellow.

i Ait IIl.
Methyl alcohol \ 643:0 632°8.
Ethyl alcohol 2d 651°5 632°8 = 559-1.
Amyl alcohol 2 6591 636°2 562:7.

On ABSORPTION-BANDS IN THE VISIBLK SPECTRUM PRODUCED BY CERTAIN
Cotourtess Liquips.2 By W. J., Russewt, PAD. F.RS., and
W. Lapraik, I.C.S.

These observations were made on long columns of liquid from 2 to
8 feet in length, and the substances examined were water, methylic,
ethylic, propylic, and amylic alcohols, Amylic iodide, amylene, ether,
ethyl iodide, aldehyde, acetic acid, benzene, toluene, xylene, phenol,
monochlor-benzene, diclor-benzene, ammonia in water and in ether, methyl-
amine in a 6-foot tube and ina 4-foot tube, ethylamine, diethylamine,
triethylamine, aniline, toluidine, di-methyl aniline, turpentine, nitric
acid, chloroform and naphthalene. All these substances in the thick-
nesses mentioned give very well defined but rather narrow absorption
bands between (600 and A740. Toluidine gave a general absorption
extending to \ 480. The bands of the different substances, it must be
understood, differ altogether from those peculiar to water. All the
alcohols give a similar band, but with different alcohols it has in each case
a different position. Zhe higher the alcohol stands in the series, the nearer
is the band to the red end of the spectrum. The illustrations in the ‘Jour.
Chem. Soe.’ (figs. 2. 3, 4, and 5) show these bands, p. 168. The esters
gave interesting results ; for in all cases a very similar band to that of
alcohol was observed, but always in a position slightly nearer the blue end
of the spectrum. In the case of ethyl iodide another band was visible,
extending from A716 to 724. It is stated that probably this band is
characteristic of all ethereal salts, but in other cases is hidden by the
general absorption. Fig. 9 shows the spectrum of the iodide. In the
amylic series the nitrate, acetate, and iodide were examined. They behave
exactly in the same way as the compound ethylic ethers, viz., they ali
give bands similar to the alcohol band (fig. 5), but slightly nearer the
blue. The same band running through each alcoholic series shows that
the band-producing body is unaffected by the acid radical.

1 Wiedemann’s Ann. vol. vi. p. 267, 1879.
* Trans. Chem. Soe. vol. xxix. p. 168, 1881.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 325

One of the most interesting points in this work of Russell and
Lapraik is the observations on substituted benzenes and ammonias : for
every CH; group introduced either into the C,H, or the NH, molecule
there is a shifting of the bands of absorption towards the red end of the
spectrum. This is quite definitely established. In the ultra-violet a
similar result was found by Hartley and Huntington for tri-ethylamine,
di-ethylamine and ethylamine : for each ethyl group introduced there was
a shortening of the spectrum. !

On THE INFLUENCE OF THE ATomIc GROUPING IN THE MOLECULES oF
OrGANIC BoDIEs ON THEIR ABSORPTION IN THE INFRA-RED REGIoNn
or THE Spectrum.” By Captain Abney, R.Z., F.RS., and Lieutenant-
Colonel Frstine, &.Z.

Abney and Festing have photographed rays extending down to
A 12000 ; the visible region ends about \ 7600. They studied the absorp-
tion spectra of water, hydrochloric acid, chloroform, carbon tetra-
chloride, cyanogen, and a number of hydrocarbons and their hydroxyl,
haloid, and carboxy] derivatives,

Those carbon compounds which contain hydrogen show a character-
istic group of lines, which, however, are absent from compounds contain-
ing no hydrogen. They do not all appear in some of the hydrogen
compounds, and it is inferred that they belong to hydrogen.

When oxygen is present as hydroxyl, it obliterates the rays between
two of the lines, which are due to hydrogen. When it forms part of the
carbon nucieus of a compound, as it does in aldehyde, the spectrum is
inclined to be linear, or the bands are bounded by well-defined lines.
These appear to be characteristic bands which indicate the carbon nucleus
of a series of substances.

There are some radicals which exhibit a distinctive absorption spec-
trum, in some cases lying near 7000, in others about 9000. In
benzene, aniline, and ethylaniline, the following coincident bands are
probably due to the benzene nucleus ; a line at \ 8670 is the principal one,
A 8670 to 8720, \ 8720 to 8880, and a fourth band about \ 9300, a fifth
being about \ 10400 to 10660.

In benzene and ethyl-aniline there occurs a band also at \ 10970 to
11050. If the line \ 8670 is associated with a band, it is almost certain
to be caused by the benzene nucleus.

Ethyl compounds are indicated by absorption at \ 7410, 8950 to 9030,
9040 to 9070, 9130 to 9180, 9270 to 9300-5, and 9320 to 9420,

It is remarkable that the solar spectrum shows an absorption band
at \ 8660, and, with the exception of the line at 7410, the absorptions
observed are coincident with bands or lines in the solar spectrum.

It is also a remarkable fact that the halogens are not recognisable
by any band or lines; for instance, the lines of hydrochloric acid are
really the lines of hydrogen.

1 Phil. Trans. 1879, Plate 22,

® Phil. Trans. Part III, 1881, by Captain Abney, R.E., F.R.S., and Lieut.-Col.
Festing, R.E.

O24 REPORT—1899,

Tur MEASUREMENT OF THE ULTRA-VIOLET SPECTRA.

Up to this period 1883-84, the only wave-lengths of lines available
for reference in the region of the ultra-violet were those of the metal
cadmium, measured by M. Mascart, and these were found insutiicient. To
obviate the difficulty in accurately describing spectra, the spark-spectra
of twenty-two elements had been photographed,! and the absolute wave-
lengths of lines belonging to sixteen elements were determined by Hartley
and Adeney.? <A selection from these had been utilised for the investi-
gation of absorption spectra. Liveing and Dewar * published the are and
spark spectra of iron and some other metals, but it had been previously
found ‘ that the spark spectrum of iron was unsuitable for such work. By
the use of electrodes containing the metals lead, tin, and cadmium, and
occasionally for special purposes copper and bismuth, a large number of
reference lines of known wave-length were available, and a greater degree
of accuracy was now attainable in the measurement of absorption bands.

It became more convenient to describe the absorption spectra in
terms of the oscillation frequencies of the absorbed rays than in wave-
lengths. As, however, the actual oscillation frequencies per second of
time were inconveniently large numbers, the inverse wave-lengths were
employed, their accuracy being even greater than the measurements of
absorption spectra will admit of, and they answer the purpose though
the unit of time is but a smali fraction of the second.

On THE VARIOUS COMBINATIONS WHICH SHOW CoNTINUOUS
ABSORPTION SPECTRA ONLY.

It had been shown by Hartley ® (1) thaé neither the olefines, acetylene,
nor amyl-alcohol show absorption bands ; (2) that in all cases where the
carbon atoms are supposed to be arranged in an open chain, no absorption
bands are seen; (3) that the replacement of H im any compound by the
radicals of the formula C,Hon.1 or C,H», 1, by NH, OH, COOH, or by
SO,H, has no influence on the production of absorption bands ; (4) when
halogens are substituted for H im a compound, and the result is a colowr-
less body, no bands are caused to appear in its spectrum. It was then
pointed out® that when an atom of carbon is united to an atom of
nitrogen, no absorption bands are seen in the ultra-violet spectrum trans-
mitted by such a combination. This conclusion was drawn in the first
instance from the results of Dr. W. A. Miller and of M. L. Soret, but
independent observations were made on hydrocyanic acid and potassium
cyanide, using very strong solutions and greater thicknesses of liquid.
The results furnished the following conclusion :

The simple union of carbon to nitrogen does not cause selective absorp=
tion of the ultra-violet rays.

1 Scientific Trans. of the Royal Dublin Soc. vol.i. p. 231 (New Series, 1881) ;
J. Chem. Soc. ‘Notes on Certain Photographs of the Ultra-violet Spectra of Ele-
mentary Bodies,’ vol. xli. p. 84, 1882.

2 Phil. Trans. vol. clxxv. p. 63, pt. i. 1884.

3 Phil. Trans. vol. clxxiv. pp. 187-222, 1884.

* Phil. Trans. vol. clxx. pt. i. p. 257, 1879, Hartley and Huntington.

> Trans. Chem. Soc. 1881.

® Trans. Chem. Soc. 1882.

qr

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 32

A conclusion regarding cyanuric acid was formed which has since been
found to be erroneous. The examination of a very fine specimen gave an
absorption band of a character indicating that the substance was inter-
mediate in compactness of structure between benzene and benzene-hexa-
chloride.

Recent experiments have proved from the examination of several
newly made preparations, and of a portion of the original specimen, that
it has no absorption band in its spectrum.”

Special difficulties are encountered in the examination of the spectrum
of cyanuric acid, owing to its slight solubility in cold water or even in
water which is warm. Thicknesses of a warm solution of 100 and
200 mm. were examined. It contained 2°5 grains of the substance
in 500 cc. With 100 mm. of solution the spectrum was found to
be cut off sharply at 1/X 4027. With a thickness of 200 mm. it termi-
nated sharply about 1/A 3888, but the spectrum was weakened from
about 1/A 3000. The band originally described was situated between
1/) 3640 and 3888, and was therefore in the weakened part of the
spectrum.

The formula previously assigned to this substance should probably be
altered to the following :

H
N
ei6a¢. Sco

as being more consistent with the recently ascertained facts than that
advanced in 1882.

The absorption spectra of substances containing the following typical
carbon groupings show no absorption bands even through the very wide
range of the foregoing investigations :

Ea gets Ay ea Oe
| BoP Ace,c Mh ov | |
PAM Oey 4- oe Sho Ne”

1 Trans. Chem. Soc. vol. xli. pp. 4, 5, 1882, Hartley.
2 Proc, Chem. Soc, vol, xv. (204), p. 46, 1899.

326 REPORT—1899.

Latterly the following substances have been examined with a like
result :

Typical Closed Chain Compounds which show no Absorption Bands,
but transnut Continuous Spectra.

CH,—CHy
cog eo (,H,0-CH(N : CH-C,H,0),
CH,—CH, Furfuramide
Diketo-hexa-methylene
ea aige ie HC———CH HC CH
| | | || | |
HC C:GOB ‘y. 2He C-COOH HC HC
Nex orig NB
Furfuraldehyde Pyromucic Acid Furfurane
HC——— CH HC——_—CH
| | | |
HC CH Et CH
Bisa ak
Pyrrole Thiophene

The absorption of the ultra-violet rays by solutions of some of these
substances, and particularly thiophene, is very intense, but in no case is
there any selective absorption.

It is necessary now to refer back to a series of papers included under
the heading ‘ Researches on the Relation between the Molecular Structure
of Carbon Compounds and their Absorption Spectra. ’?

On MOoLecuLAR AND INTRAMOLECULAR VIBRATIONS.

In the ‘Chem. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. xxxix. p. 161, 1881, the spectra of
condensed benzene nuclei were examined, such as are obtained from
naphthalene, anthracene, and phenanthrene. The diagrams of the absorp-
tion spectra of these substances were drawn to scale, and they show
enormous differences in the intensity of the absorption bands in these
different hydrocarbons as well as differences in the positions of the bands,
For instance, six bands were measured in the spectrum of benzene, and
four of these are visible when one part is diluted with 2,400 of alcohol ;
then in naphthalene with a dilution of 1 in 100,000 parts, one in phenan-
threne with 1 in 500,000 parts, and one in anthracene with 1 in 5,000,000
parts, the thickness of the layer of liquid in each case being only 15
millimetres. In February, 1881,*it was stated that the mean wave-length
of the rays intercepted by ozone is 2,560 tenth-metres. From this the
mean rate of vibration of the molecule of ozone can be calculated. When
perfect absorption occurs, the molecule of the absorbing medium must be
vibrating synchronously, and in the same plane with the ray absorbed,
from which it follows, if the velocity of light be taken as 315,364,000
metres per second (Fizeau), the mean rate of vibration per second of time of
the molecule of ozone must amount to 1,231,000,000,000,000 vibrations.

1 «The Ultra-violet Absorption Spectra of some Closed Chain Carbon Compounds,’
Trans. Chem. Soc. 1898, p. 598, W. N. Hartley and James J. Dobbie.
2 Trans. Chem. Soc. 1881, W. N. Hartley.

3 Trans, Chem, Soc, vol. xxxix. p, 60, ‘On the Absorption Spectrum of Ozone,’
Hartley.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL GONSTITUTION, 327

On the Cause of Absorption Bands in the Spectra transmitted by Benzene and its
Derivatives.)

Tt was pointed out that in the absorption of ultra-violet rays by hydro-
carbons of the aromatic series we have two kinds of absorption made
manifest, namely, a general and a selective absorption, It is the selective
absorption which distinguishes these from all other compounds of whatever
class, so far as our knowledge at present extends.

While the absorption spectrum of alcohols and fatty acids and amines
depends upon and varies with the molecular weight of the compounds, or,
more strictly expressed, with the number of carbon atoms in the molecule,
in aromatic compounds it depends entirely on the structure of the molecule.

For instance, a terpene, C,)H,,, is much more strongly diactinic than
naphthalene, C,)H,, and benzene hexachloride, C,H,Cl,, than benzene,
C,H,. Cymene, C,,H,,, or CH;'C;H,;CH(CH;)., p. methyl-isopropyl-
benzene, if compared with naphthalene, C,,H,, is found to possess only
one-fifth the absorptive power of the latter, and it gives a very different
spectrum. There is a similar difference between anthracene and phenan-
threne, both with the composition C,,H,). Such a difference is quite
usual with isomerides of the aromatic series.

When the molecule of a substance is capable of vibrating synchronously
with a radiation, the ray received on this substance is absorbed. The ab-
sorption is complete if the direction of the vibration of the ray and of the
molecule is the same, but the phase opposite. It is evident that general
actinic absorption, exerted by carbon compounds, is due to the vibrations
of the molecules, since absorption increases in extent with the number of
carbon atoms in the molecule, or, in other words, in any homologous series
the greater the molecular mass the lower the rate of vibration of the
molecule, Selective absorption appears to be caused by the vibration of
atoms or atomic groupings within the molecule.

When a substance such as benzene absorbs all rays more refrangible
than \ 2743, it is because the molecules are vibrating synchronously with
these rays, and the number of molecules within the path of the rays is
sufficient to damp all vibrations. When the liquid is diluted the number
of molecules present is not sufficient to damp all the vibrations, and some
rays are transmitted.

Tf, however, certain carbon atoms within the molecule are vibrating
synchronously with certain rays, we shall have selective absorption of
these rays after the general absorption has been so weakened by dilution
as to allow them to pass. It was not found possible to associate any of
the absorption bands of the substances examined with any particular
carbon atoms ; furthermore, it was shown that the intra-molecular vibra-
tions were dependent upon the vibrations of the molecules.

From numbers representing approximately the mean wave-lengths of
the four chief bands of rays absorbed by benzene, naphthalene, and
anthracene, and from the velocity of light, the mean rate of vibration of
the molecules of benzene, naphthalene, and anthracene were calculated,
The following are the numbers given :—

Mean A Vibrations per second of time
Benzene, 2526 1248 10!
ee

Naphthalene, 2687
Anthracene, 3439 S10" 1

ow a

1 Trans, Chem, Soe. vol, xxxix, p, 165, 1881,

328 REPORT—1899.

The mean rate of vibration of the rays absorbed by naphthalene is
less than that absorbed by benzene, and those of anthracene less than
those of naphthalene. It follows from this that the vibrations within the
molecules are not independent of but are a consequence of the funda-
mental molecular vibrations, like the harmonics of a stretched string, or
a bell, When the rate of the vibration is reduced by the increase in mass
of the molecule, the rate of vibrations of the carbon atoms is reduced in a
similar ratio.

Tn the case of a vibrating string or tuning-fork, greater amplitude of
vibration means a louder note; in the case of a luminous vibration it
means a brighter light ; consequently the converse of this should hold
good, that a greater intensity of absorption is caused by a greater ampli-
tude of vibration in the molecules of the absorbing medium, the number
of molecules remaining constant. Hence it follows that as the absorbing
power of anthracene and naphthalene is, molecule for molecule, greater
than that of benzene, the amplitude of vibration of the molecules of these
substances is greater. Now, the mean rate of vibration of the rays
absorbed by naphthalene and anthracene is less than that of the rays
absorbed by benzene, though the character of the absorption is the same
in each case. Hence we may conclude that though the wave-form is
similar, the amplitude of the vibrations is greater, and the rate of vibra-
tions is slower.

From the foregoing views it will be observed that where X is the
wave-length, 1/A is the oscillation frequency in a small unit of time ;
omitting the correction for the refraction of air, which is a very small
amount, and in representing absorption bands by inverse wave-lengths,
we refer them directly to the oscillation frequencies of the absorbed rays,
1/\, a very convenient mode of representing them.

It will be seen in dealing with coloured substances that Gerard Kriiss,
seven years later, in 1888,! also? gives expression to similar views, which
are thus stated in his papers.

Although the kinetic energy of gases gives some account of the trans-
lation of molecules through space, yet no satisfactory hypothesis has been
brought forward to illustrate either the rotation of the molecules about
their own axes, or the interatomic movements within the molecules.
These two last the author terms ‘inner molecular movements.’ From
the undulatory theory of light, deductions may be drawn regarding these
inner molecular movements, inasmuch as the vibrations of the ether,
which fills the intramolecular space, are a resultant within that space
of the velocity and amplitude of the molecular vibrations.

Thus, if \ be the wave-length of a ray emitted by a substance, v the
velocity of light, the number of vibrations, », which a molecule sends
forth by movements of it as a whole and of its parts, can be determined

by the equation, » = x . The phenomena of emission and of absorption

spectra thus throw some light on the least and most extensive form of
this inner molecular movement. The latter point is discussed, together
with relation to the interatomic attraction, which is subject to the chemical
constitution of the molecule ; inasmuch as the vibrations of the particles
of a body are capable of being excited only by vibrations of a like period

1 Ber. vol. xviii. pp. 2586-2591.
2 Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie, vol. ii, pp. 312~337, 1888.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 329

in the external ether, so from the wave-lengths of those rays of light
which are absorbed to the greatest degree by the solution of any sub-
stance, the number of the vibrations of the molecules within the liquid
can be calculated from the equation given. The number of vibrations for
billionths of a second were calculated for indigo, rosolic acid, fluorescein,
and their various derivatives, the absorption spectra of which had been
examined. These will be referred to later on.

The Spectra of Tertiary Bases.

These substances are of particular interest, owing to their connection
with the natural alkaloids.’

Cinchomeronic acid, the pyridine dicarboxylic acid obtained by the
oxidation of quinine, &c. with potassium permanganate, has a strong
absorption band between \ 2743 and d 2574.

Picoline.—An alcoholic solution containing ;;}5,th of the substance
shows a strong absorption band lying beyond \ 2743, but a broad band of
rays is fully transmitted further on. Solutions containing sabuoth show
a strong absorption band lying between A 2743 and \ 2574. The absorp-
tion band is narrowed but is not destroyed by dilution to ;p$oq0th.

Since picoline is a methyl-pyridine it follows that

The substitution of nitrogen for carbon in the benzene nucleus does
not destroy or impair the power of selective absorption possessed by the
original molecule.

The substitution of nitrogen for carbon in the benzene ring really

removes an atom of hydrogen. This action greatly increases the absorp-
-tive power of the substance, as will be seen by comparing methyl-benzene

(toluene) ? with picoline or methyl-pyridine. There is a striking resem-
blance between the two spectra, but the narrow band characteristic of the
homologues of benzene is absent.

Quinoline.—A solution of this substance in alcohol containing ; >} 59th
shows one narrow band a little beyond \ 3076. Two narrow bands and a
broad one are seen in solutions containing ;;1,,5th, and a trace of absorp-
tion continues until the dilution has reached 55}, 9th. This spectrum is
a remarkable one.

Comparing picoline with toluene, and quinoline with naphthalene, the
chief difference to be noted in their absorption spectra is the increased
intensity of absorption in the case of the nitrogen compounds.

Ultra-violet Spectra of Derivatives of the Paraffins.
By J. L. Soret and A. A. Rinuer.?

There is considerable difficulty in obtaining compounds of sufficient
purity for observations on the ultra-violet rays. The alcohols were found
to show great transparency to the ultra-violet, and any apparent excep-
tions were probably due to impurities. In the rectification and
prolonged desiccation of the alcohols there is often slight oxidation, which
leads to the production of impurities which affect the results of an exami-
nation. Hartley and Huntington concluded that in the series of alcohols

1 * Researches on the Relation of the Molecular Structure of Carbon Compounds to
their Absorption Spectra,’ pt. vi. Trans. Chem. Soc,, February 1882.

2 Phil. Trans. 1879, Pl. 25.

8 Comptes Rendus, vol. cx. pp. 137-139, 1890,

300 REPORT—1899,

the absorption of the ultra-violet increased as the complexity of the
molecules increases in any homologous series. It was found, however, by
Soret and Rilliet that when the process of drying was rapidly executed,
ethyl alcohol is not appreciably less diactinic than methyl alcohol.
Ketones, it was found, are strongly adiactinic, but any differences which
were perceived were not greater than might be attributed to small
quantities of impurities which it is difficult to exclude. Pure ether is
almost as transparent as pure water, to the ultra-violet spectrum. In
dealing with haloid derivatives it was found that the substitution of one
alkyl for another has very little effect upon their transparency, and this
is particularly well marked in iodides.

It is concluded that the action on the ultra-violet rays constitutes a
very delicate test of the purity of an organic substance.

Note on Soret and Rilliet’s Observations.—The difficulty in obtaining
compounds derived from the paraffins of sufficient purity was found by
Hartley and Huntington to be so great, in the case of hydrocarbons, that
after repeated trials all hope of obtaining a sufficient number of pure
homologues was abandoned. Asa rule, substances were examined imme-
diately after they had been submitted to a final distillation and their
boiling points taken. In the case of ethyl alcohol, it was difficult to
obtain it quite free from traces of other substances, which affected its
spectrum. Samples were dehydrated finally by standing over freshly burnt
lime for twelve hours, and then submitted to distillation. This process
was recommended by Dupré. MHaloid derivatives are remarkable for their
transparency, particularly those of chlorine.

With the organic acids of the fatty series great difficulty was experi-
enced, and this is mentioned in the original memoir. In place of the
acids themselves salts were taken, but such anomalous results were
obtained with the same substance that a careful examination led to the
discovery of such substances as formates being oxidised to oxalates by
the process of evaporation and crystallisation, To obviate the difficulties
which were thus encountered barium or calcium salts were crystallised, by
which means any oxalate formed remained insoluble.

Measured in terms of wave-lengths, the actual difference between
ethyl alcohol, methylic alcohol, and pure water is very small. In fact,
methylic alcohol is very slightly different in this respect from water,
This is shown on Plate 1 in the ‘ Phil. Trans.’ 1879.

Curves oF MOLECULAR VIBRATIONS.

Researches on the Relation between the Molecular Structure of Carbon
Compounds and their Absorption Spectra, Part VII. (Harriey),*

In this paper the results of the examination of the absorption spectra
of the following substances are given :

(1) Aromatic hydrocarbons : benzene and naphthalene.

(2) Aromatic tertiary bases and their salts: pyridine, dipyridine,
picoline, quinoline, and their hydrochlorides,

(3) Addition products of tertiary bases and salts: piperidine, tetra-
hydro-quinoline, and its hydrochloride.

? Trans. Chem, Soc. vol, lvii, p, 685, 1885,

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. Sak

(4) Primary and secondary aromatic bases or amido-derivatives and
salts thereof : ortho- and para-toluidine and their hydrochlorides.
(5) Isomeric bodies : the three xylenes.

The Preparation of Solutions and Method of Examination.—In dealing
with a variety of nearly related substances from which similar solutions
have to be prepared, it is necessary that the solution of the least soluble
substance (largest solution) shall, as far as possible, serve as a standard
for the preparation of the other solutions. It was found most convenient
to take a molecular weight in milligrams and dissolve it in 20 c.c. of
absolute alcohol or any other menstruum better suited to the particular
substance. In this way molecular weights were distributed through—that
is to say, made to occupy equal volumes. The solutions, instead of being
repeatedly diluted and examined in cells of the same thickness, were
placed in a series of cells varying in thickness from 25 to 1 mm. ; if with
a thickness of 1 mm, absorption bands were still visible, the liquid was
diluted to five times its original volume, and another series of photographs
taken ranging from 5 mm. downwards.

The wave-lengths in tenth-metres have been converted into reciprocal
numbers, which have the advantage of representing oscillation frequencies
per unit of time.

When a series of photographs had been secured which gave sufficient
information from which a curve could be drawn indicating both the
general and the selective absorption, the oscillation frequencies of the
absorbed rays were taken as abscissz and the proportional thicknesses in
mm. of the weakest solution as ordinates. The curves are made con-
tinuous, and a careful description of the spectra obtained by transmitting
rays through varying thicknesses of the solutions is intended to supple-
ment the curves and serve the purpose of the shaded diagrams which had
hitherto been employed.!

It will be convenient here to introduce some recent measurements of
the bands in the spectrum of benzene.

(1) Aromatic hydrocarbons.—The absorption spectrum of benzene shows
six absorption bands, while that of naphthalene shows four.

(2) Aromatic tertiary bases and their salis—In the case of the
bases and their hydrochlorides, the method of examination consisted
in photographing the spectra, transmitted by the base contained in
one series, and the molecule of hydrochloric acid contained in another,
the rays from the spark passing through both. The contents of the
two series of cells being then mixed and returned to their original
vessels, a second series of photographs was taken. As the hydro-
chloric acid proved perfectly diactinic, the first spectra represent the
absorption caused by the base alone, the second that caused by the salt.
The difference in the mode of vibration of the base, the acid, and the
salt, is very striking ; the amplitude of the vibrations within the molecule
of the salt being much less, as one would imagine, than in that of the
base. The absorption spectra of pyridine and its hydrochloride, of dipyri-
dine, and picoline, show one absorption band each. Two specimens of
quinoline were examined ; one prepared from coal-tar, and the other
synthetically by Skraup’s reaction. The absorption spectra of the two
specimens were identical, and showed three absorption bands.

» Trans. Chem. Soc. vol, xlyii, p, 687, 1885.

302 REPORT—1899,

(3) Addition products of tertiary bases and salts.—Piperidine has no
power of selective absorption ; this was predicted from the behaviour of
benzene hexachloride, which also has no power of selective absorption.
Tetra-hydro-quinoline, on the other hand, has still the power of selective
absorption, and its spectrum shows one absorption band.

(4) Primary and secondary aromatic bases or amido-derwatives and
their salts.—Both ortho- and para-toluidine and their hydrochlorides show
an absorption band.

(5) The absorption spectra of ortho- and meta-xylene both show an
absorption band ; that of para-xylene shows two absorption bands.

These substances being, unlike other isomeric bodies formerly examined,
free from oxygen, afford a means of estimating the differences in molecular
absorption which is due to nothing more than the so-called relative
functions of the compound radicals.

The area enclosed by the curve of metaxylene appears to be the least,
that of orthoxylene stands next, while that of paraxylene is the greatest.

The following deductions were drawn from the investigations :

1. When an atom of nitrogen is substituted for an atom of carbon in
the benzene or naphthalene nucleus, the property of selective absorption is
still retained.

This had already been inferred from an examination of picoline.!

2. When the condensation of the carbon and nitrogen im the molecule of
a benzenoid compound or tertiary base is modified by the addition thereto
of an atom of hydrogen to each atom of carbon and nitrogen, the power of
selective absorption is destroyed.

3. When the condensation of the carbon atoms in quinoline is modified
by the combination therewith of four atoms of hydrogen, the intensity of the
selective absorption is reduced but is not destroyed.

4, Molecules of compounds—that is to say, molecules composed of dis-
similar atoms—vibrate as wholes or units, and the fundamental vibrations
give rise to secondary vibrations which stand in no visible relation to the
chemical constituents of the molecule, whether these be atoms or smaller
molecules.

THE SPECTRA OF VARIOUS AROMATIC HyDROCARBONS AND
SUBSTANCES DERIVED THEREFROM.

Note on the Absorption Bands in the Spectrum of Benzene.
(Hartiey and Dossie).”

When benzene is examined with a wide slit, lenses of long focus, and
a powerful spark, a remarkable feature is noticeable in the spectra photo-
graphed. The absorption bands are seen to be degraded in the direction
of the least refrangible rays, suggesting that the bands consist of groups
of lines stronger and closer together on the more refrangible side ; weaker
and wider apart on the less refrangible. Such were the conditions under
which the first photographs were taken. By using a very powerful spark,
but with an instrument of short focus and a narrow slit, the rays emitted
by cadmium electrodes may be rendered sufficiently continuous to show

1 Trans. Chem. Soc. vol. xli. p. 47, 1882.
2 Trans. Chem. Soc. p. 695, 1898.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 300

these bands, and at the same time to render the lines sharp enough to
serve as a scale of wave length measurements.

The series of independent measurements obtained from photographs
taken under the latter conditions, when compared with those obtained by
Pauer by examining the vapour of benzene,’ show that his weak line
d 2670 is identical with the first absorption band, and his weak band
d 2390-2360 with the sixth absorption band observed in solutions of
benzene in alcohol. The result of Pauer’s work was to show that the
constitution of the absorption bands in benzene, when the substance is
vaporised, is that of lines, or groups of closely adjacent lines. The
action of a solvent is to cause the lines to be dispersed or merged into

bands.

Benzene.

0-078 gram, or 1 milligram molecule, in 20 c.c. of alcohol.
Strong absorption bands to the number of six.

Thickness of

layer of liquid Description of spectrum +
in millimetres
25 One band, absorption beyond complete . 8691—3727
20 One band. : - : q : ‘ 8691—3727
10 Two bands, not very distinct.
First from 3691—3730
Second from ° ; - : 8755—3883
5 The first absorption band is barely
visible.
The second absorption band from 3802—3854
Absorption band, third from 8886—3947
¥ » fourth from 3979—4043
1 » fifth from 4075—4128
Pr », sixth from 4170—4189
4 Absorption band, second from 3802—3847'5
a » third from . 3883—3947
Ee s» fourth from 3979—4040
= » fifth from 4075—4122:5
3 » sixth from . ‘ i 4170—4215
5 The description applies to both these
9 } spectra. |
Absorption band, second from 3812—3847:'5
a » third from 3915—3937
' 4, fourth from 3995—4030
5 » fifth from 41004120
* » sixth from 4190—4210
1 Absorption band, second from 8819— 3847-5
A » third from . 8915—3934
4 3» fourth from 4004—4024
3 » fifth from . - 4103—4116
i » sixth from . : 2 4202 _4208:5
Continuous spectrum to 4555

It is perhaps worth while to draw attention to a slight mistake on
p. 364 of Herr Pauer’s paper ; he credits Miiller with work on the ultra-
violet rays, but the author referred to is undoubtedly the late Dr. William
Allen Miller. It has been explained also by Professor W. R. Dunstan,

1 Wied, Ane. vol. Ixi, p. 362, 1897.

334. REPORT—1899.

whom he mentions as having investigated ultra-violet absorption spectra,
that certain work by Hartley and Huntington was in error attributed
to him.!

Naphthalene.

‘128 gram, or 1 milligram molecule, in 20 ¢.c. of alcohol.

With 5, 4, and 3 mm. the spectrum is continuous to 1/A 3151.
With 3 mm, an absorption band (1) appears from !/\ 3194 to 3228, and
a second absorption band (2) from +/A 3249 to 3297 ; with 2 mm. both
bands are still seen. With 1 mm the band (1) has narrowed somewhat,
and the second band (2) has disappeared.

1 mill. mol. in 100 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, and 3mm. the band (1) is still seen from 1/A 3204 to
3228.

A third absorption band (3) also appears from !/\ 3359 to 3379.

With 2 mm. the band (3) still persists, while a fourth band (4) from
1/\ 3439 to 4259 appears.

With 1 mm. only the band (4) is seen, band (3) having disappeared.

1 mill. mol. in 500 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, and 2 mm. the absorption band (4) is still seen; it
gradually narrows as the thickness of the layer is diminished. With
1 mm. the absorption band (4) has disappeared.

Ortho-vylene.

1 mill. mol. in 20 c.c. alcohol.

With 25 and 20 mm. the spectrum is continuous !/\ 3611, but weak
towards the violet end. With 15 mm. an absorption band appears
from 1/\ 3611 to 4331, and persists until the layer is only 2 mm. thick.
With 1 mm. the absorption band has disappeared and the spectrum is
continuous to !/A 4426°7.

Meta-xylene.

1 mill. mol. in 20 c.e. alcohol.

With 25, 20, and 15 mm. the spectrum is continuous to !/\ 3580.
With 15 mm. there is a faint prolongation to !/A 3611. With 10 mm.
an absorption band appears from 1/A 3611 to 4331. This band persists
until a thickness of 2 mm. is reached. With 1 mm. the band has
disappeared.

Para-vylene.

1 mill. mol. in 20 c.c. alcohol.

With 25, 20, and 15 mm. the spectrum is continuous to !/\ 3537.
With 15 mm. there is a faint prolongation to+/A 3580. With 10 mm.
an absorption band (1) appears from !/A 3580 to 4331. This band is
still seen when the: layer is-1 mm. in thickness. With 1 mm. a second
absorption band (2) also appears from '/A 3701 to 3890.

1 mill. mol. in 100 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, and 2 mm. the two absorption bands are still seen: (1)
from 1/X 3611 to 3701; (2) from 1/A 3701 to 3890. With 1 mm.
both bands have disappeared and the spectrum is continuous to !/\
4426-7.

1 Chem. News, 1891, vol. Ixiii. p. 309; 1891, vol. lxiv. pp. 10 and 212.

3
os
or

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND’ CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

Pyridine.

1 mill. mol. in 20 e.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 mm. there is complete absorption beyond !/\
3647.

1 mill. mol. in 100 e.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 mm. an absorption band appears from !/\
3707 to 4426-7.

1 mill. mol. in 500 e.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4 and 3 mm. the absorption band appears from !/\ 3768 to
4253. With 2 and 1 mm. the absorption band disappears and the
spectrum is continuous to 1/A 4566, but weak towards the violet end.

Pyridine and HCl.

1155 gram hydrochloride in 40 c.c. alcohol.

Double thicknesses of cells taken. With 10, 8, and 6 mm. the spec-
trum was continuous to'/A 3611. With 4 and 2mm. an absorption band
appeared from 1/\ 3647 to 4426-7.

1155 gram hydrochloride in 200 c.e. alcohol.

With 10 mm. the absorption band appears from !/\ 3467 to \ 4426°7.
With 8, 6, 4, and 2 mm. the absorption band is still seen, but it gets
narrower as the thickness of the layer of liquid is diminished.

"1155 gram hydrochloride in 1,000 ¢.c. alcohol.

With 10 mm. absorption band appears from !/A 3762 to 4125, and
it persists until a thickness of 6 mm. is reached. With 4 mm. the
absorption band disappears, and with 2 mm. the continuous spectrum is
obtained.

Dipyridine.

158 gram in 1,000 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, and 2 mm. the spectrum is continuous to 1/\ 3580.
With 2 mm. there is a prolongation '/A 3890. With 1mm. an absorption
band appears from '/\ 3890 to 4331.

158 gram in 5,000 c.c. alcohol.

With 5 mm. there is an absorption band from 1/\ 3890 to 4331.
With 4 mm. the absorption band disappears and the spectrum extends
to !/\ 4543,

Picoline.*

094 gram in 20 c.c. alcohol.

With 5and 4 mm. the spectrum is continuous to !/\ 3537, and with
5 and 2 mm. to'/\ 3556. With 1 mm. an absorption band appears from
1/ 3580 to 4331.

094 gram in 100 ¢.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 mm. the absorption band appears from !/)
3580 to 4331. With 1 mm. the band is slightly narrower.

094 gram in 500 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, and 2 mm. the absorption band appears from !/
3647 to 4331. With 1 mm. the absorption band has disappeared and
the spectrum ends at 1/\ 4560.

See also Trans. Chem. Soc. February 1882.

336 REPORT—1899.

Quinoline.—Specimen I.1
(Prepared from Coal Tar.)

129 gram in 20 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 mm. the spectrum is continuous to 1/d 3080.

129 gram in 100 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 mm. the spectrum is continuous to !/\ 3151.

129 gram in 500 c.c. alcohol.

With 5 mm. an absorption band (1) appears from 1/A 3151 to 3890.
With 4 mm. the same band and two additional bands are seen, e.g. (2)
from !/\ 3242 to 3297, and (3) from 1/\ 3297 to 3537.

With 3 mm. the absorption band (3) has disappeared. With 3, 2, and
1 mm. we have the absorption bands (1) from '/A 3187 to 3228, and (2)
from !/\ 3242 to 3290.

129 gram in 2500 c.c. alcohol.

With 5 mm. all the absorption bands had disappeared and the spectrum
was continuous to 1/A 4248.

Quinoline Hydrochloride.—Specimen I.

‘129 gram quinoline+ HCl. in 20 c.c. alcohol. (HCl. was added until
the solution gave an acid reaction.)

With 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 mm. the spectrum was continuous to !/A 2803.
With 3, 2, and 1 mm. there was a feeble prolongation to 1/A 2887.

129 gram+ HCl. in 100 c.c. alcohol.

With 5 and 4 mm. the spectrum is continuous to !/\ 2887. With 3,
2, and 1 mm. an absorption band appears from !/d 2941 to 3647.

129 gram+ HCl. in 500 c.c. alcohol.

With 5 mm. an absorption band appears from !/A 3008 to 3647.
This is persistent until a thickness of 2 mm. is reached, the band getting
narrower as the thickness of the layer is reduced. With 1 mm. the band
has disappeared and the spectrum is continued to !/A 4130.

129 gr. quinoline+ HCl. in 2,500 c.c. alcohol.

With 5 mm. the spectrum is continuous to 1/A 4136. With 4, 3, 2,
and 1 mm. a new absorption band appears from 1/A 4136 to 4547.

Quinoline.—Specimen II.
(Prepared synthetically by Skraup's reaction.)

*129 gram in 20 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 mm. the spectrum is continuous to '/A 3080.

129 gram in 100 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 mm. the spectrum is continuous to '/A 3080.

‘129 gram in 500 c.c. alcohol.

With 5 mm. an absorption band appears from !/\ 3151 to 3890.
With 4 and 3 mm. this band is seen, but it gets narrower as the thickness
of the layer of liquid is reduced. With 2 mm. the absorption band has
disappeared and the spectrum extends to 1/ 4130.

Piperidine.
085 gram in 20 c.c. alcohol.
With 5 mm. the spectrum extends to '/A 3970, and with 1 mm. to

1/\ 4130.
No absorption bands.

1 See also Zvans. Chem. Soc, February 1882.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 337

Tetrahydroquinoline.

‘133 gram in 20 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 mm. the spectrum is continuous to 1/A 3008°5.

‘133 gram in 100 c.e. alcohol.

With 5 and 4 mm. the spectrum was continuous to }/A 3073. With
3, 2, and 1 mm. an absorption band appeared from '/\ 3151 to 3647,
which got narrower as the thickness of the layer of liquid was reduced.

‘133 gram in 500 c.c. alcohol.

With 5 mm. the absorption band had disappeared and the spectrum
was continuous to !/A 3647. With 4, 3, and 2 mm. an absorption band
appeared from !/A 3701 to 4331, which got narrower as the thickness
of the layer of liquid was reduced.

With 1 mm. the absorption band had disappeared and the spectrum
extended to 1/d 4566, but was somewhat weak towards the violet end.

Tetrahydroquinoline Hydrochloride.

‘1695 gram in 20 e.c. alcohol.

With 10, 9, 8, and 7 mm. the spectrum is continuous to 1/\ 3008
With 6, 5, 4, 3, and 2 mm. an absorption band appears from 1/A 3080 to
3574, which gets narrower as the thickness of the layer of liquid is
reduced. With 1 mm. this absorption band has disappeared, but another
appears from !/\ 3647 to 4331.

‘1695 gram in 100 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 mm. an absorption band appears from 1/A
3647 to 4331.

1695 gram in 500 c.c. alcohol.

With 5 and 4 mm. an absorption band appears from 1/\ 3647 to
4331. With 3 mm. the absorption band has disappeared, and the spec-
trum extends to !/\ 4426-7.

Ortho-toluidine Hydrochloride.

‘107 gram dissolved in 20 ¢.c. of alcoholic solution of HCl.

With 5 and 4 mm. the spectrum was continuous to 1/X 3647. With
3 and 2 mm. an absorption band appears from '/A 3701 to 4426-7.
With 1 mm. the absorption band disappears, and the spectrum is con-
tinuous to 1/A 4547-5.

Para-toluidine.

‘107 gram in 20 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 mm. the spectrum is continuous to !/A 3080.

‘107 gram in 100 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 2 and 2 mm. an absorption band appears from 1/A 3151
to 3701, which gets narrower as the thickness of the layer of liquid is
reduced. With 1 mm. the absorption band disappears, and the spectrum
is continuous to !/\ 3890.

‘107 gram in 500 e.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, and 3 mm. the spectrum is continuous to !/\ 3930. With
2 and 1 mm. an absorption band appears from '/\ 3890 to 4426. It is
slightly narrower with the 1 mm. layer.

‘107 gram in 2,500 e.c. alcohol.

With 5 mm. an absorption band appears from 1/A 4033 to 4331.

1899. ; Zz

338 REPORT—1899.

With 4 mm. the absorption band has disappeared, and the spectrum
extends to !/A 4660.

Para-toluidine Hydrochloride.

1435 gram salt in 40 c.c. alcohol.

With 10, 8 and 6 mm. an absorption band appears from 1/X 3647 to
4253. With 4 mm. the absorption band has disappeared, and the
pectrum extends to !/\ 4474-2.

Let us deal now with organic colouring matters, a class of substances
which have naturally been more generally studied, but by observations
made over a restricted range of spectrum lying between \ 7500 and

r 4000.

‘Ueber Absorption des Lichts durch Gemische von farbigen Fliissigheiten.’
By F. E. Me.pe.!

Melde chiefly addressed himself to the following inquiries :—

Do the absorption bands which a coloured substance exhibits remain
if the liquid be mixed with one or more other coloured solutions, without
any chemical interaction taking place? Is it possible for the change of
temperature in a liquid which exhibits selective absorption to cause a
shifting of the absorption bands? His results showed that there was an
alteration which was believed to be of a physical character. H. Burger?
was strengthened in the belief that the changes observed by Melde were
not merely physical, but partly chemical, taking into account the work of
Magnus and H. W. Vogel.?

The subject was investigated very carefully by J. Landauer,‘ chiefly
as a contribution towards a settlement of the question whether every
chemical compound had its own absorption spectrum.? He under-
took the spectral analytical examination of saffranin and its salts, since
it has the very peculiar property of changing colour on the addition of
concentrated acids in varying proportions to the red solution.® It became
evident that each of the colours had its own spectrum. The green solu-
tions extinguished the violet, the blue, and the red; the blue-green
behaved in similar manner until there was a portion of the red rays
remaining which were not absorbed ; the blue solution took away merely
the yellow rays, and the more the colour was changed to violet and red
by addition of water, the more the spectrum went over to the green part.
Drawings of the spectra of thick and thin layers of liquid show the
movement of the absorption band from the red and yellow towards the
green and blue, while a second absorption band about F and G moves
into the more refrangible region, and goes, no doubt, into the ultra-
violet. The change is caused by the formation of different hydrates in
solution, which are capable of being carried possibly as far as complete
dehydration. The addition of water of course reverses the change.

1 Pogg. Ann. vol. exxiv. p. 91, and vol. cxxvi. p. 264.

2 « Spectroscopische: Untersuchungen tiber die Constitution von Lisungen,’ Ber,
vol. ii. pp. 1876-78, 1878. ant

8 Praktische Spectralanalyse irdischer Stoffe, pp. 123 and 212.

4 ‘Zur Kenniniss der Absorptionsspectra,’ Ber. vol. ii. p. 1772.

5 Moser, Pogg. Ann. vol. clx. p. 177, and Ber. vol, xi. p. 1416,

6 Hofmann and Geyger, Ber. vol. v. p. 631. sue 5

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION, 339

Similar colour effects are produced by evaporating the solution of these
salts, particularly of the sulphate. There are three hydrates formed, and
eventually two hydrates and an anhydrous salt.

Ueber die Wandlung der Spectren verschiedener Farbstoffe.*
By Hermann W. VOGEL.

Tt is a known fact that absorption spectra of one and the same
substance dissolved in different liquids do not always show the absorption
bands in the same position. According to Kundt’s law the broadening or
shifting of the bands towards the red occurs owing to the greater
dispersion or refraction equivalent of the solvent liquid, and this law holds
good in very many cases. But there are cases where, on a change in the
liquid solvent, there is no shifting towards the red, but on the contrary,
towards the violet. In other instances even where the solvent liquid has
no chemical action upon the dissolved substance, the whole character of
the spectrum changes. A case in point is purpurin, which shows two
beautiful absorption bands on F, the 6 group, and E, when dissolved in
alcohol, but these bands are not seen in anaqueoussolution. Naphthalene
red shows very different absorption spectra according as it is dissolved in
alcohol, in water, in resin, or is solid, or used to colour paper. The curves
representing the absorption in the several cases are different. Coloured
gelatine behaves in a similar manner to the solid substance.

Ueber die Verschiedenheit der Absorptionsspectra eines und
desselben Stoffes.2 By HERMANN W. VOGEL.

He refers to the researches on uranium salts made by Morton and
Carrington Bolton, and gives the spectra of a number of inorganic
coloured substances,

Ueber die Verschiedenheit der Absorptionsspectra eines und
desselben Stoffes.2 By HERMANN W. VOGEL.

The substances examined were corallin and fuchsin in alcohol, water,
and in the solid state, and the absorption bands were found to be the
same in the solution, and but slightly shifted towards the less refrangible
end according to Kundt’s Jaw. Curves are shown in the original paper.
The solid substances showed somewhat different bands from the solutions,
not so strong in the case of fuchsin, and lying nearer the green. He
examined also indigo vapour in thick and thin layers, in the solid state,
and in solution. He compared the spectrum with that of anilin-blue in
water and alcohol, cyanine, and methyl-violet both solid and dissolved
in alcohol.

_ He dissolved purpurin in carbon disulphide, but could not see he
bands described by Stokes.‘

The following conciusions were drawn from Vogel’s work :

1. There is a remarkable difference between the spectra of a single
substance in the solid, in the liquid or dissolved, and in the gaseous

1 Ber. vol. ii. p. 622, 1878.

* Ber. vol. ii, p. 913, 1878.

* Ber. vol. ii. p. 1363, ‘ Absorptionsspectra organischer Kérper,’ 1878.
* J, Chem. Soe. vol. xii. p. 21.

340 . REPORT—1899,

state. Characteristic absorption bands which appear in one state of
aggregation, either do not appear at all in another, or the bands are
markedly altered in position, in intensity, or in appearance. The same
absorption spectrum is shown by chlorophyll and by copper sulphate in
the solid as well as in the dissolved state.

2. The spectra which one and the same substance yields in different
solvents are indistinguishable in many cases, in other instances they are
distinguished by the width of their bands, in others by a total difference
in their characters, so that the spectra in no way correspond.

3. The rule given by Kundt that the absorption bands are shifted
farther towards the red the stronger the dispersion of the liquid which is
used as a solvent, is not satisfied in many cases. Sometimes the bands
are shifted towards the blue, e.g., uranium nitrate in water and alcohol
and blue cobalt chloride in water and alcohol. Sometimes there is a
strong alteration in the sense of Kundt’s rule, and in other cases in the
same region of rays the alteration is but trifling. Many absorption
bands show in different media of solution the same or very nearly the
same position, while at the same time others are shifted.

4. The position of absorption bands in the spectra of solid and dis-
solved substances can only in exceptional cases be of value as character-
istic of the particular substance. Substances which are totally different
exhibit bands in (almost) exactly the same positions. Very analogous
substances exhibit in like proportions striking differences in the position
of their bands.’

5. The law for absorption spectra, every substance has its own
spectrum,’ is only admissible in a very restricted sense.

The great number of polychroic substances show different colours and
different spectra in the solid state, and it is a question which of these is
to be regarded in the case of any one substance as its own special
spectrum.

Zur Kenntniss der Alizarin-Farbstoffe und griinen Anilinfarben.
By HERMANN W. VOGEL.

The spectra of these substances are described, and the changes caused
by different reagents acting upon them, which give rise to different
spectra.

Relation between the Composition of Organic Compounds and their
Absorption Spectra.! By G. Krtss and 8. CEconomMIDES.

It bad been shown by Melde that the absorption spectrum of a mixed
solution of two or more coloured substances is not the same as the spec-
trum of each taken in conjunction, but that displacements and concen-
trations of the absorption bands occur.® The changes being ascribed to
chemical changes within the solutions, it became of interest to ascertain

1 Solid uranium salts, according to Morton and Carrington Bolton, Chem. News,
vol. xxviii. p. 47.

2 Moser, Pogg. Ann. vol. clx. p. 177.

3 Ber. vol. ii. p. 1371, 1878.

4 Ber. vol. xvi. pp. 2051-2056, 1883.

5 Ber. vol. xv. pp. 1243-1249, 1882, ‘Ueber die Constitution von Losungen,’ G.
Kriiss, >

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 3A]

the nature of the chemical reactions involved. The replacements of
hydrogen by alkyls, nitroxyl, and amidogen was the subject of investiga-
tion. The authors state that the subject had been partially investigated
by Dunstan, Soret, and others, and appear to quote from the ‘ Pharm.
Trans.’ vol. xi. p. 54. In attributing work of the kind to Dunstan they were
in error, and this misstatement has been repeated by other authors in
different publications. Their experiments were made upon indigo and its
derivatives, m. methyl-indigo, m. oxymethyl-indigo, ethyl-indigo, mono-
brom-indigo, dibrom-indigo, amido-indigo, and dibrom-amido-indigo, and
show that the alkyl and oxyalkyl radicals shift the absorption bands
towards the red, and that oxymethyl and ethyl exert a similar influence
to methyl and ethyl, but are stronger in effect. An atom of bromine
causes but little change, but the introduction of a second atom is equal in
effect to « methyl group. It is stated that nitroxyl- and amido-groups
have a reverse effect.

Note on the above-mentioned papers.—No accurate conclusions of a
general character can be drawn from observations on a part of the
spectrum such as was in this case made with a molecule of complex
structure like indigo. It is necessary to take into account the effect on
the ultra-violet, and undoubtedly there the effect of NO, is to shift the
bands towards the red, and that of NH, is the same when the molecule
into which these radicals enter is a simple one like benzene.

This is shown in the diagrams of Hartley and Huntington.! Com-
pare benzene, aniline, with ortho- and para-nitraniline, phenol with ortho-
nitrophenol and para-nitrophenol.?

Kriiss and Giconomides examined (1883) solutions of indigo and its
derivatives, with a view to decide whether the replacement of hydrogen
by CH, C,.H;, NH., NO,, Br., &c., has a regular influence on the absorp-
tion spectrum of the compound. Derivatives of fluorescein and _ rosolic
acid were examined by Kriiss subsequently, with the result that the view
previously put forward, namely, that the replacement of hydrogen in the
benzene-ring or in the side chain. by alkyl or oxyalkyl radicals and bro-
mine, caused a shifting of the absorption bands towards the less refrangible
end of the spectrum, whilst the introduction of an NH, or NO, has the
opposite effect. The shifting of the bands increases in proportion to the
number of substituted hydrogen atoms, when the same elements or radi-
cals are analogously introduced.

In the case of alkyl radicals this also has been shown by Hartley and
Huntington. Compare the plates of benzene, methyl-benzene, trimethyl-
benzene, ethyl-benzene,? also pyridine and picoline (Hartley). It is par-
ticularly to be noted in the case of the general absorption and in the more
pronounced intensity of the bands, which,. however, do not, in the case of
alkyl radicals, greatly alter throughout all dilutions in mere position,

Ueber innere Molekularbewegung.4 By G. Kriss.

On the basis of the velocity of light, taken as 299,000 kilometres per
second, Kriiss calculated the oscillation frequencies in the principal absorp-

1 Phil. Trams. 1879.

* G. Kriiss, Ber. vol. xviii. 1426-1433; J. Chem. Soc, Abs. p, 949, 1885,
3 Phil. Trans. 1879.
4 Bar, vol. xviii, pp. 2686-21, 1885,

B42 REPORT—1899.

tion bands of various dye-stuffs and colouring matters. He found the
velocity greater the larger the number of hydrogen atoms in the molecule.
His experiments do not appear to have been quantitative, as no propor-
tions of a molecule of the substances taken are mentioned, nor are even
the quantities of the substances or the thicknesses of the liquid recorded.
The numbers recorded are given as the number of intra-molecular vibra-
tions per billionths of a second.

Solvent used

CHCl, H.SO,

FRG HO: [UT Dida IRONY RE TRB, Oe 8 CT gg grils Nae
m. Methyl-indigo 3 ; ; : : : : . | 4825 —
m. Oxymethyl-indigo . é ; : : : ; : 459°4 =
Ethyl-indigo . ¢ : 3 . ; ; ~ . | 945872 —
Brom-indigo . : : ; : E : : | 493-2 —_—
Dibrom-indigo . ; 5 are : 3 : ; 479'9 _
Nitro-indigo E 5 : : : : ‘ - - 510°8 =

Amido-indigo . ; : . é : : é : —- 507‘7

Dibrom-amido-indigo. . : : : : 3 — 511-0

A number of fluorescein derivatives were examined.

Water Alcohol

Fluorescein : F : ; 4 2 . 4 ; 612:2
Fluorescein potassium salt A . é 5 5 . | 605°3 621°9
Dibrom-fluorescein potassium . ie . A -| 595-1 1 oce
Tetrabrom-fluorescein ‘ . , 6 4 : ; se { ee

i ‘ 4 569-4
Tetrabrom-fluorescein potassium ‘ : . “ c 579'6 { 6085
Tetranitro-fluorescein 4 3 ; i : : y 611°5 570°8
Tetranitro-fluorescein potassium . F . : : 611°5 597°5
Dibromnitro-fluorescein , . . . . . : 5956 . ape
Dibromnitro-fluorescein potassium . . . . : 595°6 583°6
Monomethyl-tetrabrom-fluorescein , - = fs ‘ — { ie
Monomethyl-tetrabrom-fluorescein potassium . . - { nh
Monethy1-tetrabrom-fluorescein . ’ Bh 7s . == { ie
Monethy!-tetrabrom-fluorescein potassium x , 4 — { als
Potassium rosolate . = Fi 7 + . A c 5503 5251
Potassium tetrabrom-rosolate . : 5 ‘ : 3 527°9 518°3

In the case of analogous replacements of the hydrogen atoms, the
increase or decrease of molecular vibrations is proportional to the number
of hydrogen atoms thus replaced. It seems that these results are in
accord with some deductions from experimental results obtained by
Rellstab, ‘Inaugural Dissertation,’ Bonn, 1868, on the transpirability of
homologous compounds,

G. Kriiss returns to this subject and gives an account of his experi-
ments in the ‘ Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie,’ vol. ii. pp. 312-337,

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION, JAS

1888. He was apparently quite unaware that the method of calculating
the molecular vibrations of a substance had, seven years previously, been

described in the ‘Journal of the Chemical Society,’ for 1881, and calcu-

lated for benzene, naphthalene, and anthracene, in a manner identical
with that which he communicates. This is rendered evident from his
article on absorption spectra in Graham-Otto’s ‘ Ausfithrliches Lehrbuch
der Chemie,’ erster Band, pp. 683-694, edited by Dr. H. Landolt in 1898.
There is an obituary notice of the author by Dr. Hugo Kriiss, stating
that this contribution was completed in 1889.

NECESSITY FOR EXAMINING THE ULTRA-VIOLET AND COLOURED
SPECTRA TOGETHER.

There is some amount of uncertainty about conclusions drawn from
observations made on only a part of the spectrum which may be illustrated
by a glance at the diagram in Hartley and Huntington’s paper, plate 22,
which is described as that of ortho-nitrophenol, but is in reality the para-
compound, and that of plate 23, erroneously termed para-nitrophenol, but
is in reality the ortho-derivative (by accident the plates were transposed).
In both instances there are two absorption bands, one in the visible
region or blue, in No. 23, and a second in the ultra-violet. Any reaction
which will reduce the velocity of the vibrations of the compound will
shift both bands towards the less refrangible rays. The first band may
thus be moved into the infra-red region, and the second into the visible
part of the spectra, say the violet. By observations on the coloured rays
only, it will be made to appear as if the first band had been moved
towards the ultra-violet instead of in the opposite direction.

Another example—an actual case—is afforded by iodine green,
methyl violet and rosaniline hydrochloride, when compared with triphenyl
methane. The powerful absorption band of the hydrocarbon is carried
down into the yellow and green by the influence on the molecule of the
NH, groups and the chlorine ; the red rays are transmitted, and a por-
tion of the violet. In the case of methyl violet, the absorption band is
carried down to a point near C, and it extends to G ; a portion therefore
of the red is transmitted, and part of the violet. With iodine green the
absorption band in the less refrangible region extends into the extreme
limit of visibility in the red, and there is absorption from between A
and B!/) 1800, until near F !/A 2000 a band of transmitted rays extends
from 1/ 2000 to 2200, or between F and G. There is then absorption
in the violet from 1/\ 2200 to 2800 in the ultra-violet, and beyond that
again there is complete absorption from !/A 2900 to 4000.

If the visible rays only are observed, and that at one thickness and
one strength of solution, it might very easily appear that the combined
effect of NH,, the CH, group, and the I is to cause the band to be
shifted from the yellow into the violet. Plate I. ‘Chem. Soc, Trans.
1887, will serve to explain this. It will be well at this juncture to refer
to the paper more fully.

Zur Kenniniss der Absorptionsspectra.
Das Chrysoidin und verwandte Azofarbstoffe.'

J. Landauer made an examination of the absorption spectra of azo
dyes. He showed that there was a marked change in the absorption

1 Ber. vol, xiv. p. 391, 1881,

344 REPORT—1899.

bands when methy] is substituted for the amido group in such substances
as chryséidine.

Grebe! examined azo-colouring matters dissolved in sulphuric acid.
By addition of carbon the bands shifted towards the red, OH and NH,
cause the same displacement. The position of the substitution seems to
have a regular influence on the position of the bands, and the extent of the
shifting is about 20 micro-millimetres nearer to the red with « compounds
of the naphthalene molecule than with the derivatives. The sulphonic
acid group, it is stated, produces a displacement in the opposite direction,
which in amount approximates to 40 micro-millimetres.

Liebermann ? examined the spectra of alkyl derivatives of oxyanthra-
quinones dissolved in cold strong sulphuric acid. The wave-lengths of
bands measured are as follows :—

— I II Til
A A rn

Alizarin . ‘ 3 5 ‘ <i 605 493 —
Alizarin ethyl ester. 3 : =| 598 487 —
Anthraflavic acid ; : it 495 463 _
Dimethyl ester ; : , ; 5OL 473 437 very feeble
Diethyl ester . ‘ : : ; 504 477 439 ‘
Quinizarin ‘ P : ’ k 551 509 483 feeble
Ethyl ester . : : ; : 564 520 484 ,,
Diethyl ester . 4 : : 3 577 535 Ag4
Iso-anthraflavic acid 4 : , — 540 494 not sharp
Diethyl ester . , : ‘ 5 — 505 492 not sharp
Flavo-purpurin : ; : 5 533 495 —
Diethyl ester . ‘ ; ; : 542 50L —
Anthragallol . : ‘ ; ; 525 492 —
Ethylester . 5 : : ; — 515 Not sharp
Diethyl ester . : : : : — 515 Not sharp
Rufigallic acid : : : : 576 532 —
Triethyl ester . ; . : : 579 545

In this particular series again the alkyl radicals cause a shifting of
the absorption bands towards the red. The extent of the shifting appears
to be different in the different bands, and differs in the various substances.

Girard and Pabst * carefully examined the absorption spectra of diazo
colours such as Biebrich scarlet, congo red, ponceau, and chrysoidine, and
illustrated their paper by drawings. The conclusions drawn from their
observations were that homologous compounds, or compounds which are
closely related in constitution, give similar absorption spectra. 1885.

In 1887 H. W. Vogel* also examined the same class of colouring
matters, and drew the following conclusions :

(1) The substitution of methyl for hydrogen in diazobenzene shifts
the position of the absorption bands towards the red end of the spectrum.
The increase of wave-lengths is 10 millionths of a millimetre where the
substitution takes place in the ortho- position, and 14 millionths of a
millimetre in the case of the para- positions.

1 Ber. vol. xxvi. p. 130, R, 1893; and Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie,
vol. x. p. 673.

? Ber. vol. xxi. p. 2527, 1887.
3° Comptes Rendus, vol. ci. pp. 157-160.
* Sitzungsberichte d. preuss. Akad, d. Wiss. xw Berlin, vol, xxxiv. pp. 715-718.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 345

(2) The substitution of G-naphthol disulphonic acid 8, or 6-naphthol
disulphonic acid R for #-naphthol sulphonie acid B, causes a shifting of
the bands, which in the case of B-naphthol sulphonic acid S amounts to
from 4 to 5 millionths of a millimetre.

(3) In the substitution of methyl the space between the two bands
becomes clearer, and the bands become more equal in intensity and width.

The substitution of B-naphthol sulphonic acid S or B-naphthol di-
sulphonic acid R, in the place of the acid B, acts in a similar manner on
the character of the bands. The solutions were made both with alcohol
and with strong sulphuric acid.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE ORIGIN OF COLOUR AND ON FLUORESCENCE.!

Anthracene is shown to possess a very definite absorption band in the
violet, and it is therefore a truly coloured substance. Its colour is the
aggregate effect on the retina of those rays which are the complement in
white light of the violet rays absorbed. The complementary colour to
the violet can be seen only by transmission. Hence the colour which is
due to fluorescence must be excluded from access to the eye, and also
all reflected light. It is therefore necessary to look directly through thin
layers of the substance, or to view it by transmitted light when the sub-
stance is fused. When examined in this manner, anthracene is seen even
in very thin layers to have a greenish yellow colour. This colour belongs
to only the very purest specimens.

Nietzki has stated that all hydrocarbons are colourless,” but this is
not strictly the case. Anthracene is not the only hydrocarbon which
possesses colour visible to the human eye. Dela Harpe and Van Dorp *
obtained a red hydrocarbon, C,,H,,, by passing fluorene over heated lead
oxide. Mantz* established its molecular weight by Raoult’s method, and
assigned it the structural formula

C,H
: 6 Negi

ot, \é yt,

C. Grebe’s investigation ° shows that the colour truly belongs to the
substance, and that it becomes brighter in colour the more highly it is
purified. He attributes the colour to the grouping >C:C<,as both the
dibromide and the hydrocarbon C,,H,, are colourless.

It may be remarked that the carbon grouping > C:C< cannot alone
be the cause of the colour, for if the carbons are united to H atoms or to
alkyl radicals it may be safely predicted that no colour would result. It
is this nucleus united to four benzene rings, each pair of which are them-
selves united, and so forming molecules with a great compactness of
structure, which is the cause of the colour. Benzene is a substance with
invisible colour, that is to say it exerts a powerful selective absorption in
the invisible region, and by any series of chemical reactions which serve
to retard the rate of vibration of the molecule, or of any group of ben-

! Trans. Chem. Soc. 1893, p. 243, Hartley.
2 Page 2 of the English edition of his work.

8 Ber. vol. viii. p. 1048.

* Inaugural Dissertation, Geneva, 1892.

° Ber. vol, xxv. pp. 3146-49.

346 REPORT—1899.

zenes united in one molecule, will cause the invisible colours of the ultra-
violet region to become visible.

Triphenylmethane absorbs all the ultra-violet rays down to H, anthra-
cene all the ultra-violet as well as a band of violet rays ; the former is
therefore all but a substance with visible colour, the latter is undoubtedly
a coloured substance. But bi-diphenylene-ethylene is strongly coloured,
and the nature of its colour is such as to show that it absorbs the violet,
blue, and green rays. These hydrocarbons constitute an interesting illus-
tration of the passage from a substance which just falls short of being
coloured to one which is but faintly, and to a third which is strongly
coloured.

H
/ OH; ae C,H. C,H
ean, eH, 4 ae. |, “00g ee
\ CoH: pe OH, C,H,

Researches on the Relation between the Molecular Structure of Carbon
Compounds and their Absorption Spectra. Part VIII. A Study of
Colowred Substances and Dyes. (HARTLEY.)!

According to Dr. Otto Witt? the tinctorial character is conditional
upon the simultaneous presence of a colour-producing group (chromogen)
and asalt- forming group (chromophore) in the molecule. This investigation
includes a study of the hydrocarbons in their relation to the more com-
plex colouring compounds derived therefrom, considered in the light of
Witt’s views.

A perfectly colourless substance transmits all luminous and invisible
vibrations without impairing their intensity ; a coloured substance absorbs
rays at either end of the spectrum, even beyond the limits of visibility, or
say from \ 7800 to \ 2000, or it selects rays from the middle of the spec-
trum. Every fluorescent substance is therefore in a certain sense
coloured, because it absorbs certain rays whether in the visible or
ultra-violet region. Benzene, benzenoid hydrocarbons, phenols, &c., which
exhibit selective absorption, are also coloured, although the eye, owing to
absorption of the ultra-violet rays by the aqueous humour,’ has a range of
vision limited by the red and violet ends of the spectrum, and therefore can-
not appreciate this variety of colour. Bands of selective absorption, it has
been shown, are to be attributed to the effect of vibrations taking place within
the molecules of a substance upon the rays which enter the substance, and
are dependent upon the rate of vibration of the molecules themselves. To
convert a carbon compound, therefore, such as benzene—which, owing to its
powerfulabsorption in the ultra-violet, may be said to have invisible colowr—
into a compound with visible colowr, it is only necessary to slacken its rate
of vibration so that the molecule will absorb rays with oscillation fre-
quencies occurring within the limits of visibility. Or, to put it in another
way, the absorption band in the ultra-violet is transferred to rays of
iower refrangibility. A chromogen is an invisibly coloured substance ; a
chromophore is an atom, or group of atoms, capable of reducing the rate

1 Trans. Chem. Soc. vol. li. 1887, p. 153.
2 Ber. vol. ix. p. 522.
3 J. L. Soret, Comptes Rendus, vol. xcvii. p. 572.

——— ae

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 347

of vibration of the molecules, with the result that it absorbs rays which are
within the limits of visibility of the human eye. Instances of chromo-
phores are afforded by oxygen and nitrogen, as in hydroxyl and nitroxyl.
Or more rarely in the case of oxygen, when united to carbon, as in uric
acid. Two benzene molecules doubly linked by two nitrogen atoms
—N=WN-—as in azo-benzene, have their mode of vibration so modified that
a colour as low down in the scale as the yellow rays is the result. These
nitrogens are chromophores. Again, when two atoms of hydrogen in
benzene are replaced by two atoms of oxygen as in quinone, a golden colour
results. In this case the oxygen atoms are chromophores, “The chromo-
phoric properties of oxygen atoms when united in a certain manner to
carbon, and especially to benzene nuclei, are strikingly illustrated by such
bodies as resorcin-phthalein, ce.

When methyl is substituted for hydrogen in benzene, three of the
absorption bands are merged in one, and the oscillation frequencies of the
rays absorbed are reduced, or in other words the general absorption is
increased. The OH, NH,, and NO, radicals invariably act in this manner
whether absorption bands are shifted or not.

Triphenylmethane,

The absorption curve of this substance has the same general character as
that of benzene, with the following modifications. There is one broad
absorption band with just an indication of a second one being merged in
this. The amplitude of the vibrations, as shown by the intensity of the
absorption bands, is very largely increased, and the rate of vibration of the
absorbed rays is very greatly reduced. A milligram molecule of benzene,
for instance, begins to transmit rays with oscillation frequencies 3760 and
4330, while ,3;th of a milligram molecule transmits all rays as far as
4650. With triphenylmethane a milligram molecule transmits nothing

beyond H or oscillation frequency 2510 ; ,,',;th of a molecule transmits
rays as far as 4600.

Rosaniline base,

/C,H,NH,
C(OH)—C,H,NH,
XC sH,(CH,)NH,

Here, the introduction of the methyl and amide groups to form rosaniline
causes the molecule to absorb allrays beyond C or !/A 1250 ; ;3,,th causes
an absorption near D!/) 1670, extending to near H !/\ 2450, while ,3;th
of a molecule transmits all rays to 1/A 4600,

Aurin,

HO-C,H,.\ of | CoH
HO-C,H, i

The introduction of the hydroxyls causes greater absorption than the
introduction of the amide groups. };th of a molecule absorbs everything
beyond C !/X 1520; while =1,th absorbs as far as D!/X 1670. goth
absorbs from !/\ 1780 to between Q and R or } RS \ 3100; and +,),5th
practically transmits the whole spectrum.

348 REPORT—1899.
Rosaniline hydrochloride,

HN GBD G/7
HAN - OH, /\,

NH - HCl
| 2,0
C,H, : CH;

Tn this substance the absorption is greater than in rosaniline, all rays
beyond C and between B and C ('/A 1500) are absorbed. 355th of a
milligram molecule absorbs all rays beyond !/\ 1600 between B and C.
yosoth absorbs all from !/\ 1600 to near H or !/\ 2500; while 55th
transmits all rays to !/A 4600.

Trimethylrosaniline hydrochloride hie Violet).

He \G .H,- CH,

The introduction of the methyl groups increases the opacity of the
liquid ; it begins to transmit red rays with little more than ;,1,,th of a
milligram molecule ; with .,J,,th it transmits from 1/\ 1500 near C to
1/X 2500 near H, and absorbs all beyond. With 5,,th of a molecule it
transmits rays between G and H, while .,;th transmits all to 1/A
4400.

Trimethyl-rosaniline di-methyl-di-codide (Iodine Green),

N-CH,
| CHI
C,H, ‘ CH

OH, HN et hat
CH, ‘HN - 0,H,/\

The addition of two methyl iodides to the molecule of trimethylros-
aniline causes complete absorption of rays as far down as 1/X 1350.
z95oth of a molecule transmits ae between !/A 1350 and 1390; the
absorption then continues to F (1/A 2050). Rays are transmitted “from
11) 2050 to 1/A 2200; absorption occurs again to near N ('/A 2780)
and transmission to near O (!/A 2890). With /,,th of a molecule all
rays are transmitted to 1/A 4600.

On carefully comparing the curves of the rosaniline series of dyes
with triphenyl-methane and benzene, it is seen that they are modifications
of the benzene curve. All these curves aredrawn to scale. The closeness
of relationship of the triphenyl-methane curve to the dyes is much greater
than that of the benzene curve, und the curves of the three dyes are
modified in such a manner that they follow each other closely. The
modification is such that the molecules of greatest mass transmit the least
light, and the light is composed of rays vibrating with least rapidity, thus
indicating, in the case of the dyes, a greater amplitude and less rapidity
of vibration than that of the molecule of triphenyl-methane, while the
difference in this respect between this substance and benzene is extra-
ordinary.

Azobenzene, C;H;* N : N : O,H;.

ith of a milligram molecule of azobenzene transmits the visible rays as
far as a point lying between C and D, or !/\ 1625; ;1,th of a molecule
transmits to between E and F, or '/A 1970; 54,th of a molecule trans-
mits to between E and F, or !/A 2020 ; then occurs an absorption as far
as M, or 1/A 2690. ¢},th of a molecule transmits to just beyond F, or
1/\ 2090 ; then occurs an absorption to between G and H, or !/A 2470.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION, 349

Rays are then transmitted to near N, or !/d 2780, after which there is but
little absorption with ;},th of a molecule, and that lies at about !/\ 3900.

Chrysoidine hydrochloride, C,H; * N : N -C;H,(NH,),, 2HCi.

Comparing chrysoidine with azobenzene the rate of the vibrations is
much reduced, and their amplitude is increased. There is, with ,1,th of a
molecule, complete absorption beyond '/A 1800 ; what appears below this
point is an absorption band, apparently the principal band of azobenzene
modified by being extended from !/A 1800 to !/A 2890, or near O, but
with ,},th of a molecule all absorption practically ceases.

The absorption of the following azobenzene and azonaphthalene deri-
vatives has also been examined :—

Bismarck Brown, ;

NH,° C,H,’ N: N : C,;H;(NH,),.

Tropeolin O.,
NaSO;°C,H,:N : N:C,H;(OH),.
Helianthin,

HSO;:C,H,:N:N-+C,H,:-N(CH;)..

Benzene-azo-(-naphtholdisulphonie acid,

C,H;:N:N-C,,.H,(HSO,), : OH,.
Sulpho-xylene-azo-[3-naphtholdisulphonic acid,

HSO; -C,H,:N: N-+C,,H,(HSO;), :-OH,.

Cumene-azo-3-naphtholdisulphonic acid,

C,H,,°N : N:C,,H,(HSO;),: OH,.
Phenyl-azo-phenyl-B-naphtholsulphonic acid (Croceine Scarlet),

C,H;:N:N-C,H,:-N: N -C,)H,;(HSO;) -OH,.
Biebrich Scarlet,
NaSO; -C,H,:N : N'C;H,(NaSO;):N : N-C,,)H, * OH,.

In these substances the amplitude of the vibrations is virtually the
same as in chrysoidine, and the character of their curves is similar, though
no two are alike. These substances are very varied as regards the hydro-
carbon radicals from which they are derived. It follows, therefore, that
the nitrogen is largely concerned in the development of the colours, and
that the hydrocarbon radicals are of comparatively small importance so
long as they are benzenoid in character.

Sodium a-naphthol-azophenylsulphonate,
OH, -C,,H,:N:N ‘C,H, ‘SO;Na.
(Tropzolin 000 No. 1).
Sodium (-naphthol-azo-phenylsulphonate,
OH, -C,,H,:N: N-C,H,:°SO,Na.
(Tropzolin 000 No. 2).

Although these two bodies are isomeric, and only differ in that the first

300 REPORT—1899;

contains a, the second 6 naphthol, they differ considerably in their absorp-
tive power. The first transmits all rays through ;},th of a molecule,
while No. 2 absorbs all beyond !/A 1780, when only ;},jth of a molecule
is present.

a-Naphthol-azonaphthylsulphonie Acid (Acid Brown),

OH, : Cy), N, tN 3C pH, - HSO.;.
B-Naphthol-azonaphthylsulphonie Acid (Fast Red),
OH, *C,)H,< Na: N, °C,,H,° HS0,;.

Although these two bodies only differ slightly in constitution, in fact,
merely as regards the position of the OH group, their absorption curves
differ widely.

Murexide.— Uric acid, which is closely related to murexide, exhibits an
extraordinary absorption band when an aqueous solution of the acid is
examined in layers 15 millimetres in thickness. Since the substance
requires 15,000 parts of water for its solution, this is some indication of
the extraordinary absorptive power of uric acid and of the effect of the
linking of several carbon and nitrogen atoms, and the combination of
oxygen atoms with carbon. Urea is extraordinarily diactinic.

The curves of the rosaniline series of dyes are modifications of the
benzene curve, standing, however, in a closer relationship to the curve of
triphenylmethane than to that of benzene itself. The curves are modified
in such a manner that the molecules of greatest mass transmit least light,
and the light is composed of rays vibrating with least rapidity, thus indi-
cating greater amplitude and less rapidity of vibration of the molecule.
The curves of the azo-colours are likewise modifications of the azobenzene
curves.

A general conclusion drawn from this work is that when absorption
takes place in the visible region the ultra-violet rays are also absorbed, It
appears, therefore, hopeless to expect. a strongly coloured organic sub-
stance to transmit the ultra-violet rays.

Bexiehungen zwischen Zusammensetzung und Absorptionsspectrum
organischer Verbindungen.

Althausse! and G. Kriiss communicated a paper in which they observed
that, first, an increase in the percentage of carbon causes the absorp-
tion bands to pass towards the less refrangible portion of the spectrum ;
secondly, the wave-lengths of bands of absorption are the same in different
thionine salts, whether the solution contains hydrochloride, hydriodide, or
other salts of this base; thirdly, the addition of hydrogen causes the
bands to pass towards the blue; fourthly, if a substance is examined
spectroscopically in a solution suitable to commercial requirements, the
colour of an unknown derivative of the compound in question may be
foretold from its spectrum with tolerable accuracy.

Tuer ABSORPTION SPECTRA OF ISOMERS OF THE AROMATIC SERIES.

In the examination of aromatic derivatives (Hartley and Huntington)
and of some of the homologues of benzene (Hartley), three isomeric
nitranilines were examined and three xylenes ; the spectra of the latter

} Ber, vol, xxii. p. 2065, 1889.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 351

have already been described. The striking examples of isomerism re-
marked in the tropxolines, with corresponding differences in the curves of
their molecular vibrations, suggested a systematic examination of some of
the simpler isomeric derivatives of benzene as being an interesting subject
for investigation.

Researches on the Relation between the Molecular Structure of Carbon
Compounds and their Absorption Spectra. Part IX. (Hartyey).!

On Isomeric Cresols, Dihydroxybenzenes and Hydroxybenzoic Acids.

The results of the examination of the absorption spectra of (i.) ortho-,
meta- and para-cresol ; (ii.) hydroquinone (quinol), pyrocatechol, and
resorcinol ; (iii.) salicylic acid, metahydroxybenzoic acid, and parahydroxy-
benzoic acid, are given.

The oscillation frequencies of the most extreme rays transmitted by a
milligram-molecule of the four classes of isomeric substances, are the
following :—

- ; : Hydroxybenzoic /

x Cresol; Dihydroxyb ‘
ylenes resols ihydroxybenzenes Acids
Ortho. . 3611 | Meta. . 3433 | Meta. . 3466 | Para . . 3359 |
Meta . . 3580 | Ortho. . 3413 | Ortho. . 3399 | Meta . . 3080 |
Para . Monon.) bara ~ ; aang | bara. 3) olpile}Ortno: o- . 2986 |

Tt is seen, therefore, that in the case of the xylenes, cresols, and
dihydroxybenzenes, the 1 : 4 derivatives exercise the greatest absorption.
It is also to be noted that the cresols and dihydroxybenzenes follow the
same order of transparency, while in the case of the hydroxybenzoic
acids this order is reversed, and in the case of the xylenes it is different
from that of any of the other three series.

On the assumption that the absorption of rays manifested by any
three isomerides is a measure of its rate of vibration, and consequently of
the dissipation of energy resulting in the formation of the molecule, the
following classification may be deduced :—

Dissipation of Energy during Formation.

Least Greatest
Xylenes Para Meta Ortho
Cresols Para Ortho Meta
Dihydroxybenzenes Para Ortho Meta
Hydroxybenzoic Acids Ortho Meta Para

It is worthy of note that v. Rechenberg,” from the heat of combustion
of the three hydroxybenzoic acids, places them in the same order as that

given above.

Description of the Spectra of the substances examined.
Ortho-cresol, C,H, (CH,)*OH. 1: 2.
‘108 gram in 20 ¢.c. alcohol.
With 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 mm. an absorption band appears from !1/\ 3413
to 4125, which gets narrower as the thickness of the layer of liquid is
reduced.

1 Trans. Chem. Soc. vol. liii. p. 641, 1888.
2 J. vr, Chem. vol. =xii. pp. 1-45.

S02 REPORT—1899.

‘108 gram in 100 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 mm. an absorption band appears from 1/X 3493
to 4016, which gets narrower as the thickness of the layer of liquid is
reduced, and in the case of 1 mm. is somewhat indistinct.

Meta-cresol, C,H, (CH;)°OH, 1:3.

108 gram in 20 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 mm. an absorption band appears from 1/A 3433
to 4125.

‘108 gram in 100 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3 and’ 2 mm. an absorption band appears from !/)\ 3493. to
3890, which gets narrower as the thickness of the layer of liquid is
reduced. With | mm. the absorption band has disappeared, and the
spectrum extends 1/A 4331.

Para-cresol, ©,H,(CH),*OH. 1: 4.

‘108 gram dissolved in 20 c.e. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 mm. an absorption band appears from !/A 3359
to 4125, which gets narrower as the thickness of the layer of liquid is
diminished.

‘108 gram in 100 ce. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3 and 2 mm. an absorption band appears from !/\ 3392 to
3890. With 1 mm. the absorption band has disappeared, and the
spectrum extends to!/A 4253.

Pyrocatechol, O,H,(OW),. 1: 2.

‘110 gram in 20 c.c. water.

With 5, 4 and 3 mm. the spectrum is continuous to!/A 8399. With
2mm. an absorption band appears from !/X 3439 to 4125. The same
band appears with 1 mm., but is somewhat narrower.

‘110 gram in 100 c.c. water.

With 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 mm. an absorption band appears from !/A 3460
to 4016, which gets narrower as the thickness of the layer of liquid is
reduced.

110 gram in 500 c.c. water.

With 5mm. an absorption band appears from 1/A 3531 to 3768.
With 4mm. the absorption band has disappeared, and the spectrum
extends to!/A 4374.

Resoreinol, CgH,(OH),. 1: 3.

110 gram in 20 c.c. water.

With 5 and 4 mm. the spectrum is continuous to !/A 3466. With
3, 2,and 1mm. an absorption band appears from !/A 3487 to 4125,
which gets narrower as the thickness of the layer of liquid is reduced.

110 gram in 100 c.c. water.

With 5, 4, 3,2 and 1 mm. an absorption band appears from !/A 3507
to 4016, which gets narrower as the thickness of the layer of liquid is
- reduced.

"110 gram in 500 c.c. water.

With 5 mm. an absorption band appears from !/\ 38647 to 3768.
With 4 mm. the absorption band has disappeared, and the spectrum is
continuous to!/A 4374.

—

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION, 353

Hydroquinone, C,H,(OH),. 1:4,

‘110 gram in 20 c.e. alcohol.

With 5 mm. the spectrum is continuous to1/ 3151. With 4, 3, 2,
and 1 mm. an absorption band appears from !/\ 3151 to 3890,

‘110 gram in 100 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3,2, and 1 mm. an absorption band appears from !/A 8187
to 3832, which gets narrower as the thickness of the layer of liquid is
diminished.

‘110 gram in 500 ¢.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, and 2 mm. an absorption band appears from 1/\ 3297
to 3531, which gets narrower as the thickness of the layer of liquid is
reduced. With | mm. the absorption band disappears, and the spectrum
extends to1/A 4660.

Salicylic Acid, C,H,(OH)COOH. 1: 2.
(From Oil of Wintergreen.)

‘138 gram in 20 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, and 3 mm. the spectrum extends to 1/A 2986. With
2 and 1 mm. an absorption band appears from '/A 3008°5 to 3826.

138 gram in 100 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 mm. an absorption band appears from 1/2
3008°5 to 3757, which gets narrower as the thickness of the layer of
liquid is reduced.

138 gram in 500 c.e. alcohol.

With 5 mm. the absorption band appears from !/A 3080 to 3525, and
with 4mm. from +/\ 3151 to 3494. With 3 mm. the absorption band
has disappeared, and the spectrum extends to!/A 4033. With 1 mm.
an absorption band appears from !/\ 4130 to 4326.

138 gram in 2,500 c.c. alcohol.

With 5 and 4mm. an absorption band appears from 1/\ 4130 to
4326. With 3 mm. the absorption band has disappeared, and the spec-
trum extends to !/\ 4550,

Metahydroaybenzoic Acid, C,H,(OH)COOH. 1:38,

‘138 gram dissolved in 20 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, and 2 mm. the spectrum extends to 1/A 3080. With
1 mm. an absorption band appears for 1/A 3080 to 3826.

‘138 gram in 100 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 mm. an absorption band appears from !/X 3080
to 3826, which gets narrower as the thickness of the layer of liquid is
reduced.

‘138 gram in 500 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, and 8 mm. an absorption band appears from 1!/\ 3187 to
3568, which gets narrower as the thickness of the layer of liquid is
reduced.

With 2 mm. the absorption band has disappeared, and the spectrum
extends to '/A 4028. With 1 mm. an absorption band appears from
1/ 4055 to 4311.

138 gram in 2,500 e.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, and 2 mm. an absorption band appears from !/d 4055
to 4311. With 1 mm. the absorption band disappears, and the spectrum
extends to !/A 4658.

1899, AA

354 REPORT—1899.
Parahydroxybenzoie Acid, C;H,(OH).COOH. 1: 4..

‘138 gram in 20 e.c. alcohol,

With 5 mm. the spectrum extends to 1/\ 3359, and gradually extends
to 1/X 3480 as the thickness of the layer of liquid is reduced to 1 mm.

‘138 gram in 100 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, and 2 mm. the spectrum extends to '/A 3480 (A 2875),
With 1 mm. an absorption band appears from !/A 3525 to 4415.

‘138 gram in 500 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 mm. an absorption band appears from 1/A
3525 to 4415, which gradually gets narrower as the thickness of the
layer of liquid is reduced.

‘138 gram in 2,500 c.c. alcohol.

With 5, 4, 3, and 2 mm. an absorption band appears from 1/A 3641
to 4297, which gets narrower as the thickness of the layer of liquid is
reduced. With 1 mm. the absorption band has disappeared, and the
spectrum extends to!/A 4658.

TAUTOMERISM.

A Study of the Absorption Spectra of Isatin, Carbostyril, and their Alkyl
Derivatives in relation to Tautomerism. (Hartiey and Dossis.)}

The examination of absorption spectra has recently been successfully
applied to the study of the relationship between compounds commonly
described as tautomeric and desmotropic. In those cases, for example, in
which a substance and two related isomeric alkyl compounds having
respectively the lactam and the lactim constitution are known, it is un-
certain whether the supposed parent substance has a constitution similar
to that of either of the derivatives. Thus there are two methyl deriva-
tives of isatin, the constitution of each of which has been satisfactorily
determined from its chemical reactions, but there is no unquestionable
evidence which proves that the constitution of isatin itself is similar to
that of either of the derivatives.

Tt is known that the substitution of a methyl or ethyl group for an
atom of hydrogen, without other alteration in the structure of the sub-
stance, merely increases the general absorption very slightly for each CH,
added to the molecule,? that is, it slightly shortens the transmitted
spectrum, but makes practically no difference in the character of the
absorption ; for instance, it scarcely increases its intensity, nor does it
convert a general absorption into one that is selective, or vice versd.

The curves of molecular absorption of such substances afford the
desired information concerning the relationship of their constitution to
that of their respective derivatives.

The spectra of carbostyril and methylpseudocarbostyril both show an
absorption band in the same position, and the spectra of the two sub-
stances are in other respects almost identical, the only difference being that
the general absorption is slightly increased in the case of methyl- and
ethylpseudocarbostyril, which is the effect usually produced when

1 Trans. Chem. Soc.-1899, p. 640.
2 Phil. Trans. vol. clxx, pt. 1, p. 267, 1879

355

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

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carbostyril differ in a marked manner from those of carbostyril and
methylpseudocarbostyril ; the absorption band occupies a different
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= 8 bleeds CC Saree ee
co 2 ee ee ©
Ene. cee ee ieee ae

/ oe eee
DER ERE. BES oe) See BSR.

Pq | od Sa a ee aT SL a ar

URE REELS Be Se cab Sue ee

SERED REC Ree Ce RE RESeeee

Methylearbostyril. Carbostyril. Methylpseudocarbostyr il.
Curves of Molecular Vibrations.

and its derivatives show similar relations. In the spectra of isatin there
are two absorption bands. The spectra of methylpseudoisatin closely
resemble those of isatin, likewise exhibiting two absorption bands and
about the same extent of general absorption. Jn methylisatin there is
only one strong absorption band.

The very close resemblance between the curves of molecular absorp-
tion of carbostyril and methyl- and ethylpseudocarbostyril, and between
those of isatin and methylpseudoisatin, point to identity of constitution,
and, inasmuch as the chemical behaviour of methylpseudocarbostyril and
methylpseudoisatin show that these compounds are lactams, the lactam
constitution must also be assigned to carbostyril and isatin. This con-
clusion agrees with that arrived at by Goldschmidt and Meissler,’ who
employed a purely chemical method in their investigations, and also with
the more recent results of Knorr.*

» Ber., 1890, vol. xxiii. p, 253. 2 Annalen, 1896, vol. ecxciii. p. 81.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 357

General Description of Spectra of Carbostyril, C,H-NO.

Complete absorption of all rays beyond '/A 2700 until we arrive at a
dilution of 1 milligram-molecule of the substance in 500 c.c. of liquid
with 5 mm. of thickness, when the rays extend to 2770.

At 3 mm. thickness an absorption band becomes visible, which extends
to 1 milligram-molecule in 2500 c.c., and 1 mm. thickness of liquid.

At 2 milligram thickness at ] in 500 c.c. it lies between !/A 2900 and
3300, the rays are transmitted then to 1!/\ 3500, after which there is
total absorption. The transmission of the continuous spectrum extends
to '/\ 4000 beyond the absorption band, which has almost disappeared
at 1 milligram-molecule in 2500 cc. at 2 mm. thickness.

=C
) a .
*\N(CH,)UO

Total absorption of all rays beyond !/A 2680 in from 25 mm. to
15 mm. of liquid, and beyond '/\ 2780 down to 1 mm. thickness 1 milli-
gram-molecule in 100 e.c.

Complete absorption to 1/A 2850 by 3 mm. of solution containing
1 milligram-molecule in 500 ¢.c. absorption band from !/\ 2850 to 3370,
Very feeble transmission of rays from 3370 to 3500.

This absorption band is distinctly seen-down to 2 mm. of liquid or
1 milligram-molecule in 2500; the continuous rays then extend to
about 4050,

It will thus be seen that this spectrum curve very closely resembles
that of carbostyril, the general absorption being slightly increased, which is
what is usual when methyl takes the place of hydrogen or CH, is added
to the molecule.

Methylpseudocarbostyril, C,H.

CH=CH
Methylearbostyril, CH mt |

N=. CO0GH,

Complete transmission of all rays to 1/\ 3000, with 1 milligram~
molecule in 500 c.c, and 5 mm. of liquid. Rays beyond are all absorbea.

At 3 mm. the rays extend to !/A 3050, and are then completely absorbed
to about 3350, and are transmitted to 3500; in other words there is an
absorption band between 3050 and 3350 ; rays beyond it are transmitted
to 1/ 3500.

This band is very feeble at 5 mm., but is just visible down to a thick-
ness of 4 mm. of liquid, containing 1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 c.c.
The rays showing absorption lie between | /X 3000 and 3050. Beyond
that they are transmitted imperfectly to about 3800.

The chief differences between this spectrum and that of the pseudo
compound are the greater length of spectrum transmitted, the different
position of the absorption band, and its less persistent character.

General Description of the Spectrum of Isatin, CgH;NO,.

Total absorption of all rays as far as ! /X 2780 by 10 mm. thickness of
a solution of 1 milligram-molecule in 100 ce.

Total absorption of all rays by 5 mm. of 1 milligram-molecule in 100
c.c. as far as1/dX 2780, very feeble transmission to 3000, The same a
little stronger by 4 mm.

358 REPORT—1899.

Total absorption beyond 1 milligram-molecule in 100 c.c., 3 mm. thick,
transmits rays very feebly from '/A 2000 to 2170, an absorption band
occurs as far as 2780, the rays are transmitted from 1/A 2780 to 3070.
Total absorption beyond.

The absorption band continues until 4 mm. of 1 milligram-molecule in
560 e.c., though much enfeebled. Beyond 3170 there is total absorption
to about !/A 3630, with, as it were, another absorption band. It con-
tinues to 2 mm. of milligram-molecule in 500 c.c. between 3200 and 3630,
after which there is total absorption beyond '/A 3870. There is a very
strong absorption beyond 3900.

Tsatin crystals are deep red, like fused potassium dichromate.

boss
Methylpseudoisatin, CoH oo.
N(CH.)

There is complete absorption of all rays by 10 mm. of 1| milligram-
molecule in 100 cc. By 5 mm. the strong rays between !/A 2740 and
2900 are transmitted, all rays beyond are totally absorbed. There is a
strengthening of the transmitted rays by thicknesses of 4 mm. and 3 mm.
between !/X 2740 and 2970. Total absorption beyond.

At 2 mm. and 1 mm. the absorption of rays less refrangible than !/X
2740 is much diminished, that is to say, the absorption band hereabouts is
weakened.

By thicknesses of 5, 4, 3 mm. of 1 milligram-molecule in 500 c.c.
there is nothing transmitted beyond !/A 3030, except the very strong line
at 3600. There is very strong absorption beyond this line until we get
to 4 mm. of 1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 c.c., when the rays between !/\
3600 and 3840 are feebly transmitted, and there is only a very feeble
transmission of strong rays beyond lying between 1/A 4250 and 4400, and
so gradually the absorption diminishes.

Methylpseudoisatin has a colour more resembling cinnabar than
potassium dichromate.

CO
Methylisatin, CHC Sco + CH,.
iA

With 1 milligram-molecule in 100 c.c, there is a total absorption of
rays down to a thickness of 10 mm. :

At 5 mm, there is a very feeble transmission of rays between 1/X
2000 and 2170.

At 3 mm. it is evident that avery strong absorption band lies between
2180 and about 3350, when rays are very feebly transmitted, all beyond
3470 being totally absorbed.

This absorption band gradually diminishes in intensity, but more rapidly
on the part of the rays of shorter wave-length than is the case with those
lying between !/X 2270 and 2870. For instance, 2 mm. of liquid con-
taining 1 milligram-molecule in 500 c.c., absorbs the rays between 1/d
2600 and 2770. Total absorption is seen beyond 3600.

Methylisatin is orange red, like powdered potassium dichromate.

ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 359

The Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. J. H. GuaDSTONE (Chairman), Professoi
H. EK. Armstrone (Secretary), Professor W. R. Dunstan, Mr.
GEORGE GLADSTONE, Sir Joun Luszock, Sir. Partie Maanvs, Sir
H. E. Roscoe, Professor A. SMITHELLS, and Professor S. P.
‘THOMPSON.

TuE progress in the teaching of science in elementary schools which was
noted in the last report of your Committee has been more than main-
tained in so far as the number of scholars receiving instruction is con-
cerned. The following table, made up from the return issued by the
Education Department, gives the figures for the scientific class subjects,
and for English by way of comparison. It will be remembered that
for the eight years preceding the Code of 1890, English was obligatory as
a class subject if any such subject was taken in the school. The placing
it merely on a level with the other subjects had the effect of reducing the
number of departments in which English was taken from 20,304 in
1889-90 to 19,825 in 1890-91, while in the same years the number of
departments taking Elementary Science rose from the almost nominal
figure of 32 to 173. The table shows the progress from that time
onwards. It will be observed that there is an extraordinary increase in
Object Lessons, which it was pointed out last year would be the case
owing to the giving of Object Lessons in the three lower standards being
made obligatory after September 1, 1896. The full effect of this change
has hardly yet appeared. The return for 1897-98 should show a figure
almost equal to the total number of departments. This ascendency of
Object Lessons is fully capable of explaining the decrease in Elementary
Science, and does not necessarily involve any lessening of the child’s
knowledge of Nature. It is rather a question of nomenclature than any-
thing else, in some schools the object lessons course in the lower standards
being still registered under the name of Elementary Science.

i
| Class Subjects—Depart. He Pee 1893-94 1894-95 | 1895-96! 1896-97 1897-98.
| | {

1,712 | 2,237 | 2,617 | 2,143
— | 1,079 | 8,321 | 21;882

| ments | / |
English P 4 et laltsealir dss | 17,394 17,032 16,280 | 15,327 | 14,286 13,456 |
Geography . < . | 13,485 | 14,256 | 15,250 15,702 | 16,171 | 16,646 | 17,049

|

Elementary Science . 788 ead 1,215
Object Lessons . oly == cao e

| ! |

|

The number of departments in ‘schools for older scholars’ for the
year 1897-98 was 23,043, all but two of which took one or more class
subjects. But History was taken in 5,780 departments, and needlework
(as a class subject for girls) in 7,252 departments, and sundry minor
subjects in 972, making, with the other four subjects of the table, a total
of 68,534. This shows an average of very nearly three class subjects to
each department, but it must be borne in mind that the same subject is
not always taken in all the standards, in which case three or more class
subjects will appear in the return for a single department.

It has been previously remarked that ‘the increased teaching
of scientific specific subjects in the higher standards is the natural

860 REPORT—1899.

consequence of the greater attention paid to natural science in the lower
part of the schools.’ The following table shows that such is the actual
result :—

Oca aa 1891-92] 1892-93 | 1893-94 | 1894-95 | 1895-96 | 1896-97 | 1897-98

ildren

Algebra. . | 28,542 | 31,487 | 33,612 | 38,237 | 41,846 | 47,225 | 53,081
Euclid . 5 927 1,279 1,399 1,468 1,584 2,059 2,471
Mensuration . | 2,802 3,762 4,018 5,614 6,859 8,619 | 10,828)

Mechanics . . | 18,000 | 20,023 | 21,532 | 23,806 | 24,956 | 26,110 | 27,009
Animal Physio- | 13,622 | 14,060 | 15,271 | 17,003 | 18,284 | 19,989 | 22,877

lo
Botany ; ele 8a0 1,968 2,052 2,483 2,996 3,377 4,031
Principles of | 1,085 909 1,231 1,196 1,059 825 870
Agriculture
Chemistry . . | 1,935 2,387 3,043 3,850 4,822 5,545 6,978
Sound, Light,and | 1,163 1,168 1,175 914 937 1,040 1,155
Heat

Magnetism and | 2,338 2,181 3,040 3,198 3,168 3,431 3,905
Electricity
Domestic Eco- | 26,447 | 29,210 | 32,922 | 36,239 | 39,794 | 45,869 | 51,259
nomy

Total - | 98,706 | 108,434 | 119,295 | 134,008 | 146,305 | 164,089 | 184,464

It may be noted that every one of these specific subjects shows an actual
increase ; and the totals indicate an increase of more than 20,000, a
larger rise than has been recorded in any previous year.

In last year’s report the number of scholars in Standards V., VI., and
VII. was estimated at 615,000. The Government returns, in the form
in which they are now presented, enable your Committee to make a much
more precise estimate ; and it now appears that the number of scholars,
including the Ex-VII., must have been about 650,000. This figure would
give 25-3 per cent. as the proportion examined in these specific subjects
as compared with the number of children qualified to take them, and the
table below has been altered accordingly. The mean number of such
scholars for the year 1897-98 is 693,242, which will give 26°6 per cent.
as the proportion of actual to possible students; but it should be
remembered that many of the children take more than one subject for
examination.

The following table gives the percentage for each year since 1882, and
shows that the great depression which characterised several years has
been succeeded by a gradual and steady rise :—

1882-83 . - 29-0 per cent. | 1890-91 . . 20°2 per cent.
1883-84 . .' 26:0 5 | 1891-92 . > oe 7
1884-85 . - 22:6 ds | 1892-93 . . 20:2 3
1885-86 . Fae i 1893-94 . . 209 7
1886-87 . bios cat! 1894-95 22:7 a
1887-88 . Se hohe) u | 1895-96 24-2 *
1888-89 . a7: “A | 1896-97 25:3 *
1889-90 . Bes ee 4 1897-98 26°6 s

The Returns of the Education Department given above refer to the
whole of England and Wales, and are for the school years ending with
August 31, The statistics of the Londen School Board are brought up to

ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 361

the year ending with Lady Day, 1899. They also illustrate the great
advance that has been made in the teaching of Elementary Science, in-
cluding Object Lessons, as a class subject.

| Class subjects—Departmenta 1890-1 1801-2 1892-8 1898-4|1894-5 1895-6 1896-7|1897-8 1898-9)

11 | 113 | 156 | 183 | 208 | 246

—|—

364

Elementary Science., 322
Object Lessons 442 | 657 |

ae pl aca ariel) Oar

The work under the Evening Continuation Schools Code continues to
progress, as will be seen by the following table, which gives the number
of scholars taking scientific subjects in the year 1897-98 compared with
those for the previous year. ;

| Number of Scholars |
Science Subjects : -
1896-97 1897-98
Euclid , : : é F : : +) 1,036 1,525
Algebra. : : : ; ; sal 7,467 9,996
Mensuration ; ‘ é ; ; : 27,388 29,966
Elementary Physiography . . : ‘ Hi 3,712 4,807
Elementary Physics and Chemistry . 3,135 2,902
Domestic Science . A : — 117
Science of Common Things j : | 10,910 13,874
pas eh a a 5,658 | 6,590
Mechanics . f A Z ; : : al 1,365 1,129
Sound, Light, and Heat . : : . : 726 813
Magnetism and Electricity : ‘ : 2 3,834 3,967 |
Human Physiology . F : ; : 3 5,865 6,237 |
Hygiene . ‘ 5 ; . < , 3,179 4,062 |
Botany - ; : : : : , ‘ 692 763 |
Agriculture ‘ : : ; ; : ; 2,355 2,300 |
Horticulture : ; é E : 5 : 1,001 1,354
Navigation. . : : : ; : : 68 37
Ambulance ; 3 ; j j : ; 9,086 13,030
Domestic Economy . : ; : : 19,565 23,271
Woilis | 107,042 126,740

The differences represent a total increase of 19,698, which is equiva-
lent to 18:4 per cent. The only actual decreases are in Elementary
Physics and Chemistry, Mechanics, Agriculture, and Navigation. It
may be remarked that it is rather the practical than the theoretical
subjects which are receiving less attention. The Mathematical subjects
are still advancing rapidly, and so are Elementary Physiography and the
Science of Common Things. The cognate subjects of Hygiene and
Ambulance are evidently rising in popular favour. The same may be
said of Horticulture. It would be interesting to know the relative pro-
portions of young men and young women in these latter classes, but the
Government returns do not supply this information. The only one of
these subjects reserved exclusively for women is Domestic Economy.
Domestic Science, as distinguished from the preceding, has only recently
been formulated, and the first-fruits are only beginning to make their
appearance in the column for the latter year. Unlike the day school
work, which is Jargely governed by the requirements of the Education

362 REPORT—1899.

Department, and the preferences of managers and teachers, the Evening
Continuation classes are to a great extent regulated by the public local
demand, which rather seems to be for a continuation of the studies which
have been begun in the Elementary Schools than for those practical
subjects which are specially provided for by the Technical Instruction
Act.

The London School Board have just passed a series of resolutions on
the subject of the teaching of science in their schools, and amongst others
that ‘Experimental Science instruction was desirable for girls as well as
for boys :’—that ‘scholars of about Standard IV. should have an oppor-
tunity of doing some practical work themselves, such as linear (or other)
measurement :’—and that ‘where some definite science is taught in the
upper part of the school, the teaching of Experimental Science in the lower
part of the school should lead up to it.’ The extension of the teaching of
Science in the Board Schools has necessitated the Science demonstrators
giving more and more attention to the preparing of the ordinary teachers
for giving practical instruction in Science in their classes. These teachers
have usually obtained certificates for one or more sciences under the
Science and Art Department, but that does not necessarily qualify for the
practical teaching of science according to modern views. Hence the need
of the preparation above referred to. It would seem desirable that only
those teachers who have some interest in, or aptness for, experimental
work should be selected for this kind of training, and after having become
thus qualified, they should be assigned, as far as possible, to this par-
ticular work. To carry this out more thoroughly the Board have decided
‘that Experimental Science classes for teachers be started under the Board
in the autumn,’ and ‘that there be courses of Pedagogical Lectures to
secure the practical teaching of Elementary Science, confined to teachers
who have reached a certain standard of scientific knowledge of the subject
on which the lectures are given.’

It is to be hoped that under the newly constituted Education Depart-
ment far more attention will be given than heretofore to improving the
conditions under which science is taught in schools. Especially is it im-
portant that attention should be paid to the practical training of pupil
teachers in the elements of scientific method. The time given to such
work is altogether inadequate at present. But in some ways too much
is often attempted, and from this point of view your Committee think it
desirable to recall attention to the recommendations in the last paragraph
of their Report for 1897, as up to the present time no action has keen taken
by the Education Department.

Isomerie Naphthalene Derivatives.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor W. A. Tirtpen (Chairman) and Dr. H. EK. ARrM-
STRONG (Secretary).

THE experiments on the etherification of betanaphthol and its derivatives,
referred to in the previous report, have been continued by Mr. Davis, the
formation of methylic and propylic ethers having also been investigated.
Methylic, ethylic, and propylic alcohols have an almost identical effect.
The results are of interest in comparison with those obtained by V.
Meyer and others in the case of carboxylic acids. Meyer, it is well

ON ISOMERIC NAPHTHALENE DERIVATIVES. 363

known, has shown that a single group, in a position contiguous to the acid
radicle, has little influence on the limit of etherification, and only affects
the rate of change: but this is not true of betanaphthol, as 1 chloro-
betanaphthol yields only about 10 per cent. of ether, although betanaph-
thol gives over 90 per cent. and nitronaphthol cannot be etherified.

The effect is, in a measure, the reciprocal of that referred to in Sections
10 and 13 of a ‘ Synopsis for a Discussion on Laws of Substitution, especially
in Benzenoid Compounds,’ printed later in this volume. The first act
in the formation of an ether is probably the association of the group
which becomes etherified with the etherifying agent ; but the attractive
power of the phenolic oxygen is much affected by changes in the radicle
with which it is associated, and consequently both the rate and limit of
etherification are modified by every change in the hydrocarbon radicle.
Probably the carbonyl oxygen in acids plays a part similar to that here
pictured as played by the hydroxylic oxygen in naphthol.

But it is not improbable that the nucleus also plays a part in etheri-
fication, especially as betanaphthol—in which the nucleus is obviously less
saturated than is the nucleus in phenol—yields so much larger a proportion
ot ether than does phenol. Under the most favourable conditions phenol
affords at best about 25 per cent. of ether when digested with alcohol and
sulphuric acid.

The Action of [ight upon Dyed Colowrs.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor T. E. THorPE (Chairman), Professor J. J.
HUMMEL (Secretary), Dr. W. H. Perkin, Professor W. J. RUSSELL,
Captain ABNEY, Professor W. Stroup, and Professor R. MELDOLA.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Durine the past year (1898-9) the work of this Committee has been
continued, and a large number of wool and silk patterns, dyed with
various natural and artificial violet and grey colouring matters, have been
examined with respect to their power of resisting the fading action of
light.

The general method of preparing the dyed patterns, and the manner
of exposing them under glass, with free access of air and moisture, were
the same as already adopted in previous years.

The thanks of the Committee are again due to Edward A. Hirst, Esq.,
in whose grounds the patterns were exposed, at Adel, near Leeds.

Each dyed pattern was divided into six pieces, one of which was pro-
tected from the action of light, while the others were exposed for different
periods of time. These ‘ periods of exposure’ were made equivalent to those
adopted in previous years by exposing, along with the pattern, special
series of ‘ standards,’ dyed with the same colouring matters as were then
selected for this purpose. The standards were allowed to fade to the
same extent as those which marked off the ‘fading period’ in previous
years before being removed, or before removing a set of dyed patterns
from the action of light. The patterns exposed during the past year are
therefore comparable, in respect of the amount of fading action to which
they have been submitted, with the dyes already reported upon.

The patterns were all put out for exposure on March 12, 1898, certain
sets being subsequently removed on the following dates: April 20, May
28, June 27, October 22, 1898 ; April 25, 1899. Of these five ‘periods of

364 REPORT—1899,

exposure’ thus marked off, periods 1, 2, 3 were equivalent to each other
in fading power, whereas periods 4 and 5 were equivalent to four of the
first period in this respect ; hence five patterns of each colour have been
submitted respectively to an amount of fading equal to 1, 2, 3, 7, and 11
times that of the first ‘fading period’ selected, viz. March 12 to April
20, 1898.

The dyed and faded patterns have been entered in pattern-card books
in such a manner that they can be readily compared with each other.

The following tables give the general result of the exposure experi-
ments made during tie year 1898-9, the colours being divided, according
to their behaviour towards light, into the following five classes: Very
fugitive, fugitive, moderately fast, fast, very fast.

The initial numbers refer to the order of the patterns in the pattern
books. The 8S. and J. numbers refer to Schultz and Julius’s ‘ Tabel-
larische Uebersicht der kiinstlichen organischen Farbstoffen’ (3rd edit.
1897).

VIOLET COLOURING MATTERS.

Ciass I. Very Fueitive Cotours. (Wo0t.)

Many of the colours of this class have faded so rapidly that at the end
of the first ‘fading period’ (March 12 to April 20, 1898) only a very faint
colour remains, and at the end of the fifth period (one year) all traces of
the original colour have disappeared, the woollen cloth being either white
or of a yellowish or greyish appearance.

Triphenylmethane Colours.
Wool Book XV.
Acid Colours. 1. Red Violet 4RS. Sodium salt of dimethyl-rosaniline-trisul-
phonic acid. §. and J.313.
. Red Violet 5RS. Sodium salt of ethyl-rosaniline-trisulphonic
acid, §. and J. 311.
+ 19, Acid Violet4BN. Sodium salt of benzyl-penta-methyl-triamido-
triphenyl-carbinol-sulphonic acid. 8. and J. 312.
9 23. Acid Violet 6B. Acid sodium salt of tetraethyl-dibenzyl-p-
rosaniline-disulphonic acid. §. and J. 317.
x 24. Alkali Violet. Sodium salt of tetraethyl-monomethyl-phenyl-
p-rosaniline-monosulphonic acid. S. and J. 318.
. 27. Acid Violet 12B. Constitution not published.
rs 30. Acid Violet 3B. Constitution not published.
+ 31, Alkali Violet CA. Sodium salt of benzylated methyl-ethyl-p-
rosaniline-mono-sulphonie acid.
3 33. Acid Violet 2B. Constitution not published.
a 35. Alkali Violet R. Constitution not published.
Basic Colours. 5, Hofmann’s Violet. Monoethyl-rosaniline hydrochloride. §. and
J. 302.
is 10. Regina Violet. Diphenyl-rosaniline hydrochloride. §8. and J. 294.
11. Regina Purple. Monophenyl-rosaniline-acetate. §. and J. 307.
12. Ethyl Violet. Hexaethyl-p-rosaniline hydrochloride. §. and J.
305.
5 15. Methyl Violet 6BO. Pentamethyl-benzyl-p-rosaniline hydro-
chloride. §. and J. 306.
of 16. Crystal Violet. Hexamethyl-p-rosaniline hydrochloride. §. and
J. 304.
3 17. Violet 3B. Constitution not published.
18, Methyl Violet B extra, Pentamethyl-p-rosaniline hydrochloride
8. and J. 303,

bo

Safranine Colours.

Basic Colours, 3. Giroflée. Dimethyl-xylyl-safranine chloride. §S. and J, 464,
- 7. Rubramine. §, and J. 500.

qr

ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 36

Basic Colours. 8. Methylene Violet 2RA. Dimethyl-safranine chloride. S. and
J. 462.
9. Rosolane. Phenyl-tolu-safranine chloride. 8. and J. 467.
20. Fast Neutral Violet B. ms-Ethyl-dimethyl-ethyl-safranine
chloride, S. and J. 460.

”

Eurhodine Colours.

Basic Colours. 24, Neutral Violet extra. as-Dimethyl-diamido-phenazine hydro»
chloride. §. and J, 448.

Oxazine Colowrs.

Basic Colours, 21. Cresyl Fast Violet 2B. Constitution not published.
2, Rhoduline Violet. Constitution not published,

Crass II. Fuairive Contours. (Woot.)

The colours of this class show very marked fading at the end of the
second ‘fading period’ (April 20 to May 28, 1898), and after a year’s
exposure they have entirely faded, or only a tint remains.

Triphenylmethane Colours.
Wool Book XV.
Acid Colours, 20. Acid Violet 6B. Sodium salt of dimethyl-dibenzyl-diethyl-tri-
amido-triphenyl-carbinol-disulphonic acid. §. and J. 316.

9 21. Acid Violet 7B. Sodium salt of diethyl-dimethyl-diphenyl-triamido-
triphenyl-carbinol-disulphonic acid.

x 22. Acid Violet 5B. Constitution not published.

+ 25. Acid Violet 8B extra. Constitution not published.

+ 26. Acid Violet 6BN. Sodium salt of tetramethyl-p-tolyl-triamido-
ethoxy-triphenyl-carbinol sulphonic acid. §, and J. 319.

A 28. Fast Acid Violet 10B. S. and J. 314.

Pe 32. Acid Violet 2B extra. Constitution not published.

i 37. Acid Violet 4BG extra. Constitution not published,

FA 40. Guinea Violet 4B. Constitution not published.

42. Acid Violet 5BF. Constitution not published.

Wool Book XVI.
Mordant Colours. 9. Chrome Violet (Cr). Ammonium salt of aurine-tricarboxylic
acid.
Azo Colowrs.
Wool Book XV,

Direct Cotton 1. Congo Violet. From benzidine, and £-naphthol-sulphonic acid B.
Colours, S. and J. 186.
‘4 2. Heliotrope B. From dianisidine, and ethyl-8-naphthylamine-
sulphonic acid F. 8. and J. 232.
3 3. Heliotrope 2B. From benzidine, 8-naphthol-sulphonic acid B,
and a-naphthol-disulphonic acid Sch. §. and J. 185.
. Benzo Violet R. Constitution not published.
. Azo Corinth. From tolidine, amido-phenol-sulphonie acid, resor-
cinol, and naphthionic acid. §. and J. 271.
. Congo Corinth G. From benzidine, naphthionic acid, and
a-naphthol-sulphonic acid NW. S.andJ. 183. ~
. Hessian Violet. From diamido-stilbene-disulphonic acid, a-naph-
thylamine, and f-naphthol. 8. and J. 249.
” 8. Oxamine Violet. From benzidine, and 8-amido-a-naphthol-s-sul-
phonic acid. 8. and J. 188.
1s 10. Congo Corintn B. From tolidine, naphthionic acid, and a-naphtiol-
sulphonic acid NW. 8. and J. 214.

IY 2 oF

“4 11. Azo Violet. From dianisidine, naphthionic acid, and a-naphthol-
sulphonic acid NW. 8. and J. 233.
° 12. Azo Mauve. From tolidine, amido-naphthol-disulphonic acid, and

a-naphthylamine. §. and J. 212.

366 REPORT—1899.

Natural Colouring Matters.

Wool Book XVI.
Mordant Colours. 1. Sapanwood (Cr). Wood of Cesalpinia sapan.
i 2. Peachwood (Cr). Wood of Cesalpinia echinata.
> 3. Logwood (Sn). Wood of Hematoxylon campechianum

Criass ITI. Moprratrety Fasr Contours. (Wo0t.)

The colours of this class show distinct fading at the end of the second
period (April 20 to May 28, 1898), which becomes more pronounced at
the end of the third period (May 28 to June 27, 1898). A pale tint
remains at the end of the fourth period (June 27 to October 22, 1898),
and at the end of a year’s exposure the colour has entirely faded, or, at
most, mere traces of colour remain.

Azo Colours.

Wool Book XV.
Acid Colours. 7. Azo Acid Violet 4R. Constitution not published. ,
a 8. Azo Acid Violet R extra. Constitution not published. °
a5 10. Azo Acid Violet B extra. Constitution not published.
pe 15. Fast Violet (blue shade). From p-toluidine-sulphonic acid,
#-naphthylamine, and f-naphthol-sulphonic acid 8. §. and J.
151

” 16. Fast Violet (redshade). From sulphanilic acid, a-naphthylamine,
and B-naphthol-sulphonic acid 8. 8. and J. 148.

a 43. Victoria Violet 4BS. Sodium salt of g-amido-aniline-azo-1'8-
dioxy-naphthalene-3'6 disulphonic acid. §8.and J. 38.
As 44, Victoria Violet 5B. Constitution not published.

Safranine Colours.
Basic Colours. 28. Paraphenylene Violet. S. and J. 473.

Induline Colours.
Acid Colours. 14. Naphthyl Violet. Constitution not published. ;

Oxazine Colours.

Acid Colours. 45, Gallanilic Violet. Sodium bisulphite compound of gallocyanine-
anhydride-anilide.

Crass IV. Fast Contours. (Woot.)

The colours of this class show comparatively little fading during
the first, second, and third periods. At the end of the fourth period a
pale shade remains, which, at the end of the year’s exposure, still leaves a
pale tint.

Pyronine Colours.
Wool Book XY. .
Acid Colours. Violamine G. Sodium salt of dimesidyl-m-amido-phenolphthalein-
sulphonic acid. §S. and J. 350.
4 Acid Violet 4R. Constitution not published.
_ Violamine R. Sodium salt of diortho-tolyl-m-amido-phenolphthalein-
sulphonic acid. §. and J. 349.
* Violamine B. Sodium salt of diphenyl-m-amido-phenolphthalein-
sulphonic acid. §. & J. 348.
Mordant Colours. Gallein W (Al) (Sn) (Cu). Oxidation product of pyrogallol-
phthalein. §, and J. 366.

Azo Colours.

Direct Cotton 9. Diamine Violet N. From benzidine, and 8-amido-naphthol-
Colours. y-sulphonic acid. §.and J. 180.
Mordant Colours. 8. Chrome Prune (Cr). Constitution not published.

~~ ries

ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS, 367

Ciass V. Very Fast Cotours. (WO0z.)

The colours of this class show a very gradual fading during the
different periods, and even after a year’s exposure a moderately good

colour remains.

Wool Book XVI.

Mordant Colours,

Mordant Colours.

Mordant Colours.

Wool Book XVII.

Basic Colours, 1.
7 3.

Oxyketone Colours.

Alizarin Cyanine G (Al) (Sn). Constitution not published.
Alizarin Cyanine GR (Al) (Sn). Constitution not published.
Alizarin Cyanine R (Al). Pentaoxy-anthraquinone. 8. and J.
406.
Alizarin Cyanine 2R (Al) (Sn) (Cu). Constitution not published.
Alizarin Claret R (Cr). Constitution not published.
Oxazine Colours.
Gallocyanine DH (Cu). Dimethyl - phenyl-ammonium-dioxy -
phenoxazine-carboxylic acid. §. and J. 418.

Azo Colours.
Chrome Bordeaux 6B (Cr). Constitution not published.

}REY COLOURING MATTERS.
Crass IT. Fuairive Conours. (Woo..)

Safranine Colours.

Methylene Grey P. Constitution not published.
Methylene Grey (green shade). Constitution not published.

Crass III. Moprrarery Fast CoLours. (WOoL.)

Basic Colours,

2,

oe |

Acid Colours,

1
” 3

” 4

Basic Colours. 2.
Direct Cotton [{ 8
Colours. { 9

Basic Colours. 5,

‘s 10.

Direct Cotton
Colours.

2?

ote

Basic Colours. 4.

Safranine Colowrs.

. Methylene Grey O. Constitution not published.
. New Methylene Grey G. Constitution not published.

Induline Colours.

. Aniline Grey B. Constitution not published.
. Aniline Grey R. Constitution not published.
. New Grey P. Constitution not published.

New Fast Grey. Constitution not published.

. Direct Grey I. Constitution not published.
. Direct Grey R. Constitution not published.

Oxazine Colours.
Fast Grey R. Constitution not published.

8. Fast Grey B. Constitution not published.

Metamine Grey M. Constitution not published.
Azo Colours.

. Neutral Grey G. Constitution not published.
. Benzo Grey § extra. Constitution not published,
. Zambesi Grey B. Constitution not published.

Crass IV. Fast Conours. (Woot.)

Safranine Colowrs.
New Methylene Grey B, Constitution not published.

568 REPORT—1899,

Induline Colours.

Wool Book XVII.
Direct Cotton 12. Direct Grey 4B. Constitution not published:

Colours.

Sik Patierns.

Most of the foregoing colours were also dyed on silk, and the patterns
were exposed to light along with those on wool. The relative fastness of
the colours was for the most part the same as on wool, the differences
seer ret being too unimportant to warrant a special classification for
silk.

Concluding Observations.

‘These experiments on the Action of Light on Dyed Colours have been
continuously in progress from 1892 to 1899, during which period over
10,600 dyed patterns have been exposed to light, representing about 900
colouring matters, including nearly all those at present in use.

The following tables give a réswmé of the relative fastness to light of
all the colours examined, arranged in order of shade and according to
their chemical constitution.

Red Colours.

i a a aT En Pn ae ee

Ver 44: _.| Moder- | /
rugttere Ere | ately fast | —_ res
| Azo colours . 4 é < 2 6 47 60 35 3
| Triphenylmethane colours . : ~ f = =a t=
Pyronine colours . 5 4 ; 1!) 5 nl 1 =
Acridine colours . : : : = 1 — =
Oxyketone colours .. : A _- Die 1 ly 2
Safranine colours 5 1 |
Induline colours . 2 aia! 22 | il =
Natural colours 3 Lime 2 2 TO
= —s = 2 = | |
Ratals.. 4’. Ae ire 72 “GL ibe 40 4 |

Orange and Yellow Colours.

| Very

“ys Moder- 7
| fugitive Beare ately fast Ree ety
| athe |
Nitro colours ‘ , : oy 5 ead 1 2,
Hydrazone colours ; sian ate Games = at eee Reh
Azoxy colours : — — = 3 10
Azo colours . ; : 10 Sen es 3155) a) eee 18
Triphenylmethane colours . : ie | 1 =
Pyronine colours . 5 ; oH 1 ES yy > Le Lats
Acridine colours . : : 4 4 -— — au ae
Oxyketone colours , : PS = = 2 1a |
Thiobenzenyl colours 22 = = ae er |
Quinolin colours 1 1 == ——
Natural colours Sra e 16 3 2 11 |
Total . . : : : 33 35 35 29 52 |

Ee

ee

———————

ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS.

Green Colours,

Very oe Moder- | Very
fugitive he. ately fast a | fast |
| / |
Azo colours . : . a8 | 1 2 2 pecce rit
Triphenylmethane colours oa inet aa? 3 = =
Pyronine colours . : = = a as 4h ;
Quinoneoxime colours . — a == ae al eer
Oxyketone colours = ge zs TR eee
Safranine colours . = 1 = = et
Natural colours 1 — = | = =
Total . | 6 15 5 2 8
Blue Colours.
} Very | iti Moder- Very
fugitive ae ately fast — fast
Azo colours . : 4 28 15 il -
Triphenylmethane colours 5 4 13 2 —
Oxyketone colours — cama Fees — 8
Oxazime colours . 2 6 5 2 1 1 |
Thiazime colours . 5 1 -- — 2
Safranine colours 1 + dh Ps —- | —
Induline colours . —— — 12 Da =
Prussian blue — = a = at i!
Natural colours . - — She il “= 1
Total . 21 45 43 5 13
Violet Colours.
Very +43 Moder- Very
fugitive aves ately fast rie fast
Ss
Azo colours . _— HL 7 2 i
Triphenylmethane colours 18 TQ le as =2 a
Pyronine colours . — Fea hake 5 —
Oxyketone colours — — — — 9
Oxazime colours . 5 2 — 1 — ye
Safranine colours i : 6 — 1 — —
Induline colours . : : — 1 — —
Natural colours a 3 es <3 fab
Total 26 26 10 a 11
Brown Colours.
Very +s Moder- Very
fugitive Bpgiayg ately fast Hest fast
Azoxy colours : ‘ : il nox a 2
Azo colours 9 4G 15 2 we.
Oxyketone colours 2 sgl ag — -- 10 |
Chromogen ges Lat, oe pee 1
Natural colours 5 6 8 1 20
Total 10 52 26 3 31

370 REPORT—1899.

Black and Grey Colours.

Ver ott Moder- Vv
fugitive | sitive |ately fast ae | fast
wy ee eee pea
Azo colours . 6 > - ° 3 20 36 4 =
Oxyketone colours A . . = == — 4 1
Oxazime colours . : . . — 1 | Bia lee ame
Safranine colours A p : — Z| 2 Thy peal iene
Induline colours . : c —_ — | 6 1 ps
Natural colours . : 5 : = 1 | 3 Hi ts
Rgtil< Sl sar eR ere 3 24 | 50 10 | 1
GENERAL TABLE.
(Including all the colowrs in the above tables.)

| | > |
| Ver +: | Moder- ; ,

| sagitive | Pasitive |ataty = Fest | ea, |
Nitro colours 4 “ 5 — — 1 site
Hydrazone colours , é ik — _ 2 =

Azoxy colours : : A . 1 — 3 3 10. «|
Azocolours . : 5 j 3 APR Ty alval 166 65 22
Triphenylmethane colours . Boy ee Bla) fe 6 iin
Pyronine colours . ‘ 20 | 5 = —_ 1
Acridine colours . F 5 A etl 1 _ = ate
Quinoneoxime colours . = —_ —_ % 6
Oxyketone colours = a 2 1 53
Oxazime colours . 8 6 6 = Dy)
Thiazime colours . 5 1 = Lj 2
Safranine colours 12 8 3 3 =
Induline colours 2 — 24 = =
Thiobenzenyl colours 3 — | — ae oe
Quinolin colours : , 1 Ye = =
Chromogen . i - A ‘ => _ — — 1
Prussian blue . . . — f= = = 1
Natural colours 3 / 40 17 5 42
Total . F : * ah ule! | BASE) yh ~ BG me MRS 140

The above tables show clearly that, although the coal-tar dyestuffs in-
clude a very large number which yield fugitive colours, there are also
many which yield fast colours. It is seen that both these classes are also
represented among the natural or vegetable dyestuffs, and the prevalent
idea that the latter are fast while the former are fugitive is merely a
popular error. This opinion has, however, been so long fixed in the
popular mind that it is to be hoped the conclusive proof of its fallacy
afforded by these experiments will cause it to be finally abandoned.
These tables, indeed, show that coal-tar furnishes the dyer with a larger
number of colours fast to light than are derived from any other source.

The work of the Committee being now limited to the examination of
dyes on the cotton fibre, as well as new colouring matters introduced each
year, the Secretary will continue the investigation without requiring any
grant in aid, and a reappointment of the Committee is not necessary.

ON LIFE-ZONES IN THE BRITISH CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS. 537]

Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rochks.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Mr. J. H. Marr (Chairman), Mr. EK. J.
Garwoop (Secretary), and Mr. F. A. Batuer, Mr. G. C. Crick,
Mr. A. H. Foorp, Mr. H. Fox, Dr. WHEELTON Hinp, Dr. G. J.
Hinpe, Professor P. F. Kenpauy, Mr. J. W. Kirxsy, Mr. R.
Kipston, Mr. G. W. Lampiuau, Professor G. A. Lesour, Mr. G.
H. Morton, the late Professor H. A. Nicno.son, Mr. B. N. Peacn,
Mr. A. Straman, and Dr. H. Woopwarp. (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)

APPENDIX PAGE
I. Report on Carboniferous Rocks and Fossils; South Pennine District

By Dr. WHEELTON HIND . : - - : é ; ; 71
Il. Report on Carboniferous Rocks and Fossils ; North Wales District . ADD
Ill. Report on Carboniferous Rocks and Fossils ; Isle of Man District . 375

.

Tue Committee report that the work during the past twelve months has
been proceeding on the same lines as before. The reports from the
specialists to whom the Eccup collection has been referred are not yet
complete. Reports on special districts have been received from Dr.
Wheelton Hind and Mr. G. H. Morton ; the latter hopes to report more
fully later on. These reports are appended. The recent evidence
obtained does not seem to afford any assistance in the selection of zone
fossils capable of being used outside the special districts to which they
were first found applicable. Thus, Chonetes papillionacea, a species charac-
teristic of the Lower Scar Limestone of Westmoreland and Yorkshire, has
recently been reported by Dr. Hind from the Upper part of the Carboni-
ferous Limestone of the Congleton district in Cheshire ; while Mr. Morton
finds that several common species, previously considered to be characteristic
of the upper and middle subdivisions of the Carboniferous Limestone in the
west of the country, occur in Anglesey and along the Menai Strait in
the lower division.

Owing to constant absence from England, Mr. Garwood has with
regret been obliged to resign the office of Secretary tothe Committee. The
Committee are, however, glad to state that Dr. Wheelton Hind has under-
taken to transact the business of the Committee in future, if they are
re-appointed.

The Committee have been unable to carry out any further exploration
during the year, and have therefore not drawn any of the money granted
by the Association at the last meeting.

APPENDIX.

Tl. Report on Carboniferous Rocks and Fossils; South Pennine District.
By Dr. WHEELTON HInp.

I prefer to subdivide the Carboniferous rocks, as they occur in 8.W.
Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cheshire, Derbyshire, and Statiordshire, into two
groups only—Upper and Lower.

{ Coal measures.
UPPER . + } Millstone grit.
Shales.
LowER. . Limestones, massive.

ave REPORT—1899,

Tur Coat Measures.—With regard to the sequence of coal meastites
in the various districts, I would refer to my schemes with the horizons at
which the molluscs occur, printed in Part II. of my monograph on the
British Carbonicola, Anthracomya and Naiadites.

The species of the genus Anthracomya seem to me particularly useful
in each coalfield as denoting zones which I have more particularly worked
out in the North Staffordshire coaltield, the upper coal measures con-
sisting of red measures with sandstones, ironstones, a few corals and spirorbis
limestones. The latter are, however, found almost to the base of the
North Staffordshire coalfield. The typical shell of the lower part of this
series is Anthracomya Phillipsii, which passes down to the Knowles Iron-
stone, below which it is not found. In the North Staffordshire and
Manchester coalfields, a small shell, Anthracomya calcifera (Hind), appears
to denote a zone some 300 yards above the zone of A. Phillipsi. In the
North Staffordshire coalfield this zone occurs just below the Penkhull
sandstone, hitherto mapped as Permian by the Geological Survey.

Anthracomya minima is typical of the Knowles Ironstone.

Anthracomya Adamsii and A. pulcra, confined to the Burnwood or
Little Mine Ironstone.

Carbonicola turgida, typical of a bed a few yards above the moss
coal.

Carbonicola nucularis, C. cuneiformis, Anthracomya Williamsoni,
A. subcentralis, only found in roof of Hardmine coal.

Carbonicola similis is found only about the horizon of the Cockshead
coal.

The genus WVaiadites comes in with the Knowles seam, and is found at
several horizons below this to the base of the Coal Measures.

The gannister series appears to be absent in North Staffordshire, unless
it is represented by thin beds with Aviculopecten papyraceus about the
Stinking Coal, Cheadle and Froghall, and over the lower coals of Wetley
Moor.

The Hutton cannel seam of Wigan is characterised by a bivalve like a
Schizodus (the Tellinomya of H. Bolton), probably unfilled casts of
Carbonicola turgida, and the Arley mine by Carbonicola robusta.

The Millstone Grit series appears destitute of molluscan remains, the
beds thin out to the south-west, only two remaining along the west flank
of the Pottery coalfield.

Four important marine bands occur in the North Staffordshire coal-
field, one high up over the Bay mine, with

Aviculopecten, sp. Macrocheilus
Nucula, sp. Nautilus
Discina, sp. Productus
Lingula, sp. Spirifer

Another over the Gin mine—

Orthoceras, sp. Spirifer

Discites, sp. Productus semireticulatus
Goniatites, sp. Chonetes Laguessiana
ELuomphalus Nucula gibbosa
Pleurotomaria, sp. » wndulata (2)
Loxonema; sp. Schizodus, sp.
Bellerophon, sp. Solenomya primeva

Macrocheilus, sp.

ON LIFE-ZONES IN THE BRITISH CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS. B79

One over the Moss coal, with Lingula mytiloides.

One over the four-foot Wetley Moor coal with Lingula mytiloides and
compressed goniatites.

Below the Millstone Grits occurs a series of shales with gannister-
like sandstones said to be 3,000 feet thick, an estimate which I con-
sider much too large, for the beds are much rolled, and form a series
of anti- and synclinals from east to west, and wherever there appears to
be a direct sequence from limestone to the grits there is never room for
more than about 1,000 feet of Measures. Below this gritty bed are a
series of shales with bullions and thin earthy limestones.

These beds are characterised by a curious fauna which seems to have
lived on till the Lower Coal Measures of Lancashire were laid down. The
fauna comprises several forms of goniatites.

Glyphioceras Phillipsti, G. micronotum, G. vesica, G. implicatum,
G. platylobum, G. stenolobum, G. nitidum, G. reticulatum, G. Davisi,
G. diadema, Dimorphoceras Gilbertsoni, D. discrepans, Gastriosceras car-
bonarium, G. Listeri, Nautilus, Orthoceras, Nuculana stilla, Schizo-
dus antiquus, Posidoniella levis, P. Kirkmani, P. varians, Aviculopecten
papyraceus. Gastropoda of several genera also occur.

Messrs. Barnes and Holroyd, who have for some years watched the
tunnel driven by the London and North-Western Railway under Pule
Hill, Marsden, have made a fine collection from the bullions contained in
the shales. These are evidently on the same horizon as the shales of
High Greenwood, Cumsworthdean, near Todmorden, from which localities
long lists are given in Davis and Lees’s ‘ West Yorkshire.’ I have detected
the same bullions with fossils near Dane Bridge, Cheshire, and the
Coombes Leek, Staffordshire, and am of opinion that this bed occurs not
far below the Shale or Pendle Grit ; and I believe it to be the representa-
tive of the Pendle Limestone as found on Pendle Hill.

At Congleton Edge, Cheshire, which is nearly 1,000 feet high, there
is a complete sequence from the first bed of millstone grit to the limestone
massif. This range of the escarpment of this hill is formed by millstone
grit ; two beds, the first and third, with a few feet of intervening shale
occur. Some 200 yards below this is a quarry, at the base of which
are beds of hard, gannister-like quartzose sandstone with plant remains,
which may be the representative of the shale grit. These are suc-
ceeded with laminated black shale crammed with compressed goniatites,
Posidoniella levis and P. Kirkmani. Above these are 10 to 20 feet of

grey marl with layers of calcareous bullions, in which the following fauna
occurs :—

Ceratiocaris Oretonensis Discina nitida
Dythiocaris testudineus Lingula scotica
Orthoceras, sp. “f mytiloides
Glyphioceras diadema Pecten, sp. 2
fe sp. Myalina peralata

Nautilus, sp. Posidoniella semisulcuta
Terebratula hastata Modiola transversa
Spirifer glaber : Protoschizodus orbicularis

» bisuleatus Parallelodon obtusus
Athyris planosulcata 33 sp.

» amnbiqua Nucula gibbosa
Orthis resupinata » @qualis

» Michelini Ctenodonta sinuosa
Streptorhynchus crenistria Edmondia sulcata

Productus semireticulatus Uytilinorphe rhombea

374 REPORT—1899.

Productus longispinus Sanguinolites, sp.
= Cora Bellerophon Hiuleus
- scabriculus + Orei
. Chonetes Laguessiana Ewomphalus, sp.

Pleurotomaria monilifera
Macrocheilus, sp.

The fauna found in the excavations for a reservoir at Eccup, near Leeds,
contains numerous species identical with those found at Congleton Edge.

Messrs. Barnes and Holroyd drew my attention this year to a bed of
grit con the east flank of Pule Hill, Marsden, filled with fossils—chiefly
casts. The number of specimens is large but the variety small, and
including :—

Goniatites, sp. Sedgnickia attenuata
Pleurotomaria, sp. Schizodus antiquus
Bellerophon, sp. Myalina Verneuillii.

Lingula, sp. » Llemingi.

Nowhere in the district do limestones of any thickness occur between
the limestone ‘massif’ below and the base of the Millstone Grit which
corresponds to the Yoredale series ; and I consider that there are no
grounds for assuming that the beds of shale and sandstone which occur in
this position in the South Pennine area are in any way the equivalents of
the Yoredale series of Wensleydale.

The Mountain Limestone.—Since Messrs. Barnes and Holroyd drew
my attention to the occurrence at Castleton of beds of rolled shells, and
limestone pebbles with occasional quartz pebbles, which occupy the highest
portions of the ‘massif’ of Mountain Limestone, and which they interpret
as contemporaneous limestone beach, I, with Mr. A. Howe, have traced
this bed over North Staffordshire, Cheshire, and Derbyshire, wherever the
upper beds are exposed. It seems to have been laid down as a shore which
retreated from north to south, before the shales were laid down upon it.
Various shells occur in this beach. Chonetes papilionacea, and Producti,
Strophomena analoga, trilobites and many teeth of Psammodus, Psephodus,
and other fish remains, which are very similar to those of the main limestone
Leyburn. Below this bed come highly fossiliferous beds of corals, molluscs,
with others of encrinital origin. Below still comea series of limestones with
narrow bands of chert and beds of encrinites, and finally hard, thick-bedded
limestones with sparse fossils.

All the celebrated fossiliferous localities of Derbyshire and Stafford-
shire occur at the top of the limestone massif, where all the species occur
together in the same bed. Most of the fossils are semi-rolled, and very
few lamellibranchs have both valves in contact, and I doubt if they are
in the place where the animals died. Elsewhere in the series fossil
mollusca are rare.

I am unable to find any fossils distinctive of zones in the limestone
of this area, with perhaps one exception, and that local. Productus hume-
rosus characterises the Cauldon Low beds, but is not found elsewhere.
These beds I consider to come near the top of the massive beds of limestone.

It is the intention of Mr. Howe and myself to publish a paper of
details on the occurrence of the conglomerate beds and the carboniferous

sequence in this area in the near future, for which we are now gathering
statistics. '

ON LIFE-ZONES IN THE BRITISH CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS. 375
ry
Note on Nucula gibbosa.—This shell comes in the Calciferous Sand-
stone beds of Fife, and ranges through the Carboniferous Limestone Series
of Scotland. Occurs in abundance in the Redesdale ironstone ; is not met
with, pace the compilers of lists, in the Carboniferous Limestone, but
occurs in the shales below the Millstone Grits, and in the true Coal
Measures of North Staffordshire.
Note on Lowick Fossils —Mr. John Dunn, of Redesdale, has collected
a very large percentage of the species listed for Lowick in a bed of lime-
stone at the Combs, Redesdale, which is the four-laws limestone, from its
relation to the four-laws coal.

II. Report on Carboniferous Rocks and Fossils ; North Wales District.

Mr. G. H. Morton reports that he has in preparation a list of the
fossils found in the carboniferous limestone of North Wales. It contains
the result of collections made in four separate areas, viz.—Llangollen,
Flintshire, the Vale of Clwyd, and Anglesey. The list shows the range
of the species in the subdivisions of the formation in each of the four areas,
not merely by an asterisk, but by letters indicating the relative frequency
and rarity of the species.

The list has been completed, with the excepticn of the part relating to
Anglesey, but another year will be necessary to finish that area. Collecting
in Anglesey and along the Menai Strait has already shown that several
common species, previously considered to be characteristic of the Upper
and Middle subdivisions of the carboniferous limestone occur there in the
lower subdivision. It appears that the occurrence of species in definite
horizons depends more on the lithological character of the strata than on
the horizon at which they occur.

As the collecting in Anglesey will be finished early next year, it is
obviously desirable to postpone the presentation of the list until it can be
given in its final form.

III. Report on Carboniferous Rocks and Fossils ; Isle of Man District.

Mr. Lamplugh writes concerning the Isle of Man :—‘ In the prepara-
tion of the Survey memoir of that area, several collections of Manx
carboniferous fossils have been examined by the Palzontologists of the
Geological Survey, and a substantial list of fossils has heen compiled,
which it is hoped may be of service in correlating the carboniferous rocks
of the island with those of the mainland. As a result of this work it is
found that there are well-marked variations in the fauna of different
parts of the limestone, as the Rev. J. G. Cumming pointed out fifty years
ago, but the zonal value of these variations is somewhat doubtful, as the
changes seem to indicate differences in the physical condition of sedi-
mentation, rather than the dying out of species, and the evolution of
others. The collections examined were the labelled portion of the
Cumming collection of King William’s College, Castletown, Miss Briley’s
collection, Mr. R. Law’s collection, Dr. Hind’s collection, and the col-
lections of the Woodwardian Museum and of the Geological Survey.’

The Committee hope to make use of these lists, and to refer to them
more fully in a future report.

376 REPORT—1899,

Trish Elk: Remains.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
W. Boyp Dawkins (Chairman), His Honour DEEMSTER GILL,
Rev. Canon Savace, Mr. G. W. Lampiucu, and Mr. P. M. C.
Kermonpe (Secretary), appointed to examine the Conditions under
which Remains of the Irish Elk are found in the Isle of Man.

As soon as possible after our reappointment last September we commenced
excavating at the Loughanruy in Ballaugh, where, as stated in our first
Report (1897), the Edinburgh specimen was found in 1819.

We reached the undisturbed white marl at a depth of 9 feet, and
penetrated through it at 18 feet, uncovering an area of about 12 yards
by 2, in a line parallel with and about 6 feet north of the boundary hedge
where the original example had been discovered. Unfortunately the
weather broke, and though we had shored up our trench with timber the
water burst through and prevented further work.

Samples were forwarded to Mr. James Bennie, who again kindly
assisted the Committee by preparing the material.

Mr. Clement Reid examined and reported on the remains thus
obtained. The plants, as he points out, include singularly few species,
and there is no trace of dry soil species among them. In the silt, the
large number of leaves all belonging to a single species of willow suggests
that we are dealing with a poverty-stricken flora, such as might occupy
the island soon after the ice had passed away, and before there had been
time for many plants to be introduced.

The question whether the megaceros marl may not show a milder
climate than the succeeding deposit must still remain an open one. All
the plants in the marl have an exceedingly wide range, both northern and
southern, and there is nothing in any way characteristic except the
fragments belonging to Lepidurus (apus) glacialis, Mr. Reid, however,
fairly points out that this is only a single specimen, and, the species being
abundant in the overlying bed with Arctic Willows, it would not be safe
to found much on it—a light thing of this sort might so easily fall in
and be taken out with the lower bed.

The species found were :—

Silt (Bed C of ow first Report).

Lepidurus glacialis (abundant). Salix herbacea (abundant).
Ranunculus aquatilis. Carex.
Marl (F of first Report).
Lepidurus glacialis (one fragment). | Hmpetrum nigrum.
Ranunculus aquatilis. | Potamogeton natans,
~ flammula, | 3 ? sp.
repens. Carex.

Littorella lacustris. |

No trees are found in either deposit, and this circumstance, perhaps,
shows that a mild climate did not exist during the deposition of the marl.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST, 377

Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—Tenth
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor JAMES GEIKIE
(Chairman), Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. TEMPEST ANDERSON,
Mr. J. E. Beprorp, Mr. H. Coarss, Mr. C. V. Croox, Mr. E. J.
Garwoop, Mr. J. G. Goopcniup, Mr. Witiiam Gray, Mr.
Rosert Kinston, Mr. A. 8. Rew, Mr. J. J. H. Treaty, Mr.
R. H. Trppeman, Mr. H. B. Woopwarp, Mr. F..WooLnouaa,
and Professor W. W. Watts (Secretary). (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)

THE Committee have the honour to report that during the year 324 new
photographs have been received, bringing the total number in the collec-
tion to 2,325. The average yearly income during the decade has thus
been 233.

In addition to this 61 prints and 6 slides have been given to the
duplicate collection, making a total of 391 photographs received during
the year. About forty are already in hand for next year.

Thirteen old prints have also been renewed by the kindness cf Mr.
Gray, Mr. Eaton, Mr. Stelfox and Mr. Welch.

The usual scheme showing the geographical distribution of photographs
is appended. The following counties are now represented for the first
time :—Bedford, Buckingham, Hereford, Berwick, Linlithgow, Kerry, and
Tipperary. The following counties are more richly represented than
hitherto :—Devon, Northumberland, Stafford, Suffolk, Warwick, Radnor,
Fife, Inverness, and Mayo.

Several of the donations are of exceptional interest. Mr. A. S. Reid
has carried out a photographic survey of the Island of Eigg, and has
already presented to the collection 27 enlarged photographs, to illus-
trate the Scuir of Eigg and its remarkable history as told by Sir
Archibald Geikie. The set includes photographs of the pitchstone of the
Scuir, the river gravel underneath it, and many other phenomena of
volcanic and tectonic interest in the island. He has also given a set of
vrints which will be circulated with the duplicate collection as a model cf
a local survey.

Another connected series illustrating the physical history of the
Yorkshire rivers is communicated by Mr. Godfrey Bingley, who took the
photographs at the suggestion of Mr. Kendall. The series is not yet
finished, but it is already a most useful and instructive one, and bids fair
to become very valuable as a record of ancient physical changes, while it
admirably illustrates the value of photographic records for this purpose.
Besides this set Mr. Bingley has contributed other photographs from
Yorkshire and Lancashire, and Mr. Cuttriss gives further examples of his
photographs of caves.

To Mr. A. K. Coomara Swamy the Committee are indebted for a large
series of prints taken mainly during excursions made by the Geologists’
Association into Scotland, Devon, Dorset, Kent, Gloucestershire, and else-
where ; volcanic phenomena, unconformities, denudation, weathering,
contortion, and the position of important rock zones, are all illustrated by
this series. Mr. H. C. McNeill also gives other photographs taken on
excursions of the Geologists’ Association and described in the Proceedings
of that body.

378 REPORT—1899.
[hee 2 Ee ee ee
Duplicates
Pre- ey
= vious a l- e sts
bands ‘atid Total rear Additions (1899) ca
dion” 4} (1888) tion | Prints | Slides
ENGLAND—
Bedfordshire . = 3 3 | — | — | — —
Buckingham-
shire — 4 4 — | 1 — 1
Cornwall Biff 1 38 | Sh see cae ni =— 3
Devonshire 95 27 122 | 3 lS Sage 8
Dorset 5 42 7 59 6 — — 6
Durham . 5 23 4 27 1 — — 1
Gloucester-
shire : 12 3 15 | === 1
Herefordshire . = 1 1 = | SS gif —
Hertfordshire . if 3 10 fo] _—
Kent 60 7 67 13 | = | — 13
Lancashire 49 3 52 10 | 10
Leicestershire. Oss Att 2 93 || 20 ae of 20
Northumber- \
land SO weit (el: iad: Aly A a = ii
Shropshire .| 28 1 29 || Sago — 8
Staffordshire .| 34 9 3 eal Goal 2 2 10
Suffolk 4 6 LOST pee n= — —
Surrey . 21 ae ube Daa taal) 3) Og Al eames — 3
Sussex H 8 1 Bh —- | =
Warwickshire . 18 20) BOT 1 | 3
Worcestershire Shei Dae lO Go| 1 _ 1
Yorkshire Pilaeobe eae OOM a 413 ee deol ee ee 60
Others . 245 | — | 245 | 39 {| — 39
Total . 1179 175 1354 || 18 4 3 187
WALES— |
Denbighshire . 13 2 its | 5 — — 5
Radnorshire 1 19 20 — — — =
Others . 109 — 109 38 porate 38
Total . f 123 L | 144 45 — — 43
|
CHANNEL Is- |
LANDS . fh 14 | 1 15 = ais fe
eS | ee = — pe S|
IsLE OF MAN.; 52 | — 52 || | egees | — 4
ScoTLAND— |
Banff . 5 4 — 4. | — 1 — | 1
Berwickshire . — | 4 4 — eed || siege | 1
Edinburgh 40" | 7 47 10 = SET CURES
Fifeshire TA he 60 24 | if = — 7
Inverness-shire Orem leew 65 1 27 | ca 28
Lanarkshire Bio 2 i 5 —- | = 5
Linlithgow-
shire . | = Z 2 — a — | —
Perthshire 19 1 20 — eek S| 3
Stirlingshire . 3 2 15 — — | 2
Others . 83 — 83 2 == | — 20
fatal. “g7- 26 55 971 480 | 28 al 77
\ { i

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST, 379

Duplicates
Pre- New
_- tae ens Total || Previous| Additions (1899)
tion (1899) galled Rotel
| tion Prints Slides
|
IRELAND— | }
Antrim . 2 165 17 | 182 26 3 a 29
Cones. oe 1 1 2 == — — —
Donegal . . 35 4 39 2 == a5 2
Down . 3 55 DAs) i reGOrye yy oo WS 1! a 16
Dublin . R 21 6 27 || 3 _— _- 3
Galway . . 24 4 28 || 3 = -— 3
Kerry . ‘ -—— 10 sp ineipe = ; — a= —
Londonderry . 19 3 go" a — 1
Mayo . 4 6 8 14 sO 1 — — 1
Tipperary . = 1 te ie = = —
Others . ‘ 18 = 18 || 1 Bis ~~ 1
Total. .| 344 68 412 | 52 4 — 56
! |
Rock STRUC- |

TURES. 5 73 4 (i fee | 3 _ celeep |
Enetanp | 1179 175 | 1354 || 180 gee red RNs
WALES. ely 323 ZUM Pere) Bees = — 43
CHANNEL Is- |}

LANDS : 14 1 ye se =:
IsLE OF MAN. 52 SS re 4 = — 4
ScoTLAND |) ele 5b! ||, Zak 48 28 1 77
IRELAND . : 344 68 412 52 4 — 56
Rock StTRUC-

TURES. .| 73 4 77 «|| 28 3 a 31
FOREIGN . i a —- | — | 3 22 2 ra

Total . . | 2001 324 | 2325 358 61 6 425

Mr. Welch contributes, through the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club,
43 platinotypes taken with his usual skill in Ireland. Glaciated surfaces
and transported blocks, the Silurian district of Mayo and Galway, the
volcanic district of the North-east of Ireland, and various tectonic
phenomena are illustrated by the photographs. One set illustrates a new
industry in the country, the excavation of the diatomaceous clay of the
river Bann for use as ‘ Kieselguhr.’ Mr. Phillips also sends through the
same Club a set of Irish photographs.

The Midland district is beginning to be better represented in the
collection, chiefly owing to contributions by Mr. W. Jerome Harrison,
Professor Allen, Mr. Evers Swindell, Mr. Watson, and students of Mason
University College. Thus the Nuneaton Cambrian and Precambrian
Rocks show a very considerable series, while the Abberley Hills, the
Permian, Trias, and Lias of the district, the volcanic rocks of the South
Staffordshire Coalfield, the boulders and superficial deposits, are all being
illustrated.

Mr. Garrett, of the Durham College of Science, gives photographs
taken under the direction of Professor Lebour along the Northumberland
and Durham Coast and elsewhere, illustrating chiefly the Carboniferous and
Permian Rocks, and including the remarkable structures found in the latter.

380 REPORT—1899:

The representatives of the late W. Topley have presented 19 photo-
graphs taken on the rivers Elan and Claerwen on the site of the new
Birmingham waterworks. A most useful account of the geological features
of these photographs has been communicated by Mr. H. Lapworth, the
chief authority on the geology of the district.

Mr. J. A. Cunningham has illustrated photographically the contorted
Carboniferous Limestones of the Loughshinny district, near Dublin, some
of which have been rendered classic by the Memoirs of the Geological
Survey of Ireland.

Amongst other sets the following should be especially mentioned :—The
Ingleton district by Mr. F. N. Eaton, the Devonshire coast by Miss Part-
ridge, the Purbeck, Portland, and Lower Greensand Strata in Buckingham-
shire by Mr. Pledge, and a series of dykes in Down by Miss Andrews.

To the donors and others above mentioned and to the following, the
Committee are much indebted :—Miss Silverston, Mr. R. McF. Mure,
Mr. J. H. Baldock, Mr. A. Watkins and Mr. H. Cecil Moore,.Mr. E. J.
Garwood, Mr. K. F. Bishop, Mr. W. G. Orme, Mr. W. Wickham King,
Mr. W. Gray, Mr. Stelfox, and Mr. G. Nichols.

There is still much room for work in the Pennine Chain, especially its
western side, the Weald, the Cotswolds and Edge Hills, North and South
Wales, the Yorkshire Moors and Wolds, the Malverns, the Oxford and
Cambridge districts, Cornwall, the Southern Uplands and the Highlands
of Scotland, and in central and southern Ireland.

Notices of the work of the Committee have appeared in many periodi-
cals and journals, and an article was published in ‘Science Work’ illus-
trated by a beautiful reproduction of one of Mr. Reid’s photographs of the
Scuir of Eigg.

The photographs received during the year have been mounted and will
be exhibited at Dover, after which they will be bound up and deposited
with the rest of the collection at 28 Jermyn Street, where they may
always be referred to on application to the Librarian. The collection is
arranged geographically in twenty-seven albums under the heads of
counties, and their natural topographical divisions. A catalogue arranged
under counties is kept in the Library for reference, and the card catalogue
is maintained up to date as new photographs are received.

The numbers of six old lost photographs, which it has not been possible
to recover, have been finally cancelled and some of this year’s prints and
one renewal have been inserted in their place ; such numbers are those on
List I., between 2 and 302, and a separate list (II.) of the cancelled
photographs is given.

Certain corrections in former lists have been kindly made by Mr.
Welch, to whom the thanks of the Committee are due. These are placed
in List IIT., in which are also placed 13 photographs renewed by Mr.
Gray, Mr. Eaton, Mr. Welch, and Mr. Stelfox.

Many geologists, British and foreign, have expressed a desire to
possess examples of geological photographs which they have seen in the
collection. The Committee are willing to undertake the publication of a
small experimental series if a guarantee fund can be formed as a safeguard
against loss.

The publication would take the form of the issue of about twenty
photographs in platinotype or carbon, or high-class process reproductions,
accompanied by descriptive letterpress. If the subscribers preferred,
lantern slides might be issued instead of prints or in addition to them,

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 381

The duplicate collection has been sent, entire or in part, to the follow-
ing local societies :—The Manchester Geological Society ; the Hertford-
shire Natural History Society ; The Essex Field Club ; the Scientific
Society of the Birmingham and Midland Institute; the Vesey Club,
Sutton Coldfield ; the Croydon Microscopical Society ; and the South-
Eastern Union of Natural History Societies.

The additions to this collection during the year are given in List TV.
61 prints and 6 slides have been received, and the whole collec-
tion now numbers 324 prints and 101 slides. A list of donors to this
collection is appended to List IV., and to each of them the Committee
express their thanks.

It has been found desirable to admit to this collection photographs
illustrative of such geological phenomena as do not occur in England, or
are more typically represented abroad. Thus Mr. Coomara Swamy has
contributed a set of photographs of volcanic phenomena from the
Auvergne and the Eifel ; Professor Hutton one of earth-pyramids in New
Zealand ; while the collection already contained photographs of earth-
pyramids from Botzen, and one of the false bedding in the face of the
Sphinx.

Applications by local societies for the loan of this collection should
be made to the Secretary. Hither prints or slides, or both, can be lent,
with a descriptive account of the slides. The carriage, and the making
good of any damage to slides or prints, are borne by the borrowing society.

TENTH LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS
(ro Juty 30, 1899).

Novu.—tThis list contains the geological photographs which have
been received by the Secretary of the Committee since the publication
of the last Report. Photographers are asked to aflix the registered
numbers, as given below, to their negatives for convenience of future
reference. Their own numbers are added, in the same order, to enable
“them to do so. are

Copies of photographs desired can, in most instances, be obtained
from the photographer direct, or from the officers of the Local Society
under whose auspices the views were taken.

The price at which copies may be obtained depends on the size of the
print and on local circumstances over which the Committee have no control.

The Committee do not assume the copyright of any photographs
included in this list. Inquiries respecting photographs, and applications
for permission to reproduce them, should be addressed to the photographers
direct,

The very best photographs Jose half their utility, and all their value
as documentary evidence, unless accurately described ; and the Secretary
would be grateful if, whenever possible, such explanatory details as can
be given were written on the forms supplied for the purpose, and not on
the back of the photograph or elsewhere. Much labour and error of tran-
scription would thereby be saved. A local number ‘by which the print
"ean be recognised should be written on the back of the photograph and on
the top right-hand corner of the form.

Copies of photographs should be sent wwmownted to W. W. Watts,

382 REPORT—1899,

Mason University College, Birmingham, and forms tnay be obtained from
him.
The size of photographs is indicated as follows :—

L= Lantern size. 1/1 = Whole plate.
1/4 = Quarter-plate. 10/8 =10 inches by 8.
1/2 = Half-plate. 12/10 =12 inches by 10, &e.

FE signifies Enlargements.
* indicates that photographs and slides may be purchased from the donors, or the
address given with the series,

LIST 1.
ACCESSIONS IN 1898-1899.
ENGLAND.

Beprorv.—Photographed by H. C. McNezttx, 29 Worth Villas,
Camden Square, N.W. 1/2,

Regd.
INO.
2267 (1) Heath House, Shenley Hill, Lower Greensand Carstone.
Leighton.
2268 (2) Stone Lane Hill Heath : ” “6 White sand. °
2269 (3) he ; e - 5

Buckincuau.—Photographed by J. H. Preven, 115 Richmond
Road, N.E. 1/2.

2305 (1) Pit, between Towersey and Beds of Purbeck facies, overlying Port-

Kingsey. land ‘ Creamy Limestone.’ 1898.

2306 (3) Near King’s Cross, Hadden- Probable Middle Purbeck, Lower Purbeck,
ham. *. and Portland Beds. 1898.

2307 (10) ‘Bugle Pit,’ Stone, near Purbeck and Portland Beds. 1898.
Hartwell.

2308 (6) Sandpit by Windmill, Stone. False-bedded ‘ Lower Greensand.’ 1898.

CornwaLL.—Photographed by J. H. Batpocx, Overdale, St. Leonard’s
Road, Croydon. 1/2.
2120 () Kynance Cove . ; . Stack of Serpentine. 1898,

DrvonsHtrE.—Photographed by A. K. Coomara Swamy, Walden,
Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/4.

2052 ( ) Coddon Hill, Barnstaple. Care eprnnee and Radiolarian Chert.
898.

2053 () Saunton . ; ; . Raised Beach. 1898.

2054 ( ) Ps 5 . F . Sand dunes. 1898.

2055 ( ) Baggy Point Z 3 . ‘Ripple-marked’ Surface. 1898.

2056 ( ) » . . .« Denudation, joints, and bedding in Devon-
ian Rocks. 1898.

2057 ( ) Shaldon, Teignmouth . . Permian conglomerate. 1898.

2058 ( ) Bindon, W. of Lyme Regis . Landslip cliff. 1898.

Photographed by Miss E. M. Partrinen, 75 High Street,
Barnstaple. 1/4.

2177 (11) Saunton . ; : . Raised Beach on Pilton Beds. 1898.

2178 (10) ” ‘4 - * -. ee ” ” ”

2179 (8) Valley of Rocks, Lynton . spe and weathering in Lynton Beds,
1898.

2180 (9) » ® ” ”»

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF

(7) Saunton . F . ‘
(12) Budleigh Salterton Cliffs .

(13) West of Combe Martin .
(14) Under Lantern Hill, Ifra-
combe . : ; : :
(15) Under the Ilfracombe
Hotel, Ilfracombe.

GEOLOGICAL INTEREST, 383

Current-bedding in Raised Beach. 1898.

Honeycomb weathering in Triassic Sand:
stone. 1899.

Folded Ilfracombe Beds. 1899,

Cleavage and Bedding in Ilfracombe
Slates. 1899.

Cleavage crossing Folded rocks, 1899,

Photographed by W. W. Warts, Mason University College, Birmingham.
1/4.

302
2332

(W 90) Hope’s Nose, near
Torquay.

(W 92) Hope’s Nose, near
Torquay.

(W 93) Hope’s Nose, nr. Torquay.

Wd). » ”

(W 95) ” ” »

(W 97) » ? ”

CW 96) ” ” ”

CW 80) R. Dart above Dart-
mouth.

(W 81) R. Dart above Dart-
mouth.

CW 82) R. Dart above Dart-
mouth.

(W 88) Tributary of R. Dart
near Dartmouth.

Contorted and Cleaved Slates and Grits
(Devonian). 1899.

Contorted Grits pinched into lenticles,
1899.

Raised Beach on Devonian Rocks. 1899.

Raised Beach with boulders at base. 1899.

” ” ” ”

” ” ” 93
Raised Beach showing detail of contact
with Devonian Rocks, 1899.
A drowned river valley. 1899.

Dorset.—Photographed by A. K. Coomara Swamy, Walden, Worplesdon,
Guildford. 1/4.

2059
2060
2061
2062

2063
2064

2065

( ) Blashenwell é ‘
( ) Maiden Castle, Dorchester.
( ) Linton Hill, Abbotsbury

( ) Eype, west of Bridport
Harbour.

( ) Burton Bradstock Cliff

a

¢

” ”? ”

) Thorncombe Beacon .

Miniature Caves in Tufa. 1898.

Lynchets or Cultivation-terraces. 1898.

Corallian Rocks. 1898.

Fault; Bathonian against Middle Lias.
1898.

Bridport Sands. 1898.

Bridport Sands and Inferior Oolite Lime-
stone. 1898.

Junction of Upper and Middle Lias. 1898,

Durnau.—Photographed by F. C. Garrett, Durham College of Science,
Neweastle-on-Tyne. 1/4.

2167

2168
2169
2170

(9) Trenchman’s Bay F

(10) Marsden Bay . ° .
(11) 33 = . . .
(12) North of Whitburn . :

Apparent Unconformity in Magnesian
Limestone. 1897.

Top of ‘ Breccia Gash.’ 1897.

‘ Breccia Gash.’ 1897.

‘Cannon-ball Limestone.’ 1897,

GLoucEsTER.—Photographed by A. K. Coomara Swamy, Walden,
Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/4.

2066
2067
2068

( ) View from Frocester-Hill .
( ) Minchinhampton
( ) Huntley’. . . °

Cotteswold Escarpment. 1898.

Great Oolite. 1898.

West of boundary fault; overfolded (?)
May Hill grits. 1898.

384 -REPORT—1899.

Hernrorp.—Photographed by A. Warxins, Hampton Park, Hereford.
Through H. Ceciu Moore, 1/2.
Regd. ; :

No.
2127 ( ) West end of Dog HillTun- Passage Beds between Old Red Sandstone
nel, Ledbury. and Silurian Rocks, 1884.

HertrorpsiirE.—Photographed by A. K. Coomara Swamy, Walden,
Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/4.

2069 ( ) Hatfield Hyde, Hatfield . Boulder-clay with layer of sand. 1898.
2070 ( ) RA Pe . Great Chalky Boulder-clay. 1898.
2071 ¢ ) Brickfield near Ayot Sta- Pipe in Chalk letting down Woolwich and

tion. Reading Beds. 1898.

Kenv.—Photographed by A. K. Coomara Swamy, Walden, Worplesdon,
Guildford. 1/4.

2072 ( ) East of East End Lane, Bagshot Beds and London Clay. 1898.
North Sheppey.

2073 ( ) Near Warden Point, Shep- London Clay; Valley with slipped Septaria.
pey:

2074 ( ) Road to High Rocks, Tun- Weathering of Tunbridge Wells Sandstone.
bridge Wells. 1898.

2075 ( ) Road to High Rocks, Tun- Weathering of Tunbridge Wells Sandstone.
bridge Wells. 1898.

2076 ( ) High Rocks, Tunbridge Weathering and Jointing of Tunbridge
Wells. Wells Sandstone. 1898.

2077 ( ) High Rocks, Tunbridge Weathering and Jointing of Tunbridge
Wells. Wells Sandstone. 1898.

2078 ( ) High Rocks, Tunbridge Weathering and Jointing of Tunbridge
Wells. Wells Sandstone. 1898.

LancasHirE.—Photographed by 8. W. Currniss, 6 Mieldhead Terrace,
Camp Road, Leeds. L,

2176 ( ) EHaseGill . - . Dry Waterfall in Carboniferous Limestone.
1898.

Photographed by Goprrey Binaxey, Thornichurst, Headingley, Leeds.
1/2.
2194 (4779) Clough Foot, Dulesgate, Coal-seam in Rough Rock. 1899.
near Todmorden.

2195 (4780) Clough Foot, Dulesgate, 3 i = 4
near Todmorden.

Leicester.—Photographed by W. T. Tuckrr, Loughborough. 1/2.
2284 ( ) East of Mount Sorrel . Furrowing and smoothing of Granite. 1897.
2285 ( ) ” ” = uy) . ” ” ”
NorTHUMBERLAND.—Photographed by BH. J. Garwoov, Dryden Chambers,

Oxford Street, W.C. 1/1
2153 ( ) Halfa mile northof Wark- Boulder-clays on Coal Measures.
worth.
Photographed by F. C. Garrerr, Durham College of Science,
Newcastle-on-Tyne. 1/4.

2154 (1) Old Fourstones Quarries . Fold in Great Limestone, 1897.
2155 (2) oy ” ” ” ”

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST, 385

Regd,

2156 (8) Prudhamstone Quarry . Coals, shales, &c., in Prudhamstone Sand-
stone. 1897.

2157 (4) Bs 3 Coals, shales, &c., in Prudhamstone Sand.
stone. 1897.

2158 (5) Fourstones Quarry . Great Limestone. 1897.

2159 (6) S.E.of Crag Point, Hartley. Fault in Coal Measures. 1896.
2160 (7) ” ” ” ”
2161 (8) Charlie’s Garden, Seaton Faults in Coal Measures. 1896.

Delaval.

2162 as Whitley . : : . Local Unconformity in Coal Measures. 1897.

2163 . ° . ” ” ” ” py

2164 nt Whitley Coast ; 5 . Irregular Bedding and Patches of Coal ‘in
Coal Measure Sandstone. 1896.

2165 (16) me a : . Irregular Bedding and Patches of Coal in
Coal Measure Sandstone. 1896.

2166 (17) é sratiks : . Irregular Bedding and Patches of Coal in

Coal Measure Sandstone. 1896.
SHROPSHIRE,—Photographed by H. Evers-SwinpE., Red Hill,
Stourbridge. Through W. WickHam Kine. 1/2.
2285 ( ) Gatacre Hall Farm, near Permian Breccia sandstone. 1897.
Enville.
Sp rORTAnIRE. —Photographed by Dr. F. J. Auten, Mason University
College, Birmingham... 1/2.

2188 ( ) Near Church, Kinver . Base of Bunter Pebble-beds. 1898.

2189 ( ) Compton, near Enville . Jointing in Permian Calcareous Con-
glomerate. 1898.

2190 ( ) “ a . Jointing in Permian Calcareous Con-

glomerate. 1898.

Photographed by W. Jurome Harrison, Claremont Road, Handsworth,
Birmingham. 1/2.

) California, near Harborne, Bunter Sandstone.

) Codsall, near Wolverhamp- Lower Keuper Sandstone.

ton.

2275 (
(
2277 ( +) Hailstone Quarry, Rowley Dolerite (Rowley Rag).
(
¢
(

2276

Regis.
2278 ) Bushbury, near Wolver- Striated Boulder of Criffel Granite.
2279

hampton,
) Wolverhampton Park . Boulder of Criffel Granite.
2280

) West of Wolverhampton . Boulder of Criffel Granite.

SuFrFoLK.—Photographed by A.K.Coomara Swamy, Walden, Worplesdon,
Guildford. 1/4.
2080 ( ) Near Martello Tower, Alde- -Damage due to storm. 1898.

burgh.
2081 ( ) S. of Aldeburgh

2082 ¢ ) Hall’s Brickyard, ‘Aldeburgh Chillesford ‘Clay and (Mid-glacial) Sands.
1898.

2083 ( ) Dunwich Cliff . : : Shes Crag. 1898.

2084 ( ) Westleton . : ; . Westleton Beds. 1898.

2085 ( ) ” 9 ” ”

SURREY. _ bien by - K. Maun Swamy, Walden, Worplesdon,
Guildford. 1/4.

2086 ( ) New Posies | Burgh Heath, Drift and Thanet Sand ‘ piped’ into Chalk.
near Epsom 1898.
2087 ( ) Patch of Eocene Sand in Drift. 1898.
2088 ( ) Tuesley, near ‘Godalming . *Pebble-beds’ of Lower Greensand. 1898.
1899. co

4

386 REPORT—1899,

Sussex.—Photographed by A. K. Coomara Swamy, Walden, Worplesdon,
Guildford. 1/4.
Regd.

No.
2079 ( ) Boar’s Head, Eridge . . Weathering of Wealden Sandstone. 1898.

Warwicksuire.—Photographed by A. K. Coomara Swamy, Walden,
Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/4.
2089 () Newbold Cement Works, Anticline in Lower Lias. 1898.
Rugby.
Photographed by T. BuunpEtt, Icknield Street Board School, Birnangham,
and contributed by W. JEROME HARRISON.
2125 ( ) Stockton . -. «. « Lower Lias Limestone and Shale; site of

Ichthyosaurus. 1898.
2283 ( ) cumlisy : . Boulder of Mount Sorrel Granite.

Photographed by C. J. Watson, Acock’s Green, Birmingham. 1/2.
2126 ( ) Stockton . : c . Ichthyosaurus found in Lower Lias. 1898.

Photographed by W. Jerome Harrison, Claremont Road, Handsworth,
Birmingham. 1/2.

2128 ( ) Abel’s Quarry, Hartshill . Junction of Cambrian and Precambrian

Rocks. 1899.
2129 ( ) Caldecote Windmill Quarry, Cambrian Quartzite, middle division. 1899.
Nuneaton.
2130 ( ) » ” ” oe
2131 ( ) Anchor Quarry, Hartshill . Cambrian Quartzite, lowest division. 1899.
2132 ( ” %» ” »
2133 () Chapel End, ” Nuneaton . Carboniferous Basement, Unconformable on
Cambrian shales. 1899.
2134 ( ) ” ” » » ”
2137 ¢ ) ” ” ” ” ”
2135 ( ) + x Contorted Cambrian shales. 1899.
2136 ( ) ” %9 » ”
2138 ( ) Stockingford Brickworks . Carboniferous Clays and Sandstones
1899,
2139 ( ) ” ” ” ” ”
2281 ( ) Nuneaton . Faults in Keuper Marls.
2282 ( ) Cannon Hill Park, Birming- Boulder of Arenig Felstone.

ham.
Photographed by W. G. Ormu, Mason University College, Birmingham.
1/2.

2192 ( ) Chapel End, Nuneaton . Carboniferous conglomerate resting un-
conformably on Cambrian shales. 1899.

2193 ( ) ” ” ” ” ”
Photographed by K. F. Bisuor, 18 New Street, West Bromwich. 1/4.
2191 ( ) Harbury Brickworks . . Lower Lias showing bedding. 1898.

‘W orncESTERSHIRE.—Photographed by A. K. Coomara Swamy, Walden,
Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/4.

2090 ( ) Walsgrove Quarry,Abberley Inversion of Ludlow Rock. 1898.

Photographed by Dr. F. J. Auten, Mason University College,
Birmingham. 1/2.
2187 () Abberley Hill . ? . Permian Breccia, 1898,

2238

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 387

Photographed by H. Evers-Swinpetn, Red Hill, Stourbridge,

through W. Wickuam Kine. 1/2.

( ) Shut Mill, Clent Hills
( ) Adam’s Hill, Clent
( ) Abberley Hill . .

Permian Breccia. 1898.
o “ 1891.
Trappoid Breccia of Permian or Triassic

Age. 1892.

YorksuHire.—Photographed by F. N. Earon, Higher Lane, Aintree,

2140

2141
2142

Liverpool.

Pecca Falls, R. Greta, Ingle-

)

) R. Doe, Ingleton . : :

) Yew Tree Gorge, R. Doe,
Ingleton.

) R. Doe, Ingleton . 3 :

) Near the Strid, R. Wharfe .

)

” ” ”

1/4.

Cut through vertical, ancient rock.

Gorge in ancient rocks.
Overhanging gorge in ancient ocks.

Gorge in ancient rocks.
Jointing in Carboniferous rocks.

9 ” ”

Photographed by 8. W. Currriss, 6 Fieldhead Terrace, Camp Road,
Leeds. IL.

( ) Rowten Pot, Kingsdale
( ) Yordas Cave, Kinesdale

( ) ” ” +B)
( ) Bull Pot, .
( ) Jingling Pot, 3

Carboniferous Limestone ; 365 fect deep.
1898.
Carboniferous Limestone ; interior, 1898,
” 9 ” ”
Exterior ; 220 feet deep. 1898.

” ” ”

Photographed by Goprrey BinGuey, Thorniehurst, Headingley, Leeds.
1/2 and 1/4.

2196
2197

2198
2199
2200
2201
2202
2203
2204
2205

2206
2207

2208
2209
2210
2214
2212

2213
2214

(4771) Near Summit,Todmorden
(4773) Summit Brickworks,near
Todmorden.
(4774) Snoddle Hill, Blackstone
Edge Summit, nr. Todmorden
(4747) Malham, near Tarn
(4753) ss
(4749) Near
Malham.
(4741) Malham
(4743), 3 :
(4795) Cawood, near Selby

Old Smelt Mill,

(4644) Gannister Quarry, Mean-
wood, Leeds,

(4638) __,, »

(4693) Spa Gill, Grantley Gates,
near Ripon.

(4694) Grantley Gates,
Ripon.

(4699) River Skell, from Foun-
tains Abbey.

(4700) Mackershaw
Studley, near Ripon.

(4701) Near Mackershaw, Stud-
ley

near

Bridge,

(4 713) Mackershaw,Studley. 1/4,

(4703) rf "
(4707) Clapthorne, near Ripon.
14.

Third Grit, with slickensides. 1899,

Glacial Drift. 1899.

Three Landslips in Millstone Grit. 1899.

One source of R. Aire. 1899.
Sink of stream which rises on Kirkby Fell.
1899.

Spring, Aire Head. 1899.

Confluence a: R. Wharke and R. Ouse.
1899.

Root of Fossil Tree. 1898.

Intake of R. Skell Gorge. 1899.

” ” ”

” ” ”

Gorge of R. Skell. 1899.

above Mackershaw. 1899.

” 2

Swallow-hole, R. Skell. 1899.
Intake of R. Skell Gorge, below Weir. 1899,
Gravel-pit in supposed Moraine. 1899.

cc2

2146
2147

REPORT—1899,

(4718) Thieve’s Gill, near Ripon.

(4719) 5 +

(4720) ‘ S

(4717) Near Lindrick Farm,
near Ripon. 1/4.

(4705) Lindrick Farm, near
Ripon.

(4704) The Avenue, Studley,
Ripon.

(4714) Studley. 1/4

(4715) ” ”

(4695) Aldtield Lane Ends,

near Ripon.
(4740) Sun Wood, Low Grant-
ley, near Ripon.
(4739) ” a
(4734) Low Grantley,near Ripon

(4738) a n

(4735) 5 ‘
(4737) ; *s

(4733) Below Winksiey Mill,
near Ripon.

(4729) Winksley, near Ripon

(4723) Cote Hill, Galphay, near
Ripon.

(4722) Laverton, near Kirkby
Malzeard, Ripon.

(4721) Kirkby Malzeard, near
Ripon.

Temporary Glacial valley of R. Ure. 1899.

3” ” 33 ” 72.

” ” ” ” ”
Roman Ridge; steep eastern face of
Moraine. 1899.
Lateral escape of old valley of R. Ure

through Roman Ridge. 1899.
Exit of old gorge of R. Ure. 1899.
Dry valley, Kendall’s Walk. 1899.

Old river bed; intake of Kendall’s Walk.
1399.

Abandoned channel of R. Laver. 1899,

Fintranoe to abandoned channel of RLaver:
1899.

Confluence of R. Laver and Holborn Beck.
1899.

Holborn Beck, cutting through coarse
gravel of old Delta. 1899,
Gorge of-R, Laver. 1899.

Gravel-pit in ‘supposed Moraine. 1899.

Valley of R. Laver above point of glacial
diversion. 1899.

Inner face of outermost Lateral Moraine of
Uredale. 1899.

WALES.
Drnpicusumre.—Photographed by F. N. Eaton,* Higher Lane, Aintree,

Liverpool.

( ) Llangollen ;
( ) Dee Valley, Berwyn

1/4.

General view of Dee Valley.

”

Rapnor.—Photographed by Mr.Hupson* (H), Mr. J.Owrn,* Newtown(O),

and others.

Contributed by the representatives of the late W. Topuey,

and the geological features explained by H. Lapwortu. 1/1, dc.

2286
2287
2288

2289
2290

2291

2292

aid
2293

) Site of Dam, Caban Coch,
Rhayader
Cay %» .

(20077 BH), i,

Oo “ ele
( ? ) Caban Coch, Rhayader .

¢ ) ElanValley and R. Claer-
wen above Caban Coch, Rhay-
ader.

(20078 H) Capel Nant Gwyllt,

Rhayader. 1/2.

“(10860 H) Capel Nant Gwyllt,

Rhayader, site of submerged
dam (Careg ddu). 1/2.

Base of Upper Llandovery Beds and inter-
mediate Shale Group.

Lower and Upper Conglomerates, Shale
Group, and Grits of Upper Llandovery.
Upper Llandovery Conglomerates and

fault.
From down stream.
Upper Llandovery Conglomerates and
alluvial stretch above site of dam,
Rivers in flood.

Upper Llandovery Conglomerate.

Lower Llandovery rocks.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 389

Regd.
N

oO.
2294 (20092 H) Pont-yr-Hlan, Rhay- Scenery of plateau of Central Wales.
ader. 1/2.
2295 (0) PontHyllfau(?), below Pen- Pot holes.
y-Gareg Dam, R. Elan, Rhay-
ader. 1/2.
2296 (20087 H) Craig-yr-allt Goch, Tarannon Group?
below Craig Goch Dam,
Rhayader.
2297 (20091 H) Site of Craig Goch Typical scenery of plateau of Mid-Wales.
Dam, R.Elan, Rhayader. 1/2.
2298 (20090H) Site of Craig Goch
Dam (?), R. Elan, Rhayader.
1/2.
2299 ( ) Above Craig Goch Dam,
Aber Calletwr, R. Elan,
Rhayader.
2300 (20081 H) Site of Dam, Dol-y- Lower Llandovery Grits.
Mynach, R. Claerwen, Rhay-
ader.
2301 (20082 H) Proposed site of Cil As a ie
Oerwynt Dam, R. Claerwen,
W. of Dol-y-mynach.
2302 (H) Nant Gwynllyn, Rhayader. Taranndn Group.
1/2.

2303 (H) » ”
2304 (20089 H) Grisiau Fall, Rhay-
ader, 1/2

” ”

SCILLY ISLANDS.

Photographed by J. H. Batpocx, Overdale, St. Leonard’s Road, Croydon.
1/4,

2121 ( ) St. Mary’s. : . Weathered block of Granite.

SCOTLAND.

BERWICKSHIKE.—Photographed by A. K. Coomara Swamy, Walden,
Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/4.

2091 ( ) Siccar Point . : . Unconformable Junction of Upper Old
Red Sandstone on Silurian rocks. 1898.
2092 ( ) ” ” * 0 * ” ” ” ”
2093 ( ) ” ” . . . ” ” ” ”
2094 ( Dara i : : . ” ” ” ”

EpinsurGu.—Photographed by A. K. Coomara Swamy, Walden,
Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/4.

2095 ( i ) Queen’s Drive, Arthur’s Columnar Basalt. 1898.
eat.
2096 ( yt 4 = Agglomerate. 1898.
2097 ( rf ey Jointed Agglomerate. 1898.
2098 ( ) ra < Glaciated surface. 1898.
2099 ( ) Carlton Hill . ; . Sandstone caught up in Basalt. 1898.
2100 ( Deore ” ” ” ” ”
2101 ( #£«-+) SE. of Forth Bridge . ‘White Trap’ in Carboniferous shales,

1898, ©

590

REPORT—1899.

FirEsHirE.—Photographed by A. K. Coomara Swamy, Walden,
Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/4.

) Coalyard Hill, near St.
Monans.

) “1 s -

) ” ” ”

) ” ” 33

) Near Newark Castle, St.
Monans.

) Elie :

) One mile west of Burntis-
land.

) ” ” ”

) Dodhead Quarry, near
Burntisland.

) Abden Shore, E. of King-
horn.

oN “NoN 7NTmN LQEN ESE “>~

Agglomerate. 1898.

32 ”

Dykes cutting Tuik. 1898.
Small Basalt Neck. 1898.

Raised Beaches. 1898.
Weathering of Picrite. 1898.

Brecciated beds beneath Picrite. 1898.

‘White Trap’ in Carboniferous shale.
1898.

Amygdaloidal Basalt in junction with
Shales and Limestone. 1898.

INVERNESS-SHIRE.—Photographed by A. 8. Ruin, Trinity College,

2240
2241
2242
2243
2244
2245
2246

2247
2248

4249

¥250
2251

2252
2253
2254

2255
2256

2257
2258
2259
2260

2261
2262

2263
2264

2265
2266

rlenalmond.

(EG 79) Scuir of Higg . .

(EG 44),

(EG 80) __,,

(EG75) _,, »

(Gis) a; » side view
of east end.

(HG 82) ,, 7 LOM
5.8.W.

(EG 89) _ ,, 5 ee LEON,
South.

(HG 47) __,, » onridge

(EG 69) Miller’s Cottage, IKil-

donan, Hige.
(EG 67) On the ridge of the
Scuir, Hige.
(KD 39) Scuir of Higg. 7/5 ,
(EG 46) ,,

”

(EG 92) __,, »

(EG 91)

(EG 45) Beneath the Scuir of
Higg.

(EG81) __,,

(KD 28) Near Galmisdale, Higg.
7/5.

(KD 19) Shore Cliff, Higg. HPs

(EG 49) Laig Bay, Higg

(HG 60) 4,

(KD6 )

thd

” ” 7/5

(HG 64)
(EG 63) Dun. Thalargain, Higg .

(EG 62) Cliff, N. end of Higg

(EG 68) Isle of Rum from W. of
Scuir of Higg.

(HG 90) Isle of Rum, from N.W.
of Scuir of Higg.

(XD 38) a3 a) gD

12/10 and 7/5.
End-on view from Hast. 1898.

2” ” ”
Showing flank of Old Valley. 1898.
Distant view showing Basalt terraces.
1898.
To show slope of Old Valley. 1898.

Banding of Pitchstone. 1898.

»” ” ”

Pitchstone filling Tributary Valley. 15898.
Distant view of Scuir. 1898.

Lake. 1898.

Columnar Pitchstone. 1898.
River Conglomerate under Pitchstone.
1898.

” ” ”

” ”
Brecciated base of Pitchstone resting on
river Conglomerate. 1898.

Wedge-shaped vein of Basalt. 1898.

Two basic dykes, 1898.

The ‘ Jurassic Oasis.’ 1898.

Basic sill in Jurassic rocks. i898.

Weathered concretions in Jurassic Sand-
stone. 1898.

Naturalarchin Jurassic Sandstone. 1898.

Coneretions in Jurassic Sandstone;
Plateau Basalts. 1898.

Jurassic Sandstone and concretions. 1898.

Pitchstone in foreground in Tributary
Valley. 1898.

Plutonic rock scenery. 1898.

” ” ”

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 391

Lanark.—Photographed by R. McF. Murr,* 35 Underwood, Paisley.
oe
Regd.
2117 ( ) Partick, near Glasgow . Forest in Coal measures.
2118 ( ) « - Fossil tree in Coal measures.

Linuirucow.—Photographed by A. K. Coomara Swamy, Walden,
Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/4.
2114 ( ) Silvermine Quarry, N.of ‘White Trap’ dyke in Carboniferous
Bathgate. Shales. 1898.

2115 ( ) Near Standing Stones, Feature due to dyke. 1898.
N. of Bathgate.

Prrtu.—Photographed by Miss M. Sitverston, 33 Portland
Road, Edgbaston. 1/4.

2146 ( +) Falls of Bracklinn, near Old Red Sandstone Conglomerate, bedded
Callander. and jointed. 1898.
Srirtine.—Lhotographed by A: K. Coomara Swamy, Walden,
Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/4.
2112 ( ) ‘Todholes,’ Sauchiemuir Hurlet Limestone. 1898,
2113 ( ) Sauchiemuir . a . Esker. 1898.
IRELAND.

Antrim.—Photographed by R. Weucu,* Lonsdale Street, Belfast. 1/1.
Oontributed through the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.

2014 (5156)Cushendall . Triassic Conglomerate. 1898.
2015 (5160) Loughaveema,Ballycastle ‘Cafions’ and ‘Pot’ in miniature. 1897.
2016 (5161) 3 Rs *Pot’in Alluvium. 1897.
2017 (5162) Suncracks in peaty Alluvium. 1897.
2018 (620) Lough-na- Cranagh, ’ Fair Situated on Dolerite. 1896.
Head.
2039 (797) Cathedral Caves, Portrush Indurated Chalk with rolled Flints on
floor. 1885.
2040 (226) The Wishing Arch, Port- Chalk, capped by Plateau Basalt. 1890.
rush,
2041 (374) Grand Causeway, looking Basalt peak with Columnar Basalt in
to the cliffs. foreground. 1886.
2042 (652) Carrick-a-raide, island Volcanic Agglomerate. 1893.
and bridge.

2043 (5110) Ballycastle . : . The North Star Dyke, in Carboniferous
Sandstone. 1895.
2044 (622) Kenbane Head and Rath- MHeadland of Chalk, penetrated by Basaltic
lin Island. dykes. 1896.
2045 (268) Garron Point and Castle. Slipped plateau of Basalt. 1890.
2319 (5158) Carrig-usnagh, Bally- Honeycomb weathering of Carboniferous
castle. Sandstone on shore. 1898.
2320 (5156b) Red Bay, Cushendall . Current-bedding in Triassic Sands and
fine Conglomerate. 1897
2321 (5202) Grant’s Mines, Toome . Diatomaceous Clay of the R. Bann, exca-
vated for ‘ Kieselguhr.’ 1899. -
2322 (5201) si is Face of Diatomaceous Clay. 1899.
2323 (5203) = t Diatomaceous Clay, excavated. 1899.

Corx.—Photographed by Miss M. Stiverston, 33 Portland Road,
Edgbaston. 1/4.

2119 ( ) Near Crosshaven, en- Bedding and cleavage. 1898.
trance to Cork Harbour.

5392 REPORT—1899,

DonrGat.—Photographed by R. Wxtcu,* Lonsdale Street, Belfast.
Contributed through the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club. 1/1.
Regd.

No.
2046 (2217) Great Arch, Doaghbeg, Marine denudation of Quartzite. 1893.

Portsalon,
2047 (2211) ‘ Sea ee rd Caves in bedded Quartzite. 1893.
2048 (2204) Portsalon : . Quartz-veins along joints of Quartzite.
1893.
2049 (1390) Bundoran Strand . . Bedding in Carboniferous rocks. 1892.

Down.—Photographed by R. Wrtou,* Lonsdale Street, Belfast.
Contributed through the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club. 1/1.

2019 (5114) Ardglass : . Vertical Ordovician rocks.

2050 (13) Happy Valley, Mourne Granite Screes, encroached upon by bog.
Mountains. 1898,

2051 (5111) Ardglass : . Ordovician rocks on shore. 1894.

2317 (5181) Killard Point, Ardglass . Weathering of indurated Sand and Gravel.

1899.

2318 (5182) Jackdaw Galleries, Kil- . 4 93 a

lard Point.

Photographed by Miss M. K. AnprEws, 12 College Gardens,
Belfast. 1/4.

2309 (1) Two miles S. of Newcastle. Large Felsite dyke, with inclusions of
Ordovician rock. 1898.

2310 (2) ” ry) ” ” ”

2311 (3) * 45 Intermingling of Felsite and Ordovician
rock. 1898.

2312 (4) Fi 7 Fragment of banded Ordovician rock,
included in Felsite. 1898.

2313 (5) ” Central section of dyke. 1898.

2344 (6) Quarter mile S. of Green Dyke of altered Andesite traversing Ordo-

Harbour. vician rock; porphyritic labradorite.

1898.

2315 (7) 3: 5 ” ” 5 +: 1898.

2316 (8) 4 ss - General view of dyke. 1898.

Photographed by J. Sv. J. Puturrs, 61 Royal Avenue, Belfast. 1/4.
2324 (279) Bloody Bridge, Newcastle. River cutting through fan-talus. 1898.

Dusiin.—Photographed by J. A. CUNNINGHAM, 2 Seaview Terrace,
Donnybrook. 1/2.

2484 (1) South of Loughshinny Vil- Overfolded Upper Carboniferous Lime-

lage. stone. 1899.
2182 (2) * <, » Fold in Upper Carboniferous Limestone.
1899.
2183 3) ” z bE ” ” ” 39
2184 (4) South end. of inlet at Bent anticlinal axis in Upper Carbonifer-
Loughshinny. ous Limestone. 1899.
2185 (5) Greenhills, near Crumlin . Gravel section in Esker. 1899,
2186 (6) ZS ay Current-bedding in Esker Sands. 1899.

Gatway.—Photographed by R. Wrtcu,* Lonsdale Street, Belfast.
Contributed through the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, 1/1.

$020 (2373) Killary Fiord ; . Silurian Rocks. 1897.
2021 (2376) Salruck, Little Killary . s 5 =
2022 (51698) Lough Muck . . Glaciation. 1897.
2023 (5169) 5 - i

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

393

Kerry.—Photographed by R. Wetcu,* Lonsdale Street, Belfast.

Regd.
No.
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028

2029

Photographed by J. Sv. J. Putxuips, 61 Royal Avenue, Belfast.

2325
2326

Contributed through the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.

(5186) Cloghvorragh “
(5183) Sheen River, Kenmare .
(5188) Loo Bridge

(5187) Moll’s Gap, Kenmare

(5184) Carrigacapeen or Mush-
room Rock, Cleady, Kenmare

(5185) Fs s)

(276) Near Lake Barfinachy
(278) Cloghvorragh, Knock-
eirka.

1/1.

Erratic of Carboniferous Limestone,
weighing 400 tons, resting on Old Red
Sandstone. 1898.

Pot-hole, with contained boulders. 1898.

Ice-rounded bluff of Old Red Sandstone.

1898. “
Ice-rounded rocks and _ Derrygarriff
Mountain. 1898.

Erratic of Old Red Sandstone, weighing
30 tons, resting on Pillar of Carboni-
ferous Limestone. 1898.

” ” ”

1/4.

Perched Block of Old Red Sandstone. 1898.
Large Erratic block of Carboniferous
Limestone. 1898.

2327 (275) Moll’s Gap, Derrygarriff Contorted Strata of large Overfold. 1898.

2328

Mountain.
(277) Near Morley Bridge

Glaciated Rocks. 1898.

Lonponperry.— Photographed by J. St. J. Puruuips, 61 Royal Avenue,

2329
2330
2331

Belfast.

(272) Foot of Benevenagh
(273) Benevenagh . :
(274) Dog’s Leap, River Ro

1/2,
Landslip from Basalt Plateau. 1898.

Pot-holes in Schists. 1898.

Mayo.—Photographed by R. Wuicu,* Lonsdale Street, Belfast.

2030

2031
2032

20383

2034
2035

2036
2037

Contributed through the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.

(2370) Killary Fiord and Devils-
mother.

(2367) Erriff Valley .

(2382) Delphi . : -

(2387) Mweelrea and Great Kil-
lary, from Dernasliggan.

(2371) Head of Killary Fiord .

(2369) Erriff Valley and Head
of Killary Fiord.

(2385 B) Ben Greggan, Delphi .

(2885) Doolough and Ben Greg-
gan, Delphi.

oe

Fiord passing into Valley. 1897.

Steep-sided Valley at head of Fiord. 1897.

Valley and mountains. Silurian rocks,
1897.

Mouth of a Fiord. 1897.

Head of a Fiord. 1897.

Fiord passing into valley at its head.

Roche moutonnée. 1898.

Peak and cirque in Silurian rocks. 1897.

TippEraRy.—Photographed by R. Weucu,* Lonsdale Street, Belfast.

2038

2123

Contributed through the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.

(5190) Rock of Cashel . .

1/1.

Anticline in Carboniferous strata. 1898.

ROCK-STRUCTURKS, &c.
Photographed by A. 8. Ret, Trinity College, Glenalmond. 1/2.
2122 (EG 1) Top of Oraiglea, Perth . Glaciated Slate, surface of hill-top, 1,500-

(EG 2) Craiglea Quarry, Perth

2124 (HG 17) Millhaugh, R. Almond,

Perth,

1,600 feet. ~

False-bedding in Slate.
Fragments of sedimentary rock included

in acid rock.

394 REPORT—1899.

Photographed by Miss E. M. Partrives, 75 High Street, Barnstaple.

Regd.
No.
2274 (16) Filleigh,nearSouthMolton, Nodular forms of Wavellite.
Devon.
LIST II.
NUMBERS OF OLD PHOTOGRAPHS CANCELLED.
2 Cheshire, Storeton é . Footprint bed. Report 1890.
14 55 Thurstaston Hill . . Bunter outlier. 1890,
218 Yorkshire, Burdale : 4 . 1890.
263 Antrim, N. Coast. : . Chalk cliffs. 1890.
301 Isle of Man, Spanish Head . . Clay slates. 1891.
302 Douglas Head . » Contorted Clay slates. 1891.
983a, 984a, 985a, 986a, see p. 19.
LIST III.

RENEWALS AND CORRECTIONS.

1/4

Photographs renewed by ¥. N. Eavon,* Higher Lane, Aintree, Liverpool,

1/4.
842 Thornton Force, Ingleton . - Fallon the River Greta. 1894.
843 BS

” ” = | ” ” ” ”

A set of photographs taken and presented by J. Sretrox in 1890
having fallen into some confusion and loss, the lost prints have been re-

newed by R. Wetcu through the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.

Mr.

Welch has also been so good as to revise the original descriptions of some
of the older photographs, and his revisions are printed below. The prints

which have been renewed are marked thus} :—
Report Reed.
No.

Lal
ape aa j Fair Head, from the sea , Columnar Basalt.

7254 (R. W. 657) Portbraddan, Denudation of Chalk at east end of great
Whitepark Bay. fault which drops down the Causeway

area,
255 (J.8. 612) Kenbane Head. Headland of Chalk.
256 Cathedral Cave, Portrush. Cave in Chalk.

260 (J. 8S. 27) Ballintoy - Marine denudation.
1261 (R. W. 648) Pleas Rock, Denudation of intrusive sheet of Columnar
Ballintoy 5 Basalt.
1262 Near Bailintoy . Arch of denudation in Chalk.
1892 654 Dunree Head, Lough Swilly
657 Island of Muck . - Marine denudation.

658 Slope of Slieve Bearnagh, Granite boulders.
Mourne Mountains.

659 Spellack Cliff, Slieve Meel
More.

660 NorthsummitofSlieveBear- Effects of wind erosion.
nagh, Mourne Mountains.

1894 877 Pass of Salruck, Little Kil- Trosion of river valley.

lery River, Connemara.

961 Port Leaca, , : . Marine erosion.

963 Glenariff . 5 . Large ‘ Pot-hole.’

969-971 Whitewell . ; . Basalt on eroded surface of Chalk,

976 Moylena . . . Current-bedding in Drift Sands
1009-1011 Neills Hill. = . Current-bedded Drift Sand.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. », 395

Renewed by W. Gray, Glenburn Park, Belfast. 1/2.

264 Lame . = ‘ 5 . The ‘Larne Gravels.’ Raised Beach with
worked flints.

265 (32) Larne . 5 A A : 35 7 a

266 (33) Fair Head . . ‘Transported block of Trap.

267 (34) Strangford Lough, Down . fe

270 (37) The Madman’s Window, Natural Arch in Chalk,

Glenarm.
271 (38) Ballywillin . 5 > . Curved columns of Basalt.
272 (39) Derriaghey . é ; . Outcrop of New Red Sandstone.
273 (40) Cushendun . : ‘ . Cave in Old Red Sandstone Conglomerate.

The following alterations in numbers of photographs reported in 1894
have been made in consequence of duplication.

Down.—Photographed by W. Gray, Glenburn Park, Belfast. E.

263 Cloughmore. F : . Block of Newry Granite (formerly 983a).

268 ‘The Butterlump, Strangford Basalt Erratic on New Red Sandstone
Lough. (formerly 9842)

269 Ballyquintin Point. . Vertical Silurian Rocks (formerly 986a),

274 On the shore near Bloody Bridge Silurian rocks formerly. 985a).

LIST IV.
THE DUPLICATE (LOAN) COLLECTION.

The numbers piaced after the description of the photograph refer to
the list of names and addresses given at the end. The first refers to the
photographer, who is also the donor in most cases. When he is not, the
donor is indicated by a second number.

Full localities and descriptions are given in present and previous lists
under the numbers.

This collection is arranged geologically, and from time to time the less
perfect and less typical photographs will be removed and better ones sub-
stituted as they are given. Those laid aside can always be seen, sent, or
returned by request.

* indicates that prints and slides may be bought from the photographer,
P. indicates prints. S. indicates slides.
Rock-Structures.

Bedding.
Regd.
a

oO.
2191 Bedding in Lower Lias . . Harbury Brick-pit, Warwick. 40 P. 5.
2123 False-bedding in Slate . . Craiglea Quarry, Perth, 15 P.

Evidences of Earth-movement.

Folding and Faulting.
F.17 Contorted Strata - F Axenstrasse, Lake of Lucerne, Switzerland.
40P

1758 Fault bringing Old Red Sand- W. of Gardenstown, Banff. 15 P.
stone against Highland schists.

F, 23

. 24
. 25

oie]

F. 15

F. 24
F, 22

|
a 92 G wm

REPORT—1899,

Unconformity.

Upper Old Red Sandstone on Siccar Point, Berwick. . 40 8.
Silurian Rocks.

Surface Agencies; Denudation and Deposit.

Action of Rain.
Rain-water cutting Old Moraine Harper River, Canterbury, New Zealand.
Material into Earth-pyramids. 53, 54 P.
bE ” ” ” ” ”

” ”? 9 ” be) ”

Glaciation; Glaciers,

Medial and Lateral Moraines . Theodule Glacier, Zermatt, Switzerland.
40 P.

Medial Moraines : 5 . Breithorn and Gorner Glacier, from Gorner
Grat, Switzerland. 40 P.

Glaciation ; Glaciated Surfaces.

Ice Stria, Giant’s Kettles, and Glacier Garden, Lucerne, Switzerland.
Boulders. 40 P.

Glaciated Slate, Surface of Hill- Craiglea, Perth. 15 P.
top, 1,500-1,600 feet.

Action of Waves.

Ripple-marked Devonian Rock. Brohl Valley, Hifel, Germany. 40 P.
40 P.
” ” ” ~ ” ” ”

Volcanic and Plutonic Rocks.

Volcanoes.
Cones of Tuff and Trachyte . View south from Puy de Nugére, Auvergne.
40 P.S.
Tuff Cones . é : ; . View north from Puy de Nugére, Auvergne.
40 P. 8.
of oath is ‘ : ; . View south from the Puy de Dome, Au-
vergne. 40 P.
Tuff Cone broken by Outburst Puy de la Vache and Puy de Déme, Au-
of Lava. vergne. 40 P.
Rock-masses and their Relations.
Dip of Volcanic Ashes i . Gravenoire, Puy de Déme, Auvergne. 40 P.
Conical weathering of Tuff . Le Puy, Auvergne. 40 P.

Weathering of Columnar Pho- Roche Sanadoire, Mt. Dore, Auvergne.
nolite. : 40 P.
Alternation of Lava and Tuff . ‘Cascade Section,’ Mt. Dore, Auvergne.

40 P.
Trachyte dykes in Tuff as . Gorge de VEnfer, Mt. Dore, Auvergne.
40 P.

Fragments of Sedimentary rock Millhaugh, R. Almond, Perth. 15 P.
includedin Acid Igneous rock.

Rocks and their Structures,

Curved Columns of Basalt Dachsberg, Siebengebirge. 40 P.
Columnar Basalt. . : . Asbach, Siebengebirge. 40 P.
Weathering of Columnar Basalt 4 6 40 P.

987

2240
2241
2242
2243
2244
2245
2246

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 397

Columnar Dolerite . : . Near Rowley Regis, Staffordshire. 55 P.S.

Columnar Dolerite . 0 . Fair Head, Antrim. 56 P.

Jointing and spheroids in Dole- Turner’s Pit, near Rowley Regis, Stafford-

rite, shire. 55 P. 5S.
Characteristic Rocks and Landscapes.

Paleozoic.

Tilted Silurian Rocks ‘ . Ballyquintin Point, Down. 56 P.
Mesozoic.

Purbeck and Portland Beds . ‘Bugle Pit,’ Stone, near Hartwell, Bucking-

hamshire. 57 P.

Chalk with Flints , 4 . Whitehead, Antrim. 56 P.
Cainoxzote.

Gravels of Raised Beach . . Larne, Antrim. 56 P.

Example of a Photographic Survey.
The Island of Eigg.

Old Pitchstone Lava resting in Scuir of Higg, Inverness-shire. 15 P.
valley eroded in Tertiary
Basalts.

banded Pitchstone Lava. shire. 15 P.

os of old valley filled with Side views of Scuir of Higg, Inverness-

2247 Tributary valley filled with Scuir of Hige, Inverness-shire. 15 P.

2248
2249
2250

2251
2252

Pitchstone, distant view to
show dominant feature caused
by the Pitchstone and its
columnar character.
Old River Gravel, with frag- Scuir of Higg, Inverness-shire. 15 P.
ments of drift-wood, under-

2253 J lying Pitchstone in the old

valley.

2254 | Brecciated base of Pitchstone Scuir of Kigg, Inverness-shire. 15 P,
2255 which rests on River Gravel.

2256 | Wedge-shaped vein and two LHigg, Inverness-shire. 15 P.
2257 \ Basic dykes.
2258 ) Jurassic Sandstories with Basic Laig Bay, Higg, Inverness-shire. 15 P.
2950 | Sill and weathered concre-
2260 tions.
2261 ) Natural Arch and concretions in { Laig Bay, Higg. 15 P.
2262 Jurassic Sandstones. ) Dun Thalargain, Eige. 15 P.
2263 | |.N. end of Figg.’ 15 P.
Plutonic rocks of the Island of Scuir of Eigg, Inverness-shire. 15 P,
2264 Rum as seen from Higg. Tri-
2265 butary valley filled with
2266 Pitchstone seen in foreground
of 2264.
Names and Addresses of Photographers and Donors.

15. A. S. Reid, Trinity Colleze, Glenalmond, Perth, N.B.

40. A. K. Coomara Swamy, Walden, Worplesdon, Guildford.

53. H Larkin, Canterbury College, New Zealand.

54, Professor Hutton, Canterbury College, New Zealand.

55. K. F. Bishop, 18 New Street, West Bromwich.

56. W. Gray, Glenburn Park, Belfast.

57. J. H, Pledge, 115 Richmond Road, London, N.E.

398 REPORT—1899.

Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Professor E. Hutu (Chairman), Mr. P. F. KENDALL
(Secretary), Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. E. De Rance, Pro-
fessor W. J. Sotuas, Mr. R. H. TrppemMan, Rev. S. N. Harrison,
Mr. J. Horne, Mr. F. M. Burton, Mr. J. Lomas, Mr. A. R.
DwerryHouse, Mr. J. W. StatHer, and Mr. W. T. TUCKER,
appointed to investigate the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles,
and to take measures for their preservation. (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)

Tue attention of the Committee has been concentrated mainly upon the
erratics of Yorkshire, and they have again to acknowledge the great
services rendered by the Yorkshire Boulder Committee, and the sub-
sidiary organisation working on the eastern side of the county under the
auspices of the Hull Geological Society.

Of the value of their work it would be difficult to speak too highly,
especially when it is borne in mind that it is not a new-born zeal which
animates the workers, but that year by year they have devoted themselves _
to the task, and now enter upon the second decade.

The most noteworthy new facts relate to the dispersal of erratics of
Scandinavian origin, which have now been traced over a much wider area
and to much greater altitudes than previously ; moreover, the distribution
of type sets of rocks from the east coast of Norway amongst the active
workers has given them a firmer basis upon which to work, and several of
the rocks have now been recognised in the drift of Yorkshire. .

The new records of Scandinavian rocks enlarge our knowledge of their
dispersal in two important particulars : their horizontal range has been
much extended, and they have been traced to altitudes far exceeding that
previously ascribed to them. The discovery of Norwegian rocks to the
westward of the Chalk Wolds announced in the report presented last year
has been supplemented by two new records at Brantingham Thorp and
Elloughton respectively.

The well-known Rhomb-porphyry has been found by Mr. J. W.
Stather at Speeton at an altitude of 400 feet above Ordnance Datum, by
Messrs. Kendall and Muff at altitudes exceeding 600 feet at several points
on the northern slopes of the Cleveland Hills, but the greatest height to
which this rock has been traced in Britain is indicated by Mr. Stather’s
discovery of a specimen embedded in Boulder-clay at 810 feet Ordnance
Datum on West Rigg in the Lockwood Hills.

Some interesting facts have been brought to light on the Cleveland
Hills, where Messrs. Kendall and Muff have found that at high altitudes
there is a significant absence of the rocks which belong to the Teesdale
dispersion, such as Shap granite, Brockram, and Whin sill, while all Car-
boniferous rocks are exceedingly rare ; while, on the other hand, Magnesian
Limestone of a type which appears to be restricted to the coast of Durham
is very abundant in association with a profusion of porphyrites from the
Cheviots, and occasional flints, Scandinavian rocks and shell fragments.

An important aid to the elucidation of the origin of the erratics of the

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF. THE BRITISH ISLES. 399

east coast of England is given by Mr. Jesson, of the Danish Geological
Survey, who states that the pink flints of the English Drift are not known
in Denmark.

CHESHIRE,
Reported by Mr. W. A. Downuam, F.G.S.

Disley, at High Lane end of railway cutting—
Eskdale granite.

Reported by the Yorkshire Boulder Committee. Bi y the Boulder Committee
of the Hull Geological Society, July 26, 1899.
By Mr. W. H. Crorts.
Brantingham Thorp—
Rhomb-porphyry, 3 inches by 2 inches by 2 inches. West of the village, in
the sand-hill field.

By Mr. F. F. Watton, 7.G.S.

Coney Garth, near Brandsburton— :
Rhomb-porphyry, 6 inches in diameter,

Brigham Hill, near North Frodingham—
Rhomb-porphyry.

By Mr. Tuos. SHEPPARD.

Yedmandale, near West Ayton—
Rhomb-porphyry.
By Mr, J. W. Sraruer, £.G.S.
Ayton, Last—
Garnetiferous schist,

Bainton on the Wolds—

Basalt, granite, grit, brockram. From the Boulder-clay in the railway
cutting east of the station.

Rhomb-porphyry. Two pebbles 3 inches and 4 inches in diameter. From
the Barf Hill Quarry.
Cayton Bay—
Shap granite, 25 feet, by 23 feet, by 2 feet. On the shore, under Red Cliff,
300 or 400 yards north of the fault,

Elloughton, Brough—

Augite-syenite (Laurvikite), 12 inches, by 15 inches, by 18 inches. From the
Mill Hill gravel quarry, 100 feet above O.D.

Filey—

Elzolite syenite. Two pebbles, 3 inches to 4 inches in diameter, From
the Boulder-clay on the Carr Naze.

A mass of Upper Lias shale, 60 feet long by 30 feet broad, containing

many fossils, including Ammonites communis, Leda ovum, Belemnites, sp.

4.00 REPORT—1899.

&c., ewbedded in the Boulder-clay beach, south of the town. This boulder
is situated 120 feet from the present cliff about half a mile south of the
Mile Haven ravine (Primrose Valley).

Rhomb-porphyry. Two specimens, From the brickfield on the Scarborough
road, 1 mile north.

Flambro—
BRhomb-porphyry, 3 inches in diameter, Brickfield west of village.

Garton on the Wolds—
Rhomb-porphyry. ‘Two pebbles, each about 3 inches in diameter, From the
Craike Hill quarry.
Gristhorp—
Rhomb-porphyry. Granite from Angermanland. Collected on the beach,
Rudstone—
Rhomb-porphyry, 3 inches in diameter. Found, along with numerous other
boulders of the usual Holderness type, in small quarry opened in the
Gypsey gravels, 14 miles north of the village, on the road to North
Burton,
Seamer— ’
Basaltic rock, 3 feet, by 2 feet, by 2 feet, 200 feet above O.D. Seamer Moor
Lane, immediately north of Way-dale Lane end.
Speeton—
Rhomb-porphyry; Silurian (?) fossiliferous rock (?), 400 feet above O.D,
From the moraine on which Speeton Mill stands.
Thornwick Bay, Flambro.
Augite-syenite (Laurvikite), 4 inches, by 3 inches, by 3 inches.

Note.—Following a suggestion in the Holderness memoir, we have
become accustomed to regard Denmark as the source of the pink flints,
common in the Boulder-clays of Holderness. This proves to be erroneous.
Mr. A. Jesson, of the Danish Geological Survey, recently informed the
Secretary (Mr. Stather) that pink flints do not occur in either the
Cretaceous rocks or the Drifts of Denmark, and are quite unknown there.

Reported by Messrs. P. F. Kenpaun and H. B. Murr.

Goathland, near Scarr Wood.—480 O. D.—

In red Boulder-clay : mica-schist, gneiss, Cleveland dyke, Chalk-flint, Triassic
sandstone, Jurassic sandstone, Cheviot porphyrite, and Sparagmite (?)
sandstone.

Goathland, 200 yards east of the church.—d20 O. D.—
In Boulder-clay: porphyrite, flint.
Moss Dyke, Goathland,—O.D.—
Cheviot-porphyrite, felsite, basalt, Sparagmite (?) sandstone.
Randay Rigg, Goathland. —595 o; D.—
1 Cleveland dyke.
Quarry above middle of Lealholm.—625 O. D.—

Flint, porphyrite, andesite, granite, greenish grit (? Sparagmite), quartzite,
oolite with Nerina, basalt. :

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 4.01

Quarry at corner of road Lealholm to Stonegate.—625 O. D.—
Carboniferous chert, Magnesian limestone, Millstone Grit, quartz-porphyry
(? Elfdalen).
Stonegate, old railway cutting near bridge.—560 O. D.—

Sparagmite (?) sandstone, porphyrite, basalt, granite, quartz-porphyry,
andesite, andesitic ash and breccia, Carboniferous chert (two specimens),
Carboniferous limestone (one. specimen), Millstone Grit (4 specimens),
Carboniferous basement conglomerate, of Roman Fell type (one speci-
men), flint, jasper, Poikilitic sandstone, Old Red Sandstone (?), gneiss,
hornblende-schist (two specimens), quartzite with pebbles of mica-
schist, vein quartz, The matrix consisted largely of fragments of Upper
Lias shale.

Another cutting near Wood Hill House contained a similar assemblage
of stones, but Magnesian limestone, with botryoidal structure, was very
abundant, and a specimen of Middle Lias, with Pecten equivalvis, was
found.

Commondale, near Skelderskew Farmhouse-—560 O. D.—
Porphyrite, grey grit (? Sparagmite), hornblende-schist, Shap granite.
Iburndale, 250 yards north of Throstle Nest.—80 O. D.—
Shap granite.
Lburndale, path above New May Beck.—675 O.D.—
Granite, porphyrite.

West Rigg, near Lockwood Reservoir.—810 O. D.—

In Boulder-clay: Flint, porphyrite, grit (? Sparagmite), quartzite, basalt,
coarse felspathic grit, andesite, Carboniferous chert, schist, granite,
1 Rhomb-porphyry found by Mr. J. W. Stather im situ in the Boulder-
clay.

Danby, at junction of Ewe Crag Beck and Black Beck.—625 O. D.—
Porphyrite, granite, Rhomb-porphyry.
Peak Station.—650 O. D. In gravel—

Gneiss, porphyrite, granite, basalt, ophitic dolerite, flint (some black),
Magnesian limestone (resembling that near Sunderland), vein-quartz,
quartzite, sandstone (? Sparagmite), blue-green felspathiec grit, Triassic
sandstone, Millstone Grit (two specimens), quartz-porphyry (? Elfdalen),
jasper, hornblende-schist, andesite. No Carboniferous limestone or
Lias observed.

Peak, on Moor near Green Dike.—825 O. D.—
Quartz-porphyry, porphyrite, granite, basalt, flint.
Danby, near Doubting Castle.—725 O. D.
Porphyrite, granite, flint, basalt.
Seavy Slack, Eastington High Moor.—700 O. D.—
Gneiss, Rhomb-porphyry.
Ainthorpe, near Danby, in field north of Schoolhouse.—500 O. D.—
Porphyrite, Lake District volcanic ash.

Great Ayton, Rye Hill Gravel Pit.—425 O. D.—

Porphyrite, very abundant and greatly preponderating over all other non-
sedimentary rocks together. Millstone Grit (rare), Carboniferous lime-
stone and chert (very rare), Lower and Middle Lias, Triassic sandstone,
Jurassic grit, Magnesian limestone, flints (both black and brown).

1899. DD

402 REPORT—1899.
Scugdale, Sparrow Hall—600 O. D.—

Grit, Carboniferous chert (one specimen), granite, green volcanic ash,
porphyrite.

On Moor, near Harfa Bank Slack.—875 O. D.—

1 Carboniferous chert with crinoid stems.
Swainby, Scarth Nick—625 O. D.—

Many large blocks of basalt and Lake District andesite, pebbles of porphyrite.
Stanghow Ridge, near Smithy.—675 O. D.—

Shap granite.
Lockwood Hills,—850 O. D.—

Near peat-holes gravel composed largely (at least one-third) of porphyrite.
Hution, near Guishorough.—Cod Hill Farm—800 O. D.—

Porphyrite.
Bold Ventwre.—825 O. D.—

Porphyrite and volcanic ash.
Carlton Bank.—On watershed, 925—950 O. D.—

Pebbles of Carboniferous grit, porphyrite and volcanic ash.
Whithy.—On beach—

Eleolite syenite, exactly resembling that of Kvelle, near Larvik.
Whitby.—In Upper Boulder-clay—

Coarse dolerite, resembling closely that of Crawford-John.

Caves at Uphill.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
C. Lioyp Morean (Chairman), Professor W. Boyp Dawkins,
Mr. W. R. Barker, Mr. T. H. Reynoutps, Mr. E. T. Newton,
and Mr. H. Bouton (Secretary), appointed to excavate the
Ossiferous Caves at Uphill, near Weston-super-Mare.

TuE Committee report that a large cave was opened and explored for
some distance, but being unproductive was abandoned. A second cave
was opened, and has been traced fora distance of 23 feet, when it opens
upon a rock ledge somewhat similar in character to a rock shelter.

Fragments of mammalian bones, gnawed bones, hammer stones, and
pot-boilers have been found, together with the long bones of birds and
small mammals, which from their shape would seem to have been used as
pins or borers.

At 7 feet from the entrance of the second cave a piece of black Roman
pottery was found. ‘The material ‘shows abundant traces of water action,
and would seem to have been carried from the rock shelter into the cave,
and to have also come from higher levels, a search for which is now being
made

ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALAZOZOIC ROCKS, 103

Fossil Phiyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rochks.—Fifteenth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. 'T. WILTSHIRE (Chairman), Dr. H.
Woopwarb, and Professor T. RupER1 JONES (Secretary). Drawn
up by Professor 'T. RuPERT JONES.

CoNnTENTS.

A PAGE
§ I. Lstheria Coghlan, Carboniferous, New South Wales’. F . 403
$11. Rhinocaris bipennis, Devonian, New York State ; £ F . 403
$ Ill. Lepidilla anomala, Cambrian ; and Rhinocaris pusilla, Silurian . . 4038
SIV. Estheriine, Carboniferous, Permian, and Cretaceous (?) 3 : . 404
$V. Pephricaris horripilata, Devonian, New York State ‘ : . 404
§ VI. Aptychopsis prima, Sardinia . . : ; : : : - 404
§ VII. Aptychopsis Terranovica, Etcheminian strata, Newfoundland . - 404
§ VIII. Calyptocaris Richteriana, Devonian, Saalfeld . : = : . 404

§ IX. Lebescontia enigmatica, Lower Silurian, Brittany ; and Z. oveulta, Car-
boniferous, Scotland . : d Y F : Y F 5 . 404
§X. Hibbertia orbicularis, Carboniferous, Burdiehouse, Scotland é » 405
§ XI. Lchinocaris Whidbornei . : 3 E 5 i ; 5 : . 405

§ I. 1888.—In the ‘Memoirs of the Geological Survey of New South
Wales, Palzontology,’ No. I. pp. 1-8, and plate 1, figs. 1-10, Robert
Etheridge, junior, treating of the Invertebrate Fauna of the Hawkesbury-
Wianametta Series of New South Wales, describes and figures some
_ LEstherie obtained by deep borings in those strata, namely at the Moore-
park, Port-Hacking, Dent’s Creek, Heathcote, Narrabeen, and Moorbank
Bores.

Estheria Coghlani, Cox, first described in the ‘ Proceedings of the
Linnean Society of New South Wales for 1880 (1881),’ vol. v. p. 276, is
here figured in plate 1, figs. 1-5 (from Dent’s Creek Bore) ; and some
undetermined fragments, figs. 6, 8-10, from the same and from the Narra-
been Bore.

§ II. 1895-6.—In his memoir on the stratigraphic and faunal rela-
tions of the Oneonta sandstones and shales, the Ithaca and the Portage
groups in Central New York, from the ‘ Fifteenth Aunual Report of the
State Geologist,’ Mr. J. M. Clarke describes, at pp. 63-81, some sections
in Chenango, Courtland, Schuyler, and Yates Counties. At Station VI.,
De Ruyter, Madison County (pp. 68 and 69), above the Tully Limestone
come the Sherburne Sands, and herein were found three specimens of an
interesting species of Khinocaris, which Mr. Clarke names bipennis.
Though not perfectly preserved, they show a low curved ridge on the
valve, an optic and a mandibular node, three external abdominal segmenis,
and caudal appendage. In one of the specimens a valve has been
weathered away and exposes some obscure evidences of internal organi-
sation.

§ III. 1897.—In the ‘Thirteenth Report on the Paleozoic Phyllopoda’
(‘Report Brit. Assoc. for 1897,’ pp. 343-346) reference was made at pages
343 and 344 to some of Dr. G. F. Matthew’s minute Cambrian fossils
from New Brunswick. In a letter dated November 5, 1897, he directs
attention to ‘ Leperdilla’ as misspelt for Lepidilia, and having no con-
nection with Leperditia, but meaning ‘double scale,’ being bivalved. He
adds: ‘TI wish to withdraw Lepidilla, as not being a crustacean. More

DD2

4.04 REPORT—1899.

perfect specimens seem to show a fanlike structure of internal tubes.
There is only one species, the one you mention.’ He adds: ‘I have
referred Ceratiocaris pusilla to Rhinocaris (see “Seventh Report,” p. 64,
and “Thirteenth Report,” p. 344) as being the nearest genus, but it appears
to have a fixed rostrum (attached to one valve), though possibly the suture
may run through from the apex of the shield.’

§ IV. 1897.—In the ‘ Geological Magazine,’ Dec. IV. vol. iv. (1897),
pp. 197 and 198, a new genus of Paleozoic Phyllopods was recognised as
Estheriina in the Cardinia Freysteni, Geinitz, and the Estheria limbata,
Goldenberg ; the distinctive features having been determined by the study
of some Brazilian forms (of Cretaceous? age), Jbid. pp. 198 and 201.
These have the umbonal area of each valve extremely exaggerated, the
remainder being thin, flat, and marked with more numerous and more
delicate concentric lines.

A Permian specimen, from Frankfurt-on-the-Maine (described and
figured in the ‘Geological Magazine,’ September 1899, p. 394, pl. 15,
fig. 7), found by Baron von Reinach, represents a highly swollen separate
umbonal area (such as occurs isolated with those in Brazil), and has been
named Lstheriina extuberata, Jones.

$V. 1898.—Mr. J. M. Clarke, State Geologist of New York, in the
‘ Fifteenth Annual Report of the State Geologist,’ gave a series of ‘ Notes
on some Crustaceans from the Chemung Group of New York State,’ and
therein described and figured (pp. 731-733, two figures) a singularly

ornamented Phyllocarid Crustacean, found in the Chemung Sandstone at —

Alfred, N.Y. It is related to Echinocaris, but, besides other differences,
it has a deep oblique sulcus on the valves, and these are fringed with long
strong spines. Its name, Pephricaris horripilata, has reference to its
extravagant decoration.

§ VI. 1899.—M. Canavari, in the ‘ Proc. Verb. Soc. Toscana Sci. Nat.
Pisa,’ 1899, pp. 150-153, noting the occurrence of Silurian Entomostraca
in Sardinia, mentions some Ostracoda, such as Beyrichia reticulata,
Bornemann, B. simplex, Jones, Entomis migrans and dimidiata, Barrande,
and some undescribed species; also Cypridina and Bolbozoe. Of the
Phyllopoda he mentions fragments of Ceratiocaris and Aristozoe, and
several specimens of Aptychopsis prima, Barrande.

§ VII. 1899.—Dr. G. F. Matthew, in his ‘Preliminary Notice of the
Etcheminian Fauna of Newfoundland’ (‘ Bull. Soc. Nat. Hist. New
Brunswick,’ XVIII. vol. iv. p. 189), describes and figures single valves
of the minute Aptychopsis Terranovica, p. 194, pl. 3, fig. 5, and its ‘ muta-
tion’ arcuata, p. 195, pl. 3, fig. 6.

§ VIII. 1899.—In the ‘ Monograph of Dithyrocaris’ (‘ Paleont. Soc.’),
part iv. p. 183, we have determined that the Devonian valve from Saal-
feld, pl. 22, fig. 2, is a Calyptocaris, not a Chenocaris as at first placed,
p. 133 ; also in the ‘Fourteenth Report,’.1899, p. 521; and that it is
allied to Calyptocaris striata from the Lower Carboniferous Sandstone of
Scotland.

§ IX. 1899.—1. Two Lower Silurian specimens from Brittany, in M.
Paul Lebesconte’s collection at Rennes, were mentioned in the ‘ Seventh
Report on Paleozoic Phyllopoda,’ ‘ Report Brit. Assoc. for 1889 (1890),’
p. 65. These, although pressed and distorted in the slaty schist, are
certainly allied to, though not identical with, Dithyrocaris, and are
evidently the oldest examples of the group. On the back of one of the
specimens a single but damaged valve supports our determination of their

a

ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALZOZOICG ROCKS. 405

characters and alliance. On one or other of these three individuals there
are characteristic anterior and posterior denticules or spines, and longi-
tudinal ridges and foldings, such as are common in the group. Combining
the evidences given by these specimens, although somewhat obscure on
account of imperfections, distortion, and imbedment, we conclude that
they are the relics of a bivalved Phyllopod, and we name it Lebescontia
cenigmatica, J. and W.

2. Subsequently from among the Carboniferous fossils of Linn Dalry,
collected by Mr. John Smith, of Kilwinning, we have seen two counter-
parts of one valve, corresponding in general characters with Lebescontia.
It is figured and described by Jones and Woodward in the Monograph of
Paloz. Phyllop. Pal. Soc., for 1899, as LZ. occulta.

§ X. 1899.—Related to Cyclus, which is a Phyllopod, a new genus
Hibbertia has been established by Jones and Woodward, on a specimen
long ago collected from the Lower Carboniferous series at Burdiehouse,
Scotland. This has a nearly circular shield-like test, with a slight kink
or crumple in front, and a concave hollow behind, about as wide as a third
of the test. This indentation lies between the postero-ventral angles of
the shield ; and the median space above it is occupied by the obscured
débris of the animal. The outer edge of the test shows an upturned
narrow rim ; and the sides of the buckler are much tuberculated, includ-
ing the inner edges of its incurved posterior angles. Faint traces of some
probably articulate limbs are discernible. It is concluded that this little
fossil is related to Cyclus, but characteristic of a distinct genus, which is
named Hibbertia, after Dr. Hibbert, whose discoveries in the Carboniferous
strata at Burdiehouse are well known. ‘Geol. Mag.,’ September 1899,
p. 390, pl. 15, fig. 4.

§ XI. 1899.—One of the two specimens of the rare Lchinocaris
Whidbornei recorded in the ‘Thirteenth Report,’ p. 346, is figured and
redescribed in the ‘ Geol. Mag.,’ September 1899, p. 393, pl. 15, “fig. 6.

Registration of Type Specimens of British Fossils.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. H. Woopwarp (Chairman), Rev. G.
F. Warpporne, Mr. R. Kinston, Professor H. G. SEELEY, Mr.
H. Woops, and Mr. A. S. Woopwarp (Secretary).

Durine the past year only one list of type specimens of British fossils has
been published, namely, Mr. Bather’s List of the Blastoidea in the British
Museum. This is the second list of types issued by the Trustees of the
British Museum, the Fossil Cephalopoda having been similarly treated in
1898. The list of type specimens in the Brodie Collection, prepared for
the Committee by the late Rev. P. B. Brodie himself, has been lent to the
Department of Geology, British Museum, and has been found of much
value in identifying these fossils, which are now incorporated in the
National Collection.

4.06 REPORT—1899.

Ty Newydd Caves.—Report of a Committee consisting of Dr. H.

Hicks (Chairman), Rev. G, C. H. Potuen, 8.J. (Secretary), Mr.

A. Strawan, Mr. HE. T. Newton, Mr. G. H. Morton, and Rev.

HE. R. Hutt, 8.J., appointed to investigate the Ty Newydd Caves,
remeirchion, North Wales. (Drawn wp by the Secretary.)

In addition to those mentioned in former reports on this exploration ! as
having given us assistance, we have to acknowledge the kindness of Mr.
D. L. Paterson, of Aston Park, Birmingham, and of Mrs. Sutton, of
Market Drayton, who gave us permission to excavate on their property,
and of Mr. John Griffiths, of Mold.

The principal work done during the past winter and spring has been—

(1) In the eastern cave.

(2) In the northern portion of the western cave.

(3) A trial shaft was also sunk in a cave 200 yards 8.-W. of
Ty Newydd, on the same hillside.

(1) The eastern cave consists of a true cave tunnel with oval section,
and a rock floor measuring, on the average, 8 ft. by 5 ft. in cross section,
and extending 35 ft. at one level in the direction N. and 8.

At the northern extremity there is a passage to the W. 8 ft. long and
6 to 8 ft. across, connecting it with an oval chamber 23 ft. by 8 ft. and
18 ft. to 24 ft. high. The entrance is situated in the upper portion of
this chamber on the western side.

This cave has an outlet at its southern extremity, when it turns
sharply to the N.-E. with a sudden dip of nearly 45°, which prevented
further excavation.

At the top of the first chamber from the entrance there were some
small beds of gravel, which are described and figured in the ‘Q.J.G.S.’
February 1898, p. 124. The lower part of this chamber, as well as the
passage aud tunnel beyond, was filled almost exclusively with laminated
sandy clay, containing a few fragments of stalagmite. It is not there-
fore considered necessary to reproduce in this report any of the measured
sections taken in this part of the work.

(2) The northern portion of the western cave runs in the direction of
the gully separating these caves from those of Ffynnon Beuno and Cae
Gwyn.

After passing across the old quarry floor behind the cottage of
Ty Newydd, the cave runs under a garden on the northern slope of the hill.

For 6 ft. we found here a roof of rock, but beyond that distance there
was only a fissure covered by boulder clay.

As we obtained permission to explore this part of the cave on con-
dition of our doing no permanent injury to the surface, we endeavoured
as far as possible to tunnel under the drift, which, however, proved a very
unsafe roof to our excavations.

To the distance of 33 ft. the average width of the cave was 2 ft. to

' (.JS.G.S. February 1898, p. 119. Report read at the Bristol Meeting cf the
British Association, 1898. Not published.

ON THE TY NEWYDD CAVES. 4.07

3 ft., but at this point it widened out and divided into two passages, one
3 ft. to 4 ft. wide, continuing due N., the other 1 ft. to 2 ft., turning 30°
to the E.

We followed each of these passages for some distance, but they gradu-
ally became filled with large blocks of limestone ; and as we found that one
very large block formed a continuous floor 13 ft. below the surface, which
would have prevented our exploring at a lower level, we thought it best
to abandon this part of the work, and to sink a shaft at 25 ft. from the
quarry entrance. This shaft was carried to a depth of 25 ft. from the
surface, when the boulder clay above began to fall in, owing to the heavy
rains in January. The expense required to shore up the roof and to make
further working safe would have been very great, so we were reluctantly
obliged to fill in all this part of the cave to prevent any further sub-
sidence.

The material excavated consisted chiefly of clayey gravel, containing
some sand, and also some stalagmite. A sample sent to Mr. Strahan for
examination was found to contain striated stones. There was also some
stalagmite adhering to the walls. As we passed to a lower level the
sand disappeared, and the gravel became undistinguishable from the lowest
clayey gravel found in former portions of the cave, but we could not
clearly determine the line which separated the deposits. There were also
a few thin beds of clay in the upper gravel.

These deposits had been cut through vertically in several places, and
large beds of sand and of laminated sandy clay had been introduced. In
one case the division between the gravel and the sand beds was concave.

At the 25-ft. shaft there was a funnel-shaped bed of sand which
thinned off below into a long pipe with cross sections 1 ft. by 3in. This
od nearly the whole depth of the shaft and then turned towards
the N.

Besides having to abandon this part of the work without fully deter-
mining the correlations of the beds, we were also under the disadvantage
of not knowing what the deposits may have been in the upper portion of
the cave in the old quarry, and are thus unable to make out the exact
connection between the northern and southern parts of the western cave
with each other and with the eastern cave.

Twenty-two feet beyond our furthest work under the garden there is
a cutting in the hillside to provide a level space on which some cottages
have been erected. In the courtyard behind these cottages, after re-
moving modern débris, we found a fissure cave, considerably wider than
the former western cave fissure, being 4 to 5 ft. across. The direction in
this part was nearly E. and W., but there were indications that it subse-
quently turned in a northerly direction. The undisturbed material con-
sisted of a very deep bed of laminated clayey sand, containing large
blocks of limestone and massive stalagmite fragments, one of the latter
measuring over 18 in. in thickness, Below this there was a bed of gravel
which had apparently been introduced from a small fissure, 1 ft. 6 in.
wide, which runs in the direction of our former workings. Just opposite
this fissure the gravel was at its highest level, and the dip to the N,-W.
was so great that we thought it useless to excavate far, as there was no
promise of a mouth by which animals could have entered the cave.

There was no true roof of rocks, but the sides were composed of a
limestone breccia, with blocks of several tons weight, so that the exca-
vation was a work of no little difficulty and danger. In the heavy rains

4.08 REPORT—1899.

of the early spring the work became too perilous, and we were obliged to
refill the cave before a serious fall could take place.

(3) At a distance of 200 yards from Ty Newydd cave, on the same
hillside, a trial pit had been made for lead about sixty years ago. The
miners passed through 14 ft. of rock, and then came to an open cave,
which they did not disturb. On removing the débris which filled this pit
we found an open chamber 20 ft. by 12 ft., and 8 ft. high in the centre.
From this chamber a tunnel, about 3 ft. wide, ran 8., and another small
passage 1 ft. wide extended W. ; both of these were filled to the roof at a
distance of 12 ft. and 5 ft. respectively from the chamber. The pit was
over the extreme northern end of the chamber. Immediately under this
opening in the rock we sank a shaft 14 ft. deep to the rock floor, and
obtained the following succession :—

Sand, 4 ft., the surface rising a foot more in the chamber.

Laminated sandy clay, 6 ft., with many large blocks of limestone, and
fragments of massive stalagmite, with stalactites 8 in. to | ft. in diameter.

Clayey sand, 4 ft.

There was no trace of gravel, nor could we see any indications of a
natural outlet to the surface. The lamine of the middle bed dipped to
the N., showing that the cave continued in this direction.

General Summary of Results.

As this is the final report on the excavations, it will be convenient to
give a general summary of the work done, and of the conclusions at which
we have arrived.!

The excavation was commenced on December 23, 1896, and termi-
nated May 6, 1899.

The following grants have been obtained towards the expenses :—

Royal Society Donation . : : : : -. ho
Government Grant Fund, 1897 : : : sca ee
> Leos ‘ ce aera

British Association, 1898 greoes | Si

In addition to these grants further sums have been obtained from
private sources.

About 1,300 tons of material have been excavated, and as most of the
exploration has been below the surface, the material was usually wound up
in buckets and deposited at a higher level. All the original excavation
of the caves has been done by the theological students of St. Beuno’s
College, although for a great part of the time one or two workmen have
been employed to remove the débris.

The general direction of the cave fissures in this neighbourhood, in-
cluding those of Ffynnon Beuno and Cae Gwyn, is N. and 8. In the last
two caves only have natural mouths been discovered, and they are conse-
quently the only ones in which there are traces of occupation by animals
and man.

In the longest portion excavated, the western cave, Ty Newydd, which

) Papers frequently alluded to in this Report are: Dr. Hicks’s reports on Ffynnon
Beuno and Cae Gwyn caves, 1884, Proc. Geol. Assoc.1; @.J.G.S. 1886, p. 3,
1888, p. 56. Report on Ty Newydd caves by present writer, @./.G.S. 8198, p. 119.

This last paper refers to other publications on Ffynnon Beuno and Cae Gwyn
caves.

ON THE TY NEWYDD CAVES. 4.09

was explored for a distance of over 300 ft., no floor has been reached,
although in some places 30 to 40 ft. vertical depth has been attained, and
the total difference of level between the highest and lowest points is
74 ft. From the materials excavated we have obtained the following
succession, commencing with the lowest deposit.

A. Purely local gravel—Of the stones in this gravel Mr. Strahan
writes: ‘All have come from the immediate neighbourhood of Ty
Newydd, and the proportion of silurian rocks suggests that the cave
either leads to the silurian boundary underground, or was supplied by a
stream running over these rocks and falling into a swallow-hole when it
passed on to the limestone.’ In this deposit we found our only two
fossils, both waterworn fragments of molars, horse and rhinoceros sp.,
evidently introduced as pebbles with the gravel. These fossils show that
the hills above the caves could at this time support large mammalia.

We could find no distinction between this material and the gravels
from below the bone beds in Ffynnon Beuno and Cae Gwyn caves,! of
which Dr. Hicks says :? ‘The lowest deposits, consisting almost entirely of
local materials, must have been introduced by a river’... He also
writes in a recent letter : ‘A critical examination, such as you have since
made, did not seem at that time necessary, but the importance of the
difference between this and the disturbed materials in the cave was at
once recognised. We certainly had not discovered non-local stones, but it
was thought better to qualify the expression until the gravel had been
more thoroughly examined, especially as bits of quartz and sand grains
may or may not have had a local origin. The pebbles examined were all
from local sources.’ In the western cave, Ty Newydd, this gravel had
nearly filled the southern portions of the cave to the height of 450 ft.
©).D.

B. On the floor formed by this gravel the bone beds of Ffynnon Beuno
and Cae Gwyn were found. Although at the time of their discovery the
majority of the fossils were no longer in their original positions,
Dr. Hicks was able to show that a massive stalagmite floor had formed
over them.? In one part of Ffynnon Beuno cave this floor was found
intact, with the bones adhering to its lower surface.t A floor was also
discovered in Ty Newydd cave, in contact with the earliest gravel, and
presumably both were formed during the same period of rest.

C. Stalagnute floor.—In Ffynnon Beuno and Cae Gwyn this stalag-
mite attained a thickness of 10 inches to 12 inches, while in Ty Newydd
we found a floor, im situ, extending for nearly 70 feet, and varying in
thickness from 18 inches to over 3 feet. For the most part this floor was
massive or with thin sandy partings. The northern portion, however,
was in thin layers alternating with sand, showing that some of the latter
was introduced at this epoch. We are unable to say whether the earlier
matrix of the Ffynnon Beuno bone beds is to be ascribed to this or the
next stage ; probably both were represented before the disturbance of
those caves.

D. Beyond the northern extremity of the floor in Ty Newydd we
observed lines of stalagmite on the walls at the same level, showing that
part of the floor had been broken up and carried to lower levels. We
were able to trace the beds formed of the broken fragments mixed with

1 QJ.G.S. 1898, p. 131. 2 Ibid. 1886, p. 16,
3 Thid, pp. 12-14. ! Proc, Geol, Assoc, 1884, pp. 13, 14.

410 REPORT—1899.

considerable quantities of sand and with the underlying local gravel.
Whether the floor at Ffynnon Beuno was similarly broken through we
cannot now tell, but the floods cannot have been very severe, as so small
a portion of the Ty Newydd floor was taken away. Mr. A. Strahan
detected some striated stones in the gravel belonging to this part of the
series, thus indicating the presence of glavial conditions.

E. All these earlier beds in Ty Newydd were covered over by a thin
bed of clay, which, although of no importance in itself, was of great use
in providing us with a clear line of separation between the various
formations. Above this clay bed, in the southern and middle portions of
Ty Newydd, we found a deep deposit of limestone breccia in clay which
reached nearly to the surface. In each place where this was present we
also observed that the roof was wanting, and the abrupt termination of
the cave walls implied that they formerly extended some feet higher
before arching over. The removal of the roof must have been subsequent
to the formation of the stalagmite, as it is absent over nearly the whole
length of the floor.

The breccia was so compact that in several places it was difficult to
distinguish it from rotten portions of the cave wall. Many of the blocks
were over 2 cwt., and in no case was the appearance of the bed such as to
imply a simple falling in of the roof, but it rather indicated that con-
siderable force had been applied.

This powerful agent appears to have been identical with the force
which disturbed the bone beds of Ffynnon Beuno and Cae Gwyn, breaking
up the floor and redepositing the fragments with the fossils in a clay
matrix.!

F. The succession hitherto discussed is chiefly founded on the deposits
in the southern half of Ty Newydd western cave. The laminated sandy
clay or clayey sand which followed was very poorly represented at the
higher levels of this cave, but in the lower northern portion, in the eastern
cave, and in the last excavation made under the old lead shaft this deposit
was found in great abundance. Its true place in the succession is proved
by the excavations at Cae Gwyn,? where it completely covers over the
redeposited bone beds.

To this deposit we must add the sandy beds with marine shells dis-
covered at the northern extremity of Cae Gwyn cave.?

G. Over all the deposits in the caves, and in several places in direct
contact with them, there is spread over the valley a considerable thickness
of boulder clay, containing the only local stones which have glacial striz,
and also having a large admixture of erratics.*

The above correlation, though only put forward as a suggestion, yet
cannot be denied some probability, especially when it is remembered
that only a few hundred fect separate all the excavations, and therefore
the same agents must have been at work on each.

1 O.JS.G.S. 1886, p. 15, * Ibid. 1888, p. 574, fig. 5.
3 Tbid. p. 567. See also a paper in the same volume by Prof. T. M‘Kenny Hughes,
p. 119.

+ See Q.J.G.S. 1898, p. 120. In the paper read before the British Association at
Bristol, it was stated that the results of Mr. Strahan’s examination show that about
one half is local material, much of this being clearly striated. , . . Of the erratics the
greater part consists of felsites, &c., whose source could not be determined, while
the residue contains about equal proportions of felsites from the Snowdon area, and
of granite from Cumberland or Scotland. With these are a few cretaceous flints,
perhaps from the North of Ireland.

ON THE TY NEWYDD CAVES. 411

The scheme appended represents the order of events we have here
sketched out in two parallel columns, the first representing some of the
results obtained by Dr. Hicks at Ffynnon Beuno and Cae Gwyn; the
second, the order of succession shown by our present exploration :—

Ffynnon Bewno, Se. Ty Newydd, Se.
‘ Local gravel, with a few waterworn fossils.
B, Animals and man.

C. Stalagmite floor over bones, Stalagmite floor formed over gravel,
which are in sand. some sand introduced.
Q) Floor broken through, redeposited
with sand. Stones striated.
E. Great disturbance, floor broken, Roof broken, blocks of limestone
fossil redeposited in clay. packed in clay.

2 Laminated clayey sand to sandy clay.
FA. Sandy clay with marine shells. —
A Boulder clay, with Northern and Western erratics.

Canadian Pleistocene Flora and Fauna.—Report of the Convmittee,
consisting of Sir J. W. Dawson (Chairman), Professor D. P.
Pennatiow, Dr. Ami, Mr. G. W. Lampiuau, and Professor A. P.
Cotman (Secretary), reappointed to continue the investigation of
the Canadian Pleistocene Flora and Fauna.

In last year’s report of this Committee the results obtained from excava-
tions in the Don Valley, Toronto, and from three wells or shafts sunk at
or near the foot of Scarborough Heights, east of the city, were given in
some detail. The Scarborough shafts were intended to determine whether
the warm climate beds of the Don Valley underlie the cold climate beds
of Scarborough, and whether the whole series is interglacial ; and the
results of the work done made it very probable that both questions should
be answered in the affirmative. But the coming in of water from Lake
Ontario put a stop to the work before solid rock (Hudson shale of the
Cambro-Silurian) was reached, and so prevented the positive proofs desired.

As it was of great interest either to prove finally or to disprove the
interglacial character of the great series of beds referred to, the sum of
30/. was granted at the Bristol meeting to carry the work farther, if
possible to a conclusion. At the desire of the Chairman of the Committee,
51. of the grant were devoted to the examination of Pleistocene beds of
the Ottawa Valley, the work to be reported on by Dr. Ami. 25/. were
therefore available for work near Toronto, and more than this amount has
been expended in the sinking of shafts intended to settle the questions
referred to above.

As last year’s work had been rendered unsatisfactory through the
incoming of water, it was decided to choose a new point for work near
the river Don, where it was known that the Hudson shale rises above the
river, so that good drainage might be looked for. It was also known
that the Don beds are well shown in this region, since they are admirably
exposed at Taylor's brickyard ; but at the latter point the Scarborough
clays, cold climate beds, are only doubtfully found to a thickness of from
8 to 13 feet. As characteristic Scarborough peaty clay had been traced
at points some distance north of the brickyard, it was decided to begin a

412 REPORT—1899.

shaft at a point one-third of a mile to the north-east, where the conditions
appeared favourable.

The place chosen is on the plain or terrace formed by ancient Lake
Iroquois, with a deep ravine on each side, the one to the east cut by the
Don, that to the west by a small tributary stream. The terrace rises
148 feet above the Don, which is here 12 feet above Lake Ontario as
determined by aneroid, and Hudson shale crops out 30 feet above the
river, leaving a thickness of 118 feet of ‘drift’ above it. Near the top of
the steep slope above the Don an excavation made for obtaining potter’s
clay exposed about 40 feet of stratified bluish-grey clay, containing no
peat or other fossils—probably of later age than the fossiliferous inter-
glacial beds—making it unnecessary to commence the shaft at the top of
the terrace.

The first shaft sunk on the slope towards the Don was unsuccessful,
since at a depth of 17 feet water began to come in from a stratum of sand,
putting an end to the work. The upper part of this shaft passed through
grey clay, but the last 2 feet consisted of clay with boulders.

As another shaft started 100 yards to the south proved no better, it was
decided to begin anew on the opposite side of the hill, an eighth of a mile
to the west, on the slope towards the small tributary stream.

The third shaft was commenced 35 feet below the Iroquois terrace,
and in the absence of the Secretary was taken in charge by Professor
A. B. Willmott. He reports that sand was passed through for 324 feet,
followed by 2} feet of gravel and a foot or two of clay, the whole depth
being 38 feet. Here, however, water came in so rapidly that the work
was stopped. No undoubted boulder clay was met with, though at
12 feet depth large Archean boulders were found in thesand. Below this
some layers of sand and gravel cemented with carbonate of lime occur, and
in gravel beneath the cemented layers unios and pleuroceras were found,
unfortunately too fragmentary to be determined.

Professor Willmott decided to sink another shaft lower down the
hill, at a point apparently better drained, and this was successfully carried
down 604 feet, almost reaching the Hudson shale, the Secretary once
more taking charge of the work.

The section disclosed 13 feet of sand and gravel like those of the
previous shaft, but with no cemented layers and no shells ; 304 feet of
stratified clay, with some wood, peaty layers, and hard thin sheets of
greenish clay ironstone ; 24 feet of brown sand with some clay ; 5 feet of
bluish sand and clay ; 6 inches of gravel with unios; 2 feet of brown
sand and about 64 feet of blue sand, and a little clay containing many
shells. At this depth water put a stop to the work. By the side of the
stream a few paces away a small scarp exposed the Hudson shale a foot
or two below the bottom of the adjoining shaft, and resting on it was a
sheet of typical boulder clay, from 6 to 18 inches thick, containing frag-
ments of limestone and Archean rocks, such as granite.

The section opened up by this shaft displayed characteristic Scar-
borough peaty clay overlying equally characteristic Don sands with unios,
the lower boulder clay lying beneath the latter, but the upper boulder
clay was not shown. To settle its position a fifth shaft was sunk just at
the foot of the cutting for potter’s clay near the Don, Professor Willmott
again taking charge of the operations. He reports that the shaft,
commencing 42 feet below the Iroquois terrace, goes through 13 feet of
surface soil and stratified grey clay without fossils. At 15 feet boulder

ON CANADIAN PLEISTOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA. 413

clay was met on the side towards the river, with numerous small angular
pebbles of shale and an occasional one of syenite. At 16 feet stratified
elay with some pebbles of shale replaced the boulder clay, going down
5 feet, when boulder clay again came in to the thickness of 2} feet and of
typical character, containing boulders of limestone and granite. Below
this a little stratified clay was found, and then sand until the shaft was
stopped at a depth of 27 feet.

An opening made on the hillside below showed about 6 feet of sand
followed by 10 or 12 feet of gravel overlying stratified peaty clay. This
shaft gives evidence that the upper boulder clay overlies the strati-
fied sand and also the peaty clay as at Scarborough Heights, and so com-
pletes the proof that the cold climate beds and the underlying Don beds,
with unios, leaves, and wood of a warm climate, lie between sheets of till,
and are interglacial.

Summing up the work done, we have the following section near the
tributary stream :—

Feet.
Sand. E : : - : . . : - Ae alle
Sand with boulders : ‘ A - 4 : ]
Sand with some cemented layers . : : 3 . ey)
Gravel with fragments of shells. : j . 4 i 4
Peaty blue clay with sheets of clay ironstone c Z » 305
Brown sandand clay . : : ‘ P . - - a
Bluish sand and clay . - ‘ F j . - - 5
Gravel with unios, &c. . é : : : 5 : . =
Brown sand with shells ; , : . ns ; : 2
Blue sand and clay with unios, &c. : - : : : 63
Boulder clay i 4 . 4 ; a E aeons 1
Hudson shale (Cambro-Silurian) . 4 - - - 30
113

The section near the Don, so far as worked out, is as follows :-—

Feet.
Stratified grey clay . . ° - r - : yf
Boulder clay : : - : c : . ’ - 1
Stratified grey clay > c : < “ 5
Boulder clay . C : . : : - : 5 24
Sand : F - 5 : f : ‘ : about 6
Gravel . 3 - s 2 . : : : 10 or 12
Don River to top of peaty clay . 4 ( ‘ about 6
1473

It is found that the top of the peaty clay is about 15 feet lower on
the side of the hill towards the Don than on the western side near the
tributary ; but on both sides it is covered with interglacial sand and
gravel as at Scarborough Heights, the latter point being unknown before
the shafts here described had been sunk.

The thanks of the Committee are due to Professor A. B. Willmott for
taking charge of the work during the absence of the Secretary, and to the
Messrs. Taylor for their kindness in permitting the shafts to be sunk on
their property.

A considerable amount of material, such as fossil leaves and wood
obtained during the work and from Taylor’s brickyard, has been forwarded
to Professor Penhallow for identification, but time has been wanting for

414 REPORT—-1899.

their determination. It is hoped, however, that this and other fresh
material may be available for a final report next year, summing up the
evidence as to the great series of interglacial beds commonly called the
Toronto Formation.

Drift at Moel Tryfaen.—Report of the Commmuttee, consisting of
Dr. H. Hicxs (Chairman), Mr. E. GREENLY (Secretary), Pro-
fessor J. F. BLAKE, Professor P. KENDALL, Mr. G. W. LAMpLuGH,
Mr. J. Lomas, Mr. T. Metuarp Reape, Mr. W. SHoneE, and
Mr. A. SrraHAN, appointed to make Photographic and other Records
of the Disappearing Drift Section at Moel Tryfaen.' (Drawn up by
the Secretary.)

APPENDIX. PAGE

A. Notes by President and Members : - : “ - : i . 420

B. Foraminifera from the drifts of Moel Tryfaen. By Mr.T. MELLARD READE 420

C. Diagram Section on N.E. of Alexandra Quarry . : - ; : . 422

D. Bibliography : 5 E : 3 ‘ 2 422

Introduction.—In August, 1898, it became known that what is perhaps
the clearest and most instructive section in the famous high-level drift
deposits at Moel Tryfaen must in a short time be swept away in the course
of the quarrying operations. There are two slate quarries on Moel Tryfaen,
the ‘ Alexandra’ and the ‘ Moel Tryfaen’ quarries, excavated in the same
line of strike of the slates. Gradually expanding, they had approached
each other so nearly as to leave a narrow bank between them with no more
than a yard or twe of uncut turf upon it. Now the drift sections thus in

Fie. 1.—Map of part of Moel Tryfaen from Six-inch Ordnance Map.

123!
—
Si 1372 4 B48, \
* gh 1349:2 we" f2OF tn ak
ae
(363, “Bet /4aKt eed
EASTER c
Naat, 1988:5
k BM. 1289;3
BM.1253:5

Bm
1206:5

danger of destruction are exceedingly important for the following reasons :
1. They are at right angles to the strike of the slates, and thus display
the character of the underlying rock surface. 2. They show the nature
and position of the junction of the shelly sands and gravels with the over-
lying boulderclay. 3. The false bedding and other structures in the sands

? Tryfan in New Ordnance Survey Maps.

ON THE DRIFT AT MOEL TRYFAEN. 415

and gravels are best seen along them. 4. They have been more accessible
than the other sections in the quarries. A Committee was therefore
appointed to preserve, by photography, supplemented by a written report,
an impartial record of the phenomena displayed in these sections. The
Committee have much pleasure in acknowledging their obligations to Mr.
Menzies, the manager of the Alexandra Quarry, who, with a large-minded
appreciation of scientific work for which geologists cannot be too grateful,
offered to suspend operations in that part of the quarry for three months,
besides showing the Committee every hospitality and facilitating their work
by all means in his power.

Photographs.—Six whole-plate and five half-plate photographs were
taken by Mr. John Wickens, F.R.P.S., photographer, of Bangor.

The views taken are :—-

1. General view of section from W.N.W. end.

2. General view of section from E.8.E. end.

3. General view from W.N.W. of Moel Tryfaen Quarry, including
neighbourhood.

4, Boulder clay by engine-house at E.S.E. end section.

5. Sands seen below boulder clay.

6. Junction, wedge of boulder clay in sand and gravel.

7. Base of sands and terminal curvature near W.S.W. end of section
looking 8.S.W.

8. Duplicate, showing a little more of slate.

9. Similar phenomena on N.E, side of quarry (third gallery) looking
N.N.E.

10. Duplicate, a little nearer.

11. Rocks on summit of hill from N.W.

Description of Section.—The Chairman, Dr. Hicks, visited the section
on September 26, 1898 ; and on November 5, 1898, Messrs. Kendall, Lamp-
lugh, Lomas, Mellard Reade, Shone, and the Secretary examined it and
recorded the facts embodied in this report. OnJuly 1, 1899, the Secretary
added items 1, 2, and 9.

As there has been serious difference of opinion as to the interpre-
tation of the Moel Tryfaen phenomena, the Committee wish to emphasise
the statement that this report is intended to be a record of observed
facts only, without reference to any conclusions that may be drawn from
these facts.

The observations are here arranged under thirteen heads. All the
details were examined from the side of the Alexandra Quarry, which was
the better and more accessible section of the two.

1. Bearing and Distance of Section from Hill-top—About 800 ft.
E.S.E. to the middle of the section.

2. Length of Section.—From 700 to 750 ft.

3. Direction of Section.—The sections are in curves concave to N.N.E.
and 8.S.W. in the ‘ Alexandra’ and ‘ Moel Tryfaen ’ Quarries respectively,
so that a tangent to both curves at their nearest point, about the middle
of each section, is about W.N.W.-E.S.E.

4. Height of Rock Surface.—The floor of Gallery ‘No. 1,’ the highest
in the Alexandra Quarry, is at 1,281 ft. above sea level. The surface of
the rock emerges from below drift in the floor of this gallery a few yards

416 REPORT—1899,

E.S.E. of the edge of the boulder clay, and rises gradually to W.N.W.
The angle measured by Abney Level from opposite side of Alexandra
Quarry is from 2°-5 to 6°0 (average 4°°25) to E.S.E. (Photographs
1, 2, 3). But the surface undulates (Photographs 7, 8).

5. Slope of Surface of Drift along Section (Photograph 3).

6. Strike and Dip of Cleavage of Slates.—N. 30 E., 95°-98° to 8.
of E. Dip of Bedding of Slates.—25°-30° 8.8.E. or 8., but undulating.

7. Thickness of Drifts along Section.—25 ft. maximum, thinning
towards hill-top (Photographs 1, 2, 3, 4,11). The sections which will
remain at present will show the varying thicknesses in the quarries.

8. General Nature of the Drifts.—Their general characters have been
often described. Towards the N.W. are sands, sandy loam, and gravel,
with shells, boulder clay coming on above them towards the 8.E.
(Photographs 1, 2, 3).

9. Position of Boundary of Sandy Group and Boulder Clay.—The
junction at the surface between the quarries is about 1,000 ft. from the
hill-top.

Fic. 2.—Contortions in Sands below Boulder Clay.

I. Mynydd Mawr Eurite
2. Welslr Felsite

‘3. Benmaenmawr Diorite

WE

/ronm pan

Section at x (in fig. 3) on Elevation.

10. Character of the Sandy Grouwp.—The beds may be described as
sand and yellow loam with gravelly streaks and pockets containing shells.
The shell fragments were found on November 5 only in the gravel, none but
the finest crumbs having’ been seen in the sand and loam (a, p. 419). The
bedding is very irregular, and even here and there curved (Photograph 1),
but contortion has only been observed near the junction with the over-
lying boulder clay ((, p. 419).

11. Characters of the Boulder Clay.—This is a good, typical, tough,
strong, unstratified till, such as is mostly found in mountain districts,
dark grey in colour and full of stones (Photograph 4). The stones
are for the most part of moderate size, but some up to 34 and 3 ft. (the
visible part) occur. They are subangular and well striated. There seems
to be a general slight upward inclination of the longer axes of the stones
to E.S.E. or E. The longer axis of the large boulder mentioned pointed
W. 20 8.-E. 20 N., and its eastern end was a little lifted. Nearly all
the stones observed were of N. Welsh origin, the riebeckite eurite of
Mynydd Mawr being very abundant, but one pebble of a granite foreign to

_—

ON THE DRIFT AT MOEL TRYFAEN. 417

N. Wales was obtained on November 5 (y, p. 419). Extensive sections will
remain, in which all points not depending upon orientation can be observed.

12. Nature of Junction of Sandy Group and Boulder Clay (Photo-
graphs 5, 6).—In a general way the sandy group passes under the boulder
clay to the E.S.E., as described by previous writers. The sandy beds in
places dip W. at the junction, and are also contorted, a string of loamy
sand two inches thick being bent into sharp folds (fig. 2). These con-
tortions,! however, were not very clearly displayed on November 5 on
account of slipping.

The boulder clay rests upon an uneven surface of the sandy beds, as
shown in the annexed section (fig. 3), which was measured, and is drawn
to scale.

“The photograph No. 5 is taken close to the E.S.E. end of this section.
The boulder clay is ‘ good typical stony till,’ and the underlying beds the
usual sand and yellow loam with gravelly streaks and pockets containing
shell fragments. In the lowest layers are angular fragments of slate,

Fic. 3.,—Junction of Boulder Clay and Sandy Beds.

cS eneaE ana an men i | mM
ie aT OTH rin | aii il} mu HN | I)
loor of Gallery No. 1.

Scale lin. = 36 ft. Length of Section 144 ft. 6 in.

peace’

below which is broken slate mixed with a small quantity of clayey matter
resting on slate with terminal curvature.

Evidence has been adduced by previous writers to show that the sandy
group overlies as well as underlies the boulder clay, so that the two groups
interdigitate. The section as seen on November 5 could not be said to be
conclusive on this point; but it is shown in Photograph No. 6, of which fig. 4
isan explanatory diagram : (a) is very stony boulder clay, stones mainly of
Welsh origin ; (6) yellow loam and sand bedded and contorted ; (c) bedded
sand and gravel, 1 ft. to 2 ft.; (d) soil6in. The lower edge of the boulder
clay dips downward into the exposed face rather steeply. BBB are boulders
with angular ends projecting from the clay into the sand, the largest being
apparently of Penmaenmawr diorite, and the other two of riebeckite eurite

of Mynydd Mawr. There is no distinct evidence that the shelly sand and
gravel anywhere overlie the boulder clay. A close examination showed a
distinct line, probably of erosion, between that which passes above and that
which passes beneath the boulder clay, in which last only were shell frag-
ments found. The sand and gravel above the boulder clay may be altogether

? Very well seen on September 26.—H. H.
1899, EE

ALS REPORT—1899.

newer than that in the lower part of the section containing the marine
shells, and may possibly be merely hill-wash.

13. Base of the Drifts and Nature of Underlying Rock Surface
(Photographs 7, 8).—The surface of the slate is seen in contact with the
sandy group only, the boulder clay not reposing directly upon the rock in
any part of the section. The surface of the slates is exceedingly shattered,
the shattering affecting them to the depth of afoot or two. The shattered
edges are, with (0, p. 419) certain local exceptions, bent over in an E.S.E.
direction, 7.e. to the left of an observer looking along the strike of the
cleavage to the 8.8.W., the displaced laminz retaining generally their
original direction of strike. The displacement usually goes down to the
first horizontal joint below the surface, and is a ‘displacement’ rather
than a true curvature.

These terminally disturbed slates pass up into a band of siate breccia
or rubble, composed of angular fragments (ec, p. 419). This forms a well-
marked band all along the section, and is from 1 to 3 ft. thick, The

Fic. 4,—N.W. Termination of-Boulder Clay in Section.

fragments become smaller towards the top, and have at first a slight
inclination upwards to the E.S.E., the upper layers, however, becoming
horizontal. Where not obscured by slipping, the junction with the sandy
drift above is usually well marked, but angular and subangular débris is
mixed with the lowest layers of the gravel.

Conclusion.—The above description is not intended to be exhaustive,
though the description of the section about to be destroyed has been made
as full as seemed possible at the time. Incidentally certain details in
other parts of the quarries were observed, and have therefore been included ;
but these form only a subsidiary and unessential portion of the report, and
are therefore placed in a separate appendix (see Appendix C), because the
sections in which they are displayed are in no danger of destruction.
Generally, moreover, it will be observed that the report is confined to
questions of structure, physical relations, and measurements ; and that
many matters of the highest importance, such as species, distribution, and
state of preservation of the shells, the nature of the boulders in the sands
and the clay, the character of the fine material of the drifts, are not dealt

ON THE DRIFT AT MOEL TRYFAEN. 419

with. These are points which can be investigated as well as ever in
extensive sections, which the quarrying will keep clear and open.

It must not be supposed that the Moel Tryfaen sections are being
- destroyed as a whole. It is the part specified only that is perishing ; and
the drifts of the quarries will continue to furnish ample scope for research
into many matters of great importance to glacial geology for many years
to come.

APPENDIX A.
Notes by Chairman and Members.

(a) §10.—Some of the best preserved specimens sent to me by Mr.
Menzies from the drift in the Alexandra Quarry have adhering to them a
fine loamy sand, and it is in such a material, interstratified with sand and
gravels, that I have usually obtained the best specimens of shells in the
Welsh sections. (H. H.)

(8) §10.—In addition to boulders of North Welsh rocks, they are full
of far-travelled erratics from the Lake District and the South of Scotland.

(y) §11.—This deposit, therefore, differs widely in regard to its
included stones from the underlying sandy group, which contains many
far-travelled erratics, as before stated ; as it does also in the apparent
absence of marine shells and of Foraminifera.

(8) §13.—P. F. Kendall and J. Lomas would prefer to say that the
general direction of displacement had only a few individual exceptions,
which might indeed be due to quarrying operations.

(c) §13.—This material was not observed by the Committee to contain
any glacially striated fragments or any foreign stones—no fragments,
indeed, but of the underlying slates,

APPENDIX B.
By T. Metiarp Reape, F.G.S.

Specimens of the drift were taken by me at the meeting on November 5,
1898, in the positions shown on the following sections (figs. 5 and 6), and
‘submitted to Mr. Joseph Wright, F.G.S., of Belfast.

He very kindly examined them for Foraminifera, and in all discovered
twenty-three species. The results seem to show that the Foraminifera occur
in the most abundance in the shelly sand. None were found in the over] ying
boulder clay (Specimen 4), and a few only in Specimens Nos. 1 and 2. In
No. 3 the Foraminifera were more plentiful and of species common to the
low-level boulder clay of Lancashire, Cheshire, and the Vale of Clwyd. As
usual, Vonionina depressula was common, and far outnumbered the
other species.

The high-level drift generally does not appear to have been searched
much for Foraminifera.. The only other published list from Moel Tryfaen
that I can find is that given by Miss Mary K. Andrews.!

» Annual Report, Belfast Naturalists’ Field Ciud, 1894-95, pp. 209, 210.
HE2

420 REPORT—1899.

This list was also the result of Mr. Wright’s examination of specimens
collected by Miss Andrews. In all twelve species are enumerated, those
common to this list being marked with an asterisk, and being eight in
number.

Mr. Wricut'’s List. Foraminifera of Pleistocene Beds of Moel Tryfaen.

No.1. Weight of sand,11b. 1:7 oz. troy. After washing, fine 10°8 oz. ; coarse 1°5 oz.
In this sample, as well as in all the others which I examined, the greater portion of
the stones were more or less rounded, the others being angular.

Lagena semistriata (Will.), very rare.

*Nonionina depressula (W. and J.), very rare.

Fig. 5.—Section showing position of Foraminiferal beds.

Boulder clay very strong
local rocks

Jron band
Specimen W2/.

Speciinen N° 2° Very tine red or bri 1glt
brown marly sand

& = Bedded s/ate Tragments
Saree brecera" ——— =] Ja clayey matrix.

ee L "
nize agit petal ran arger fragments
[

a Gly at lytela wie to Verticolly inclined frag -
= ae lit ments of slate rock

terminal Curvature”

a ee
ears Slate POCK == =

cae — —=>— or

2. Weight of sand, 1 lb. 2:7 oz. troy. After washing, fine 7°3 oz. ; coarse 22 oz.
Very fine bright brown sand.
Lagena lineata (Will.), very rare.

No. 3. Weight of sand, 2 1b. 3°5 oz, troy. After washing, fine 1 lb. 8:2 oz.; coarse
5-4 0z. Fragments of shells.
Miliolina seminulum (Linn.), rare.
Bulimina pupoides (d’Orb.), very rare.
Bolivina punctata (d’Orb.), frequent.
*Bolivina plicata (d’Orb.), common.
*Cassidulina crassa (d’Orb.), common.
Lagena sulcata (W. and J.), very rare.
Lagena Williamsoni (Alcock), very rare.
Lagena semilineata (Wright), very rare.
*Lagena squamosa (Montg.), very rare.

.

ON THE DRIFT AT MOEL TRYFAEN. 421

Lagena marginata (W. and B.), rare.

Lagena quadrata (Will.), very rare.

Lagena clathrata (Br.), very rare.

Lagena Orbignyana (Seg.), very rare.

Lagena quadricostulata (Rss.), rare.

Uvigerina angulosa (Will.), very rare.
Globigerina bulloides (d’Orb.), very common.
Orbulina universa (d’Orb.), frequent, very small.
*Discorbina rosacea (d’Orb.), very rare.

Fria. 6.—-Section showing position of Foraminiferal beds.

ee sy Wore Gels
SERS owif, is. CAEN A ais cea
2 Shelf = "57 a.
Be dee ona
ai, aay hejiG By Naneiite
PE GLAVEL 3 oe oe,

‘
Ca

_— Slate rubble or brectia =
asin preceding section =

Discorbina Wrightii (Br.), common..

*Pulvinulina Karsteni (Rss.), rare.

*Nonionina depressula (W. and J.), most abundant.

*Polystomella striato-punctata (F. and M.), very rare.

203 specimens of Nonionina depressula were obtained from this gathering, whilst
the other twenty-one species numbered only 102. ;

No. 4. Weight of sand, 21b. 6:7 0z. troy. After washing, fine 6°6 oz. ; coarse 1°3 oz,

Sand very dirty, and having a large proportion of stones in it,
No Foraminifera,

422 REPORT—1899.

APPENDIX C.

Fic, 7.—Diagram at N.E. side of Alexandra Quarry, showing dome-like arrangement
of sand and gravel beneath Boulder Clay.

La a . =
oe ——————— u =
— — or

Top

(eG aa pps ere ae == & a ono 32 =,0 =, = 0.3" -a > Boulder clay
2 Eg Oe TO eee 100! 5 0 allman
fo Cer gua bone an gas = eS ee ee pa) = EN «san gem
US => Ge Ss 27 SN SUrace.
ee Se ee renew ob
Yo ——¥ i ee eee = ay with sand &

: Se ae ek oS ae Tn So ern ae : | gravel in domes

Length 50 to G0 yards. Height about 60 feet.

Norr.—Much of the middle series consists of fine plastic reddish-yellow
clay or silt without stones, the kind of material common in the stratified
drifts of the Isleof Man. Shell fragments rather plentiful in the gravelly
streaks, but none seen in the clay or sand.

APPENDIX D.

Bibliography.
1831.—J. Trimmer . « ‘Proc. Geol. Soe.’ vol. i. p. 331.
om ‘Journ, G. 8.’ Dublin, vol. i. pp. 286, 336.

“ ‘Practical Geology,’ pp. 396, 406, 491,

1831.—C. Darwin - ‘Phil. Mag.’ (3) xxi. p. 180.

1838.—James Smith, of ‘Latest Changes in the Relative Levels of the Sea and

Jordan Hill 5 Land. Read to the Wernerian Soc. 1838, repub-

lished in ‘ Researches in Newer Pliocene Geology,’ 1862.

1846.—EK. Forbes , - Fauna and Flora of the British Isles. ‘Memoirs of the
Geol. Survey,’ vol. i. p. 384.

1860.—A. C. Ramsay « ‘The Old Glaciers of North Wales,’ p. 96.

1878. 3 ‘ Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain,’ 2nd
edit. p. 413. 4
1881. Geol. North Wales, ‘Mem, Geol. Survey,’ vol. ii. pp. 276-8.

1863.—R. D. Darbishire . On Marine Shells in Stratified Drift at High Levels on
Moel Tryfaen, Carnarvonshire, ‘Lit. and Phil. Soc.
Manchester, Session 1853-4,’ pp. 177-181 (56 species in
59 forms).

1864.—George Maw . ‘Geo. Mag. vol. i. p. 295.
1869.—D, Mackintosh . ‘Scenery of England and Wales,’ p. 70.
1879. > Dispersion of Erratics, ‘Q.J.G.S.’ vol. xxxy, pp. 425-—
« 453.
1881, - High-level Marine Drifts, ‘Q.J.G.S.’ vol. xxxvii. pp. 351-
369.
1882. Age of Floating Ice, ‘Geo. Mag.’ 1882, pp. 15-23.

1864-81,—C, Lyell . . ‘Student’s Elements of Geology’ (1st edit.), p. 157, 1871.
‘Antiquity of Man,’ 1863, p. 316. Presidential Ad-
dress to the British Association, 1864. ‘Geo. Mag.’
vol. i. p. 222. ‘Life and Letters, 1881. Letters to
Rev. W. 8. Symonds, June 23, 1863, vol. ii. p. 376.
To Leonard Lyell, August 23, 1863, vol. ii. p. 379. To
Sir Charles Bunbury, August 18, 1871, p. 449.

1870.—Searles VY. Wood, Sequence of the Glacial Beds, ‘Geo. Mag.’ 1870, p. 6,

jun. . : : and 1871, p. 18.
1872.—W. 8. Symonds . ‘Records of the Rocks,’ p. 158.

ON THE DRIFT AT MOEL TRYFAEN.

1874.—T. Mellard Reade ,
1883. -.
1874.—Thomas Belt
1874.—Maxwell J. Close .
1874-93,— James Geikie .
1874.—J. G. Goodchild .
1880.—J, Gwyn Jeffreys .

1881.—C. Reid F °
1883.—H. H. Howorth .

1884.—H. Hicks .

1887.—T. McK. Hughes .
1887-94.—Carvill Lewis .

1887.—H. B. Woodward .
_ 1888,—J. Prestwich i

1889.—Warren Upham .
1889.—Dugald Bell. .
1891-96.—T. G. Bonney .
1892.—A. C. Nicholson

1892.—G, F. Wright A
1892, Hh

1892.—T. Mellard Reade.
1893. ’ =

1893.

1893. Fe
1893.—R. M. Deeley P
1893.—E. Hull ,
1893.—J. F. Blake .
1894.—H. Hicks ,. ‘
1894,—Mary K. Andrews.

1896.—T. Mellard Reade.

1898. i,

1898,—A. B. Badger and
E. Greenly .

423

Drift-beds of the N.W. of England and North Wales,
pt. 1,‘ Q.J.G.S, vol, xxx. pp. 30-37.

Ibid. pt. 2. vol. xxxix, p, 114.

The Glacial Period, ‘ Nature,’ vol. x. pp. 25 and 26.

Shell-bearing Gravels of Ireland, ‘Geo, Mag,’
vol. i. p. 194.

‘The Great Ice Age,’ Ist edit. and 3rd edit. pp. 368-71.
The Intercrossing of Erratics, ‘ Scottish Naturalist,
1874.

On Drift, ‘Geo. Mag.’ 1874, pp. 496-510.

Marine Shells above the Present Level of the Sea,
*Q.G.J.S. vol. xxxvi. pp. 351-355.

‘Geo. Mag.’ p. 235.

Traces of a great Post-glacial Flood, ‘ Geo. Mag.’ pp. 72-—
76.

Recent Researches in Bone Caves in Wales, ‘ Proceed. Geo.
Assoc.’ vol. ix. p. 18.

Drifts of the Vale of Clwyd, ‘Q.J.G.S.’ vol. xlii. p. 73.

Comparative Studies in Glaciation, ‘Geo. Mag.’ 1887, pp.
28-32. Extra Morainic Lakes, ibid. p. 516; ‘ British
Assoc. Report, Manchester, 1887.2 The Terminal
Moraines of the great Glacier of England, ibid,
‘American Journal of Science,’ 1887, series iii. vol,
xxxiy. p. 402, Papers and Notes on Glacial Geology,
1894,

‘The Geology of England and Wales,’ 2nd edit. p. 491.

‘Geology, Chemical, Physical, and Stratigraphical,’ vol. ii.
p. 449.

The Work of Professor H. Carvill Lewis in Glacial Geo-
logy, ‘Geo. Mag.’ 1889, pp. 157-158.

Phenomena of the Glacial Epoch, II. The ‘ Great Sub-
mergence,’ ‘ Trans. Geo. Soc. of Glasgow,’ p. 107.

Temperature in the Glacial Epoch, ‘ Nature,’ p. 373.
‘Contemporary Review,’ November. Ice Work, 1896.

High-level Glacial Gravels, Gloppa, ‘Q.J.G.S.’ vol. xlviii.
pp. 86-95. (This should be studied in connection with
the Tryfaen Drifts.)

Theory of an Interglacial Submergence in England,
‘Amer. Journ. of Science,’ vol. xliii. pp. 1-8.
‘Man and the Glacial Period,’ pp. 137-181.

F. Kendall.)

Glacial Geology, Old and New, ‘ Geo. Mag.’ pp. 310-321.

Eskdale Drift and its Bearing on Glacial Geology, ‘ Geo.
Mag.’ pp. 9-20. ‘Glacial Geology, Old and New,’ ibid.
pp. 35-37.

Drift-beds of the Moel Tryfaen Area, ‘ Proc. Liverpool
Geo. Soc.’ 1892-93, p. 36.

High-level Shelly Sands and Gravels, ‘ Nat. Sci.’ p. 423.

The Glacial Succession, ‘Geo. Mag.’ p: 34.

The Submergence of the British Isles, ‘Geo. Mag.’ pp.
104-107. :

The Shell-beds of Moel Tryfaen, ‘Geo. Mag.’ pp. 267-
270.

Evidences of Ice Action in North-west Pembrokeshire,
‘Glacialists’ Mag.’ vol. i. p. 191.

Notes on Moel Tryfaen, ‘Ann. Rep. Belfast Nat. F.C.
1894-95,’ p. 205.

Present Aspects of Glacial Geology, ‘Geo. Mag.’ Dec. 4,
vol. iii. p. 542; also ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geo. Soc.’ 1896-97,
vol. viii, p. 13.

High-level Marine Drift at Colwyn Bay, ‘QJ.G.5
vol. liv. p. 582.

The Impending Destruction of the Moel Tryfaen Section,
‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1898, p. 882.

N.S.

(Percy

424 REPORT—+1899,

Pedigree Stock Records.— Report of the Committee, consisting of FRANCIS
GaLTon, D.C.L., F.R.S. (Chairman), Professor E. B. Pourron,
F.R.S., and Professor W. F. R. WeELpon, F.B.S. (Secretary),
appointed to promote the Systematic Collection of Photographie and
other Records of Pedigree Stock. (Drawn wp by the Chairman.)

Ixquirtas made on behalf of the Committee have fully justified the belief
that led to its appointment, namely, that few exact records exist of even
the nearer ancestry of the members of any deséription of Pedigree Stock.
The names of all their ancestry for many “past generations are published
in Stud-books, Herd-books, and other similar works, but,in other respects
those works afford scant means for obtaining that distinct presentment of
each of the nearer ancestry which is needed for an exact study of the Art
of Breeding. The information as to feature and form in the books men-
tioned above is almost wholly confined to colour, and, in the case of horses
only, to height at the withers. Many details relating to appearance and
action are, however, scattered over the pages of various volumes and
periodicals, but these would require an excessive amount of labour in
research before any complete families could be properly worked through
for even three generations. As regards photographs, those of the
more celebrated animals are now published in one form or another ;
nevertheless, it has been found very difficult to obtain the photographs of
even a few of those genealogical triads, consisting of an adult subject, its
sire, and its dam, which form the primary molecules of every pedigree.
The authorities who were consulted on thoroughbred horses and on purely
bred shorthorn cattle, were hardly able to indicate a single case in which
photographs exist of all the seven individuals—the.adult subject, its two
parents, and its four grandparents—which form the secondary molecules
of a pedigree. Thus the admirable opportunities enjoyed by breeders for
making systematic records that would afford a solid’basis for the advance-
ment of the art of breeding, have been hitherto most inadequately utilised,
The reason is not far to seek. Heredity is a comparatively new science,
and few persons are as yet acquainted with the character of the records
most suitable for its study, or are sufficiently impressed with the need
for their exactness and persistence. The most important of those
records which it seems feasible to obtain are photographs, not merely
pretty and well worked-up productions satisfactory to an artistic eye, but
rather such as are analogous to the portraits made of criminals, for
storage at the central police office, to serve as future means of identifica-
tion. The desired photographs need to be taken under such conditions as
shall ensure their being comparable under equal terms, and shall admit of
the accurate translation of measurements made upon them into correspond-
ing measurements made on the animals themselves. - There are a variety of
ways by which the latter process may be performed, but it was only after
many trials that a method was found capable of being used with extreme
facility. It will be described later on; in the mean time, its existence
may be taken for granted. The problem was thenceforward reduced to
that of devising a self-working system by which the more important
pedigree animals, say the prize-winners at great Shows, should be habitu-
ally photographed under standard conditions. Before this could be done
certain doubtful questions had to be solyed by an adequate experiment.

ON PEDIGREE STOCK RECORDS. 425

(1) Is it possible to make satisfactory photographs under standard con-
ditions amid the hurry and under the necessary restrictions of a great
Show? (2) If so, could they be made at a reasonable cost? (3) Is there
any likelihood of such a system being self-supporting ¢

The desired experiment was permitted to be made, in response to a
request of the Committee, by the Royal Commissioners on Horse-breeding
at their Show held last March at the Royal Agricultural Hall. On this
occasion 29 premium stallions were selected for service throughout England
during the current season, who will become the sires of some 800 foals
within the present twelvemonth. The Committee desire to express their
grateful thanks to the Royal Commissioners for the assistance thus cor-
dially given to them. The results were most satisfactory ; they will be
found in an Appendix to the Blue Book (C.—9487. Price 25d.) just issued
by the Royal Commission. Reference should be made to this by those
persons who desire fuller information than is given in this Report. Twenty-
eight out of the 29 premium horses were photographed at the average rate of
six minutes to each horse. Considered merely as portraits, they were very
satisfactory, and they were of a size that gave, roughly, 2 inches or 50 milli-
metres for the height at the withers, being a little less than 1 millimetre to
1 inch of real height. Measurements made on them gave results that, in
three-quarters of the cases, did not differ more than } inch from those made
by two veterinaries on the animals themselves. In the remaining quarter
of the cases in which the differences ranged up to a siigle instance of
24 inches, it seemed from internal evidences and other considerations that
the photographic method was the more trustworthy of the two, The
experiment further showed that the cost of photography did not exceed
what might be wholly or in part recouped by the sale of prints, and there
was reason to believe that a highly skilled photographer might consent to
take the photographs under standard conditions, at his sole charge, if he
were permitted to sell authorised copies to newspapers and to private
persons under such reasonable restrictions as might be thought proper by
the authorities. :

Should this hope be hereafter realised, it seems difficult to imagine
that any serious difficulty would stand in the way of causing the photo-
graphy of prize-winners to become a permanent feature in the larger
Shows of Pedigree Stock. Of course, the uncertainties of weather have

_to be reckoned with, and the Shows held during the darker period of the
year, in the smoky atmosphere of large towns, should be left out of con-
sideration, unless artificial light could be used. But the more valuable
animals are usually exhibited more than once, so that an occasional photo-
graphic mishap might be subsequently remedied.

Details relating to what has been said will now be given; they will
be found stated at greater length in the Appendix to the Blue Book men-
tioned above.

Standard Conditions.—The arrangements now suggested are slight
improvements on those under which the experiment was conducted. A
wall, or solid vertical screen, is required for a background, and a hard and
level pathway of 6 feet in width running alongside the wall for the horse
to stand on. Two lines are to be made across the pathway at 2 feet
apart, between which the fore-feet of the horse must stand while he is
being photographed, his body being at the same time as nearly in the line ~
of the pathway as possible, both of his hind feet being, at all events,
upon it. The pathway should be rather light in colour, to show the feet

426 REPORT—1899.

clearly ; it may be of flag-stones, concrete, or light-coloured bricks. Its
curb, or edge, towards the camera must be sharp and clearly visible,
because it is an important line of reference in the photograph. The
wall should be painted of a light colour—bluish, not yellow. Fifteen
small marks, each the size of a sixpence, arranged in three horizontal and
five vertical rows, at the exact distance of 3 feet apart, should be made
upon the wall, to give a scale to the photograph. They are indicated in
fig. 1 by small crosses. The lowermost row should be well clear of the
pathway, say 1 foot above its level. Some of these marks will be sure to
be visible in the photograph, though most of them will be hidden by the
body of the horse. Simple screens or hangings should shield the horse
from distracting sights. An aperture in a screen will enable a person
who is stationed for the purpose on the other side of it to mo-
mentarily arrest the attention of the animal when the photograph is
about to be taken. The camera is to be firmly clamped to a solid stand
opposite to where the horse is to be placed, and to remain undisturbed
during the whole operation. Its object-glass is to be 5 feet above the
ground, that the view from it of the pathway may not be too much fore-
shortened, and it is to be 30 feet from the wall. The equivalent focus of
the lens should not be less than 9 inches, otherwise the photograph will
be too small for convenient measurement ; the lens used in the experiment
was of 15 inches focus, with plates of 64 x 43 inches, and proved exactly
suitable. ‘The most important point of all is that the plate-holder of the
camera should be strictly parallel to the wall, as tested by the images of
the marks on the wall forming squares of exactly equal sizes on its
ground-glass focussing screen. As many of them as are visible in the
photograph will, of course, do the same. A label should be fixed to the
wall, well above the back of the horse, but within the field of the camera,
on which the permanent data of the instalment should appear in bold
letters, easily legible in the photograph. Lastly, the horse should wear a
distinguishing number for after-identification. The photograph will thus
bear internal evidence of the standard conditions having been observed,
and will carry its own scale. An experiment succeeded perfectly of indi-
cating the position of the prominence at the hip, which is easily to be felt
but is not distinctly seen, by labelling it with a wafer of thin white paper
the size of a shilling ; thick paste which penetrated between the hairs was
needed to make the wafer adhere.- The mark was, however, unnecessarily
large and conspicuous ; one of the size of a sixpence would have been ample,
It might, perhaps, be printed on the horse with water-colour. The
question whether any, or what, points of anatomical interest might be
treated advantageously in this way has not yet been fully considered.
Calculation from measurements on the Photograph.—Fig. 1 represents,
on a scale of about one-third the actual size, the appearance of one of the
photographs and of the measurements made upon it. SS is the line of
junction between the pathway and the wall ; the little crosses indicate
the positions of the marks already described ; qq is the curb, or edge, of
the pathway opposite to the camera ; p is any desired point on the ridge
of the back of the horse, whose height above the ground it is desired to
find. A measurement is made of the line that falls perpendicularly from
p to qq; also of that from 4 to gq, h being the point where the perpen-
dicular from p cuts a line so drawn on the pathway as to touch the sides
of the shoes of the fore and of the hind foot that are nearest to the
camera, and which may be called the hoof line. | Practically, the simplest

ON PEDIGREE STOCK RECORDS. 427

way is to measure the heights of those two feet above gq and to roughly
interpolate.| Measurements are also made between such marks on the
wall as are visible, to furnish the scale of reduction at the distance of the
wall from the camera. Fig. 2 represents a section of the installation on
the same vertical scale as fig. 1, but the horizontal scale is much smaller
and its internal proportions are not preserved, the primary object being
to make acleardiagram. C is the object glass, D the point on the ground
below it, g is the section of gq, here seen sideways, h is the projection of
H upon the wall. Consequently C D=in reality 5 feet, DS=30 feet,
S Q=5 feet, but the proportions are different in fig. 2 for the reasons just
given. A line from C through Q determines the position of q, and gh
being known by measurement, the position of i on the wall is known;
then a line from C to h cuts the pathway at H, which gives the true
position of the point where the vertical plane passing through C and p cuts
the ‘hoof line’ on the pathway. Now M, the point on the pathway on
which the vertical from P falls, lies in the same vertical plane as H, but a
little further off from the camera, say 6 inches. This is a near enough

Fig. 1. Photograph. Its Fig. 2. Section of installation on the
scale is about 2 of that actu- same vertical scale as fig. 1. The horizontal
ally used. scale is much smaller.

estimate, as one or two inches of error here have no sensible influence on
the result. So the position of H establishes that of M, and a line drawn
from C through M determines that of m upon the wall as it would be seen
in fig. 2, and consequently on the photograph as seen in fig. 1. mis not
shown in the figure, as there is hardly room for it, and as it is not wanted
in the simple way of working, which will immediately be explained. The
height pm, as enlarged on the wall, has then to be reduced in the ratio of
DM to DS, in order to obtain PM. The whole of this calculation is
effected with the utmost ease by drawing the installation in its true pro-
portions to a scale of ,!;th, using paper ruled into squares of ;'5th of an
inch in the side, and converting the measurements made on the photographs
into their corresponding values as projections upon the wall, reckoned in
inches. The position of g is determined once for all on the paper by
drawing a line from C through Q. A pin is inserted at C, and a loop
made at one end of a thread is thrown over it. Q serves as the zero point
both horizontally and vertically for all the working part of the diagram
up to the line that represents the wall. But the zero point for this line
is g. Then, the thread stretched through / determines H. Mis marked off
at six divisions further on. The thread is now stretched through p, and
the value of M P is read off at once. It is unnecessary here to enter more
particularly into details, All other measurements in the plane of the

438 REPORT—1899.

photographic picture can be reduced to the corresponding real values in
the same general manner. These are the diameters of the body and of the
limbs, the length of the body, and the distances between any points of
reference that may have been marked in the way described above, as seen
in projection against the medium plane of the body.

Verification of the Results:—Numerous experiments have been made to
test the exactitude of this photographic method of measuring living animals.
The results of those made at the Show of the Royal Commission on Horse-
breeding are given in the Appendix to the Blue Book. They are summarised
as follows :—Two advanced veterinary students were deputed from the
Royal Veterinary College to assist one another in measuring the animals
that were photographed, for the purpose of controlling the photographic
calculations. Each horse had its height above the ground measured at
the withers, at the hollow of the back, and at the croup. Comparisons
happened to be available in only twenty-six out of the twenty-nine
premium horses, one of the latter having not been photographed, and two
out of the remaining twenty-eight having been overlooked by the
measurers. The comparison came out as follows :—

Sums of the Differences between Calculated and Observed Values.

Inches
No. of Cases Heights at
_ | +f Totals
26 Withers . . i een Fy eee 208
26 NIB eek 5. omens 15 | 8t 232
26 Croup Rae 8 | 12 | 204
78 | Totals ae 303 34 | 642

The approximate equality between the totals of the — and + differences,
which are 30} and 34 respectively, testifies to the average correctness of
the method and of the work. That between the summed results for the
withers, back, and croup respectively, which are 203, 234, and 201, shows
that each of these has been determined with about the same degree of
correctness. It is therefore justifiable to treat all the 78 events on equal
terms, in order to ascertain what that degree really is. This is done in
the following table :—

Distribution of the Seventy-eight Differences without regard to their — or

+ signs.
Iatneheaine Difference ve Sums from beginning
to nearest 3 inch o. of Cases i.) ot; ne
Totals Per cents.
0 10 10 13
z 11 21 27
a 20 41 52
E: 9 | 50 64
1 8 58 | 74
14 4 32 7)
15 5 67 86
13 4 71 91
2 6 77 99
2h 1 78 100

—

a

Dssay

a tt.

ON PEDIGREE STOCK RECORDS. 429

It thus appears that in 52 per cent., or in one-half of the cases, the
differences, when reckoned to the nearest } inch, do not exceed 4 inch,
and that in 74 per cent., or in three-quarters of the cases, the differences
do not exceed inch. In the remaining quarter of the cases the difter-
ences ranged upwards to a solitary instance of 2} inches. This summary
does not, however, include one case where the veterinaries who entered
their measures in ‘hands’ of 4 inches each, with the extra inches and
fractions, obviously wrote down the wrong number of hands, 14 for
15. The entry assigned to the animal indicated an exceptionally hollow
back, which the photograph showed not to be the case. So the erroneous
entry of ‘hands’ was corrected, and then observation and calculation
agreed. Considering the difficulty of measuring a restive, and often
vicious, thoroughbred horse, whom it is somewhat dangerous to tickle
with measuring apparatus, also that each animal was only measured once,
while the photographs were measured at least twice, and again that one
blunder of entry was detected as above, it seems reasonable to ascribe the
larger differences of from | inch to 2} inches mainly to faults connected
with measurement of the animals, and not to those connected with the
photographs. An error in the latter of one millimetre, which corresponds
to about 1} inch of actual height, is barely credible. This conclusion is
confirmed by the more equable run of the statistical curve of photographic
measures. It is further confirmed by some experiments made two years
ago on behalf of the Chairman of the present Committee, on the degree of
consistency between the measurements made (1) by the same veterinary
student of the same horses on different occasions, and (2) between the
means of the results of the several students. A discussion of these results
showed that the probable error of a single measurement was considerable,
and therefore that large errors might occasionally occur. Direct measures
of the length of the body of a horse are considered by experts to be very
untrustworthy, but the photographic method gives them with precision
and simplicity. Owing to the roundness of the chest and buttocks, no
correction seems necessary for the foreshortening of an animal that stands
slightly askew.

Not a few inquiries and experiments have been made in relation to
purely bred shorthorn cattle. Thirty-one triads, each consisting of one
adult subject, its sire, and its dam—the ‘ subjects’ being the offspring of
7 bulls and 26 cows—have been photographed for the Committee
by Mr. John Patten, jun., under guasz standard conditions. The cattle
were, for the most part, of the herd of the Duke of Northumberland, at
Alnwick Park. The larger portion of the photographs were received too
late to be properly dealt with in this Report. They seem to afford very
valuable material for study.

Index Animalium.—Report of a Committee, consisting of Dr. H. Woop-
WARD (Chairman), Mr. P. L. Scuarer, Rev. T. R. R. Sressine,
Mr. R. McLacaian, Mr. W. E. Hovis, and Mr. F. A. Baroer
(Secretary), appointed, to. superintend the Compilation of an Index
Animalium.

THE examination of the literature published from 1758 to 1800 inclusive
has been continued by Mr. C. Davies Sherborn, to whom facilities have,
as heretofore, been granted by the authorities at the British Museum

430 REPORT—1899.

(Natural History). Between July 1898 and June 1899 he has seen and
indexed 1,528 volumes and tracts, and has now reduced the list of deside-
rata to about 500 items. Of these scarcely 100 are likely to be of any
importance to the systematic zoologist ; but every effort will be made to
consult them, so as to be certain that everything has been recorded.

The Committee desires to express its grateful thanks for the loan of
rare and valuable books, and for information concerning them, to the
following :—The Hof-naturalien Kabinet of Vienna, Dr. Eduard Suess,
and Dr. Steindachner ; Dr. F. A. Jentink, of Leyden; Akademiker F.
Schmidt, of St. Petersburg ; the Stadt-Bibliothek of Zurich, Dr. Eschner,
and Professor Renevier ; the Hon. Walter Rothschild and Mr. Hartert ;
Sir Edmund Loder ; Mr. Du Cane Godman and the late Mr, O. Salvin ;
Lord Walsingham and Mr. J. H. Durrant ; Professor Amalitzky, of
Warsaw ; Professor Anton Fritsch and Dr. Jan Perner, of Prague ; Pro-
fessor Alfred Newton ; Mr. W. E. de Winton ; Mr. Gerrit 8. Miller, of
Washington ; Mr, A. C. Seward, of Cambridge ; and Professor H. A.
Miers, of Oxford. Dr. Philippe Dautzenberg, of Paris, has also greatly
aided the compiler in his efforts to obtain the loan of a rare catalogue.
The editors of ‘Nature’ and ‘ La Feuille des jeunes Naturalistes’ have
lent valuable aid in publishing lists of desiderata. Of the generosity of
the Vienna Kabinet, the Ziirich Library, and Dr. Jentink, all of whom
have sent over their treasures for inspection, the Committee cannot speak
too highly.

Again the special and hearty thanks of the Committee are due to the
Zoological Society of London for pecuniary assistance, which will, as in
the past, greatly facilitate the work of procuring access to this rare
literature.

The reference slips themselves are now in alphabetical order, and the
work of checking previous reference books and of eliminating duplicate
entries will be proceeded with as quickly as possible.

The following reports on dates of publication of various hooks have
been published by Mr. Sherborn during the year :—

De Blainville, Ostéographie, ‘ Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ (7) ii., 1898.

Hiibner, Samml. europaischer Schmetterlingen, ‘Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist.’
(7) i, 1898.

C. d’Orbigny, Dictionnaire Universel, ‘Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ (7) iii.,
April 1899.

Humboldt and Bonpland, Obs, de Zoologie, ‘Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ (7) lii.,
1899.

Lichtenstein, Catalogus rerum naturalium, ‘Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ (7) iii.,
1899.

The dates of the Paléontologie Frangaise, * Geol. Mag.,’ 1899, pp. 223-225.

Temminck and Laugier, Planches coloriées, ‘ Ibis,’ Oct. 1898.

Tt may also be mentioned that Mr. Sherborn has prepared an ‘ Index
to the generic and trivial names of animals described by Linneus in the
10th and 12th editions of the Systema Nature,’ and the thanks of
zoologists are due to the Manchester Museum, Owens College, for issuing
this through Messrs. Dulau & Co., London, as its ‘ Publication 25.’

In the full belief that the first section of the Index (1758-1800) will
soon be ready for publication as a tangible result of the compiler’s labours,
the Committee earnestly recommends its reappointment, with a grant of
£100.

ON A CIRCULATORY APPARATUS. 431

A Circulatory Apparatus for keeping Aquatic Organisms under
definite Physical Conditions.—Interim Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. W. EH. Hoye (Chairman), Professor S. J.
Hickson, Mr. F. W. KEEBLE, and Mr. F. W. GAMBLE (Secretary).

THE apparatus has been constructed, and Messrs. Keeble and Gamble
have used it for making an investigation on the colour-physiology of
Hippolyte varians. It is intended to submit a full account of these
researches at the Bradford meeting next year.

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of
the Commuttee, consisting of Professor W. A. HERDMAN (Chairman),
Professor E. Ray LANKESTER, Professor W. F. R. WeEtpon,
Professor $8. J. Hickson, Mr. A. SepGwick, Professor W. C.
McInrtosu, and Professor G. B. Howes (Secretary).

, APPENDIX. PAGE
I. Report on the Occupation of the Table. By Dr. H. LYSTER JAMESON ~ 432
Il. List of Naturalists who have morked at the Zoological Station from
July 1, 1898, to June 30, 1899 Fi ‘ . : ; < J F

Ill. List of Papers which were published in 1898 by Naturalists who have oceu-
pied Tables in the Zoological Station . : : : : :

IV. List of Publications of the Zoological Station during the Year ending
i June 30, 1899 - . . : : : - 2 : ‘ :
Tue table in the Naples Zoological Station hired by the British Asso-
ciation has been granted during the past year to Dr. H. Lyster Jameson,
of Trinity College, Dublin, the Royal College of Science, London, and the
University of Heidelberg, who occupied it from October 7, 1898, to April
17, 1899. He specially investigated the anatomy of certain Gephyrea

and allied vermiform organisms, and has published a paper upon the lead-

ing species obtained, in the Naples ‘ Mittheilungen.’ Other papers are in
hand and ready for the printer, as set forth in his accompanying report.

Prior to Dr. Jameson’s tenure of the table it was occupied but for a
couple of weeks by Mr. Eliot, Secretary to the English Embassy in Con-
stantinople. Mr, Eliot commenced work upon the Mollusca, with a view
to certain economic considerations, but did not carry his enquiry far
enough to justify the presentation of a report.

Your Committee have been informed by the resident officials at the
Naples Zoological Station that the numbers of investigators who yearly
make use of the institution are steadily on the increase, and that the
material sent out during the year to workers and centres of instruction
and research in all parts of the world has been greater than on any pre-
vious occasion. They would direct attention to this proof of the increas-
ing utility of the Naples station, and to the thoroughly international
character of the accompanying list of workers. In respect to the latter
feature the Naples station stands alone among marine observatories,
now numerous, and your Committee are of opinion that the advantages
associated with the conference of distinguished workers of all nationalities,
taken in conjunction with the richness of the Neapolitan fauna, present te
the individual table-holder a combination not to be obtained elsewhere,
which they regard as sufficient to justify the continued support of the
British Association.

432 REPORT—1899.

They therefore trust that the General Committee will sanction the
payment of a grant of 100/., as in previous years.

Applications have been received for the coming year from Mr. H. M.
Kyle, M.A., B.Sc., who proposes to investigate the Anatomy of the
Pleuronectid, and from Professor W. A. Herdman, F.R.S., to study the
Compound Ascidians of the Bay of Naples.

APPENDIX.

J. Report on the Occupation of the Table on Gephyrea and Allied Worms.
By H, Lyster Jameson, L.A., PhD.

During the period for which I had the privilege of occupying the
Association’s tables at Naples I contined my studies mainly to the Gephyrea
and other worms.

I investigated and described in the Naples ‘ Mittheilungen’ an example
of the worm described by Della Chiaja as Holothuridiwm papillosum.
Only three examples of this worm have been discovered, all of them in the
Gulf of Naples.

In none of these examples was the proboscis preserved, so we have no
idea of the form of this organ.

The only extant example bad been, in spirit, for some years, and was
kindly placed at my disposal by the authorities of the station. I found
this worm to be an echiuroid Gephyrean, referable to the genus Thalas-
sema, in which genus it occupies a position not far from 7. diaphenes,
described by Sluiter from Batavia. These two species agree in their con-
tinuous longitudinal musculature, simple anal vesicles, and single pair of
nephridia. Thalassema papillosum may, however, be distinguished by its
larger size and thicker body wall, as well as by its more highly papillated
body. Fortunately a sketch of the living animal by Signor Merculiano,
taken from an example which was subsequently lost, enables us to realise
the natural colour of this worm. I have had this sketch reproduced in
my paper.

I made some researches upon the sipunculoid Gephyrea, having had
several collections placed in my hands for identification.

The rich supply of living Sipunculoids, placed at my disposal by
Dr. Lo Bianco, was of great service to me in this work.

The results of these investigations are now ready for press.

Tam at present describing a new giant, Aspidosiphon, sent to me at
Naples, from Jamaica, by Mr. J. E. Duerden. I believe Phascolosoma
(Syrinz) granulosum, of McCoy, will prove to be nothing more than a
large variety of Phymosoma granulatum. I have been unable to find any
difference between examples of the former from the west coast of Ireland,
and of the latter from Naples, except in size.

Other subjects which I investigated, but have not yet sufficiently
studied to warrant publication, are some questions relating to the peri-
intestinal sinus in some worms, and alterations in the musculature of the
intestinal wall which seem to bear a relation to the sinus.

In conclusion I must offer my hearty thanks to the Committee for
permitting me to occupy their table, and to the authorities of the station
for the excellent opportunities and encouragement they gave me.

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES.

433

TI. A List of Natwralists who have worked at the Zoological Station from
July 1898 to the end of June 1899.

| Num- |

Duration of Occupancy

State or University /
ber on Naturalist’s Name whose Table |
List was made use of Arrival Departure
1044 | Dr. F. Capobianco . | Italy : July 1,1898} July 1, 1899 |
1045 | Prof. F. 8. Monticelli % i a) OF P28. Nov.+ 8, 1898 |
1046 | Mr. B. Schréder . | Prussia STS Y SE Are by CV |
1047 | Dr. A. Romano . Italy ATES lee sy —-
1048 | Dr. V. Diamare # lh i —-
” Ly? 5 Sept.30,_,,
1049 | Dr. A. Russo Hie jae, a UnE lees eae pe 7” 1899
1050 | Dr. F. Mazza int ss : Aug. 4, ;, Sept. 3, 1898
1051 | Dr. P. Fuhrmann Switzerland Peas ha Oats i607
1052 | Dr. E. Hentschel -Bavaria EAE) Pes it Ce merry
1053 | Dr. S. Accorimboni . | Italy Sit vy, Sept. 4, ,,
1054 | Dr. G. Riccioli . i : ; : OTe OCtue (, Bs
1055 | Miss F 1. Peebles | American Women’s | Sept. 2, ,, Novello;
Table
1056 | Prof. F. Réhmann Prussia : ; SPITS O15, © 5;
1057 | Mr. C. N. E. Eliot British Association . peer t Sept.17, ,,
1058 | Prof. A. Coggi . Italy See ees Nov: .2)..;
1059 | Prof. F. Apathy Hungary . yey adhe bigs Sept.27, ,,
1060 | Dr. R. Krause . Prussia PN) ater: Oct? 5:45,
1061 | Dr. S. Garten Saxony pe as | ae Deco 12; -,,
1062 | Prof. Czokor Austria Aug. 30, ,, Oct 13; .;
1063 | Dr. H. C. Corning Switzerland Sept. 16. ,, Ee Ta wae
1064 | Dr. M. Bedot . é He Po lili eee A he rr gter-((), Sti
1065 | Mr. Ch. F. Hadfield . | Cambridge eae arr Apr. 8, 1899
1066 | Mr. R. C. Punnett . aoe 12s) Meivec ds me
1067 | Dr. A. Bethe. . | Strasburg Puen oOF ty eet, 20s» os}
1068 | Dr. C. Saint-Hilaire . | Russia Ocha lareaey | Apr LO”
1069 | Dr. H. Driesch . Hamburg , ee ae May 18, ,,
1070 | Dr. C. Herbst Hesse and Prussia . sw ai, > er
1071 | Dr. H. L. Jameson British Association . aap (our AprelT ts
1072 | Dr. G. Bitter . Prussia and Saxony Pee nts Maro21s. \ os
1073 | Dr. M. Nordhausen . | Prussia riety eas: wr ah ye
1074 | Stud. H. Jordan Zoolog. Station Novels 5; —
1075 | Dr. F. H. Gerould Smithsonian Instit. . Fawhe Coles em ees
1076 | Dr. 8S. Metalnikoft Russia a * aaty LOD Ss Apr. 20, ,,
1077 | Dr. G. Pastarini- | Italy ' ‘ ~ Wee I; 35 a
Cresi .
1078 | Dr. Th. Beer Austria Sat ae aa phe —-
1079 | Mr. T. F. Evans Oxford jan Se —
1080 | Dr. M. Siedleki. . | Austria Fi fy O pats a
1081 | Prof. A, della Valle . | Italy : 5 Jan? 1,7899 —
1082 | Dr.G. Jatta . Zoologe. Station sel hay —
1083 | Prof. 8. Apathy Hungary . Me eCHeps he, £899
1084 | Baron J. Uexkiill Baden . : sg) bails, ata =
1085 | Dr. F. Hunger . Holland. . Feb. 6, ,, | May 8, ,,
1086 | Dr. R. Hoffmann Prussia A Reel neeee Pomme 16,. ° 5,
1087 | Dr. E. Kiister . 3 es 4 : Marites Apr, 17.)
1088 | Dr. KE. Zander . . | Bavaria . A rete Gs aire sate SO ea
1089 | Prof. K. von Barde- | Prussia . - se Lee te pe LD
leben
1090 | Dr. R. Hesse Mipwurtemberg/). | 5, 8) 15, Sb Pherae
7 1091 | Prof. F. Francotte , Belgium . F é ae De Mayilivvpsee
1092 | Dr. J. Sobotta . - | Zoolog. Station ; Onan | ADE AAs ies
1093 | Dr. T. Pintner , . | Austria , ; . SUL atts p Mar. 31, ,,:
1899, FF

A384 REPORT—1899,
II. A List oF NATURALISTS—continued.
Num- State or University Duration of Occupancy
ber on Naturalist’s Name whose Table z
List was made use of Arrival Departure

1094 | Dr. C. C. Schneider . | Austria , 3 - | Mar. 11, 1899] Mar. 31, 1899

1095 | Mr. H. Vernon . - | Oxford . % F a Sy ay AlpaaZOseers
1096 | Dr. F. Bancroft Smithsonian Instit. oun Ores —
1097 | Prof. A. Beck . | Austria . 3 : iy) Ales 20: as
1098 | Prof. EH. B. Wilson .| University Table . » Oly ngoal Mast ae
1099 | Dr. W. Lindemann . | Russia . : =| apr. Bpige —
1100 | Prof. E. L. Mark American Women’s «3. sores May 8, ,,
Table
1101 | Dr. F. Kopsch . . | Prussia . 5 : Pee Pum ibea\iecifivho(se. F0/ os
1102 | Dr. D. Carazzi . . | Italy 4 3 Syl nl hale _—
1103 | Dr. G. Mazzarelli 5 2 Bird —

1104 | Cand. N. Bogoyav- Russia

lensky
1105 | Cand. A. Neirfsoff . ss : 4 G A Bains —
1106 | Dr. O. Carlgren . | Zoolog. Station .| June 1, ,, =
1107 | Prof. F. Raffaele Italy : - 7 ase LO ets; —
1108 | Prof. W. Schewiakoff Russia. a ae =

. »| May 24, |, es

Ill. A List of Papers which were published in the Year 1898 by
Naturalists who have occupied Tables in the Zoological Station.

A, Bethe . . .

Kk. Kostanecki ; A
H. Driesch

” . . .
Hi. EH. Ziegler . . .

R. Hesse is ; ns

F. 8. Monticelli
N. Twanzoft . = °
M. Siedlecki . 5 .

A. Russo ° .

C. C. Nutting ° .

J. Heymans et O, van
der Stricht

A. H. Schmidt ‘ °

L, J. Picton , . .

Das Centralnervensystem von Carcinus menas. LEinana-
tomisch-physiologischer Versuch. II. Theil. ‘Archiv
Micr. Anatomie,’ Bd. 51, 1898.

Die Befruchtung des Eies von Myzostoma glabrum. Tbid.

Von der Beendigung morphogener Elementarprocesse.
Aphoristische Betrachtungen. ‘Arch, f. Entw.-Me-
chanik,’ Bd. 6, 1898.

Ueber rein miitterliche Charactere an Bastardlarven von
Kchiniden. Jbid. Bd. 7, 1898.

Experimentelle Studien tiber die Zelltheilung, 1. und 2.
Mitth. JZdid. Bd. 6, 1898; 3. Mitth. Bd. 7, 1898.

Untersuchungen tiber die Organe der Lichtempfindung
beiniederen Thieren. IV. Die Sehorgane des Amphioxus,
‘ Tiibinger Zool. Arbeiten,’ Bd. 2, 1898.

Sulla larva di Edwardsia Claparedii Panceri. ‘ Mitth.
Zool. Station, Neapel,’ Bd. 13, 1898.

Ueber die physiologische Bedeutung des Processes der
Hireifung. ‘Bull. Soc. des Nat., Moscou,’ 1897.

Reproduction sexuée et cycle évolutif de la coccidie de la
seiche. (Klossia octopiana Schn.) ‘Comptes Rendus

, Soc. Biol.’ 1898.

Etude cytologique et cycle évolutif de la coccidie de la
seiche. ‘ Annales Institut Pasteur,’ 1898.

Nuove osservazioni sulla morfologia degli Echinodermi.
‘Monitore Zool. Ital.” anno 9, 1898.

The variostyles of the Plumularide. ‘The American
Naturalist,’ 1898.

Sur le systéme nerveux de l’Amphioxus. ‘ Mém. Cour. et
Mém. Sav. Etr. Acad. Belge, 56, 1898.

Onderzoekingen betr. het Ovarium der Selachii, Proef-
schrift, Leiden, 1898, and in ‘ Tijdschr. Dierk. Ver.,’ 1898.

On the heart-body and ccelomic fluid of certain Poly-
cheta, ‘ Quart. Journ, Micr. Sc.,’ vol. 41, 1898.

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 435

L. J. Picton 3 P
O, van der Stricht .

H. M. Vernon

J. Nusbaum
A. Korotnefi .
F, Doflein

” . .

B. Solger

C. Herbst “

J. Nusbaum und
Schreiber

G. Dunker

8. Orlandi

Th. Beer

”

G. Mazzarelli .

”

Ph. Bottazzi . :

W. Krause. 4
G. Jatta e
J.Sobotta .

V. Faussek .« é
E. Goodrich . °
G. Brandes ., .

G. Tagliani

W.

On the corpuscules of certain marine worms. ‘* Trans,
Liverpool Biol, Soc.,’ yol. 12, 1898.

La formation des deux globules polaires, etc., dans lceuf
de Thyranozoon Brocchii. ‘Arch, Biol.,’ t. 15, 1898.

The relations between marine animal and vegetable Life.
‘Mitth. Zool. Station, Neapel,’ Bd. 13, 1898.

The relations between the hybrid and parent forms of
Echinoid Larve. ‘Proc. R. Soc. London,’ vol. 63, 1898,
and ‘ Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London,’ vol. 190, 1898.

Zur Entw.-Geschichte des Mesoderms bei den parasitischen
Isopoden. ‘Biol. Centralbl.’ Bd. 18, 1898.

Noch etwas tiber Auchinia. ‘ Mitth. Zool. Station, Nea-
pel,’ Bd. 13, 1898.

Studien zur Naturgeschichte der Protozoen. ‘ Zool, Jahrb.,’
Abth. ‘ Morphologie,’ Bd. 11, 1895.

Studien zur Naturgeschichte der Protozoen. III. Ueber
Myxosporidien. ‘Zool. Jahrb.,’ Abth. ‘Anat. u. Ontog.’
Bd. 11, 1898.

Zur Kenntniss der Chromatophoren der Cephalopoden
und ihrer Adnexa, ‘Arch. Micr. Anatomie,’ Bd. 53,
1898.

Ueber zwei Fehlerquellen beim Nachweis der Unentbehr-
lichkeit von Phosphor und Eisen fiir die Entw. der
Seeigellarven. ‘Arch. Entw.-Mech.,’ Bd. 7, 1898.

Beitrige zur Kenntniss der sog. Riickenorgane der Crusta-
ceenembryonen. ‘Biol. Centralbl.,’ Bd. 18, 1898.

Bemerkung zu dem Aufsatz von H.C. Bumpus. The varia-
tions and mutations of the introduced Lithorinz. Jbid.

Maldanidi del Golfo di Napoli, etc. ‘ Boll. Musei Zool.
e Anat. Comp. di Genova,’ 1898.

Vergleichend physiologische Studien zur Statocysten-
function. I. Ueber den angeblichen Geh6rsinn und das
angebliche Gehérorgan der Crustaceen. ‘Arch, f. d.
ges. Physiologie,’ Bd. 73, 1898.

Die Accommodation des Auges in der Thierreihe. ‘ Wiener
klinische Wochenschrift,’ No. 42, 1898.

Bemerkungen tiber die Analniere der freilebenden Larven
der Opistobranchier. ‘ Biol. Centralbl.,’ Bd. 18, 1898.
Sulla persistenza del rene secondario nelle larve degli

Opistobranchii, 1898.

Einige Bemerkungen tiber die mittelmeerischen Synapta-
Arten. ‘Zool. Anz.,’ Bd. 21, 1898.

Brutpflege und Entwickelung von Phyllophorus urna,
Grube. bid.

Contributions to the physiology of unstriated muscular
tissue. Part 4. The action of electrical stimuli upon
the cesophagus of Aplysia depilans,&c. ‘Journ. Phys.
Lond.,’ vol. 22, 1898.

Die Lichtempfindung des Amphioxus. ‘ Anat. Anz.,’ Bd.
14, 1898.

Sopra aleuni Cefalopodi della Vettor Pisani. ‘Boll. Soc.
Nat. Napoli,’ vol. 12, 1898.

Die morphologische Bedeutung der Kupffer’schen Blase.
Ein Beitrag zur Gastrulation der Teleostier. ‘ Verh.
der Physic. Med. Ges. Wiirzburg,’ N. F. Bd. 32, 1898.

Ueber die Ablagerung des Pigmentes bei Mytilus.
‘Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool.,’ Bd. 65, 1898.

On the Nephridia of the Polycheta. Part II. Glycera
and Goniada. ‘ Quart. Journ. Micr. Sc.,’ vol. 41, 1898.!
Die Lorenzinischen Ampullen. ‘Verh. Deutsche, Zool.

Ges.,’ 1898.

Ueber die Riesennervenzellen im Riickenmarke von Solea
impar. ‘Anat, Anz.,’ Bd, 15, 1898,

FR2

436 REPORT—1899.

A. Fischel . : . Experimentelle Untersuchungen am Ctenophoren Ki,

IL-IV. ‘Arch. Entw.-Mech., Ba. 7, 1898.
Th. Schaeppi . . . Untersuchungen iiber das Nervensystem der Siphonopho-

ren. ‘Jen. Zeitschr, f. Naturw.,’ Bd. 32, 1898.

IV. A List of the Publications of the Zooloyical Station during the Year
ending June 30, 1899.

1. ‘Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel.’
In print : ‘ Rhodomelez,’ by Professor Falkenberg (Rostock).
2. ‘Mittheilungen aus der zoologischen Station zu Neapel.’ Vol. xiii. pts. 3-4,
2 plates.
3. ‘Zoologischer Jahresbericht,’ for 1897.
4. ‘Guide to the Aquarium.’ A new French edition has been published.

The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Ninth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor Newron (Chairman), Dr.
W. T. Buanrorp, Professor §. J. Hickson, Mr. F. Du Cane
GopmaNn, Mr. P. L. Scuater, Mr. E. A. Smita, and Mr. D.
Suarp (Secretary).

THe Committee was appointed in 1890, and has been annually re-
appointed. During the past year it has received grants from the Royal
Society and the Trustees of the Honolulu Museum for the publication of
its results. Two parts (under the title of ‘Fauna Hawaiiensis’) have
already appeared, one by Mr. R. C. L. Perkins and Professor Forel, on the
Hymenoptera aculeata, the other by Mr. E. Meyrick, on the Macro-
Lepidoptera. These two parts enumerate 490 species, 331 of which are
new. ‘The third and fourth parts (Orthoptera and Neuroptera) are in the
press, and subsequent parts are in a more or less advanced state of
preparation.

The Committee has been fortunate in being able to retain the services
of Mr. Perkins, for which purpose the balance of the grant made to the
Committee by the Trustees of the Honolulu Museum, and certain sums
received from the British Museum for the preparation of specimens, have
been appropriated. These resources are at present exhausted, and the
Committee has no balance in hand except its publication fund.

The Committee considers it desirable that more complete evidence
should be procured, and entertains the idea of again sending out Mr.
Perkins to the islands. The fauna is being extirpated with increasing
rapidity, and the natural conditions of the native animal life entirely
upset ; hence exploration, to be satisfactory, should be done at once.

The Committee has obtained a grant from the Government Grant
Committee of the Royal Society, and the Trustees of the Honolulu
Museum have signified their intention of again adding a proportional sum
to any amount that may be raised in this country.

The Committee therefore asks the Association for a grant of 100J., to
be used either for the purpose of sending Mr. Perkins again to the islands
or for continuing work in this country, as may seent most desirable,

-

_

ON THE MARINE BIQLOGICAL LABORATORY, PLYMOUTH, 4.37

Investigations made at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. A. BouRNE (Chair-
man), Professor E. Ray Lankester (Secretary), Professor 8. H.
Vines, Mr. A. Sep@wick, Professor W. F. R. We.pon, and Mr.
W. GARSTANG.

PAGE
The Embryology of the Polyzoa. By T.H. TAYLOR. F ‘ : E . 437
The Rearing of Larve of Echinide, By Professor E. W, MACBRIDE - . 438

The Embryology of the Polyzoa. By 'T. H. Taytor.

BowERBANKIA was found at the beginning of August to be breeding.
Stones and shells with healthy colonies were dredged from the sound and
placed in vessels of sea-water well supplied with suitable algz, and larve
were spawned in abundance. The larva is found in the parent polypide
in the tentacle-sheath by the eversion of which it is passed to the exterior.
Spawning generally takes place in the morning, only an occasional larva
appearing after midday.

The larve are strongly influenced by light, and it is easy to cause
them to migrate from side to side of the aquarium by altering the illu-
mination. In order to test their response a beaker was wrapped round
with black paper on one side of which a window was cut. On introducing
the larvee, they quickly appeared at the window, and remained there
swimming about for some time. Eventually they disappeared, and were
found to have settled on the floor of the vessel.

The free swimming period is very short. Of a batch spawned in the
morning almost all have fixed by the early afternoon, and it is rare to
find any left in the evening. The study of the free larva is greatly
facilitated by its capacity for intra-vitam staining: toluidin blue was
used for this purpose. After fixation the larva rapidly passes through
its metamorphosis, and becomes a hemispherical cystide covered by a
delicate cuticle, and containing the degenerated larval tissues. From one
side a blunt process grows out as a stolon over the surface of the sub-
stratum, and is cut off by a septum from the cystide, which gradually
develops into the primary polypide.

As the attachment of the cystide is very close, and cannot be loosened
without injury, advantage was'taken of the response to light in the larva
to secure its fixation on a manageable substratum. Celloidin films were
used according to the method adopted by Pronho for polyzoan and by
Vosmaer for sponge larve. There is a great advantage in working with
larvee fixed on films, as there is no risk of losing them while they are
being carried through the various reagents ; and celloidin is very suitable,
as it is quite transparent, and tears into convenient strips. After the
larve had fixed the films were transferred to an aquarium and kept till
required. In this way a series of stages was obtained. Flemming and a
mixture of acetic and corrosive were used as fixatives.

I have to express my sincere thanks to the Committee of the British
Association for their permission to occupy their table at the Plymouth
Laboratory, and also to Mr. E. J. Allen, the Director, for his kind interest
and many helpful suggestions.

438 REPORT—1899.

The Rearing of Larve of Echinide. By Professor E. W. MacBripr.

The problem which engaged my attention during the spring of 1898,
when I occupied the Cambridge University Table, and during the present
summer, when I held the Table belonging to this Association, was the
rearing of the larve of echinoderms. Since the work done this year was
only the completion of that commenced in 1898, the results of the two
years may be considered together. The primary object which I had in
view was the collection of sufficient material to enable me to undertake a
thorough investigation of the formation of the organs in the Echinide,
along similar lines to the researches already published on the development
of Asterina gibbosa. The object was accomplished this summer in the
case of one species, viz. Hchinus esculentus ; but as it will be some con-
siderable time before the material can be worked up, I shall content my-
self with mentioning some points of general interest in connection with
the rearing, since these may throw some light on the problem of the rear-
ing of the eggs of marine animals in general.

So far as I am aware, the larve of the Echinide have heretofore been
successfully reared only by two people, viz. Théel and Bury. Théel has
already published his method, and the results of his work, so far as
Echinocyamus pusillus is concerned ; he has also told me that he has
reared Echinus miliaris. Bury informed me some time ago that he
had reared a few plutei of one of the Neapolitan species through the
metamorphosis ; but he experimented—to judge from his description—
with only very few at a time.

Dr. Dohrn informed me that unsuccessful attempts had been made at
Naples to keep larve living until they had metamorphosed by following
Théel’s directions ; it may therefore be inferred that these directions have
not fully described the difficulties which crop up in the course of the
experiment.

There are three species of Echinus commonly found in Plymouth, viz.,
£. miliaris, E. esculentus, and £. acutus. The last two in colour and
size closely resemble one another ; 2. acutws has, however, longer and
sparser spines than Z. esculentus ; it is not so commonly found, and Mr.
Allen informs me that it is an inhabitant of deeper water. 2. miliaris,
on the other hand, does not attain more than half the size of the other
two species, and its predominantly green colour serves at once to dis-
tinguish it from them.

The eggs of £. miliaris and £. acutus are about the same size; that of
E. esculentus is about double the size of either, and it was for this reason
especially that I selected the last species as the most suitable. The size
of the egg is, of course, conditioned by the amount of yolk ; and the
greater the amount of yolk, the greater, so to speak, is the initial velocity
with which the development is launched : the longer the time before the
larve has to depend exclusively on its own exertions for food.

Experiments were made also with 2. miliaris and #. acutus ; the
larve of Z. miliaris is strikingly different at all stages of development
from that of ZF. escwlentus, and in a forthcoming paper in the ‘Quarterly
Journal of Microscopical Science’ these differences will be detailed. I
only succeeded in rearing the larve of /. acwtas for the first ten days of its
existence, and during this time it strikingly resembled that of Z. escw-
lentus, but was in correspondence with the smaller size of the egg of about
half the size of the larve of Z. esculentus,

ON THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY, PLYMOUTH, 439

In order to obtain good results it is first of all necessary to use none
but fully developed and thoroughly ripe males and females for the experi-
ment. It is possible to get ripe eggs and spermatozoa from under-sized
individuals, and also from ovaries and testes, the greater bulk of which con-
sists of unripe sexual] cells ; but in no case did the larve produced from
these live more than a short time. When the genital organ is ready at a
touch to dissolve into eggs or spermatozoa, then and then only may
success be anticipated.

The great essential condition for success is that the larve should be
placed in pure sea-water, brought from some distance from the shore. In
Plymouth the water must be brought from beyond the breakwater. And
hence the success of any experimental work at Plymouth depends entirely
on the possibility of procuring a continuous and abundant supply of this
‘outside’ water. Lest it should be thought that this is only necessary in
the case of Echini, I may mention the fact that although Asterina gibbosa
will live in the tanks and lay its eggs there, these invariably fail to
develop. Nevertheless, in Naples every year crowds of the larve of this
hardy species are obtained by simply throwing the adults into the tanks
and leaving them there under the ordinary circulation.

Mr, Allen, the courteous director of the Plymouth Laboratory, strained
the resources at his command in order to provide me with an abundant
supply of pure water ; but the only method of bringing it to the Labora-
tory at present available is carriage on the backs of the servants of the
Laboratory from theshore to a height of over 100 feet, and it is obvious
that under these conditions the amount available is very limited. One
cannot help feeling that if Plymouth is to become successful as a centre
of scientific work some capital expenditure must be incurred in order to
provide for the better transport of ‘outside’ water to the Laboratory.

As soon as the eggs had reached the blastula stage and had become
free-swimming, they were decanted off from the remainder which had
developed abnormally or not at all. The blastule were then transferred
toa number of two-gallon jars, each fitted with the plunger devised by Mr.
Browne, of University College, London.

It is absolutely necessary that the jars should be protected from direct
sunlight ; for this purpose a sheet of blackened paper was attached to the
exposed side.

If the action of the plunger be stopped, the larve, if healthy, will in
a short time reach the top ; it is then possible to siphon off the bottom
water.

This, however, was not often done, and on one occasion some larvie of
Echinus miliaris lived for a month in one of these jars without progressing
beyond the stage usually reached in seven days. The tendency of these
larvee to, so to speak, ‘hang’ in development without progressing, renders
it impossible to make accurate statements as to the time they normally
require to metamorphose. Even under the best conditions obtainable in
a laboratory, it is probable that development is slower than in the open sea.

At the end of about a week it was usually found that in one jar (ten
in all were used) the larvee were particularly healthy and advanced. All
the others were then discarded, and the healthy larvz distributed over the
remaining jars, which were, of course, filled up with fresh sea-water. After
another week the most healthy were transferred to ten-gallon jars fitted
with large plungers. About 200 were put in each jar, and they then
commenced to develop the spines and tube feet of the adult Echinus.

44.0 REPORT—1899.

It is necessary to change about two gallons of the water every day.
At the end of 43 to 45 days some specimens were found on the bottom of -
the jar metamorphosed. For convenience of observation the remainder
were transferred to a number of half-gallon jars which were immersed in
one of the Laboratory tanks to keep them cool. About three larvee were
placed in each jar, but development did not go on as well or as quickly as
in the large jar.

The reflection will occur to most people that the method I have
described is a roundabout and cumbersome one. Why not, it may be
urged, transfer at once 200 blastulz to a ten-gallon jar? The answer to
this is that I have tried this experiment, and that it failed. From my
experience it seems as if it were necessary to allow Nature to select the
healthiest larve ; the experimenter cannot pick out the blastule which
are fit to survive. At the end of 14 days a larva has a much greater hold
on life, and if unhealthy conditions supervene, such as insufficient change
in the water, it will often continue to grow without developing the organs
of the adult.

Plenty of room is a cardinal condition for the success of all rearing
experiments. When I had removed all the best larve to the half-gallon
jars, I left behind in the ten-gallon jar a few of what I thought unhealthy
larve. To my surprise and delight on the last day of my stay in Plymouth,
I found practically all these either metamorphosed or just about to complete
this process. To sum up, the necessary conditions for success are : (1) Selec-
tion of perfectly ripe full-grown males and females for fertilisation ; (2) use
of outside water ; (3) action of natural selection for the first week ; (4) the ©
use of the plunger ; (5) frequent change of water ; (6) shading from exces-
sive light ; and (7) plenty of room.

This is not the place to enter into a discussion of the internal changes
which go on in development, a subject which I reserve for a later paper,
but it seemed to me that these observations of the conditions of successful
rearing might be of interest to a wider circle than specialists in echino-
derms. It was some time ago usual to regard the larve of echinoderms
as the most difficult objects to rear. So far from this being the case, I
believe that of all trwe larve they are really the easiest. I use the term
‘true larve ’ advisedly, for comparative embryology has too long confined
itself to the study of cases such as those of Astacus amongst Crustacea,
Pisidium and Cyclas amongst Mollusca, and Asterina gibbosa amongst
Echinodermata, where the word ‘larva’ is only applicable to the young by
a scarcely justifiable stretch of its meaning.

A larva is exposed to the struggle for existence with the environ-
ment, and depends on its own exertions for food, but this is not the case,
as reflection will show, with most of the life-histories which, so to speak,
have served as paradigms for comparative embryology. And yet, when
one or two cases of true larval development have been successfully in-
vestigated, how full of meaning and interest they have shown themselves
to be! I need only mention the instances of Lucifer and Penzus
amongst Crustacea to prove this. The difficulty in such studies has
always been the question of rearing.

I hope that the observations recorded above may be of assistance to
any investigator who is attempting to make advances in this field, which
seems to me to be one of the most hopeful for the future development of
comparative embryology.

ON. THE ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY OF THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 441

Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands.—Final Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. ScLATER (Chairman), Mr.
W. Carrutuers, Dr. A. C. L. Ginraer, Dr. D. Sarr, Mr. F.
Du Cane GopMan, Professor NEwron, Sir GEORGE Hampson, and
Mr. G. Murray (Secretary), on the Present State of awr Knowledge
of the Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands, and on
taking Steps to investigate ascertained Deficiencies in the Fauna
and Flora,

At a meeting held on Wednesday, July 5, 1899, it was resolved to terminate
the active work of the Committee by rendering a list of its publications to
the Royal Society (Government Grant Committee) and to the British
Association, and by presenting to the Trustees of the British Museum the
remainder of the unworked-out material. This material, consisting
mostly of Coleoptera, has remained undetermined owing to the dearth of
expert naturalists, and there is no immediate prospect of the Committee
obtaining the services of suitable naturalists.

The following list of papers represents the published work of the
Committee since it was established :—

Zoology.
Vertebrata.

Sclater, P. L. . 3 . List of Birds collected by Mr. Ramage in Dominica, West
Indies. ‘Proce. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1889,’ pp. 326, 327.
* < : . List of Birds collected by Mr. Ramage in St. Lucia, West
Indies. ‘ Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1889,’ pp. 394, 395.
5 - ¢ .- On a Collection of Birds from the Island of Anguilla,
West Indies. ‘Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1892,’ pp. 498-
500.
Feilden, H, W. x - The Deserted Domicile of the Diablotin in Dominica.
‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ v. pt. 1, 1890,

pp. 24-39.
Giinther, A. . 3 Notes on Reptiles and Frogs from Dominica, West Indies.
‘Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ ii, 1888, pp, 862-366.
Mollusca.
Smith, BE. A. . 2 . On the Mollusca collected by Mr. G. A. Ramage at a

Island of Dominica. ‘Ann. and va Nat. Hist.’ i
1888, pp. 227-234, 419, 420.

x 2 { . On the Mollusca collected by Mr. G. ic Ramage i in the
Lesser Antilles. ‘Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ ili. 188),
pp- 400-405.

” - : . Report on the Land and Freshwater Shells collected by
Mr. Herbert H. Smith at St. Vincent, Grenada, and
other neighbouring Islands. ‘Proc. Malac. Soc.’ i.
pt. 7, October 1895 ; pp. 3002322, with plate 21.

Arthropoda.

Pocock, R. I. . . . Contributions to our knowledge gf the Crustacea of
Dominica. ‘Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ iii. 1889,
pp. 6-22, with plate 2.

‘Dollfus,A. . . . On West-Indian Terrestrial Isopod Crustaceans. ‘Proc.
Zool. Soc. Lond. 1896, pp. 388-400.

Pocock, R. 3 . On Isometrus americanus (Linn.), with a description of a
new species of the genus. ‘Ann. and Mag. Nat, Hist.’
iv. 1889, pp. 53-59.

442

Peckham, G. W. and E. G.

Simon, E. .

Pocock, R. 1. .

Waterhouse, C. O. .

Matthews, A. . °

Grouvelle, A. . *

Gorham, Henry 8. .

Gahan, C.J. .

Champion,G.C. .

” 9” .

Jacoby, M. , .

Riley, C. V., Ashmead,
W. H., and Howard,

L. O. :
Ashmead, W. H.

Forel, A. * .
Forel, A. ‘ .

Hampson, G. F., Sir

REPORT-—1899.

On the Spiders of the family Attide of the Island of St.
Vincent. ‘Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1893,’ pp. 692-704,
with plates 61 and 62.

On the Spiders of the Island of St. Vincent.’ Parts 1-3.
‘Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1891,’ pp. 549-575, with plate
42; 1894, pp. 519-526; 1897, pp. 860-890.

Contributions to our knowledge of the Arthropod Fauna
of the West Indies:

Part 1. Scorpiones and Pedipalpi; with a Supple-
mentary Note upon the Freshwater Decapoda of St.
Vincent.

Part 2. Chilopoda.

Part 3. Diplopoda and Malacopoda, with a Supple-
ment on the Arachnida of the Class Pedipalpi.

‘Journ Linn. Soc. Zool.’ 1893, Pt. 1, pp. 374-409, with
plates 29 and 30; Pt. 2, pp. 454-473. 1894, Pt. 3,
pp. 473-544, with plates 37-40.

Contributions to our knowledge of the Myriapoda of
Dominica. ‘Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Pt. 2, 1888, pp.
472-483, with plate 16.

Observations on some Buprestide from the West Indies
and other localities. ‘Ann. and Mag, Nat. Hist.’ xviii.
1896, pp. 104-107.

Corylophide and Trichopterygidze found in the West
Indian Islands. ‘Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ xiii. 1894,
pp. 334-342.

Clavicornes de Grenada et de St. Vincent (Antilles)
récoltées par M.H. H. Smith. ‘Notes from the Leyden
Museum,’ xx. 1898, pp. 35-48.

On the Serricorn Coleoptera of St. Vincent, Grenada, and
the Grenadines (Malacodermata, Ptinidz, Bostrychidz),
with descriptions of new species. ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.
Lond. 1898,’ pp. 315-333, and part of plate 27.

On the Coleoptera of the families Erotylide, Endomy-
chidz, and Coccinellide, collected by Mr. H. H. Smith
in St. Vincent, Grenada, and the Grenadines, with
descriptions of new species. ‘Proc. Zool; Soc. Lond.
1898,’ pp. 334-343, and part of plate 27.

On the Longicorn Coleoptera of the West India Islands.
‘Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1895,’ pp. 79-140, with plate 2.

On the Heteromerous Coleoptera of St. Vincent, Grenada,
and the Grenadines. ‘Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1896,’
pp. 1-54, with plate 1.

On the Serricorn’Coleoptera of St. Vincent, Grenada, and the
Grenadines. ‘Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1897,’ pp. 281-296.

A list of the Phytophagous Coleoptera obtained by Mr.
H. H. Smith at St. Vincent, Grenada, and the Grena-
dines, with descriptions of new species, Crioceride—
Galerucide. ‘Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1897,’ pp. 249-280.

Report upon the Parasitic Hymenoptera of the Island of
St. Vincent. ‘Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), 1894,’ xxv.
pp. 56-254.

Report on the Parasitic Hymenoptera of the Island of
Grenada, comprising the families Cynipide, Ichneu-
monidz, Braconide, and Proctotrypide. ‘Proc. Zool.
Soc. Lond. 1895,’ pp. 742-812.

Formicides de l’Antille St. Vincent. Récoltées par Mons,
H.H. Smith. ‘Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1893,’ pp. 333-418.

Quelques Formicides de l’Antille de Grenada. Récoltées
par Mons. H. H. Smith. ‘Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1897,’
pp. 297-300.

On the Geometride, Pyralide, and allied families of
Heterocera of the Lesser Antilles. ‘ Ann. and Mag, Nat.
Hist,’ xvi. 1895, pp. 329-349,

widen «

ON THE ZOOLOGY
Hampson, G. F., Sir ‘
Walsingham, Lord. ‘
Williston, 5.W. . :

Whier, PR. . .

Kirby, W. F. . . °

Brunnerv. Wattenwy],C.,
and Redtenbacher, J.

Brunner v. Wattenwy], C.

Baker, J.G. . .

Wright,C.H. . .

Spruce, R.

Gepp, A. °

West, W. . . .
West, W.,and West, G. S.

Grove, E.
Wainio, E. A.. < ;

Massee,G. 2

AND BOTANY OF THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 443

The Moths of the Lesser Antilles. ‘Trans. Ent. Soc,
Lond. 1898,’ pp. 241-260, with plate 17.

On the Micro-Lepidoptera of the West Indies. ‘Proc.
Zool. Soc. Lond. 1891,’ pp. 492-549, with plate 41.

On the Diptera of St. Vincent, West Indies (Dolichopo-
didz and Phoride by J. M. Aldrich). ‘Trans. Ent. Soc.
Lond. 1896,’ pp. 253-446, with plates 8-14.

An Enumeration of the Hemiptera-Homoptera of the
Island of St. Vincent, West Indies. ‘ Proc, Zool. Soc.
Lond. 1895, pp. 55-84.

On the Hemiptera-Heteroptera of the Island of Grenada,
West Indies. ‘Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1894,’ pp. 167-224,

A list of the Hemiptera-Heteroptera collected in the
Island of St. Vincent, by Mr. Herbert H. Smith, with
descriptions of new genera and species. ‘ Proc. Zool.
Soc. Lond. 1893,’ pp. 705-719.

A list of the Hemiptera-Heteroptera of the families
Anthocoridze and Ceratocombidz collected by Mr. H.
H. Smith in the Island of St. Vincent, with descriptions
of new genera and species. ‘Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.
1894,’ pp. 156-160.

On some Small Collections of Odonata (Dragonflies)
recently received from the West Indies. ‘Ann. and Mag.
Nat. Hist.’ xiv. 1894, pp. 261-269.

Descriptions of new Species of Phasmide from Dominica,
Santa Lucia, and Brazil (Theresopolis), in the Collec-
tion of the British Museum. ‘Ann.and Mag. Nat. Hist.’
ili, 1889, pp. 501-504.

On the Orthoptera of the Island of St. Vincent, West
Indies, ‘Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1892, pp. 196-221,
with plates 15-17.

On the Orthoptera of the Island of Grenada, West Indies.
‘Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1893,’ pp. 599-611, with plate 52.

Botany.

On the Vascular Cryptogamia of the Island of St. Vin-
cent. ‘Ann. Bot.’ vol. v. 1891, pp. 163-171, with plates
10 and 11.

On the Vascular Cryptogamia of the Island of Grenada.
‘Ann. Bot.’ vi. 1892, pp. 95-102.

Two New Cryptogams (Polytrichum nudicaule and Kantia
vineentina). ‘Journ. Bot.’ xxix. 1891, pp. 106, 107.

Hepatic Elliottianz, insulis Antillanis 8" Vincentii et
Dominica a clar. W. R. Elliott, annislectze 1891-92.
‘Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.)’ xxx. 1895, pp. 331-372, with
plates 20-30.

Additional Notes on Mr. W. R. Elliott's Hepatic. ‘Journ.
Bot.’ xxxiii. 1895, pp. 53-54.

On some Freshwater Algze from the West Indies.
Assisted by G. 8. West. ‘Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.),’ xxx.
1894, pp. 264-280, with plates 13-16.

A further Contribution to the Freshwater Algw of the
West Indies. ‘Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.), xxxiv. No.
237, 1899, pp. 279-295.

Diatoms of St. Vincent and Grenada. ‘Journ. Bot. 1899.

Lichenes Antillarum a W. R. Elliott collecti. ‘Journ.
Bot.’ xxxiv. 1896, pp. 31-36, 66-72, 100-107, 204-210,
258-266, 292-297.

Some West Indian Fungi. ‘Journ. Bot.’ xxx. 1892, pp.
161-164, 196-198, with plates 321-323 and 325.

Papers are in hand on the Musci, by Mr. A. Gepp ; on the Hepaticz
(additional), by Dr. Stephani; on the Lichenes (additional), by M.
Wainio ; and on the Fungi (additional), by Miss A, Lorrain Smith.

444, REPORT—1899,

Zoological and Botanical Publication.—Report of the Convmittee, con-
sisting of Rey. T. R. R. STessine (Chairman), Professor W. A.
Herpman, Mr. W. E. Hoyuz, Dr. P. L. Scuarer, Mr. ADAm
Sepewick, Dr. D. SHarp, Mr. C. D. S#eErsorn, Professor
W. F. R. Wetpon, Mr. A. C. S—Ewarp, Mr. B. Daypon Jackson,
and Mr. F. A. BATHER (Secretary).

TuE Report of this Committee for 1897, specially addressed to the editors of
academical and periodical publications, has now been sent to all the lead-
ing societies and journals that publish either zoological or botanical
communications, or both—about 800 in all. <A special slip was inclosed
drawing attention to the fact that the recommendations of the Committee
were applicable to botanical no less than to zoological publications.

The difficulty of finding many of the desired addresses suggests that the
compilation of a list of publishing societies and of current periodicals with
their postal addresses would be of much service to workers in science.
Existing lists are as a rule deficient in regard to the addresses.

Circumstances have interfered with the task of, reporting on the cor-
respondence already received. To deal with this and with any further
correspondence that may arise out of the circulars, your Committee
respectfully requests its jg ei without a grant*of nioney.

Plankton and Physical Conditions of ti the Bnglich Channel.—First
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor HK. Ray LANKESTER
(Chairman), Professor W. A. HerpMan, Mr. H. N. Dickson, and
Mr. W. GarstanG (Secretary), appointed to make Periodic Investi-
gations of the Plankton and Physical Conditions of the English
Channel during 1899.

TuE proposed investigations have been carried out at quarterly intervals
during the year by Mr. Garstang, who was enabled by means of the grant
to hire a steam tug for the work during February, May, and the first week
of September. Except for a few small items for temporary apparatus at
sea, the whole of the expended grant (95/.) has been devoted to the hire of
a suitable steamboat for the periodic survey. A small balance (5/.)
remains, but as two further cruises will be necessary to complete the
investigation, the Committee desires its reappointment with a grant of
501. fin, addition to the unexpended balance).

The observations of temperature and salinity and the collections of
plankton obtained will furnish data for a complete year’s record of the
periodic changes in the physical character of the water and in the quantity
and character of the floating fauna and flora in the mouth of the English
Channel—a standard record which will be of the highest value in many
branches of marine biological and hydrographical inquiry.

Most of the apparatus used has been provided by the Marine Bio-
logical Association, which has borne all the expenditure required for the
more costly nets and gear. The Committee is also indebted to the Royal
Society Grant Committee for the loan of armoured hose and an extra deep
sea thermometer.

The collections are deposited in the Plymouth laboratory of the
Marine Biological Association, where the work of identification and
quantitative determination will be carried out.

ON PLANKTON AND PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF ENGLISH CHANNEL. 445

As the year’s collections are not yet complete, the Committee confines its
report on the present occasion to a description of the methods and apparatus
employed, and hopes to present a final report at the Bradford meeting.

The route fixed for the Survey consisted of the following lines :—
(1) from Plymouth to Ushant, with stations in mid-Channel (50 fathoms)
and off Ushant (60 fathoms) ; (2) from Ushant in a westerly direction
towards the 100-fathom line, with a station near Parson’s Bank (75
fathoms) ; (3) from Parson’s Bank northwards towards Mount’s Bay, with
a station in 50 fathoms ; (4) from Mount’s Bay to Plymouth,

The hydrographic apparatus employed consisted on all occasions of
Negretti and Zambra’s Deep-sea Reversible Thermometers, and of one of
Dr. Mill’s Water Bottles. Complete series of temperatures were taken on
all occasions.

On the February cruise the biological apparatus consisted of a number
of silk-gauze nets of various meshes for surface collections and of a semi-
rotary hand-pump and 40 fathoms of armoured hose (having a diameter
of one inch) for quantitative samples both of surface and deep-water
plankton. Accessory apparatus for filtermg the plankton and measuring
the volume of water filtered was also provided.

The results obtained by pumping appeared to be quite satisfactory for
quantitative determination of the more immobile elements of the plank-
ton, such as diatoms and even the smaller copepods ; but the vertical
distribution of the plankton was found to be so variable, under the varying
influence of darkness and light, even at a depth of 40 fathoms, that the
length of hose, which alone was obtainable with the means at the Com-
mittee’s disposal, was inadequate to provide a proper series of samples for
comparative purposes in cases where the depth exceeded 50 fathoms.
On returning from this cruise, therefore, Mr. Garstang determined to
attempt a solution of the difficulties which have hitherto invested the
problem of a simple but efficient opening and closing net for horizontal
towing ; as well as to construct a vertical net, after Hensen’s pattern, for
comparative estimation of the total quantity of plankton present at
different places and at different seasons.

These nets were ready for use towards the end of May, and were
employed with perfect success during the May and September cruises. As
the closing net has proved to be a thoroughly reliable instrument, the
principles of its construction are here briefly given, and the net itself will
be exhibited and tried at sea during the Dover Meeting. (The trials took
place on September 17 on board Mr. J. W. Woodall’s yacht Vallota, in
the presence of Sir John Murray, Mr. H. N. Dickson, and Mr. I. C,
Thompson, and were completely successful.)

The principal obstacles to the use of closing nets for horizontal towing
at definite depths have been (1) the tendency of the net to oscillate,
during towing, through a thick stratum of water, depending on inevitable
variations in the rate of towing ; (2) the uncertainty of determining the
actual depth of the net at any moment, owing to the curvature of the line
produced by the resistance of the water ; (3) the difficulty of ensuring the
proper opening and complete closure of the net at the depth required.

It appeared that the first and second obstacles might be overcome by
combining a minimum resistance of the towing line and net with a
maximum weight of the net frame. The net was therefore designed to be
towed by fine steel wire instead of a hempen line, and provision was made
for a heavy net frame to support a small net, as well as for the voluntary

446 REPORT—1899,

addition of extra weight to any degree that might appear to be required.
The wire employed was provided by Messrs. Latch & Batchelor, Limited,
of Birmingham. They describe it as No. 16 G, and give its breaking
strain as 790 pounds.

The essential parts of the frame are the same as in Giesbrecht’s net,
but the modifications introduced are in the direction of a much greater
simplicity. A quadrangular jointed metal frame slides up and down a
cylindrical axis, formed by a stout rigid metal tube, which is furnished
with a guide. When the frame is opened, the aperture is diamond-
shaped ; when shut, the two upper limbs of the frame approximate
tightly to the corresponding lower limbs. Both pairs of limbs can be
supported in the closed position at the tov of the tubular axis by metal
springs, on the principle employed by Dr. H. R. Mill in his well-known
self-locking water-bottle. Owing to the fact, however, that the releasing
gear had to be doubled in the case of the net, the set of springs which
support the lower limbs of the frame were attached inside the tubular
axis, which is perforated at three points for the protrusion of the sup-
porting edges of the springs. Release of the frame is effected in each case
by the action of a metal cap which can be driven over the springs by the
action of a messenger. The first messenger (a narrow one) drives down
the inner cap and releases the lower limbs of the frame, which then
descend by their own weight and open the net to its utmost extent ; the
second messenger (a broad one) is arrested by the outer cap, drives it
down, and releases the upper part of the frame, thus closing the net again,
but in this case at the bottom of the axis, instead of at the top. By means
of messengers both movements are thus under the control of the operator
on the deck of the ship, whatever be the depth to which the net is lowered.

Another important departure from the Giesbrecht net, whether in its
original form, or as modified by the Prince of Monaco, consists in the
method by which the proper orientation of the net is ensured. The wire,
in fact, is attached to a central pivot upon which the tubular axis of the
frame, which bears all the weight, is free to rotate. Friction is reduced
to a minimum by means of ball bearings. In this way the possibility of any
revolution of the net round a vertical axis, either during descent, towing, or
ascent, as a consequence of the twisting of the wire, is completely avoided—
a very important matter, for if the frame were to revolve during its descent,
the gauze net attached to it would be wrapped round the axis or the hori-
zontal limbs of the frame, and the opening of the net would be impeded,
and probably quite prevented. On no occasion, however, has such an
accident happened—a fact which bears witness to the efficiency of the
means taken to prevent it. The net never failed to come up to the sur-
face properly closed, so that the reliability of the results obtained by the
net can be confidently assumed. Although on this occasion it is not
proposed to go into any details, Mr. Garstang reports that the difference
between the plankton of different levels as revealed by this new net were
in many cases of a most conspicuous character, a fact which will be fully
demonstrated in the final report of the Committee. The various hauls
made by the net at different times of the day and night also show in a
clear and convincing manner the effect of light and darkness upon the
vertical movements of pelagic organisms in the Channel waters,

It is consequently proposed to continue the investigations until
February 1900, in order to complete a full year’s survey under identical
conditions with the same apparatus,

ON BIRD MIGRATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 44.7

Bird Migration in Great Britain and Treland.—Second Interim Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor NEWTON (Chairman), the
late Mr. Joun Corpgaux (Secretary), Mr. Harvie-Brown, Mr.
R. M. Barrineron, Rey. E. Ponsonsy Knusiey, and Dr. H. O.
ForsBEs, appointed to work out the details of the Observations of
the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Lightships, 1880-87.

Your Committee has to deplore the loss it has sustained by the recent
death of its Secretary, Mr. Cordeaux, who, ever since the subject of the
migration of birds was first brought before the Association at Swansea in
1880, when he was made Secretary of the Committee then appointed, has
devoted an incalculable amount of time and labour to the work in hand.

Tf Mr. Cordeaux were not the first to suggest the employment of the
light-keepers in obtaining observations, he was certainly the first to prove
its practicability, and the success which attended the inquiry must be
attributed almost wholly to his skilful conduct of it. All the complicated
details of schedules, circulars, and other information supplied to the
observers were carefully thought out by him, and he carried on the
greater part of the necessary correspondence which, in the earlier years of
this inquiry, was enormous, while raising by his own exertions the funds
needed to defray its expenses, which amounted to at least twice as much
as the grants from time to time received from the Association—though
these have not been inconsiderable. Even a still greater service was per-
formed by him in getting the men at the Lighthouses and Lightships to
take a real interest in the business, for all depended on their cheerful
co-operation, which was given voluntarily and was gratuitously rendered.

In continuation of the Interim Report of last year, your Committee
has to inform the Association that Mr. William Eagle Clarke, of the
Museum of Science and Art at Edinburgh, has continued working out the
details of the collected observations, in accordance with the scheme before
indicated ; but that, as then stated, some two or three years will be
needed to do this in a satisfactory way. The work is attended by some
expense, and your Committee, while respectfully soliciting reappointment,
begs also for a renewed grant of money. Your Committee has the satis.
faction of presenting the following statement received from Mr. Clarke as
to the progress he is making :—

‘Considerable progress has been made since the last Report. The
work of supplementing the data amassed by the Committee has been com-
pleted, with the result that no fewer than about 15,000 useful records
haye been added to the observations available. Most of these records
have been tabulated, and incorporated with the original data, and the
completion of this portion of the task is now receiving attention.

‘In addition, all the information relating to the occurrences of the
rarer species for all years has been amassed and will be utilised.

‘I hope to proceed at once to treat of species, giving the results
obtained concerning the migrations of each—a task which must neces:
sarily take a considerable time to accomplish,’

Your Committee takes this opportunity of making known that one of
its members (Mr. Barrington) has, on his own account, continued to
collect observations from the Irish Lights since the year 1887, when they
were discontinued by the Committee of the Association, and has printed
the results, which contain many valuable records, up to 1896,

44.8 REPORT—1899.

The Olimatology of Africa.—Highth Report of a Committee consisting
of Mr. EH. G. Ravenstein (Chairman), Sir Jonn Kirk, Mr. G. J.
Symons, Dr. H. R. Mit, and Mr. H. N. Dickson, (Secretary).
(Drawn up by the Chair man.)

Merroro.ocican returns have reached your Committee, in the course of
last year, from forty stations in Africa.

Niger Territories.—One year’s observations from Old Calabar have
been received from Mr. EK. G. Fenton, the medical officer. We regret that
no information respecting the interior of the country has become available.

British Central Africa.—The scientific department, under the zealous
direction of Mr. J. McClounie, is now in full working order, and full
reports have been received for two stations of the second order, namely,
Zomba on the highland, and Fort Johnston on the Lake Level, as also
reports, more or less complete, from twenty-two other stations. Mr.
McClounie hopes to be able, in the course of the present year, to equip
two more stations of the second order, namely, Chinde on the coast, and
another station on the lake. He has attempted to make two-hourly
observations on term days, but as the exposure in the morning air resulted
in fever, he has given up the attempt.

We have, in addition, received three years’ registers for Lauderdale,
from our most faithful correspondent, Mr. John W. Moir, as also fifteen
months’ record from Kambola, a station of the London Missionary Society,
near the southern extremity of Tanganyika. The observer at the latter
place is Dr. James F. Mackay.

British Hast Africa.—Returns from eight Government stations have
been received. These returns are, of course, most welcome, and they
speak well for the zeal of Mr, Craufurd and the officers working under him ;
but considering the practical impertance of meteorological work, it is much
to be desired that something more should be done. Let us hope that the
satisfactory working of a ‘Scientific Department’ in the South African
Protectorate may induce the authorities to organise a similar institution
for East Africa and Uganda. Asa proof of the high value placed upon
work of this kind in the neighbouring German Protectorate, we may state
that a professional meteorologist has been appointed as inspector, and
that there are now at work twenty-six stations, including two of the first
and seven of the second order.

We are likewise in receipt of rainfall observations made by the
Rev. R. M. Ormerod at Golbanti, on the Tana river.

The old Scottish Missionary Station at Kibwezi has been abandoned,
and the missionaries have removed to a new station in Kikuyu, whence
three months’ observations have already been forwarded.

Uganda.—The valuable observations on the level of the Victoria
Nyanza have been resumed since the suppression of the mutiny.

Mr. C. W. Hobley has forwarded two years’ record of the rainfall at
Mumia’s, the headquarter station of Kavirondo.

Our earth thermometer has accompanied Captain Austin during his
journey to Lake Rudolf, but no record of work done has hitherto “been
received.

Your Committee propose that they be reappointed, They do not ask
for a grant,

jf ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA. 449

Nyasaland.

Mr. J. McClounie, head of the Scientific Department of British Central Africa, has forwarded to the
Committee the following remarks on the weather, dated Zomba, May 12, 1899 :—

' The year of 1898-99 has not been marked by any extraordinary features, In the absence of any
7 records for past years, 1898-99 may be taken as a good one all round. No lengthy damaging drought
was experienced. No great rainfall was registered for the year, i.e. what may be termed zero to zero,

and being the twelve months from October to September, both inclusive.

The rainy season practically commences in October and continues to May, during which time spring
and summer prevail, autumn following on in the coldest months, and winter, antipodal to England with
regard to temperature, as the temperature rises daily all over the country until the rains of October and
the following months cool the atmosphere. Be it understood, of course, that in what is termed the
‘wet season’ there is no inference that rain falls continuously during these months, as this is not the
ease. Thunderstorms, though frequent, are of brief duration. From Zomba, the progress of thunder-
storms can be seen forty miles away; they are seen to traverse the plain quickly, and rain may be seen
falling at three or four different places simultaneously.

During the months of August, September, and October, and sometimes November, vegetation is at a
standstill, the accumulating heat from the sun’s southing having completely dried the grass and made
hard and hot the paths, Bush fires are numerous, and soon there remains nothing but large blackened
areas. On this the ground temperature is very great, and almost unbearable by the natives, whose
bare feet get badly cracked. Asa result of the great temperatures, whirlwinds may be observed long
distances away speeding across the plain ; a long black column, small at the ground but widening out
at the top, 150 feet to 200 feet high, is a frequent object of interest. Occasionally a whirlwind of more
than usual violence may reach the dwellings at Zomba or Blantyre, and dangerously shake the iron
roofs. Trees and shrubs are also very much blown about, and sometimes overthrown.

The sunshine during August, September, and October is almost continuous from morning till evening.
High temperatures are the rule, and the atmosphere very dry. The bush fires continue, and a heavy
haze hangs like a pall over the land until the copious rains in November extinguish the fires and clear
the air. Two or three showers are looked for in September, and are called (locally) Kokalupsya, or the
early rain, but these are slight. On them, however, the planting community base their hopes for the
success of the next year’s crop, by their bringing the coffee into flower and setting the fruit.

From Fort Johnston full and excellent returns have been received, observed by Mr. F. S. 8. Wright,
of the Naval Department.

Excellent climatological returns were received from Nkata Bay and Cholo, the observers being
Mr. C. A. Cardew and Mr. Geo. Adamson.

Other climatological stations commenced during the year, and good registers are now being received.
The way in which planters and missionaries have responded to the request for rainfall readings has been
ry encouraging, and these, together with administration stations, give rainfall readings for twenty-two
places.

It is not my desire at the present time to go into the tables and make comparisons of the different
stations, or point out any special feature, the object of this—the first Report—being to try in a way to
illustrate the general nature of the climate of British Central Africa, and which, I hope, may be found
compatible with the tables. The barometric and other reductions have been obtained from ‘Smithsonian
Meteorological Tables,’ 1896 edition, and my thanks are due to Mr. Ravenstein for the courteous manner

~ in which he has at times assisted and advised me.

Kambola, Tanganyika Plateau. Lat. 8° 50' S., Long. 31° E., 4,880 feet (by B. Pt.).

e Observer: James F. Mackay, L.R.C.P. Ed.
Mean .
Temp. Vapour| Dew Relative te
Mean Temperature eicenies ee Bi ee Point | Humidity Rain
et Bulb
Months

8 3 ret wean \ientirad

Beale: & z Se (ei lie wp cleans Par, | Se (ee ota Seebeck hd Be [ie

A.M. | P.M. | Max.| Min.|Mean| ‘to 2 |aa.| pa. lam.[polaa|pm.| am.) pm.| § | A | Se

i ish a 3
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° |Inch |No.| Inch

70°90) 73°23) 84:10) 57-90] 71:00} 90 52 | 62°42) 63-26] 484) 490] 58:2| 585) 64 60 135}; 4 | 1:00

68°73) 69°56) 78°11; 52°13) 65°12) 86 54 | 63°60) 65-LU| *b40) °577| 61:2) 6371) 77 80 7°67 | 16 | 1:27

66°97) 63°78) 78:19) 57-06) 67-62) 85 53 | 62°84) 64°81| -622) 575) 65°3/ 63°0) 95 82 6°17 | 18 | 2°18

64°11) 67-70| 76°25) 57:22] 66-74] 82 55 | 63°38] 64°74] *577] °583| 63°1| 63-4) 97 85 | 12°64) 25 | 2°68

65°17) 67°33) 76°79| 58:16] 67:47| 84 55 | 62-00] 63°91] *535] 562| 61°0| 62°4| 86 84 8:30) 19 | 1:72

69°09 69°74 82°16) 58:00/ 70°08) 88 56 | 63°53] 65°38] 533) °585| 60°9) 63°5| 75 81 9:06 | 16 | 156

65°86 68°73) 81-43] 56°40| 68°91, 89 | 52 | 61-43] 64-23] -502|557| 59°1/62-1| 79 | 80 | 6°62] 17 | 2:10

64-41] 73°77) 80-96] 54:19] 67-58; 88 | 51 | 58-32] 65-70] -431|°556|55°0|620| 71] 66] 0-00} 0) —

} 59°03) 70°73] 78-96] 49°33| 67°14| 85 45 | 52:00] 60°17) 323) -424/ 47*1) 54:5) 65 56 0°00) 0 _—

: 58°59 71:92 80°70| 43°66] 62:19) 85 42 | 57-86] 58°14] -474| *355| 57°6) 49°6| 97?) 45 0-00; O oa

+ | 62°14) 73°42| 82-39] 40°57| 61:48] 88 45 | 52°07| 56°45] *297| *308] 44:9) 45°8) 51 37 0:00; 0 --

September | 68°80) 77-86] 86-70] 57-76] 72:23] 90 53 | 5626] 60°43] 338] *361| 48°3| 50°1| 48 37 014] 2 | 0:07

, October + | 70°45) 74°93) 86°38] 60°41] 73°40] 90 57 | 60°93] 61°80] *447| *430] 56°0| 54:9) 60 50 066! 5 | 0-40
_ | November | 67°10] 70:96} 80-36| 60-00] 70:18] 88 | 58 | 62-80| 65-10] -531| -564| 60'8| 62-4) 80 | 75 | 5:56) 22 | 112
_ | December | 66°97) 69:45| 78:90| 59:22] 69-06] 85 | 57 | 63-06) 63-70|-541|-536| 61-3| 61-0] 82 | 74 | 11-43] 18 | 4-04

a

7 1898 65°05 a 80°83) 55°41! 67-79) 90 42 | 59°46] 62°5 | 461) -484| 56°3) 57°6} | 74 64 | 5441/12 4-04

Pi alana errors (if any) are not known, The mean is deduced from } (max. + min.) and are consequently

; 1899. GG

1899.

REPORT:

450

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«

OSq | — aanyesodmay, uvayy

1899

REPORT

4.52

a
u
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o
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3S
Sj
a
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5
o
a
6
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a
=)
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3
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2
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a

1;

, owing
pri

ere made,
at 2 P.M.

or days when
year
March and A

1eS W

-in

and again §.E.and N.E. to the

and February, $.E
o August ;
closeofthe year. At 9 p.M.S.W. or W.throughout theyear.

Wind.—At 7 A.M.8.W. throughout the
. from May t

A few estimates have been introduced f
N.E. in January

to the absence of the observer, no entr:

S.

u wo

raqmaoaqy
TAqQUIaAO NT
* 1aqoqoQ
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* qoavyy
+ LTeNAgGa,T

Aqenue yp

8(8}

the

Notr.—The observattions have been taken as recorded.
ious errors in
Registers, due, possibly, to the copyists.

Several of the blanks are due to obv:
* Returns incomplete,

wax

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* JequIaAON
* — Jaqoq0Q
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453

AFRICA,

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Direction and Force of Wind.

ZoMBA—continued.

454:

REPORT—1899.

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ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA. 455

5Ot IO 4st | Cone Le | a —
i. eee te US be 2 Kisimayu. Lat. 0° 22' 8., Long. 43° 33' B.
a GID | tenvoor Soke | x Observers: R. G. Farrant and J. W. P.
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a atti ge = he 4 July i . xy 121] 77°6 115 5 | 0°30
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“al qmmomy | de eeaasoneseos |S |¥ || September | 941) -114) 789 | 0-01 1 | 001
% EPO ST OS OSU! 1°69) | S| October . 912} 102) 80:2 0:00 0 _—
8 = S | November. | 830} °008) 82-2 0:00 0 _
It | 2 |dasessseeeaee|s [= G| December. | 852] 012} 821 | 000 | 0 | —.
s J : 2 ae eee. | ee
23 ae jeoekeeasstess ie q 3 1898 | 29885] — | 808 | 10°91 | 30 | 3-44
o 3 ak ik een gee el Ree a PNT o° 8
Pi wa | é SSSnoweaccnn 3 bp ze The readings have been corrected for instrumental
: < 2 errors.
3 SHE SReanooras|o s 2 The barometrical readings at 9 A.M. have been re-
a om ASSekSeSSS5Ser |S |b 8 duced to standard temperature of 32° and standard
BS | = Se a eo le 2 ©}| gravity in lat. 45°, but those for 3 P.M. are given as
£3 ae SSR SS2xoorsscan|s |S | recorded, as no temperature observations were made °
£ 2 ae Sa ee ese =—($ | prior to November. The corrected pressure for No-
my me | friele bee Gy Eolas Goes | ‘9 |=) vember is 29°779 inches, for December 29-786 inches.
4 SS IST a a Ded ge iS Inthe eat of November the wind shifted steadily
s PREBESANNOHY |S |H 55)! round, and on the 30th was blowing due N.E., and all
= | ais °SRESSSEBSERS | 3 poe dhows had ceased coming from the south.
S ci Honottwontowno,o |SOR
& aa |- Seheescuanes |S ees]
Ee | Ay ROR oeHnnHnooos |o aoa :
a | a E Steere sees | ee gf || Hort Smith, Kikuyu. Lat. 1° 14’ S., Long. .
= ee <5 ay 36° 44’ #., 6,400 feet. Observers: D.C. T.
5) as ef jo #eeeeseesuee |S Se &|| Maepherson, Francis C. Hall, 5 Ch. Wiese.
i] ; Fase
CS PE Beas ee Mean pets,
As iy J per eosoconren |e |e. Temp umidity pasta
SE Z|, Saw eeSoreeeery: (2as 9 AM. 9 AM
JA one |: @Seeasesscss |g aa
= | SPeServeresre |S ese Sa
of) 28 | meer | Sessscasaees |S [gz 3] Month alazles| = |_ (28
8 | er D: wet |EHlSetes| 2 | eles
& BE 3 erereresoens (o | wy ry | MO 2/8 lag 8 a he
WUSTH [9 SASS RSHRLOSS |S [BN PA}S R/S 5 A SEA
° A aan onl at Ss my Po < $ a
=| SASASESAS ASG |S ESS a
ie ete o keseeses suas | =— ||_———_|—_— a
2 “ayur EABSSREE RAE SES [EES 1898 g o | ° {In. |P.c.| In. | No.) Tn.
8 i uy |°RSSSSESSSSRS |S Fe || January . | 65-19 | 62-22 | 60-9 533| 86 | 1:47 | 3 |0-70
| & | SSE = |rioi|| February . | 68:28 | 63:05 | 60°8-532| 77 | 222) 3 |1:82°
Je] = | won | B85ssee5e228 |5 [eel worm jeez ener jeuzist a | 270) sf ss
| iS] ; RPHoomnsoaranaso (sh April - | 66r4 8,62 ‘ 6 | 6-76
|& a SMES ss soo che Poel May * | 63°87 | 61°84 | 60°9|-533 | 90 | 5°63 | 14 |1°34
= % | “Se |S E85|| June — . [58:63 56-66 65-7 "444 90 6-01 10 13
|. 3 3 Pose ES ps i a ke a Ec July . |59°70 | 57°16 | 56°0)-447 | 8 "61 | 2 {0°
4 S a ° SPSSSLLSE SSS |S 28a August . |57-99 | 55°95 |54-2/-419| 85 | 0-27 | 1 |0-27
im 3 SHASSSOSSSERE |S |255]| September | 61-19 | 58-12 | 56-5|-456 | 85 | 085 | [3]]/ —
, wal Pie erie ome \3 Bn October . | 64:03 | 61:00 | 59°6/'510| 85 | 2:13] 7 |0°59
MOAR OND SORS TA |° s a|| November | 62°40 | 60:00 | 58:9)496 88 | 4°92 | 16 |1°61
j put ARS EOMBOBHSAR lz 3 £5) December. | 63:80 | 59°55 | 57-3470 | 82 | 162) 7 0-42
4 a wt co ee. Lee Lie © 2 « « oO 3 oO Zz — | ——S|$-|§ ———_ | — —— | ——_ | -—————_
} |83 Ee 3 2 Hal] 1898 | 6-02 |60-07 |586)-497| 86 | 36-19 | 85 |2'37
2 : -RIDOAGAASOBWGOK OS 2
7) s 3 7
5 ei Si 1 Sy eee I SS | 2 a8 3 Nore.—The readings have been corrected for instru-
¥) ge S = ae =\| mental error. In computing the Dew Point, &c., a
i : RRSSeneSeSose |S |.Q ||| pressure of 23°6 inches has been assumed. :
| we | gSSSSS5SERSS5 |S S84] ~ At the station of the East African Scottish Mission,
a = a & aS || within 23 miles of Fort Smith, the rainfall was 2°21
if > od eee 2 S| inches (on 10 days) in October, 6°91 inches (19 days)
i, a BBY © =~ || in November, 5:07 inches (8 days) in December. .
i 3 SPE Passe ie as (Observer : Rey. T. Watson.)
' = Sdisa 5 pasags |S [8 1A very heavy thunderstorm, with hail, began at
a 4 gSsaecgereséss|™ 3 P.M. on February 28, and ceased at 3.30 P.M., during
tt BeadaRnR ANZA which time 1°51 inches fell.

456 REPORT—1899.

Mombasa. 4° 4' S., 39° 42’ #., 60 feet.
Observer: C. R. Craufurd.

ci gra esas Mean Temperatures, 9 A.M. Humidity, 9 a. Rain
ressure| a
of Atmo. aily Ss

a ee E 3 Mean | Mean pange Dew 2 5 ees E mn : I 5
AM. | 4 P= : ei “wis 3-5 m/e

po OD = Dry | Wet | vax, Min. Mean Point| & b 3 EI I 4 aa z

cs | Pa | sa] < har
1898 In. 5 ic 5 > a x % a Gi Im, |) Pen! dn, a Nos 2 ae
January . | 29:936 | 86°3 | 71:9 | 82°9 | 80°8 | 86:3 | 734 | 79°8 | 12°9 | 80:1 | 1026 91 = = —
February "854 | 863 | 71°9 | 81°8 | 79°0 | 86:3 | 72:7 | 79°5 | 13°6 | 78:0 958 88 = = _-
March . *823 | 86°8 | 72°9 | 84:0 | 80° | 86:3 | 73°3 | 79°8 | 13:0 | 79°4 | 1:001 86 0:52 4 | 020
April 5 "825 | 86°3 | 68:9 | 85°2 | 80°6 | 85:1 | 735 | 791 | 11° | 791 “992 82 1°03 4 | 073
May. 5 *909 | 86°3 |. 76°4 | 83:2 | 80°0 | 85:1 | 786 | 81:8 65 | 789 “987 88 4°30 5 | 1°65
June. A “816 | 86°3 | 74°9 | 80:0 | 77:2 | 83°83 | 77:3 | 80°5 65 | 76°2 “901 88 2°55 2 | 2°50
July . A “966 | 843 | 73°9 | 77°4 | 745 | 82:3 | 744 | 78-4 79 | 734 820 87 £27 6 | 2-00
August . ‘977 | 82°3 | 74:9 | 78:3 | 75°5 | 81:5 | 75°9 | 78:7 56 | 74°4 *850 88 0°75 1 | 075
September ‘983 | 82°3 | 75:9 | 79°6 | 76:7 | 82:3 | 765 | 79:4 58 | 75:8 885 88 518 6 | 1:70
October . "874 | 843 | 75:9 | 79L | 763 | 83:0 | 78:0 | 805 50 | 76:3 “904 91 0°70 2 | 0°50
November *863 | 87:3 | 78:9 | 82°5. | 80:2 | 85:9 | 79:1 | 82:5 68 | 79°5 | 1-004 91 1:80 3 | 1:00
December . "853 | 87°3 | 77:9 | 83:5 | 80°9 | 863 | 80°5 | 83-4 5°8 | 80°0 |1:023 | 89 — |-| —
1898 . . | 30°889 | 87:3 | 68:9 | Sl'4 | 785 | 84:5 | 762 | 80:3 84 | 75°9 | +946 88 — =

Norr.—All readings have been corrected for instrumental errors, except those of the barometer and its
attached thermometer, the corrections for which are not known,

The barometrical observations have been reduced to 32° F. and Lat. 45°, but not to sea-level.

The mean temperature is assumed to be the mean of all max. and min., and is therefore too high.

No observations were made on Sundays, but the rain was allowed to collect in the rain-gauges.

Shimoni (Wanga). 4° 38' S., 39° 21’ Z.
Observers: J. W. Tritton, H. B. Comyn, and H. H. Carvatho.

Sear Humidity Rain Prevailing Wind at 9 A.M.
Atmospheric Temp eS =

Month Pressure 9AM. [pe 3 5 ee ES m 3
25/28 |e'5| 8 | 2! S| N. INE! EB. /S.E! S. |S.W.| W. |N.W.| Cal.

Ag Se |os | i= Sil

9 a.m.| 3 p.m. Dry| Wet Pa jem] < is

1898 In. |No.| In.
January . |29:'778| — _ | 83:2! 83:0) 82:9) 1125] 99 | 0:30 2 | 0°29 2 1/15/10 1 1)— 1|/—
February . “760 | — _ | 85'1| 81°4| 80°92} 1:029| 85 | O14 4) 010) — 1} 27|;—|— —|— —|-—
March *763 | — _ | 85°6| 83°6"83°0| 1127} 92 | 1°60 5 | 0°50 | — 6 | 10 5 2 8);—| —|]—
April 853 | — _ | 834) $2°2)81-8) 1085] 95 | 3°83 8} 2:80 |—]}—|/]— 3 8 19;—|; —|—
May. - *903 |29°849 | 80-2) 79°2| 788) -984) 95 | 3:90 | 11 | 1:51 |} —} — |} —]|] —] 21 9 al —|—
June. . |30°000) 921] 76°9| 75:3) 74:7; *857| 93 | 4:50 | 17] 085 }—|—}—| 3) 56} 22}/—] —|]—
July. a *021| °976 | 75°3/ 73°9| 73-4) *821| 94 | 7-47 |) 17) 150) — | —}| —| — 6 10 | 15 —|—
August . “003 | °955 | 75:0) 74:0) 73°6) *827| 95 | 1:30 8 | 041 | —}|—|]—|—/ 10 21);—}; —|]—
September |29°985| °934| 77°6| 75:9) 75°3) °874| 92 | 1:13 5 | o70|—|—}|— | — |! 12 9 6 38/—
October . °977 | °908| 79°0| 77°6| 77:1) °929) 94 | 0:42 2; O41 | —| —| —] — 4 19 5 3] —
November | °901] °896 | 81:6) 80°4) 80°0; 1:022| 95 | 271 | 6 | O97} —|—J| 1] 4] 8] 20] -- 2);—
December. *867| °814| 85-1) 82°5| 81:7, 1080} 89 | 0°00 Oo; — 8; 4/16); —j|— —_—|— 3/—
—————| es ee —— —, —_| _——=| a
Year. - |29°901} — | 80°7| 79:1] 78:5] -974] 93 | 27°30 | 85 |+2°80 | 10 | 12 | 69 | 25 | 72 | 138 | 27 12} —

Nore.—Al instruments used have been corrected for instrumental errors (see ‘ Report for 1898,’ p. 4).
The barometer readings have been reduced to 32° F. and lat. 45° N., but not to sea-level.

4.57

THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA.

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458 a ae 899.

Golbanti, on the Tana River. Lat. 2° 47' S.,
40° 4' F#., 50 feet. Observer: Rev. R. M. =
Ormerod. NorES.
The rain-gauge was supplied by the Com-
= mittee, and has a diameter of 5 inches, Its
Rainfall Depth of River rim is 1 foot above the ground. The rain was
collected at 7 A.M.
Mr. Ormerod remarks that the period
Month oe) 7 5m 2 ep rered pa been wausnelly oy, the few rains
5 DE a SS aa ey 2 eing distributed over the whole year instead
Z z |& | Mean 3 Least! of being grouped into two regular rainy
4 A as = oe seasons. No crops were raised, except where
water supply was available from the river or
a swamps.

1897 In. | No. | In. | ft. in,| ft. in.| ft. in. Mr. Ormerod has likewise supplied data
September }ua08, 6 078 | 9 7|10 3] 8 9| onthe depth of the Tana River, measured by
October . . | 0-40 4 016 | 911}/11 7] 810} a ‘fixed standard at the riverside. From
November » | 0°70 4 0-42 }11 9/13 0/10 38) the diagram which I have drawn from his
December | 0:00 0 0:00 |10 4/12 3] 8 O| data, it will at once be seen that the river

floods reflect two rainy seasons, but these rains

1898 are not the rains on its lower course, but rains
January . -| 0:28 3 015 | 610! 7 9} 5 8| faraway in the Kenya district. The Tana, in
February. . | 0:00 0 0:00 | 410} 5 7) 3 7] fact, isa miniature Nile, and irrigation works,
March . . | O15 1 015 | 3 8] 5 6] 210] such as have converted Egypt into one of the
April 5 | O41 2 028} 4 6) 7 2} 3 6; most productive regions of the earth, would
May. ° «| 0°95 6 0:26 |12 2]13 6] 7 3}] have a similar effect here. Mr. Ormerod
June - . | 158 5 0°80 |12 2/13 0O{11 O| points out that the success of the rice-fields
July. a » | 148 9 062 | 9 O|11 9} 7 3} depends upon the two annual floodings of the
August . Pa aay 5 030 | 6 5] 7 6| 5 6] river, and where they fail to rise high enough
September .| 1°77 9 0:90 | 6 9| 7 6] 6 6] the rice-fields suffer, and in many cases fail to
October . - | 2°90 7 210|} 6 9] 9 6| 5 9} produce any crops. Mr. Ormerod suggests
November «| 2°09 4 0:90 | 9 6/12 6] 7 38] that the setting in of the rains in the interior
December »| O21 2 019] 8 7\12 6] 7 O|} might be telegraphed to the Tana, so as to

enable the people to get their fields ready for

the flood.

1898 12°33 | 53 210 |11 1/13 6} 210

Level of the River Tana at Golbanti, Sept. 1897 to Dec.1898.

tt Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar. April May. June July Aug Sept Oct. Nov Dec
15

Malindi. Lat. 3° 13' 8., Long. 40° 7' BE. Observers: K. Macdougall, G. H. L. Murray,
and James Weaver.

Mean Temp. 9 A.M. Humidity Rain
Month 2 o&
Tes 2 | b 3 Heaviest
Dry Wet Poi aa aa Amount | Days fall in
oint Pe 2 A 4 hours
|
1898 @ ss) ° Th. Pie In. No. Tn.
January . . . 81-6 776 765 911 85 0:03 2 0°02
February 5 815 766 748 *860 81 0°83 1 0°83
March . i . 83:7 798 784 °972 84 0°61 1 0°61
April . . . 85°7 80:2 78:4 “968 79 0°20 1 0°20
May . . . 816 794 78:7 “978 91 3°40 if 0°87
June 5 : ° 798 172 765 913 90 2°60 9 0°40
July - . 5 77°9 745 73°2 "815 86 2°62 16 0°38
August . 5 . 78:7 73°4 71°2 “763 77 O76 7 0°25
September . > 80°5 748 725 “798 77 1:24 6 0°80
October . . 5 82°9 75°6 TT “804 70 0°20 1 0:20
November . 5 83°8 78:2 76°2 “901 78 1°95 2 1°65
December . 5 84-0 783'3 76°2 “903 ed, 0-00 0 _
1898 81:7 1 a4 *882 81 14°44 53 1°65

y
flood
hh |
et —
RS | Pe eee ee ceo gad
2
|

ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA. 459

riations in the level of Victoria
Nyanza.' Old Calabar. Lat. 4° 58' N., Long. 8° 17’ £. Observers :
E. G. Fenton, H. Ormsby, R. Allman, and S. W.
Lake Level Thompstone.
Decades rn es x afl
aes z i Extremes| ~
oS o-5 ; Mean =
ad | a [as Rainfall offem-| = | ,,
5 S sf Temperature) jerature| = 3
Month Pilg|s
+400 |+1-22 | 41:87 ia 2 3 etre tee | a |B
. | 387} 1:34) 2:3 3 at =| | q ee s a ,
325] 1:02) 2:67 g /a|ee|#)a8/21s) 8
. | 2:22) 52] 2°57 4 iI = Aim Spam tL ag Nel
. | 2:87] 1:00]. 3°17 S, 22 ee
261) °58) 215 1898 In. |No.| In.
.| 1:97|—011) 227)! pepruary .| 0:32 | 1| 0-32 | 89:6 72:3 | 92 | 69 | N.w. | 14] —
. oa Fie aa March .| 7-78|15| 1:98 | 886 | 74:6 | 93 | 69 8.W a cg
< i i . ° 9 J a 5 2 | 70 ie cag!
Sh aaa via B07 || April «| 9°73 | 20] 1-76 | 858 | 756 | 92 | 7
«| 635} 1:00) 352!) ty, .|17-64] 21] 6-30 | 83:3 721 | 89 | 64 | Sw. | — | —
-| 4:97} 040} 215]! Aueust || 20-48 | 96 | 2:80] 80:9] 725 | 86] 70] S.w. | — | —
; d or || September |13:86 | 27 | 2:92 | 82-7 | 72:5 | 87|70| SW. |—| 3
- | 3:00|—066| 1°27/! October . | 20-24 | 23 | 5:45 | 843 | 72:5] 89| 68) S. |—| 3
+ | 262/103) 0°67! November | 14:27 | 15 | 3:75 | 86°6 | 744 | 92| 71] S.W. | — | 6
«| 2°67 |+2'22)+0:42 || December. | 4:03 | 10 | 2:40] 86:8] 71:6 | 90 | 62 |S.W.,S.| 18 | 1
. 3°67 |—2°81}—118 1899
- | 317|—2'56|—078 |! January .| 0-00/. 0! — | 87-4] 73:4 | 92 | 65 | N.W. | 22 | —
. aaa cae ats February .| 148| 5 | o-91 | 922| 77-3] 96 | 70) Nw. | 3) 3
. ‘ ee — *, Pan . . ie 5 =
| ee lcoss|ci99| March.) 344 | 14 | 101 | 916 771 | 97 | 71] S.W.
| 947 |—355 |—2-21
| 1-72 |—373 |—2:53
He ae Bees The observations are published as recorded. Hour of observa-
hs 3-64 |—2:48 |—1-08 tion, probably 9 A.M.
| 4:54 |4+0°32 | 43-02
| 4:99 /43:22|—4-65

1 All observationsare referred to the mean lake-level at each station during 1896, and cannot be reduced to a common
tum level until the stations shall have been connected by lines of spirit levelling.
No observations were made between August 1897 and September 1898,

Victoria Lake,

Mean Lake Level Fluctuations * Rainy Days
Port é Port Port r Port Port 3 Port
Alice | L®W2’s | victoria || Alice | 2™>W’S | victoria || Alice | 12>®'S | Victoria
In. In. In. Tn. In. In. No. No. No.
- | +372 +119 +2:29 1:7 2:5 - 19-5 — —_— 13
: 2°57 69 2°62 2-0 2°5 35 = —_ 14
a 4:04 Te 287 52 30 40 22 _— 17
3 5:86 1:04 2:89 32 42 5-0 62 4 5
-| 276) —1-04 0-74 15 25 35 on 3 3
: 320 | —2:42 —0°63 5:0 3-0 35 — 5 8
: 264 | —2:95 —1°47 3-2 2:5 4:5 — 6 8
F 250} —3-30 —1:56 5:0 4h 65 12 10 18
: 414 | +0:10 42:27 35 TT 9-0 — 7 19°
’

a That is, difference between the lowest and highest level during each month. }
* Rainfall 1°63 in. * Rainfall, P. Victoria, March, 1:03 in. ; April, 3°38 in.; May, 4°85 in.

4.60 REPORT—1899.

Hixploration of Sokotra.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr.
J. Scort-KELTIE (Chairman), Professor I. B. BaLFrour, Professor
W. F. R. WEtpon, and Dr. H. O. Forses (Secretary), appointed
to explore the Island of Sokotra. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

THE present report is preliminary to a fuller illustrated account of the
results of the expedition to be issued as a special publication of the
Liverpool Museums, edited by the Secretary, who is Director of that
Institution.

The members of the expedition were Dr. H. O. Forbes, Director of
Museums to the Corporation of Liverpool ; Mr. W. R. Ogilvie-Grant, of the
Ornithological Department of the British Museum ; and the Taxidermist
of the Liverpool Museums. The expedition was aided by a contribution
from the Government grant of the Royal Society, by a vote of money and
of instruments from the Royal Geographical Society, and by a grant of
351. from the British Association made at its meeting last year at Bristol.
The Trustees of the British Museum and of the Liverpool Museums also
contributed generously to the expenses and the outfit of the expedition.

The party left England on October 28, 1898, and arrived in Aden on
November 18. The entire voyage out was utilised in making a collection
of the minute organisms which abound in the sea, by sieving the water
through very fine silk nets attached to the discharge pipe of pumps, which,
by the courtesy of the owners and the captain of the Manora, were
allowed to work uninterruptedly day and night.

The members of the expedition, who on their arrival in Aden were
immediately received by the Political Resident, Brigadier-General Creagh,
V.C., were deeply disappointed to learn from him that, owing to political
difficulties which had arisen between the Indian Government and the
Sultan of Sokotra, it would be impossible for them to proceed to their
destination. The Resident had, before their departure from England,
cabled to the India Office in London that they should be advised to post-
pone their visit, but, through some unexplained cause, that information
was not conveyed to them. Their arrival in Aden was, therefore,
naturally a surprise to the Political Resident, who, in the fullest sympathy
with the position in which they found themselves, the same day despatched
an urgent message to the Indian Government, explaining the situation,
and urging some speedy arrangement of the difficulty which had arisen, so
as to enable the expedition, if possible, to proceed to Sokotra.

It is impossible to express fully the grateful thanks of the members
of the expedition to General Creagh for his personal hospitality and for
his great kindness in doing everything possible to make the days of the
enforced stay of the expedition in Aden of profit to it. 'The Government
bungalow. at Sheik Othman, some twelve miles north of Aden, was
generously lent to the expedition by him, and later, through his recom-
mendation, an invitation was received from the Sultan of Lahej, in South
Arabia, for the expedition to visit his dominions. His Highness met the
members of the party at his boundary, conveyed them to the capital,
hospitably entertained them, and assisted them in every possible way
during their stay.

The Committee have to express their obligations to the military autho-

Se

ON EXPLORATION OF SOKOTRA. 4614

rities in Aden in lending the expedition for this journey baggage- and
riding-camels from the garrison establishment, and also the attendance
upon them as a guard of a native officer (jemadar) and one sowar. The
helpful aid of the First Political Assistant, Captain Jacob, in all these
arrangements must also be very cordially acknowledged. A. most profit-
able stay could undoubtedly have been made at Lahej, which is a very
little-explored region, had the expedition been eventually prevented from
visiting Sokotra. It had only, however, begun what was proving to be a

__ very interesting collection when intimation was received from General

Creagh that authority had been obtained from the Government of India.
for the expedition to proceed to its destination. A speedy return having
therefore been made to Aden, where eight Somali servants were engaged
to accompany it in various capacities, the expedition embarked on
December 1, 1898, with its stores and baggage, on board the Royal
Indian Marine steamer Elphinstone, which the Indian Government had
very generously placed at its disposal to carry it to and from the island.
Authority had also been obtained from General Creagh to break the
voyage for several days at Abd-el-Kuri, an island lying between Sokotra
and Cape Guardafui on the Eastern Horn of Africa. This islet had never
before been scientifically examined ; and during the short stay made
there several species of animals and plants new to science were dis-
covered, among them a very notable species of Euphorbia (Zuphorbia
abdelkuri), belonging to a family of plants of which many singular forms
occur in Sokotra. The geological structure of the island was found to
present many points of similarity to that of Sokotra. It has suffered
great denudation, however, for the limestone, which is of both Cretaceous
_and Tertiary age, has disappeared everywhere except on one or two sum-
mits. Volcanic rocks abound, and from the high peak—1,750 feet in
_height—overlooking the anchorage they resembled a number of papille
rising from a desert of sand. The island has but few inhabitants, who
are very poor and miserably housed. Some of them are fishers and divers
for pearl-shell. Numerous chelonian carapaces strewn about near their
huts indicated that the hawk’s-bill turtle was a common frequenter of
their coasts. The most notable feature of the vegetation was the absence
_ of those characteristic plants of Sokotra, the dragon’s blood (Dracena),
myrrh (Balsamodendron), and frankincense (Boswellia) trees, though Abd-
_el-Kuri lies nearer to the African coast than the main island.

‘The geological collections made on Abd-el-Kuri,’ as Dr. Gregory in
a preliminary note reports, ‘show that the island consists of a block of
Archean rocks similar to those of Sokotra, and it contains dykes of the
coarse pegmatite common in Somaliland. Above the gneiss series is a
limestone of Cretaceous date which occurs on the highest point of the
island, so that the whole of it was submerged at a time when Sokotra was
probably a land area. The most recent limestone in the island is a
low-lying Pleistocene reef containing Gonzastrea retiformis.’

The poverty of the fauna and flora of the island is, therefore, in agree-
ment with its geological history.

Two new species of birds, only slightly differentiated from species
occurring both in Sokotra and Somaliland, indicate the comparatively
recent separation of Abd-el-Kuri from the mainland. ;

On December 6 the Liphinstone left Abd-el-Kuri, and on the 7th
anchored off Hadibu, the capital of Sokotra. On the 8th Dr. Forbes,
accompanied by the commander of the Ziphinstone, landed and was

4.62 REPORT—1899.

received by the Sultan, to whom he presented letters of introduction from
the Government. Permission was readily granted by the Sultan to visit
all parts of the island. The next day the expedition went ashore and
camped in the mountain-girt plain in which Hadibu stands. A week
was spent there investigating the northern slopes of the Haghier
Mountains. On the 18th of the month the camp was moved to Dahamis,
at an elevation of 1,500 feet, where the Europeans of the party were all
unfortunately very soon laid down by a most pernicious form of malaria.
Excellent collections were, nevertheless, obtained in their convalescent
intervals. On the 26th, however, it was decided to move to Kamahanu,
a hill in the Garieh Plains, where it was hoped a more salubrious camping-
ground would be found. But the continued sickness of the party—
among whom for several days there was not a single undisabled member
—made it necessary, after a few days’ trial of this camp, to seek a still
higher altitude on the Haghier range. The tents were consequently struck
on December 30 and transported to Jena-agahan, where, notwithstanding
that fever was still very prevalent and the expedition was practically
deprived, during the greater part of the time of its stay there (owing to
his serious illness), of the services of the taxidermist, many of the most
interesting specimens in the collection were secured, the most notable
perhaps being the beautiful wild ass, of which large herds roamed’ the
plains below the camp. On January 15 the camp was moved a two days’
journey to the high plateau of Homhil, which proved to be a most success-
ful collecting station. The health of the expedition rapidly improved, the
climate and scenery were invigorating, with an abundant flora and
fauna. There were here obtained roots and seeds of the shrubby gentian
(Exacum ceruleum), one of the most lovely species both in flower and
foliage of a beautiful family, and of a fine broad-leaved amaryllid (Heman-
thus grandifolius), whose flowering is awaited with much expectation.

On January 27 a move was made from Homhil to Adho Dimellus, in
the heart of the Haghier Mountains, at about 4,000 feet above sea-level—
one of the most salubrious and beautiful spots imaginable. There over a
fortnight was spent with great profit to all departments of the collection.
Numerous butterflies were captured, some of great rarity, such as Papilio
benetti, of which only one broken specimen was previously known,
as well as roots and seeds of some of the most remarkable of the plants
of the island, whose alpine flora has all the marks of great antiquity.
On February 18 the expedition had to make its way back to the plain of
Hadibu to await the return of the Zlphinstone, which on the 21st of the
same month anchored off the town, and took on board the members of
the expedition and the collections. The same evening the despatch-boat
sailed for Abd-el-Kuri, where it was decided to supplement the collections
already obtained there by a few days’ further exploration. From Abd-el-
Kuri the Elphinstone brought the expedition direct to Aden, arriving
there on the night of February 26, 1899. The party left Aden on
March 2, and sixteen days later arrived in London.

The results of the expedition may be summarised as follows :' Of
mammals there are examples of one or two species of rat, of one species
of civet cat, of one species of bat, and of a beautiful wild ass, which may
perhaps prove to be a new species. Of birds there are some 300 speci-
mens, 250 in skin and fifty in spirit, out of which seven species have
been described by Mr. Grant and Dr. Forbes as new to science. A large
series of reptiles, described by Mr. Boulenger, was acquired, which con-

+
-
)
’

,26

ON EXPLORATION OF SOKOTRA. 4.63

tains one genus and eight species new to herpetology. Of the scorpions,
millepedes, and spiders obtained, Mr. Pocock has described one new genus
and seven new species in the former group, and one new genus and four
new species in the latter. Of the land-shells (numbering several thou-
sands), Mr. Edgar Smith has described eight species as new to his depart-
ment of zoology. Of insects there are several thousands, and Mr. Ogilvie-
Grant has described three new butterflies, one of them a very beautiful
and large charaxes (C. velox), while Sir George Hampson has diagnosed
one new genus and fourteen new species of moths. Mr. Burr, who has
examined the Orthoptera, describes two new genera and six new species ;
while Mr, Kirkaldy has described the whole of the species of Hemiptera
as new to science. Professor B. Balfour, F.R.S., of Edinburgh, reports
that the plants, of which living specimens or ripe seeds, over 200 in
number, have been brought home, are of great scientific interest. Their
cultivation is being kindly undertaken by him in the Royal Botanical
Gardens at Edinburgh. Among the most interesting may be mentioned
species of Dorstenia, Adenium, Begonia, Crinum, Exacum, Ruellia, Den-
drosicyos, Hemanthus, Helichrysum, with Punica protopunica and

Dracena cinnabari.

The true Sokoteri of the mountains, the Mahri, were found to be
a light-complexioned Mahomedan people only poorly civilised, living in
eaves or rude cyclopean huts, who possess but few utensils, implements,
or ornaments, and almost no weapons. The ethnographical collections
are consequently very small; still, there have been brought back
specimens of their pottery, of their primitive quernlike mills, of their
basket-work, and of their weaving apparatus. The expedition has like-
wise brought back and deposited in the British Museum two large blocks
of stone inscribed with an ancient script, which may perhaps throw some
light on the language of the people who occupied the island in a past age,
and of whose cyclopean remains interesting photographs have been
obtained.

In addition to the biological collections—in which six new genera
and sixty-seven new species have been already described—a number of
geological specimens were brought together, which have been examined
by Dr. Gregory, whose report will shortly be published.

Every day also a meteorological register was kept, and trigonometrical
and astronomical observations conducted by Dr. Forbes. From the latter
a new map of the island will be constructed.

The results of the expedition, in regard to the question of geographical
distribution, add little to what the investigations of Balfour, Schwein-
furth, and Riebeck have established ; but several of the zoological species
confirm the presence of a distinct American element in the biology of the
island, which appears to have reached this now isolated area by way of
an antarctic land, the existence of which is greatly confirmed by the
recent discovery in Patagonia of Meiolania, originally described from
Lord Eowe’s Island.

It will not be out of place here to place on record the liberality and
public-spirited action of the Museums Committee of the Liverpool City
Council in taking part in the exploration of Sokotra, and the great credit
which unquestionably belongs to it of having been the first in the provinces
to recognise that it was within the duty of a great corporation to further
in this way the advancement and increase of knowledge by actively
sharing in the investigation of little-known regions.

AGA REPORT—1899.

The full report on the results of the expedition, shortly to be published
as a special volume at the expense of the Liverpool Museums, will contain
a Narrative of the Expedition, and complete lists, with coloured figures of
all the new species, of the fauna and flora of the islands visited, with
notes on their Geology and Anthropology.

Small Screw Gauge.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir
W. H. Preece (Chairman), Lord KeEtviy, Sir F. J. BRAMWELL,
Sir H. Trueman Woop, Major-Gen. WEBBER, Col. WATKIN, Messrs.
Conrap W. Cooke. R. E. Crompron, A. Strow, A. Le NEVE
Foster, C. J. Hewitt, G. K. B. Expninsrone, T. Buckney,
E. Rice, C. V. Boys, and W. A. Price (Secretary), appointed
to consider means by which practical effect can be gwen to the
Introduction of the B.A. Screw Gauge.

ApPENDIX.—Reports on Screns made by the Pratt and Witney Company :—
I. By Colonel WATKIN . . ; . : : . : 466
II. By Mr. H. J. CHANEY . ; : . ; : : - z . 468
In 1882 a Committee was appointed by the Association to determine a
gauge for the manufacture of the various small screws used in telegraphic
and electrical apparatus, in clockwork, and for other analogous purposes.
This Committee reported to Section G in the succeeding years 1883, 1884,
and proposed that a certain system of screw-threads, since known as the
British Association screw-threads, should be recommended for adoption
by users of small screws in this country. The system is identical except
in one small point with that used in Switzerland and associated with
the name of Professor M. Thury. The series consists of 26 threads,
numbered 0-25, having diameters from 6mm. down to ‘25mm., and is so
closely graduated that only in exceptional cases can any size be required
intermediate between two of the set. The form of the thread has proved
to be well adapted for practical purposes, and screws made on this system
have come into extensive use among English manufacturers of small
mechanical apparatus. It has been adopted by several Government
Departments, who have imposed its use upon their contractors.

In the year 1895 representations were made to the Section, and some
correspondents of the Technical papers urged, that the value of this system
was prejudiced by the fact that purchasers of British Association screws
and screwing-tools could not rely on obtaining from manufacturers goods
which were interchangeable with one another. This raised at once a
question which had not been closely considered by the 1882 Committee—
viz., the mode of determining whether any given screw of a particular
number is or is not a fair representation of the form laid down by the
British Association specification. The present Committee were appointed
at the Ipswich Meeting to deal with this point, and with some additional
members have sat at intervals up to the present time.

Tn 1896 an interim report was presented to Section G at the Liverpool
Meeting, in which the problem of the mode of gauging small screws was
discussed at length. The principal conclusion reached at that time was
that as no means exists of examining a nut or female screw, the efforts of
the Committee should be directed to obtaining accurate plug or male screws
for use as gauges, and combs or chasers.

During the three years that have elapsed since this report was made

~ ote san

ON THE SMALL SCREW GAUGE. 465

the Committee have been in communication with different firms, and
principally with the Pratt and Whitney Company of Hartford, U.S.A., a
firm enjoying the very highest reputation for work of the kind the
Committee desired to secure. Finding that this firm were prepared to
undertake the production of gauges and tools for the British Association
screw-threads on the same lines as they have adopted with the American
and Whitworth threads, the Committee have been satisfied to leave the
matter in the hands of the Company till they should ascertain whether
they could produce the desired result, and have given them all the
information, specifications, &c., that were possible. Within the last two
months the Pratt and Whitney Company have submitted to the Committee
specimens in hard steel of male and female gauge pieces of threads Nos. 3,
7,and 13. The three male screws of these sets have been photographed
by Colonel Watkin on a large scale, and have been measured by Mr.
H. J. Chaney, Superintendent of the Standards Department of the Board
of Trade. Their two reports are printed below.

The Committee believe these gauges to be sufticiently accurate for
practical requirements. The material of which they are made—hardened
steel—should enable them to stand much use without injury. Their finish
and general workmanship are exceedingly good.

The Committee, through their Secretary, have expressed to the Pratt
and Whitney Company their satisfaction with these gauges, and have
been informed in reply that a higher degree of accuracy may be expected
in the future. They are still in correspondence respecting the specifica-
tions of limits of error and other details concerning their production on
the commercial scale. The manufacture and ‘sale of these gauges by the
Pratt and Whitney Company appear to realise the object set before them-
selves by the Committee—viz., to assist the extension of the use of the
British Association system of screw-threads by making generally available
accurate means for their verification.

While recognising the excellence of the form of the British Associa-
tion screw-thread for mechanical purposes, the Committee feel strongly
that the difficulty of producing the form to the degree of accuracy desirable
for the best class of work, and especially for gauge pieces, is a serious
drawback to its value. Colonel Watkin’s photographs show very clearly that
the best appliances in the most experienced hands that the Committee
could find have failed to produce even single specimens of first-rate accu-
racy. The letters addressed to the Secretary of the Committee by Mr.
George M. Bond, manager of the standards and gauge department of the
Pratt and Whitney Company, as well as the high reputation of his firm,
leave no room for doubt that very great care has been taken to secure
accuracy in these specimens. A considerable number of gauges made by
English firms of good standing have been examined by the Committee,
and have in every case shown errors of the same character as, though
usually to a much greater degree than, the specimens submitted by the
American firm.

From several sources, and especially in Mr. Bond’s letters, it has been
urged on the Committee that although the difficulties of constructing
these gauges of a very high degrce of accuracy are practically insuperable,
screw-threads of a flat-ended form can be produced with great exactness.
A photograph taken by Colonel Watkin of a fine screw taken from an

instrument made by Messrs. Brown and Sharpe shows that this is certainly
the case.

1899. HH

4.66 REPORT—1899.

The American, or flav-ended, form of thread appears to be rapidly
establishing itself in France and Germany, judging from the reports we
have received of the French and Zurich Conferences, and we understand
that it is entirely employed by the French Admiralty and by several of
the French railway companies. These reports refer, it is true, to screws
of larger sizes than are included in the range of the British Association
and Professor Thury’s systems. The conclusions of the recent Conference
at Zurich, which adopted the flat-ended thread, were expressly limited to
screws of more than 6 mm. diameter, the extreme upper limit of our
system. Buv so far as the easy production of accurate form is concerned,
arguments which apply to large screws apply with greater force to small
serews ; while a form which is suitable for all screws above 6 mm. cannot
be wholly unsuitable for screws below that limit. The Committee, more-
over, were informed by one of their number that he has used screws of the
American form in sizes corresponding with some of the smaller numbers
of the British Association series, and has found them perfectly satis-
factory.

Current conceptions of the possible and desirable limits of aceuracy in
mechanical construction are rapidly advancing, and while we recognise
the value of the work of the Committee of 18S2 in establishing a generally
accepted thread, we are dissatisfied with a standard form for a piece so
important as a screw which is open to the serious objection referred to
above.

We recommend that this Committee shall be reappointed for the pur-
pose of considering whether the British Association form of thread for
small screws should be modified.

APPENDIX.—ReEports oN SCREWS MADE BY THE PRATT AND
WHITNEY ComMPANny.

I.— Report by CotoneL Warkin, &.A., C.B.
The Wilderness, Woolwich: July 11, 1899.
The Secretary British Association. Screw Gauge Committee.

T have now taken photographs of the screws sent by the Pratt and
Whitney Company for the Committee, prints of which I enclose.

I find the general forms of these screws are better than those we kave
obtained heretofore, which is satisfactory, taking into consideration the
fact that they are constructed of hard steel.

As in former cases, the larger sizes conform more nearly to the British
Association pattern thread, the rounding in the smaller sizes being not
quite so satisfactory.

The angle of the thread in the two large sizes is about 49°, but con-
siderably more in the No. 13 size.

As regards linear dimensions, all the screws are nearly perfect, as will
be seen by the measurements given on the back of the photographs.

The diagonal scale accompanying the photographs was constructed
from the scale photographed at the same time as the screws.

The gauges may, I think, be accepted as sufficiently correct for all
practical purposes as standard gauges for British Association pattern
screws. (Signed) W, WarTKIN.

ON THE SMALL SCREW GAUGE. 467

Fic. 1.—Reproduction of three photographs referred to in Co‘onel Watkin’s Report,
superimposed on one another.

HH 2

A468 REPORT—1899

‘

II.— Report from Mr. H. J. Cuanery, Superintendent of the Standards
Department of the Board of Trade.

Standards Department, Board of Trade: July 10, 1899.

My dear Sir,—I have now the pleasure to enclose, for the informa-
tion of Sir William Preece, a statement showing the external dimensions
of the three male screws which you forwarded to me on Thursday last,
and which have been returned to-day by registered post. The dimensions
were determined by contact comparisons (made by independent observers)
of the screws with Board of Trade Standard cylindrical gauges, plane
gauges, and wire gauges ; and in the case of the smallest screw (c), by
microscopic comparison with a linear standard.

Had time allowed, a more exhaustive examination of the three screws.
might have been made ; but the present comparison may, I suggest, be
relied on to + 0:0001 inch. The dimensions given in the enclosed paper
(41023 mm., 0°16151 inch, &c.) are in each case the mean external
diameter of the whole length of the screw, and show that although a and
c have perhaps appreciable errors, the required dimensions have generally
been closely followed by Mr. Bond. The screw-threads are in fact, in
our opinion, of excellent workmanship ; but it is doubtful whether the
screws are always perfectly cylindrical. For instance, the mean external
diameter of the last eight threads of screw c (or the point of the screw)
is 0008 mm. greater than the external diameter of the fifteen ©
middle threads of c. The external diameter of the seven last threads.
(shoulder of the screw) of c agree in measurement with the diameter of
the point of the screw.

I should much like to see a copy of Colonel Watkin’s photographs.

Yours faithfully,
(Signed) H. J. Cmaney.
W. A. Price, Esq.

Fig. 2.—British Association Screw Threads.

ON THE SMALL SCREW GAUGE. 469

DIMENSIONS SPECIFIED.

yee . 4:1 mm. = ‘16241 inch.
A) Dae bp = CAMS, 555
B 2°5 >» = 09682 ,,
b 924); = Ofane 5,
C 1:2 = 04724 ,,
c 39 = TOBSES vy
Value in Millimetres Value in Inches
Screws Gos dh ike Pa Be ad Ty \ — |
Bios./8; 7, 18 | Nominal | Observed | Difference | Nominal | Observed | Difference }
| |
3 fae 4-1 41023 | +0:0023 0716142 0716151 + 0:00009
al? 3°224 3:2304 | +0:0064 | 012693 | 012718 | +0:00025 |
74 Bis 2:5 2°5048 | +0:0048 0:09843 009862 +0:00019 |
: hibits 1:924 1:9273 | +0°0033 007575 0:07588 +0°00013
13 [KORE 1:2 12015 | +0°0015 0:04724 0:04730 | +0:00006 |
pe... sty -yO48 =| +0:0048 0:03543 0:03562 +0:00019
(Signed) H. J. CHANEY,

July 10, 1899.

On the Erection of Alexander IIT. Bridge in Paris.
By M. AMEDEE ALBY.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso. |

Tr will be observed, on consulting a plan of the Exhibition of 1900,
that Alexander III. bridge is situated on the line of the Great Avenue
which will connect the Champs-Elysées with the Esplanade des Invalides.
Like the Palaces of Fine Arts along the same Avenue, it will outlast the
Exhibition, and perpetuate the remembrance of it by a durable embellish-
ment of Paris. -Adsthetical considerations have therefore been of great
importance in the plans which the engineers have prepared ; the technical
details are also somewhat unusual and interesting in several respects,
though they are not to be recommended for an economical solution of the
problem of bridging a river about 500 feet wide.

The first condition which the engineers attended to was not to injure
in any way the scenery of the Seine on either side of ‘ Pont de la Concorde ;’
it was obvious at once that the low-arched form of bridge was the only
acceptable one in these circumstances.

Two other facts had to be borne in mind : these are, preservation of
the view of Les Invalides, and absolute symmetry of the plans. It was
considered of the utmost importance that there should be a possibility of
seeing over the bridge the whole monument of Les Invalides from the
Champs-Elysées.

The decision of the authorities of the Exhibition of 1900 concerning
this view of Les Invalides had been already successfully enforced in the year
1828 by the Municipal Council of Paris, when they obtained the demolition
of a suspension bridge constructed on the very site of the new bridge by
the well-known engineer Navier, who had purposely gone to England to
study the Norhamford and Menai suspension bridges. The presence of
the columns of the suspension bridge was considered as an intolerable
obstruction to the view of Les Invalides.

The Palace of Industry (now demolished) was situated between the
Champs-Elysées and the Esplanade des Invalides ; hence during about

eee,

‘A470 REPORT— 1899.

forty-five years Parisians walking along the Champs-Elysées dispensed
with the view of Les Invalides without complaint, proving that it is much
better to hide entirely a fine view than to spoil it.

In addition to the foregoing zsthetical considerations, the engineers
were aware it was the wish of people navigating the Seine that there
should be no pier in the river bed, the widest possible fairway under the
bridge, and that consequently the least thickness admissible must be
selected for the central part of the frame of the bridge.

General Dimensions of the Bridge.—The bridge consists of a single
very flat arch, the flooring of which is prolonged over either bank by small
viaducts, the total length of the bridge between the parapets of the
banks being 155 metres (509 feet). The abutments of the central arch
are 109 metres (357 feet) apart.

The longitudinal axis of the bridge coincides with the axis of the new
avenue crossing the Seine at an angle of 83° 38’. Its width, 40 metres
(131 feet), had to harmonise with that of its approaches, the widest bridge
in Paris up to the present being only 30 metres (98 feet) ; London Bridge is
54 feet, the Tower Bridge 60 feet, and Brooklyn Bridge 86 feet in width.

The whole width of the bridge is divided into a central roadway of
20 metres in width, and into two equal pavements of 10 metres each.

The gradient of the roadway is 1 in 50, and the highest part of it is
situated at such a level that an observer standing near the Champs-Elysées.
in the prolongation of the axis on the right bank will be able to see the
base of the Hotel des Invalides.

For reasons which have been already mentioned, the coefficient of rise
and the thickness of the central cross-section have been reduced to the
least possible dimensions. The rate of rise to span is 1 to 17. The
thickness of the central cross section from the bottom flange of the arch
to the top of the wooden paving on the part of the roadway nearest the
pavement is no more than 1:02 metres (3 feet 4 inches).

The conditions obtained for navigation, in consequence of the extreme
flatness of the arch, though they do not fulfil the wishes of those most
interested, and are in fact not quite satisfactory at the present time, must.
be considered as acceptable. The width of the fairway left is no less than
65 metres (213 feet) in the ordinary state of the river, and 34:4 metres (113
feet) at high-water time ; the height of free passage being 5°50 metres (18
feet) above the water level. Moreover the practical inconveniences of the
present situation may be corrected in the future by the suppression of
one of the piers of the Invalides Bridge, through the arches of which tugs
and barges going down the river cannot pass without some difficulty.

The characteristic features of the new bridge when compared with
existing bridges may be expressed in these few words : Alexander ITI.
Bridge is the widest, the flattest, the thinnest skew-arch bridge ever
constructed in France. By what means have the engineers provided for
the stability of such a bridge, and how have they erected it without
interfering with the navigation? These two elements of the problem are
so intimately connected, that it is not possible to separate them ; both had
an equal influence on the choice of the type of the arch.

The bridge consists of fifteen equally distant three-hinged arches, the
elements of which have been made of cast steel connected by screw-bolts.
The flooring rests either through the medium of upright pillars, or directly
on the top of the arches.

The peculiarities of the triple-hinged arch appeared at once to be

ON THE ERECTION OF ALEXANDER III. BRIDGE IN PARIS. 471.

obviously adequate to the various conditions of the problem. The moments
of flexure being almost independent of the temperature in such arches,
and only becoming a little important near the articulations, it is possible
to reduce the thickness of the section in the central part, more than in
any other system, without any inconvenience. It is equally possible, by
a judicious distribution of the metal, to prevent changes in the direction
of the stresses, which are always well known in this system, and to obtain
a sort of steel vault in which every part of the metal is compressed under
all circumstances. The joints of the elements of the arches or voussoirs
have not to be riveted, and may be made with screw-bolts. There is,
moreover, no objection to the use of cast steel, so that the operations left
to be carried out on the works for mounting the ribs are very few,
provided sufficient preparatory care has been taken.

It was easy, on account of the suppression of riveting, not only to
erect each rib in a short time, but also to erect them successively with
the help of a moving system so as to secure the fairway wanted for navi-
gation during the whole time of erection.

Fcundations.—On account of the flatness of the arches the thrust is
very considerable, though it is not greater in proportion than in many
arch bridges made of masonry. It amounts to 288 tons for each metre
in length of the abutments—about 12,700 tons for each abutment.

The subsoil of the valley of the Seine is not to be compared with the
regular subsoil of the Thames in London, where engineers are sure to find
an excellent water-tight, hard, uniform clay. The strata in the subsoil
in the southern part of Paris have a general gradient towards the hills at
Meudon, so that the bridges over the river have been built with all kinds
of subsoil for foundations. Whilst, for example, the ‘Pont Neuf,’ the
‘Pont de la Concorde,’ and other bridges of the centre of Paris have been
erected on the solid calcareous bed-rocks belonging to the Lutetian
strata, the ‘Pont des Invalides’ stands on sand, the ‘Pont de ]’Alma’
on soft clay, the ‘Pont de Jéna’ and the ‘ Passerelle de Passy ’ on hard
clay, the ‘ Pont Mirabeau’ on chalk.

When foundations are laid upon calcareous rock or on chalk,
engineers agree on their being perfectly stable, but when the foundations
are to rest upon the intermediate strata of sand or clay, precautions must
be taken, because these strata lack regularity in depth and, in the case of
the clay, in firmness, so that works resting on it run the risk of settlement.

It was decided that the foundations should be built as if they were to
be supported by the worst strata of Parisian subsoil. Therefore the
pressure on the bottom ground was limited to three kg. per square
centimetre (about 40 lb. per square inch), and the weight of each abut-
ment was fixed at such an amount that it could resist the thrust by the
friction of the ground alone, without depending in any way on the earth
backing.

It is easy to see that no result satisfactory for both conditions could
be obtained without developing to a great extent the surface of the
abutments, the back parts of which were carried to a distance of
33°50 metres (110 feet) from the front part in the river bed.

Each abutment consists, in consequence, of an enormous block of
solid masonry in the form of a parallelogram 44 metres (144 feet) in
length (along the river) and 33-50 metres in width, its surface area being
1,474 square metres (15,850 square feet).

The right abutment has been sunk to a depth of 8-25 metres (27 feet)

472 REPORT—1899.

under the regular water level, and the left abutment to a depth of
750 metres (244 feet) according to indications from soundings. .

The rear part of each one was left hollow and filled with sand.

Foundations of such a size are quite beyond the proportions com-
monly used even for bridges over very large rivers ; but the unfavourable
conditions have been so great, namely, width of the bridge, flatness of
arches, and character of subsoil, that the foundations of this modest 350 feet
single span come into comparison for size with those of its older brothers,
the Brooklyn Bridge, the Forth Bridge, and the magnificent Tower
Bridge.

Surface of Foundations at the Bottom.
sq. m. sq. ft.

Brooklyn Bridge (single caisson) é ; : : . 1,716 = 18,450
St. Louis Bridge (single caisson) 5 : : j . 620 = 5,590
Forth Bridge (largest caissons) . “ 5 - - about 350 = 3,760
Tower Bridge (each pier) . é : : : . about 1,510 = 16,200
Pont Alexandre III. (each abutment, single caisson) . 1,474 = 15,850

Each abutment was put in place by means of a single pneumatic
caisson. The frame of the caisson, entirely made of mild steel, consisted
of a vertical water-tight wall 3°68 metres (12 feet) in height, encircling the
whole surface of the foundation, and of a horizontal equally water-tight
partition at about 1:90 metres (6 feet 3 inches) above the lowest level of
the wall.

This partition was the roof of the working space. As it was designed
to sustain a heavy load of masonry while the caisson was sinking, the ©
steel sheets (5 millimetres thick) which form the water-tight ceiling of the
caisson were reinforced by two systems of girders perpendicular in
direction.

Below the ceiling four partitions or supporting girders divided the
working space into five sections or rooms, communicating with each other
through the central latticed parts of the girders.

These four partitions and the walls were fitted with solid edge cutters
at the bottom, and with angle brackets.

Above the roof a set of twenty-seven latticed beams 1°60 metres (5 feet
6 inches) in height were laid at right angles to the girders just described.

These beams were arranged to support the load of concrete while the
space between them was being filled, and to contribute to the rigidity of
the roof after the concrete had turned into a solid mass.

Each of the five rooms of the working space was furnished with two
entrance wells, provided with air locks and engines for lifting excavated
materials.

The contractors, in order to save time, erected these wells or shafts at
the start with the total length which would be required at the end of the
sinking, and so they were forced to erect a wooden scaffolding twenty-
five feet in height over the whole surface of the caisson.

The caissons were rapidly and successfully sunk. The contractors
received orders to commence work in April 1897 ; the sinking was begun
on the first day of August, and finished at the beginning of November on
the right bank ; begun in January 1898 and finished in the middle of
March on the left bank. The work with compressed air lasted seventy-
nine days on the right bank, and seventy-one on the left one.

It would be fruitless to deny that in spite of the great abilities of the

ON THE ERECTION OF ALEXANDER III. BRIDGE IN PARIS. 473

eontractors, Messrs. Letellier and Boutrinquieu, in spite of the intelli-
gence displayed by the inspectors, who had great experience of compressed
air work (especially in connection with the late Pont Mirabeau), the engi-
neers were somewhat anxious about the success of the operation of sinking
the caissons, never attempted before in such conditions and on such a scale.!

Great precautions were taken to insure regularity. Among the other
difficulties encountered were those due to the variable resistance of the
soil and to the presence in it of stones and piles belonging to the old
demolished suspension: bridge and to the foundations of the quay.

Frequent observations on the flexure of the metallic frame were
considered to be the most convenient means to prevent the caisson from
breaking. For this purpose a general water-level pipe was placed in the
working space, so fitted that at every instant the inspector could state
the flexure of walls and main girders. Moreover, daily observations were
made in the open air to ascertain the true situation of the caisson.

When the caisson reached the proper depth the surface beneath it—
consisting of large calcareous flagstones on the right bank and of sand on
the left one—was cleaned and levelled and the working space was filled
with concrete. The five rooms of each caisson were successively filled,
the men retreating from one to another so that electric lighting could be
maintained to the end.

The caissons were sunk and filled with concrete, and the backing
constructed of heavy stone masonry laid in cement. The facings of the
abutments on the river side were made of courses of hammered ashlar
of cut granite stones ; lastly, five granite courses were put behind the
sockets perpendicular to the direction of the thrust, their surface increasing
in size, so that the ordinary masonry in connection with the last one bears
a crushing stress only of about 18 kilogrammes per square centimetre (252lb.
per square inch), while the granite-bearing stones in connection with the
sockets have to resist about 48 kilogrammes per square centimetre (780lb.
per square inch).

Temporary Works Rolling Bridge.-—The moving system designed for
the erection of the arches consisted really of a steel riveted bridge of
120 metres in length supported above the level of Alexander III. bridge
by framework of pyramidal shape, the whole forming a gigantic
travelling crane rolling on double sets of rails fixed on the upper part of
the abutments.

This apparatus was arranged to support the load of centreings and
arches, and also to carry the centreings to their successive situations and
to secure a convenient platform for handling the arch pieces.

As the necessities of navigation did not require a temporary passage
more than 50 metres (164 feet) in width, the contractors for the metallic
part of the work were allowed to mount the side parts of the arches near
the springings on wooden centreings supported by piles in such a manner
that they could be moved by slipping with the central part of the
centreings fixed to the rolling bridge. In this way it was possible to
relieve this temporary bridge of a large part of the load, and also to
sustain its trusses at two intermediate points by metallic columns resting
on rows of piles while the arches were being erected. The rolling bridge
had generally in consequence three spans, two of 33:50 metres (110 feet)

» The engineers to the Port du Havre, encouraged by this success, have projected

to sink caissons of more than 22,000 square feet, through the bad soil they have
to deal with.

A474, REPORT—1899.

in length for the side spans, and one of 53 metres (174 feet) for the centre.
It had a single span of 120 metres (410 feet) only while being moved.

The structure of the temporary bridge was erected on the right bank
of the river and launched so that the channel left for boats was never
encumbered and navigation not once interrupted. As the total length
the contractors had at their disposal for the launching platform was only
about 60 metres, it was necessary to proceed in three steps. The first
portions having been delivered in the middle of July, the first launching
was made on August 20, the second on September 8, the last one on the
30th of the same month.

The centreings of the bridge were completed and ready to be used at
the beginning of November.

The steel voussoirs were cast at five different steel works, each of
which received orders for a certain number of arches to be delivered in
succession :—

Chatillon & Commentry steel works ‘ 2 . Four arches.
St. Chamond steel works . ; : : : ; a ag
Creusot steel works . A j : ; ; . Three ,,
St. Etienne steel works . : : : 5 . Two Pe

Firminy steel works : ‘ - : : ey

Before being delivered each arch was mounted in the manufacturer’s shop
in halves. On a plain solid platform made of concrete or of timber the
exact shape of a half-arch was drawn with the utmost precaution ; one of
the most experienced inspectors went through the five shops to examine
these drawings, to compare them with the contemplated dimensions, and
to note the conditions of their structure.

When it was found that the drawings were satisfactory in every
respect, and identical with each other, the different voussoirs of each half-
arch were placed upon them and connected.

In this way, when leave was given to deliver the voussoirs, the engi-
neers were assured that no difficulty would arise in the course of the
operations of erection. They were right in so thinking, because it only
once happened that an operation was interrupted on account of a joint
table not being truly planed.

The first operation made in sitw was the exact measurement of the
distance between the abutments, which was effected very easily by means
of the rolling bridge itself considered asa gauge. The measurements
made in this way in sitw for every arch allowed every thrust stone to be
properly cut beforehand with satisfactory exactness.

The travelling bridge had been fitted with four trucks running on
two elevated systems of rails above the place where the arches were to
be erected. Hach truck was pulled by a chain from the extremity of
the bridge above the abutment to its central part, and could stop at any
intermediate point. The load hung from the truck by means of pulleys
and cable, so that it could be kept up or down at any height. Cables and
chains were moved by means of steam winches at each extremity of the
travelling bridge according to the orders communicated.

In this way, when the orders were carefully given by the foreman to
the engine-drivers, the workmen had scarcely any trouble ; the handling
required only a certain cleverness in the operation of keeping together
the corresponding bolt-holes by means of crowbars, while each voussoir
was slowly slipping along the next one that had just been erected.

CO ee ae. 1),
t 2 mi

ON THE ERECTION OF ALEXANDER III. BRIDGE IN PARIS. 475

| The time necessary to hold a voussoir, to present, and to connect it to
the next one, and also to secure it with oak wedges, was only about ten
minutes. The successive operations were really a little longer because it
was not possible, within ten minutes, to clean the surfaces of the table-
joint from the coat of paint which kept them from rusting. Nevertheless,
as every half-arch consisted only of sixteen voussoirs, two sets of six
workmen with good foremen easily connected up two arches within two
days.

UDeitig the work of connection the foreman noted with a gauge that
the arches were at the proper distance, so that when it was completed the
direction of each half-arch was almost correct. But as it was indispensable
on account of the necessity both of assuring a good transmission of the
enormous thrust and of mounting the flooring, which was manufactured
in shops at a great distance from the steel foundries, to get a very high
degree of exactness in the setting of the arches, the chief erector accu-
rately provided for it. When by small removals, obtained by means
of crowbars and wedges, he judged the arches to have been brought in
their proper places, when the inspectors had stated that the spring-
ing articulations were at the proper level, that the two parts of
each arch were exactly in the prolongation of each other, and that the
sockets were satisfactorily in connection with the pins, then the thrust
sockets were sealed in the thrust-stones with liquid cement forced into
the joint.

Four days after they were filled, the cement joints were fast enough
to support the thrust of the arches, so that it was possible to take away
the centreings.

In spite of the precautions taken at the steel works, the engineers did
not rely on the measurements made at a distance for the regulation of the
arches ; they had purposely arranged the length of the voussoirs to be in
the total three centimetres (one inch) shorter than the arches, the difference
being filled in by sheets of rolled steel placed at the joints of each of the
two central socket voussoirs. A sufficient number of rolled steel sheets of
various thicknesses having been cut beforehand, drilled and prepared, it
was possible to fit at once, by a proper combination of them, joints of any
required thickness.

The last operation to be described is the method of removing the
centreings from the arches.

The processes commonly used for such operations did not seem satis-
factory because the stresses developed in the supports as well as in the
arches could not be well known, and it was equally inconvenient, even
dangerous, both to develop extension stresses in the arches—for which
the joints were not made—and to bring the loads in the central part of
the rolling bridge to an excessive amount. Moreover, it was indispensable
to secure the possibility of putting the arches again in connection with the
centreings, in order to change, if necessary, the size of a regulating joint.
It was decided on these accounts that the operation should be completed
by means of screw cranes, and that the screw cranes should be dynamo-
metric. The screws were fitted with Belleville washer springs constructed
by Schneider & Co.

The time required for the successive operations should have been
160 days ; it was really six months and a half, from the end of November
to June 9. The increase in the time was only due to the delay in deliver-
ing metal for the upper part of the bridge, on account of which the

A76 REPORT—1899.

operation of mounting the arches was interrupted in the month of
January.

Some peculiarities of the metallic structure in connection with the
use of cast steel, and the flatness and the width of the bridge, present a
certain interest of novelty.

As the steel-makers deemed it important for the good and cheap
casting of the voussoirs that the thickness of al] parts of them should be
as uniform as possible, the surfaces of the webs and of the top and bottom
flanges have been designed to be plain without any hook or prominent
block. Only a few bearings, obtained by planing at places an extra thick-
ness of ten or twelve millimetres, were allowed besides the stays stiffening
the webs and flanges.

As, moreover, the bridge is skew, there is no correspondence between
the stays of the consecutive ribs, and, therefore, no possibility of using
them for the necessary connections between the ribs.

For these reasons the voussoirs have been arranged to be held only by
the top flange, and they have been stiffened in consequence by strong
joint tables and two main stays. Near the springings, cast steel shoes
fixed at the base of the upright pillars grasp the top flange of the
voussoirs properly planed and drilled at these points ; bolts keep the shoes
from slipping along the flanges. The upright pillars being connected
together by means of horizontal and cross bars, the shoes are strongly
maintained at the required distance.

In the central part, on account of the want of height, the top flanges
of the voussoirs are held by the beams of the flooring. This arrange-
ment, which the engineers could not help making use of, was somewhat
troublesome. In consequence of it the structure of the flooring required
the most careful designing ; the distance from the top of the arches to
the top of the beams being extremely variable, and according with no
simple law on account of the convexity of the flooring and of the obliquity
of the beams to the direction of the axis of the river, the joints connect-
ing the beams with the arches have been necessarily made in the most
various ways, the number being no less than 173.

The last peculiarity I have to mention to you concerns the precautions
taken on account of the transversal expansion, which is not to be neg-
lected on a length of 40 metres (141 feet). It was found that the stresses
developed in the arches near the springings in consequence of the expan-
sion of the rigid beams in which the top flanges were inserted by the
aforesaid cast steel shoes, could rise at a dangerous rate. Consequently,
the three sets of beams near the springings have been supplied with
expansion joints made of Belleville spring washers, so that the stresses
transmitted by the horizontal bars of the beams are limited.

The test requirements for the steel do not present anything of special
interest. The steel has been divided into four grades :

Steel for angles and plates ; grade I.

Steel for rivets ; grade IT.

Steel castings for voussoirs ; grade III.

Hammered steel for pins ; grade IV.

All steel castings have been thoroughly annealed. The tests required
for this part of the work concerned not only tensile strength, but also
power to resist shocks, Y

The required conditions and the most interesting results are shown in
the following tables :

ON THE ERECTION OF ALEXANDER III. BRIDGE IN PARIS.

Test Requirements for Tensile Strength.

477

— Te iil IIl.

Minimum ultimate—

kg. per sq. millimetre 45 38 48 45 42 60

( 68267 |

Ib. per sq. inch 64000 54047 | 64000 85332
Minimum elastic limit— 59734 |

kg. per sq. millimetre . 24 24 24 24 22 40

: 2 { 34130) fe

lb. per sq. inch 34130 34130 | 31284 } 56890
Minimum percentage 22% 28% == —

elongation in 200 milli-

metres |
Minimum percentage — — }10 72 15 | 189%

elongation in 100 milli- per cent.

metres (150 sq. milli-

metres specimens) |

Results obtained for Grade III. Average for each Steel Shop.
is shown by a letter from A to O.)

(Each arch

hs Arches Arches Arches Arches Arches
A,H,L,O, | B,F,J,N, C,G,M, D,I, E.K.
Stil
Minimum ultimate—
kg. per sq. millimetre 54:9 50'1 67:1 52-4 55°6
lp. per sq. inch 78080 71252 95427 74523 | 79074
Minimum elastic limit— 7
kg. per sq. millimetre 28°5 27-4 36:7 28°6 34:1
Ibs. per sq. inch 40528 38964 | 52198 40670 48501
Minimum percentage “= _- --- -- —
elongation in 200
millimetres
Minimum percentage 16:4% 19°4% 158% WiEges 170%
elongation in 100
millimetres (150 sq.
millimetres specimens)

Grade III.

; Grade IV. {

Test Requirements for Fragility.

Minimum number of blows
Height of the fall .
Minimum number of blows

Distance between the edge cutters
supporting specimens ;

Weight of the hammer .

Height of the fall .

160 millimetres.

18 kilogrammes.

Increasing from 1 metre to the
minimum height of 1°50 by dis--
tances of 0:05 at each blow.

10.
2°75 metr
15.

es.

(Specimens shaped in square bar s
900 sq. mm. in section, 200 mm. in length.)

The test experiments for Grade III., when compared with the similar
tests commonly used for cast iron, are such that one could say the
_ fragility of the steel is to the fragility of cast iron of good quality as 1: 7.

478 REPORT—1899.

The total weight of masonry used in the foundations is about 36,400
tons for each abutment.

The total weight of steel required for the erection of the bridge
amounted to 5,400 tons. About 4,330 tons are included in the metallic
frame of the bridge, 670 tons are incorporated in the foundations, and
400 tons was used for the temporary rolling bridge. (Exactly 5,481,
4,385, 730, 385 metric tons).

Decoration of the Bridye.—\ have now completed the description of
the engineering features of this bridge, but it is impossible to leave the
subject of the erection of Alexander III. Bridge without saying some
words about its decoration.

It was decided, at the ouiset, that the entrances of the bridge should
be fitted with ornaments of an architectural style, harmonising with the
adjacent Palaces of Fine Arts. The design and the erection of these
monumental pillars, as well as the preparation of the designs for the
ornamental details of the bridge, were the special task of the architects.

The work was entrusted to Messrs. Cassieu Bernard and Cousin, dis-
tinguished architects, who sent in remarkable designs for the Exhibition,
and were consequently selected for co-operating in an important part of it.

The ornaments of the external ribs consist of a frieze fixed upon the
curved webs of the ribs, and of a decorative portico which covers the rolled
steel spandril uprights. This portico is fitted with garlands and masks, and
it is crowned with a moulded cornice. The cornice itself is surmounted
by a balustrade, which is the guard-rail of the bridge. Frieze, portico,
garlands, masks, cornice, and balusters are made of cast iron.

Directly above the pillars of the portico bronze lamp-posts are inserted
in the balustrade, the upper part of which is of bronze.

This ornamental system is completed by three great hammered copper
cartouches hanging from the balustrade at the three articulation points.
The central one is the most important, being supported by two female
figures of about three times life-size.

All the ornaments have been carefully designed, the decorative elements
being chiefly studies from aquatic animals or plants. The best French
sculptors were asked to co-operate in the designs of the monumental
pillars at the entrances, and nothing has been spared to secure an excellent
artistic effect.

More than twenty engineers attended the preparatory meeting, at
which the steel-makers undertook to try the use of cast steel as arranged
by the authors of the design ; they afforded great help, the fruit of their
wide experience, in fixing the most convenient shapes of the voussoirs.

Messrs. Pillé and Daydé, assisted by M. Gilliard, designed and con-
structed the caissons for Messrs. Letellier and Boutrinquieu, general
contractors for the masonry works.

M. Lautracq, chief engineer to the firm Fives of Lille, one of the con-
tractors for the steel-work, and his assistants designed the somewhat
complicated framework of the bridge.

Messrs. Schmidt and Rochebois, engineers to Schneider & Co., the
other contractor for the steel-work, specially designed the rolling bridge
and carried out the operations for erecting the bridge with the help of
their very clever chief erector, M. Camus.

To these names I need only add the name of the firm Durenne, to
whom the ornamental part of the cast iron was entrusted.

I will finally mention our inspectors, Messrs. Boucher, Lavallez,

ON THE ERECTION OF ALEXANDER III. BRIDGE IN PARIS. 479

Grimaud, and Retraint, distinguished members of the French ‘ Corps des
Conducteurs des Ponts et Chaussées,’ amongst whom engineers are sure to
find, in all cireumstances, the truest assistance and, what is more, friendly
companionship.

Many obstacles have been mastered, but the trials are not yet over,
and the battle is not yet won. I was very ill at ease as to the success of
the bridge when I accepted the kind and gratifying invitation that I
should prepare this paper ; I am still rather anxious, but I hope soon to
_ be free of this anxiety, and next year when you come to see the Exhibition
I trust to have the pleasure of showing you the completed bridge in its
bright artistic dress.

Dover Hurbour Works. By J. C. Coope, MInst.C.E., and
W. Martuews, M.Jnst.C.£.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso-]
[PLATE. ]

Many interesting records, extending back more than 400 years, still exist
of works proposed and executed for the formation and improvement of the
harbour at Dover ; necessarily these older records apply chiefly to works
on the sites now occupied by the Tidal Harbour and the Wellington and
Granville Docks.

The history of the port is dealt with in a special chapter of the Guide
Book issued by this Association, and it is therefore now proposed to refer
only to a few of the steps which, more directly, have led to the adoption
of the important works at present under construction.

In the year 1840, a Royal Commission was appointed to survey the
harbours of the south-east coast.

It is on this occasion unnecessary to quote the recommendations of
_ the Commission with regard to other ports, but with reference to Dover
they remarked :—

‘This harbour, as the principal port of communication between Great
Britain and the Continent, has been regarded at all times as a place of
the greatest importance.’

It may be of interest to quote here a somewhat similar but more
_ detailed opinion given by Sir Walter Raleigh in a memorial presented to
Queen Elizabeth in the year 1580 :—

‘No promontory, town, or haven, in Christendom, is so placed by
_ mature and situation, both to gratify friends, and annoy enemies, as this
town of Dover ; no place is so settled to receive and deliver intelligence
for all matters and actions in Europe, from time to time ; no town is by
nature so settled, either to allure intercourse by sea, or to train
inhabitants by land, to make it great, fair, rich, and populous ; nor is
there in the whole circuit of this famous island any port, either in respect
of security or defence, or of traffic or intercourse, more convenient, need-
ful, or rather of necessity to be regarded, than this of Dover, situated on
a promontory next fronting a puissant foreign king, and in the very
streight, passage, and intercourse of almost all the shipping in Christendom.’

; eb completed their inspections, the Commissioners reported as
ollows :—

480 REPORT—1899.

‘The situation which appears to us of the greatest importance, and at
the same time affords the most eligible position fora deep-water harbour,
is Dover Bay. Independently of its proximity to the Continent, this bay
possesses considerable advantages ; the depth of water at 400 yards from
the shore is two fathoms at low water of spring tides, and but six fathoms at
1,100 yards, which therefore affords sufficient width for the construction of
a capacious deep-water harbour, without getting into such a depth for the
site of the piers or breakwater as would greatly add to the expense of
the works.’

The works recommended by the Commissioners were indicated on a.
large cartoon, which was exhibited to the Section, by black lines, and
were described as follows :—

‘The principal feature of the proposed plan is a breakwater at the
average distance of 1,000 yards from the shore, with piers projected from
the land towards its eastern and western ends.’

The area at low water enclosed within the works would have been
450 acres, of which 320 acres would have been seaward of the two-fathom
line. It was pointed out that either one entrance, or two entrances, could
be provided as desired. The advantages of two entrances were stated
to be—

‘That vessels might enter or leave the harbour with the wind from
any quarter, and a ready access be afforded to the mouth of the present
harbour from the western entrance, without passing through the centre
of the new harbour.’

On the other hand the provision of only one entrance in the middle of
the breakwater would have the advantage of rendering the interior of the
harbour in some degree more quiet. The Commissioners were in favour
of two entrances. The estimated cost of the works proposed was
2,000, 0007.

Chiefly on account of the terms of a report on shipwrecks made by 2.
Select Committee of the House of Commons in 1843, a further Royal
Commission was appointed in 1844 to consider :—

lst. Whether it was desirable that a harbour of refuge should be con-
structed in the Channel.

2nd. What site would be the most eligible for such a harbour on
account of its combining in the greatest degree the following grounds of
preference :—

(a) That it should be of easy access at all times of tide to vessels
requiring shelter from stress of weather.

(6) That it should be calculated for a station for armed vessels of war
in the event of hostilities, both for purposes of offence and defence ; and

(c) That it should possess facilities for insuring its defence in the
event of an attack by the enemy.

In reporting, the Commissioners agreed with their predecessors of
1840 in pronouncing a favourable opinion of Dover aga site for a harbour
of refuge, but gave special attention to the quality of the anchorage and
the liability of the harbour to silt up. At the instance of the Commis-
sioners, Captain Washington, in command of H.M.S. Blazer, made
practical trials of the holding qualities of the anchorage, and reported in
the following terms :—

SN a a el re i i i el ee ae

ee. er Se ee

——<

rer

ON THE DOVER HARBOUR WORKS. 481

‘Thus the tough nature of the holding ground, so mucli better than,
from common report, I had anticipated, having disabled one anchor and
parted the cable from the other, and the fact of two large ships having
also parted their cables in recent gales, appeared to be decisive as to the
good quality of the anchorage, nor, after the trials I have witnessed,
should I have any hesitation in riding out a gale of wind in Dover Bay
in its present state ; how much less so when enclosed by a breakwater !’

The probability of the deposit of silt in an enclosed harbour could not
be so definitely determined ; samples of water taken in various positions
and depths showed that the quantity of matter in suspension varied from
three to thirteen grains per cubic foot in calm weather, and from ten to
fifty-four grains in a strong 8.W. breeze. The Commissioners were of
opinion that more extensive experiments were necessary, and that these
should be continued for the space of a year, in all circumstances of
weather.

They submitted the design shown by purple lines on the cartoon, and,
pending further consideration of the general scheme, urged the immediate
commencement of ‘that portion which is to commence at Cheeseman’s
Head.’ For the information of visitors, it may be well to say that the
work thus described is that now generally known as the ‘ Admiralty Pier.’

In the next year, 7.e. 1845, a further Commission was appointed to
consider plans submitted by eight of the leading engineers of the day, and
reported that the form of the harbour should be practically that recom-
mended in the previous year.

Further observations on the quantity of silt held in suspension were
made, and the report pointed out that if liability to silt were deemed an
objection, it would be idle to attempt such works on any part of our coast.
To minimise the difficulty it was considered better to admit only the
quantity of water required to maintain the level in the harbour without
sensible current, than to permit a free tidal current which would sweep
through without causing a deposit.

As an instance supporting this contention, reference was made to
Kingstown, in Dublin Bay, where the harbour, although in the neighbour-
hood of numerous sandbanks, and with a single entrance in the fair line
of the tide, remained, after twenty years’ experience, free from any per-
manent deposit.

The only other point considered by this Commission to which reference
need now be made was the mode of construction. After receiving very
contradictory evidence, the system of upright walls was recommended in.
preference to sloping stone breakwaters.

As a result of these inquiries and recommendations the contract for
the first portion of the Admiralty Pier was let in October 1847, and,
excepting only a small addition to its seaward end, it was completed in
1871. Its total length, including the turret, is about 2,000 feet, and the
general character of its construction was indicated on a diagram. It will
be universally admitted that, considered either as an engineering structure
or as affording accommodation for an enormous passenger traflic, this pier
bears favourable comparison with any work of a similar character, and
reflects the greatest credit on its designers and builders.

On only one occasion since its completion has any serious accident
occurred to the Admiralty Pier. This took place during an exceptionally
Peele on January 1, 1877, and was confined almost entirely to the

; II

482 REPORT—1899.

superstructure above quay-level. The damage was clearly due to the
thickness of the parapet, as originally designed by Messrs. Walker and
Burgess, having been very largely reduced with a view to give greater
width for passenger platforms. At the time the pier was designed it was
not contemplated that it would be used for train service.

Between the years 1869 and 1889 many designs were put forward for
the improvement of the port ; these need not be now considered, but it
may be of interest to note that a Committee appointed in 1881 to con-
sider certain questions relating to the employment of convicts in the
United Kingdom reported in favour of a continuation of the system under
which large public undertakings, such as the fortifications and breakwater
at Portland, the great basins at Chatham, and other similar works, had
been constructed. From all the schemes laid before them, the Committee
selected, on account of their magnitude, their importance from a national
point of view, and as well suited for the employment of prison labour :—

1. The construction of a pier and breakwater at Dover so as to form
with the Admiralty Pier a large harbour similar to that at Portland ; and

2. The formation of a harbour of the same character at Filey in
Yorkshire.

The large convict prison on the East Cliff was constructed with the
intention of carrying out the recommendation of the Committee as regards
Dover, but, for several years, no further steps were taken (see Plate). |

On reference to the diagram, which was exhibited to the Section, it is
seen that the Admiralty Pier must give fairly good accommodation for.
landing and embarking even during ordinary gales from the S.W.
During exceptional storms, broken water is carried over the parapet, and
access to and landing from steamers is attended with risk. For use during
moderate winds from the E. and N.E., landing facilities have been provided
by the construction of stages on the western face of the pier. It is, however,
evident that with winds from the 8.E., the pier is exposed on each face,
and serious delay and inconvenience have been thereby caused. To im-
prove the then existing conditions, the Dover Harbour Board in 1890
consulted the late Sir John Coode with a view to the construction of a
sheltered deep-water harbour.

The work was sanctioned by Act of Parliament in 1891.

The design recommended and adopted is shown on the Plate. The
scheme, for convenience of description and to distinguish it from the larger
national works,.is frequently designated ‘the Commercial Harbour,’ and
will be so named whenever it is referred to in this paper.

The sheltering works proposed were: (1) An Eastern Pier, running
about 8.E. from the Clock Tower, and (2) An extension in an approxi-
mately eastern direction of the Admiralty Pier. The sheltered area which
would have been enclosed was 56 acres, and within this it was proposed
to reclaim an area of about 5 acres lying between the inner end of the
Admiralty Pier and the entrance to the existing Inner Harbour. From
the front of the reclamation two jetties, each 400 feet long and 100 feet
wide, were to be constructed, They were to be furnished with commodious
landing-stages, having platforms at various levels to accommodate steamers
at all states of the tide, and were to be connected with the railway systems
of the South-Eastern and London, Chatham, and Dover Companies. A
depth of 15 feet at low water was to have been provided alongside and in
the approach to the jetties.

The only pari of this scheme commenced up to the present time is the

re

weeny

De oe

4. oe gE ey A Peels

ey

ON THE DOVER HARBOUR WORKS, 483

East Pier. The contract for its construction was let to Sir John Jackson
in 1892, and the memorial stone was laid by his Royal Highness the
Prince of Wales on July 20, 1893.

Towards the end of 1895 the Admiralty instructed the authors to
prepare a design for an enclosed harbour suitable for the accommodation
of Her Majesty’s navy. For this purpose it was necessary that a detailed
engineering survey should be made, including many thousand soundings
extending about 1} miles from the shore, borings to ascertain the character
of the foundation on the lines of the several proposed works, and observa-
tions on the direction and strength of the tidal currents at various periods.

The works, which, as the result of the survey, were recommended
(see Plate), are :

(a) An extension of the Admiralty Pier in an E.S.E. direction for a
length of 2,000 feet, practically doubling its present length.

(6) An east arm commencing against the chalk cliffs a few hundred
feet east of the eastern boundary wall of the convict prison enclosure.
The direction of this work will be approximately 8. by W., and its length
3,320 feet.

(c) An isolated breakwater, 4,200 feet long, forming the southern
protecting arm and running generally W. by 8. and E. by N., but turning
towards the north at its eastern end. The average depth, at low water, of
ordinary spring tides on the line of this Southern Breakwater is 42 feet.

(d) The reclamation of 21 acres of the foreshore to the eastward of the
Castle Jetty. This reclamation is now being formed by the construction
of a substantial sea-wall, founded on the chalk, a little above the level of
low water of ordinary spring tides. The length of the retaining wall from
the Castle Jetty to its junction with the east arm will be 3,850 feet, of
which length the foundations are now laid and the wall brought up to
varying levels for 2,000 feet.

Between the seaward end of the East Arm and the eastern end of the
South Breakwater there will be left an entrance 600 feet in width, with a
navigable low-water depth of seven fathoms. A second entrance will be
formed by the head of the Admiralty Pier extension and the western end
of the Southern Breakwater. This will be 800 feet wide, and it will also
have a depth of about seven fathoms.

It will be observed that the western head of this last-named entrance
will be between 400 and 500 feet to the south of the eastern head. This
arrangement was decided on in order to assist vessels entering the harbour
at times when the east-going current is running at its greatest velocity of
nearly four knots per hour. The overlap will also facilitate the entrance
or exit of vessels during south-westerly gales.

The total length of sheltering works to be constructed is 9,520 feet,
and the area enclosed, exclusive of the Commercial Harbour, will be
610 acres at low water, 322 acres being outside the five-fathoms line, and
171 acres outside the six-fathoms line.

Comparing these figures with the proposals of the Commission of 1844,
and allowing for the existing Admiralty Pier, which was not commenced
until 1847, it is found that by the addition of only 700 feet of sheltering
works, the following gain of area will be obtained :—

At low water , - 7 « - . + 30 acres,

At five fathoms ; zs a 4 rs . 52 acres.
At six fathoms ¥ Pi ¢ , E a » 59 acres,

Ir2

484, ~ REPORT—1899,

This comparison appears to be perfectly fair, as the depth on the lines
of the several works of the two designs are practically identical.

The contract for the Admiralty Harbour was let in 1897 to the well-
known firm of Messrs. 8. Pearson & Sons, of London.

Having generally described the works for the formation of the
Admiralty Harbour and the original proposal for the Commercial Harbour,
reference was made to the modified proposals for the latter (see Plate).

In the year 1890, when the Commercial Harbour was designed, there
was no expectation that the Government would, in the near future, con-
sider it desirable to proceed with the large national work, and the design
was consequently drawn up so that it might be complete in itself. It will
be apparent that, as soon as the 2,000 feet extension of the Admiralty
Pier was decided on, the smaller extension of the same work became
unnecessary. As the construction of the East Pier had, fortunately, not
reached the point at which it would have commenced to curve to the
south-west, the Harbour Board were advised that by continuing the work
in the direction in which it had been commenced, and by a short addition
to its length, a more capacious harbour would be obtained without in any
way interfering with the Admiralty scheme.

The proposal being adopted by the Board, and sanctioned by the
several Government Departments, the pier has been built on the line
shown on the Plate, and is now rapidly approaching completion.

The construction of the short western arm las consequently been
abandoned, and, as a substitute, a short ‘spur’ will eventually be run out
from the extension of the Admiralty Pier.

The low-water area of the Commercial Harbour as laid down in
1890 was 56 acres ; as now modified it will be 75 acres. This will be
admitted to be a substantial increase, more particularly when it is noted
that the addition is entirely outside the five-fathoms line, and that it will
be obtained with little or no expense to the Harbour Board beyond that
entailed by the original proposal.

Such are the objects for which the various piers for both the
Admiralty and Commercial Harbours have been adopted.

Passing from the question of the design of the harbours to that of the
method of construction of the several works by which they will be
formed, it is proposed to describe in some detail the operations employed
in the building of the East Pier. This particular pier is selected because
the work is so far advanced that the results can be inspected, and also
because the principle adopted for the solid portion forming the outer
length is similar to that on which the several Admiralty works will
be built.

The pier is formed first by 1,260 feet of open iron viaduct, and second
by a solid masonry work, 1,650 feet long.

The open work was introduced chiefly to afford free circulation of the
water in the Commercial Harbour, but had it been necessary to make it
solid much additional expense would have been incurred, as the seas
caused by heavy easterly and south-easterly winds would have been con-
centrated in the re-entering angle between the new work and those then
existing on the sea front, and would probably have caused much damage
to the latter. It is almost unnecessary to say that the adoption of open
instead of solid work represented a Substintidl detrease in cost.

To carry the shore end of the yiadyct and to form a retaining wall

_—-

ON THE DOVER HARBOUR WORKS. 485

to the inclined approach leading from the promenade level, a masonry
abutment, founded on concrete cylinders carried down to the chalk, was
formed close to the Granville Clock Tower at the west end of the
Esplanade.

The viaduct is built in spans of 40 feet, each pier consisting of three
hollow wrought-iron piles strongly braced together. The width at deck
level is 30 feet, and provides for a central roadway of 18 feet, and a
footpath on each side of 6 feet. The level of the deck is 19 feet above
high water of ordinary spring tides, and it is therefore not liable to
damage even in the heaviest seas. At three points in the length of the
work, the number of piles in a few bays is increased to five, giving a deck
width of 56 feet, while the spans are reduced to 20 feet. Considerable
additional stability, both laterally and longitudinally, is thus obtained.
On the piers so constructed longitudinal lattice girders carry a platform
or deck of corrugated iron plates.

The ordinary section of the viaduct, and the section at the centre
stiffening bays were shown.

At first the piles were fitted with steel points, and were driven about
25 feet below ground level, inclusive of about 15 feet into the chalk
which exists over the whole of Dover Bay. Contrary to expectation, the
bearing power of these piles was not found sufficient, and cast-iron screws,
3 feet 6 inches in diameter, were substituted for the steel points.

The screws for a few piers proved satisfactory under the 100 tons
dead weight test to which each centre pile was invariably subjected, but

during the application of the test load at a pier about 200 feet from the

shore, the pile, much to the surprise of all present, suddenly sank about
20 feet vertically. Borings taken at close intervals round the site of the

pile showed that its position was exactly at the bottom of a cavity in the

chalk, the surface of which sloped down to the pile in all directions.

The accident proved that the quality of the chalk was extremely
variable, and a change in system became necessary. The method adopted
for the remaining length of the viaduct is shown on the diagram. Under
the centre of each pier a cast-iron cylinder 8 feet in diameter was sunk
into the chalk and filled with concrete, the centre pile or column being
erected on a granite block bedded therein. The two side piles, on which
the loads are considerably less than on the centre, were, after the accident

‘before described, fitted with cast-steel screws 4 feet in diameter, and no

further trouble has been experienced.

It may be interesting to members to learn that when the excavations
in the cylinder on the site of the pile which failed reached the depth to
which the screw had originally penetrated, the blade was found broken
into three pieces, having parted from the boss very close to the pile shank.

The explanation of the accident appears to be that parts of the screw

blade were bearing on hard chalk or flints, while other parts, as well as
the point of the boss, were in soft material lying in the cavity indicated
by the borings as already described.

The corrugated deck of the viaduct will be filled with concrete as
soon as the outer or solid portion of the pier is completed. The surface,
both of roadway and footpaths, will be formed of asphalte.

The solid masonry portion of the pier has a length, including the head,

of 1,650 feet, with a width at quay level of 35 feet, and at foundation

level of 48 feet. The general level of the surface is 10 feet above high

‘water, but at the inner end this rises on a gradient of 1 in 40 to meet

486 REPORT—1899.

the higher level of the viaduct deck. When originally designed as a
sheltering work, it was intended to provide on its eastern side a parapet
somewhat similar to that on the Admiralty Pier. As shelter will in time
be given by the works of the Admiralty Harbour, this parapet will now
be omitted.

For the construction of the solid work, a substantial temporary stage
carrying three powerful ‘Goliath’ cranes was erected. The outermost
Goliath worked a heavy grab, by means of which the loose material over-
lying the chalk was excavated. From the centre Goliath was slung an
exceptionally large diving-bell, from which the excavation and levelling
of the chalk bed were effected. This part of the work was very heavy,
as no block was allowed to be set at less than 3 feet below the surface of
the solid chalk.

The inner Goliath was used for unloading the blocks brought on
trucks, over a temporary connecting viaduct now removed, and for
setting them in the pier.

The blocks throughout are of concrete, those above low water level
being faced with granite. They vary in weight from 12 to 20 tons.
Below low water they are set without mortar, but are well bonded and
keyed together by ‘ joggles,’ inserted into recesses cored out at the time
the blocks are moulded.

Above low water the blocks are set in Portland cement mortar, and
are also keyed by joggles.

Probably some members of this Association may wish to visit the
works, and will then be able to see many details, a description of which
time does not allow to be included in this paper. Among these details,
the concrete mixing machinery, the character of the moulds used in the
manufacture of the blocks, and the methods employed for lifting them,
will probably be of most general interest.

The pier will be fitted with two fendered berths on each side and a
landing-stage, for the accommodation of steamers, on the west side.
Landing-steps, mooring-bollards, lamps, gas and water services are also
to be provided.

The pier terminates in a circular head 52 feet in diameter, and on
this a lighthouse of concrete masonry, faced with granite, will shortly be
constructed.

It has already been indicated that the type of structure adopted for
the East Pier is similar to that to be followed in building the works for
the formation of the Admiralty Harbour, but on account of their exposed
positions and the heavy wave stroke to which they will be subjected, the
latter will necessarily be of considerably greater dimensions ; compari-
son of the section of the East Pier with the section of the Admiralty
Pier extension, as shown on diagrams, confirms this statement.

The cross section of the Admiralty Pier extension, shown on the
diagram, is worth notice if only on account of the magnitude of the
temporary works. The staging, of which a short length can now be
seen projecting from the end of the turret, is probably more massive
than any similar structure hitherto erected in the sea. The height from
the ground level to the highest point of the Goliath is 150 feet, and the
total width of the stage at rail level 115 feet.

Comparative sections of the South Breakwater, east arm and re-
clamation wall were shown.

The area to be reclaimed between the east arm and the Castle Jetty

————————

C09]

ON THE DOVER HARBOUR WORKS, 4.87

will be filled with chalk obtained by sloping or ‘scarping’ the clifls
immediately behind the wall. The ground so formed will, in the first
instance, be utilised for the formation of the block building yards and
the erection of the workshops, stores, and offices required for the con-
struction of the east arm and South Breakwater.

A temporary yard for the service of the Admiralty Pier extension
has been formed on the beach in front of the South-Eastern Railway
Company’s ‘ Town’ Station.

The blocks for the reclamation wall are built at Sandwich, where a
large quantity of ballast—i.e. sand and shingle—eminently suitable for
the manufacture of concrete has been obtained by the contractors. The
blocks, and a considerable quantity of ballast, are now brought from
Sandwich by lighters, but a light railway at present under construction
will, when completed, deliver material direct on to the reclaimed yard.
Ballast is also obtained from Dungeness, but, being practically free from
sand, requires to be mixed with the material from Sandwich before it is
used for block-making.

Portland cement of the highest quality, manufactured under con-
tinuous inspection, analysis, and test, is alone used in any of the per-
manent works.

It is feared that the patience of the meeting must already have been
severely tried by the length of this paper, and a subject so largely
technical. Even at the risk of being tedious it is considered that this
opportunity should not be lost for a reference to the inconvenience,
discomfort and serious delay experienced during last winter from the
interruptions to the passenger service from the port.

That the interruptions were largely due to the position of the works
during a season unexampled for the number of heavy south-westerly
gales cannot be questioned.

The exact cause of this will be easily understood by reference to the
Plate on which the direction of S.W. winds is represented. The seas
brought up Channel by gales from and near this quarter, and outside the
shelter of the Admiralty Pier, travel on until they strike the western
face of the East Pier and recoil therefrom on to the landing-stages on the
eastern side of the Admiralty Pier, which stages in similar gales had pre-
viously been available.

That this action would occur and become stronger as the East Pier
advanced seaward, without a corresponding advance of the Admiralty
Pier, was evident before the inconvenience was actually experienced.

Tn order to minimise the delay two steps were taken by the Harbour
Board. First, an entirely new landing-stage was constructed near the
outer end of the Admiralty Pier, where the disturbance was much less
felt than at the stages nearer the shore. This was frequently available
when it was impossible to approach the older berths.

Secondly, negotiations were opened with a view if possible to delay
further progress with the East Pier until the extension of the Admiralty
Pier was sufficiently advanced to give the required shelter. It was, how-
ever, found that the cost of retarding the work would be so great that
the financial position of the Board did not justify this course being
adopted.

The advance of the masonry extension of the Admiralty Pier is not
likely to be sufficient to give much additional shelter during the coming
winter, but the large number of piles in the temporary stage will, as

488 REPORT—1899.

experience has shown to be the case in other places, no doubt assist in
breaking up the seas; thus it may reasonably be expected that delay
will be on a smaller scale than was experienced last year.

Tn Sir John Coode’s original design, the whole of the East Pier during
south-west winds would have been inside shelter of the Admiralty Pier
as it then existed.

Tt is hoped it has been made clear that had it not been for the change
of plan consequent on the decision of the Admiralty to carry out the
splendid work lately started, no disturbance of the traffic would have
been experienced.

Is it unwise to suggest that the inconvenience, serious as it has been,
is only temporary, and that to obtain such a harbour—probably second
to none—much greater sacrifices would willingly be made by almost every
port in the kingdom ?

In conclusion, at the request of the Mayor, Sir William Crundall,
attention was drawn to the peculiarly favourable situation of Dover, with
reference to several Continental ports. To illustrate this point, an
enlarged chart of the English Channel was shown, and the distances in
nautical miles from port to port were figured thereon.

The proverbial schoolboy knows that Dover is the nearest port to
Calais. It is, however, believed that very few persons, whether school-
boys or of more mature age, are aware that Dover is also nearer to
Boulogne than Folkestone ; nearer to Flushing, and therefore to Antwerp,
than either Queenborough or Harwich ; that as regards Dieppe, New-
haven has the advantage by only 7 nautical miles, and Southampton,
only a similar advantage with reference to Havre.

Again, compare Dover with Southampton as a ‘port of call’ for
foreign liners from Antwerp, Rotterdam, Hamburg, and all ports to the
North. The comparison will hold good whether these liners are bound
for the United States, via the Lizard, or for South Africa, India, China,
and Australia, &c., via Ushant.

The call at Dover would involve no complicated course such as that
necessary for Southampton, via Dungeness, the Royal Sovereign lightship,
the Owers, Spithead, and Southampton Water.

The course on leaving the ‘ port of call’ is also in favour of Dover, as
after passing Dungeness a straight course could be set for either the
Lizard or Ushant, no variations corresponding to Southampton Water,
the Solent, and the Needles being requisite.

Not only would there be a saving in distance, but the risks of fogs, so
prevalent at the back of the Isle of Wight, would be much reduced.

Under these circumstances it is not surprising to learn that proposals
have been made to utilise Dover in connection with several lines of ocean-
going steamers, and that the Harbour Board have already received
inquiries on the subject. Finally, it is hoped that with the schemes for
the improvement of the port fully before them the members of the
Association will cordially agree with the forcible language of Sir Walter
Raleigh—< nor is there in the whole circuit of this famous island any port
more convenient, needful, or rather of necessity to be regarded, than this
of Dover.’

ssoc. 1899.

— ADMIRALTY HARBOUR —
DOVER

—+» PLAN OF PROPOSED WORKS -

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pROPOSED

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ADMIRALTY HARBOUR
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35 36 38

gq Paper on the Dover Harbow Works.

69a Report Brit, Assoc. 1899.

aan shaw Ht fret oem Wate
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PROPOSED

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ADMIRALTY HARBOUR
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Tilustrating Paper on the Dover Iarbour Works.

ON THE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN. 489

Mental and Physical Deviations from the Normal among Children in
Public Elementary and other Schools.—Ieport of the Committee,
consisting of the late Sir DouGLas GaLTon (Chairman), Dr. FRANCIS
Warner (Secretary), Mr. E. W. Braproox, Dr. J. G. Garson,
and Mr. E. Waite Wauuis. (Report drawn up by the Secretary.)

APPENDIX.—Zable shoning the conditions of 1,120 children requiring special
careand training . - 2 : : . . . page A490

In presenting this our Seventh Annual Report, we must first express our
‘deep regret at the loss sustained by the death of Sir Douglas Galton, at
whose instigation the Committee was first appointed in 1892, who acted
as Chairman, and took a deep interest in all its proceedings.

The Committee have continued to work in conjunction with the
Childhood Society, to whom they are indebted for access to the records of
children examined individually by members of this Committee and the
Society.

Since our first Report in 1893 much attention has been directed to the
care of children subnormal in mental or physical conditions, and a Bill is
now before Parliament to make better provision for the elementary edu-
cation of defective and epileptic children in England and Wales.

We here give a further account of the 1,120 exceptional children
requiring special care and training, in continuation of our former Reports.
They have previously been arranged in sub-classes, presenting the class or
classes of defect named only ; the cases being distributed first in age-
groups, secondly under school standards.

Some of these children will require special modes of care and teaching,
many are delicate in health, and a small proportion are imbecile.

This catalogue of cases was asked for in evidence by the Committee
of the Education Department on Children Feeble-minded ; it appears in
our Report for 1897.

Following the catalogue of cases is a table, in which the children are
arranged in primary groups, presenting only the class of defect indicated ;

_ they form about 1 per cent. of the children in public elementary schools.

- Table B 3 (Report 1897) deals with children collected by the Charity

Organisation Society in various parts of London, and presented for

_ report as to mental and physical status ; they were examined and re-

ported on by Dr. Francis Warner. It is there shown that of 149 boys
and 89 girls collected by the C.O.S. Committee and teachers as being
defective, only 88 boys and 68 girls were on examination found so far
subnormal as to be reported ‘exceptional children.’ This indicates that
much care and discretion will be needed in selecting these children and in
organising special classes of schools.

In our Report (1898), the co-relation of classes of defects in these
children is shown to be very high: they have a much greater tendency
than average children to become delicate in an adverse environment,
_ especially the girls ; this, as might be expected, is most marked in those
under seven years of age.

In our present Report the 1,120 exceptional children are arranged
in a table as presenting only the class ar classes of defect indicated in

4.90 REPORT—1899.

primary groups, showing their proportion to the compound groups,
respectively as distributed under ages and sex.

The primary groups are those containing all cases presenting the
defect or combination of defects indicated, only.

The compound groups are those containing all cases presenting the
defect or combination of defects indicated, alone or in combination.
Thus: there were 388 boys and 352 girls at all ages who presented
developmental defects ; of these, 4-380 per cent. of the boys and 2°557 per
cent. of the girls presented abnormal nerve-signs only, 7.e. without either
low nutrition or meutal dulness accompanying. Such cases may be found,
for instance, among children crippled by congenital absence of a hand.

The main classes of defect are indicated at the left hand of the table
by symbols :—A. Defect in development of body ; B. Abnormal nerve-
signs ; C. Low nutrition ; D. Mental dulness.

The facts shown in the table suggest the need of management and
care in training stage by stage, with the object of improving each phase
of mental ability and removing individual disabilities ; children with any
degree of congenital defect in development usually require medical care
as to conditions of the ears, throat, and mouth, also as to eyesight and in
general health culture.

The abnormal nerve-signs may often be removed one by one in the
daily practice of physical exercises, and adapted training, thus rendering
the brain more apt for mental instruction and teaching.

The investigation made and the facts thus far tabulated have proved
of much value, as a basis of knowledge of childhood, especially in its sub-
normal conditions.

The Committee desire to be reappointed with an addition to their
number, and a new Chairman elected to act in conjunction with the
Childhood Society, for the scientific study of the mental and physical
conditions of children, and ask a grant of 10/. in aid of their work.

TABLE based on the observation of 1,120 children who appeared to require
special care and training on physical or mental grownds—Boys 597, Girls’
523—showing the proportion of the Primary Groups to the Compound Groups
respectively. This Table is arranged in four columns, giving the percent-
ages for children in age-groups and at all ages. The percentages are taken
on the number in the Compound Group, i.e. all the cases with that class of
defect. Thus: of all cases with developmental defect (Compound Group) at
all ages 1:030 per cent. of the boys and 1:990 per cent. of the girls presented
low nutrition only (Primary Group).

No. of Cases and 7 years and Ages 8-10 Ages 11 and

Primary Groups under over All ages ro
= zi = |
B. G. B. 5 B. G. B. G.
No. of cases—A .| 114 | 146 | 151 26 | 123 80 888 | 352 | Of all cases with Developmental
defect.
A. ae hte + | 1°755) 4:110) 3311) 1588) 4°878) 1:282) 3°350| 2°557, Per cent. with no other classof de-
‘ fect.
AB . e« «| 4°386} 1°370) 3:311) 1°588} 5:691) 3-842} 4380] 2°557 “ », Abnormal Nerve-
| signs only.
AC . «4 «| 1:755| 2°740] 0-662) 0:794|. 0°813| 2°562) 1-030] 1-990 ¥ » Low nutrition only.
AD 5 . . | 4°386} 2°055} 3°311) 3°960| 8130) 6°410) 5°154| 3-695 a4 » Mental dulnessonly.
ABC. . .} 1755] 1:370} 1324) 0000] 0:813) 0:000) 1-288) 0-569 +. » Nerve-signs and
| Low nutrition
t only.

ON THE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN. 491

TABLE—continued.

| No. of Cases and | 7 yearsand Ages 8-10 Ages 11 and

7 All ages —
Primary Groups under over : =

| B. G. B. Gr. B G. B. G.

ABD. ._ .. 12:284) 8:903) 20°531| 15°875| 32°520) 24°361| 21:910 14:780) Per cent. with Nerve-signs and
‘ Dulness only.

ACD. ._ .| 0:877| 2:055) 0°662| 3°175| 2°435) 3-842) 1:288) 2-841 3 » Low nutrition and
Dulness only.
ABCD... 72°802) 77-397) 66-888) 73:020) 44°720) 57°701, 61°600 71-011 ” » Low nutrition and
a Dulness, and
_ 100'000} 100:000, 100:000, 100:000| 100'000| 100'000) 100'000) 100:000 Nerve-signs.

| ‘Wo. ofcases—B .| 142 | 153 | 186 | 148 | 141 | 115 | 469 | 418 Of all cases with Abnormal Nerve-

| signs.

B. 5 Fi . | 6338} 3°922) 9°679, 6-086! 11°346) 10°432) 9:169| 6°458) Per cent, with no other class of de- |
fect.

AB . * . | 3°521] 1308) 2°689) 1°352) 4-960} 2°607} 3°616] 2°153 sy », Developmental de-
fect only.

BC... . Fi es — 0:000) 0°676| 0°709| 1°739]} 0°213) 0°717 3 » Low nutrition only.

BD. if « | 16°200} 9°803) 12°364) 13511) 14°185| 27-831) 14:080} 16°030 i > Mental dulness |
only. |

ABC. ‘ . | 1408} 1:308| 1°076) 0:000) 0°709} 0-000) 1°067) 6-478 =. ¥ oval spelen de-
fect and Low nu-
trition only.

ABD. . . | 9°856) 8°497| 16°663 13°511| 28°370) 16°524/ 18-120) 12-440 3 »» Developmental de-
fect and Dulness
only.

BCD. * . | 4°226] 1:308) 3:227) 2°704| 0°709) 1:739) 2°772) 1:914 7 », Low nutrition and

“ Dulness only.

ABCD “ . | 58451 Teed) 54°302) 627160) 39:012) 397128) 50-963) 59°810 aS » Low nutrition and

Dulness, and De-
100°000 | 100°000 | 100°000) 100°000} 100-000, 100°000 | 100000 | 100-000 velopmental de-

fect.

No. of cases—C 96 | 726 }) 275.) 205 63 57 | 274 | 288 | Of all cases with Low nutrition.

Cc. : : . | 2084) 0:000) 3-478) 1:°902) 1:587| 3°508) 2°550) 1°395| Per cent. with no other class of de-

fect.

AG C4 . | 2°084) 3175) 0°869) 0°951) 1°587| 3°508) 1445) 2-436 Fs », Developmental de-
fect only.

'. >» Abnormal Nerve-
signs only.

8 » Mental dulness
only.

ABC. ° . | 2°084) 1°589} 1°739) 0°000} 1°587} 0:000} 1:825, 0°695 a », Developmental de-
lr fect and Nerve-
signs only.
GD ire sos . | 1°042) 2°381) 0°869) 3°814) 4°769| 5°262) 1:825] 3486 = 5, Developmental de-
ts? fect and Dulness

only.
* » Nerve-signs and
t Dulness only.
ABCD * . | 86454) 89°677| 87°827) 87-617) 87:296| 78:952) 87:270| 86°750 Nerve - signs ‘and
P Dulness, and De-
—v 100*000 | 100°000 | 100°000 | 100'000 | 100°000 ° 100°000 | 100°000 | 100:000 velopmental de-
fect.

‘No.ofcases—D .| 146 | 157 | 177 | 159 | 144 | 115 | 467 | 431 | Of all cases Dull Children.
i ia ~ a A 9°586| 3°822) 5°650) 8:175|10°416] 67956) 8°352) 6:265 Per cent. with no other class of de-

Bo . . . | 0°000) 0°000) 0:000) 0°951) 1°587; 3°508} 0:350} 1:053
cCiD) .. . . | 0:000) 1°589) 0:000) 0:°951) 0000) 1:754) 0:000} 1°395

BCD. ._ .| 6252] 1589) 5-218] 3814) 1:587| 3:508| 4-735] 2-790

{) fect.
AD . . «| 3421] 1:911| 2622] 3-141] 6-947] 4-345] 4-283] 3-016 . ,, Developmental de-
ay fect only.
BD . ._ ..|15°751) 9°555) 12°992; 12-586) 13°894) 27°831) 14-140 15°540 * », Abnormal Nerve-
signs only.
cp. . . | 0°000) 1:274) 0:000) 0-626) 0°000) 0°869| 0:000 0:928 $ 5 Low nutrition only.
ABD. ._ .| 9°586| 8:277| 17°512| 12°586| 27-768) 16°525| 18-200 12°071 # ” Developmental de-

fect and Nerve-

| ag signs only.

| ACD. .¢~ .| 0684) 1:911) 0°562) 2°515) 2°083! 2°607) 1:071) 2°311 Developmental de-

: : fect and Low nu-
trition only.

Nerve- signs and
Low nutrition

” ”

BOD... «| 4110] 1-274) 3:390) 2°515) 0°694] 1:739) 2:784) 1-857

” ”

HE only.
: mee D ..:. | 56°862! 71-976| 57°072| 57°856| 38°198| 39°128) 51-170 58-012 - » Nerve-signs and
t Low nutrition,
100'000 | 100000 | 100'000 | 100'000} 100'000} 100°000) 100°000' 100-000: and Develop-

as ed te ere mental defect.

4.92 REPORT—1899.

TABLE—continued.

No. of Cases and | 7 years and Ages 11 and iy
Primary Groups under Ages 8-10 vey All ages

B. G. B. G. B. G. B. G.

No. of cases—A B.| 104 | 130 | 139 | 114 | 103 67 346 | 313 | Of all children with Developmental
defect and Nerve-signs.

4808] 1-538) 3:598) 1:755| 6°797| 4:475) 4914) 2°869) Per cent. with no other class of de-

AB
fect.
ABC. G . | 1:922} 1:538) 1-439} 0-000) 0°971) 0-000) 1:446/ 0°638 = » Low nutrition only.
ABD. : . | 13°462/ 10:000| 22°301| 17°550} 38-840) 28°36 1| 24°560) 16°621 44 » Dulness only.
ABCD . . | 79°808| 86°924| 72°662) 80°695| 53°392| 67-164) 69-080) 79-872 fs »» Dulness and Low
nutrition.

100°000 | 100-000 100°000 | 100°000 100-000 | 100°000 | 100°000 | 100°000

No. of cases—A C.| 88 122 | 105 97 60 50 253 | 269 | Of all children with Developmental
defect and Low nutrition.

Ac . : . | 2271) 3-279} 0-951) 1:031) 1°667| 3:999| 1:582) 2602} Per cent. with no other class of de-
fect.

ABC . | 2:271) 1:639| 1-902) 0:000) 1°667) 0:000) 1°976| 0°751 & >, Nerve-signs only.

ACD. 9 . | 1136} 2°459} 0-951) 4:124| 5°001} 6003) 1:976) 3-716 ” »» Dulness only.

ABCD 7 . | 94°322) 92-623) 967196) 94°845) 91-665) 89-998) 94-466) 92-931 a a Dulness and Nerve-
signs.

100:000 | 100-000 | 100-000 | 100-000} 100000] 100-000 100°000 | 100-000

No. of cases—A D.| 203 | 132 | 138 | 121 | 1¢8 72 349 | 325 | Of all children with Developmental
defect and Dulness.

AD. . 4°841) 2:273| 3:624| 4-132] 9°260) 6:944) 5-722) 4-000) Per cent. with ne Ce class of de-
ect.

ABD. ._— .|18:591| 9:850| 22-461) 16°526| 37°040) 26-384) 24-353) 16-011 » » Nerve-signs only.

ACD. + + | 0°971, 2:273| 0°724| 3:305) 2°774| 4:161| 1°433) 3:076 » » Low nutrition only.

ABCD . + | 80°597 85°604| 73°191| 76°C57) 50°926) 62°51) 68-492) 76°913 ” » Low nutrition and

|, Nerve-signs,
100°000 | 100°000 | 100°000 | 100°000 | 100°000 | 100°000 | 100°000 | 100-000

No. of cases—-BC.} 91 117 | 109 97 58 49 258 | 263 | Of all children with Nerve-signs
and Low nutrition.

BC a 5 - | 0:000) 0:000! 0:000) 1:031| 1:727| 4-081] 0°383| 1-141) Per cent. with no other class of de-

fect.
ABC. ._ .| 2194) 1:704} 1:835) 0:000} 1:727] 0°000) 1-938) 0:764 9 ” Develapiaentet de-
ect only.
BCD. 3 je 6594 1:704) 5°505) 4°194 1:727) 4:081\ 5°030 3°042 » ” Dulness only.
ABCD. _ . |91:212' 96:592) 92-660! 94°845| 94°819] 91-838) 92°649) 95°053 ” » Dulness and Deve-
| lopmental defect.

100°000 100°000 | 100°000 | 100'000 | 100-000 | 100-000 | 100°000 | 100°000

lz |

|

No. of casees—B D.| 126 | 143 | 161 136 | 116 98 403 | 377 | Of all children with Nerve-signs
and Dulness.

| |
. | 18-251] 10-495) 14-282) 14°705, 17-241] 32°648, 16°373) 17°756| Per cent. with no other class of de-

BD

ABD : 11-111] 9-094) 19261] 14-705] 34-462| 19°387) 21-094) 13-790], if pevaaaaital de-

BCD. .. .| 4761! 1:398! 3729] 2:943/ 0-861] 2-041| 3:225| 2-199 “ 2 Lonnie only.

ABCD 5 5 peer 79°013) 62°735 ty 47-416 peer 59°308) 66°332 a5 a te
100-000 | 100000 | 100'000 | 100°000, 100°000) 100:000) 100°000, 100-000 defect,

No. of cases—C D. | 90 120 | 108 | 101 59 51 257 | 272 | Of all children with Low nutrition
and Dulness. .

cD . 7 . | 0000! 1°661) 0:000} 0-990, 0°000} 1:962) 0.000) 1:471) Per cent. with no other class of de-
fect.

ACD. ._ .| 1112) 2501 0-926) 3-961) 5°085| 5886 1-943) 3-676 s ,, Developmental de-
fect only.

BCD. P . | 6°672) 1°661) 5°556) 3°961) 1°695] 3°924 5-054) 2:941 ss » Nerve-signs only.

ABCD... .y. | 92216) 94:177| 93-518) 91-088) 93:220| 88:228 93-003) 91°512 % » Nerve-signs and
Developmental

100°000 | 100°000 | 190°000 | 100°000 | 100-000 |, 100°000 | 100°000 | 100-000 defect,

is il atin

sO eee Oe

ON THE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN.

TABLE— continued.

No. of Cases and 7 years and Ages 11 and
Primary Groups under Ages 8-10 over All ages oa
B. a. B. G. B. G. B. a.

No, of cases—A BC} 85 115 | 103 92 56 45 244 | 252 | Of all children with Developmental
defect, Nerve-signs, and Low
nutrition.

ABC. 2351) 1:732| 1:942) 0°000) 1°786) 0°000) 2°034) 0:794| Per cent. with no other class of de-
fect.
ABCD . | 97°649, 98-268) 98:058} 100-000} 98°214| 100:000} 97:966) 99-206 -e » Dulness.
100'000} 100°000) 100°000|} 100:000 | 100°000 10°00 100°000) 100-000
No. of cases—A BD} 97 | 126 | 132 112 95 64 324 | 302 | Of all children with Developmental
defect, Nerve-signs, and Dulness.
ABD. . | 14431) 10°313) 23-481) 17-858] 42°115| 29-686) 26-231| 17-224) Per cent. with no other class of de-
fect.
ABCD . | 85°569| 89°687| 76°519} 72-142) 57°885| 70°314) 73-769) 82-776 a », Low nutrition.
100°000 100°000) 100°000 100-000 | 100'000 100°000 | 100'000 | 100°000

No. of cases—A CD) 84 116 | 102 96 58 48 244 | 260 | Of all children with Developmental
defect,Low nutrition,and Dulness.

ACD ‘ - | 1192) 2°585) 0°985 4167) 5°181] 6-251] 2:047} 3°855| Per cent. with no other class of de-
| fect.

A8CD 98-808 96°415) 99-015) 95°833) 94°819) 93°749) 97-953) 96-145 53 » Nerve-signs.
100°000 | 100°000 100°000 100:000 100°000| 100°000 | 100°000 100-000

No. of cases—B CD 89 115 | 107 96 56 4? 252 | 258 | Of all children with Nerve-signs,

Low nutrition, and Dulness.
BCD ‘ 6°744| 1:732| 5:608| 4:167| 1:786] 4255] 5:164| 3°121| Per cent. with no other class of de-
fect.
ABCD 93°256| 98°268| 94°398| 95°833| 98°214| 95°745| 94°836) 96 879 rr ra rae oe de-
- — = _ ect.
100°000 | 100°0 00} 100'000) 100°000 | 100°000 | 100000 | 100°000 | 100°000

493

Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom.—Seventh and

Final Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. E. W. Bra-
BROOK (Chairman), Mr. E. Stpyey HartLanp (Secretary), Mr.
Francis Gatton, Dr. J. G. Garson, Professor A, C. Happon,
Dr. JosEpH ANDERSON, Mr. J. RomILLy ALLEN, Dr. J. BEDDOE,
Mr. W. Crooks, Professor D. J. CunntnGHaM, Professor W.
Boyp Dawkins, Mr. Artuur J. Evans, Dr. H. O. Forbes, Mr.
F. G. Hirton Price, Sir H. Howorts, Professor R. MELDOLA,
General Pirt-Rivers, Mr. E. G. Ravenstemn, Mr. GEORGE Payne,
Mr. Epwarp Ciopp, Mr. G. Laurence Gomme, Mr. JosEPH
Jacogs, Sir C. M. Kennepy, K.C.M.G., Mr. Epwarp Laws, the
Ven. Archdeacon THomas, Mr. 8. W. WiL.iams, Professor JOHN
Rays, and Dr. C. R. Browne.

Tue Committee present this as their final report, not indeed as
suggesting that the work of organising an Ethnographical Survey of the
United Kingdom, which was first entrusted to them at the Edinburgh
Meeting in 1892, has been completed, but because in their opinion the

494 REPORT—1899,

preparation for that work has been carried as far as the means at their
disposal have enabled them to carry it, and because they have arrived at
the conviction that the work itself may now properly be left to be com-
pleted by other hands possessing the necessary organisation and more
adequate means.

They are as fully convinced as ever of the importance of the work
itself and of the soundness of the principles laid down for the conduct
of it. There is ample evidence that the mixed population of this kingdom
retains in many parts of the country traces of the constituents of which it
is formed. Those traces are to be found in physical characters, in the
expression of the features, in modes of thought, in tradition (using that
word in its wider sense), and in language ; and the conclusions drawn from
them are capable of being verified by the testimony of local history and of
archeology.

The method adopted by the Committee for setting on foot a compre-
hensive and scientific investigation into the existence and character of
these traces of the past was :

1. To inquire what places were suitable for the survey, as containing
a population in which there had been comparatively little admixture of
race.

2. To draw up a bricf and comprehensive code of instructions for
observers, with explanatory comments and directions as to the use of
instruments for measuring, &c.

3. To enlist the voluntary assistance of local societies and local
observers in making measurements, collecting items of folklore, and
otherwise.

Under the first head, the Committee collected in their first and
second reports, from the information supplied to them by persons of
authority resident in the various districts, a list of between 300 and 400
villages and places which complied with the definition laid down by the
Committee as containing a number of persons whose ancestors had
belonged to the locality for as far back as could be traced.

Under the second head, the Committee prepared and published, in
their second and third reports, a code of instructions for observers in the
several branches of the investigation. The directions as to physical
measurements were drafted by Dr. Garson and Professor Haddon ; those
as to photographs by Mr. Francis Galton ; those as to folklore by Mr.
Edward Clodd ; those as to dialect by Professor Skeat.

The Committee have also published in subsequent reports a paper
drawn up by Mr. Hartland, containing many useful hints to observers ;
and a paper by Mr. Gomme, on the scientific method to be pursued in
localising folklore observations, so as to enable trustworthy conclusions to
be drawn from the presence or absence in any locality of one or more
features incidental to a particular practice or superstition.

In other reports, the Committee have published at length specimen
collections of physical observations and folklore observations, the principal
of which collections were made by the lamented Dr. Walter Gregor.
These are intended to serve as models for other observers, as it was not
the intention of the Committee to print at length in their reports the
records of observations contributed to them by the several collectors,
but only a digest of the results,

,

ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KiNGDOoM. 495

Under the third head, the policy of the Committee has been :—

1. To establish Sub-committees in various parts, and secure the co-
operation of local societies in forming such Committees and otherwise.
2. To obtain the services of volunteer individual observers.

The Committee feel that their best thanks are due to the societies and
persons by whom they have been favoured with information ; but they
are also of opinion that for the future conduct of the survey, it will not
be sufficient to rely upon such assistance, however generously bestowed.
To ensure absolute uniformity in the methods of collecting information,
upon which the usefulness of the information for the purposes of com-
parison almost entirely depends, it is essential that one or more persons
should be wholly engaged upon the work.

There are two methods by which this can be done :—

1. The entrusting to the Committee of the necessary means.
2. The transfer of the work to another body possessing the necessary
means,

Should the first course approve itself to the Section and to the Associa-
tion, it would be practicable, by a comparatively small expenditure, for
the Association itself (through the present or some other Committee) to
proceed with a work of great interest and value, on the lines which have
been exemplified by Dr. Gregor’s model collections, and by the excellent
publications of Dr. Browne and Professor Haddon relating to certain com-
munities in Ireland, as it would not be difficult to find competent persons
if sufficient remuneration were assured to them to justify giving their
whole time to the work.

The circumstance which induces the Committee to lean rather to the
second course is that the Ethnographic Bureau, which has been so long an
object of desire to anthropologists, has now been established under the
auspices of the British Museum ; and the Committee cannot but think
that that Bureau might well include the British Islands within the scope
of its functions.

In the meantime they suggest that the reports and observations now
in their hands might, where not returned to the writers, be distributed
among the representatives on their body of the several societies interested,
who will be able to proceed with the work of digesting them, and to
publish such of them as contain matters suitable for publication in full.
The five sets of measuring instruments in their possession will be returned

_to the Association.

Silchester Hxcavation.—Report of the Committee, consisting of My.
A. J. Evans (Chairman), Mr. Joan L. Myres (Secretary), and
Mr. EK. W. Brasrook, appointed to co-operate with the Silchester
Excavation Fund Committee in their Hxcavations.

THE excavations at Silchester in 1898 were begun on May 2 and con.
tinued, with the usual interval during the harvest, until November 26,

4.96 REPORT—1899.

Operations were confined to an area of about eight acres in the south-
west corner of the city.

This area is bounded on the north by insule XV. and XVI. ; on the
east by insule XVII. and XVIII., excavated in 1897 ; and on the other
sides by the city wall. It contained two insule (XIX. and XX.),
together with a large triangular area to the south, forming apparently
part of insula XVIII. See the plan in last year’s report.

Insula XIX. presents the peculiarity of being inclosed by a wall, and
contains, in addition to three minor buildings, a well-planned house of
early date and of the largest size, with fine hypocausts. Toit is attached
the workshop of some industry, with a large inclosure dependent on it,
containing two settling-tanks, perhaps belonging to a tannery. The court-
yard of this house is partly underlaid by the remains of a much earlier
one, of half-timbered construction, containing in one of its chambers a
mosaic pavement of remarkable design, and perhaps the earliest in date
yet found in this country. A small house in this insula is somewhat
exceptional in plan and also, perhaps, of early date.

Insula XX. contains a number of buildings scattered over its area,
but none of these appears to be of any importance. Two of them are of
interest as furnishing plans of houses of the smallest class. This insula
also contains one of the curious detached hypocausts which were noticed
in the excavations of 1897. A large inclosure with attached chambers,
near the lesser west gate, may be conjectured to have contained stabling
for the accommodation of travellers entering the city.

Several wells were found in both znswle, lined either with the usual
wooden framing or disused barrels. A pit in inswla XX. contained a
double row of pointed wooden stakes driven into the bottom, and may
have been for the capture of wild animals at some period anterior to the
existence of the Roman town, or subsequent to its extinction. No archi-
tectural remains were found, but the rubbish-pits yielded the usual crop
of earthen vessels. .

The finds in bronze and bone do not call for any special notice, but an.
enamelled brooch of gilt-bronze, with a curious paste intaglio and several
settings of rings, may be mentioned.

Among the iron objects are a well-preserved set of hooks, perhaps for
hoisting barrels, and a curious pair of handcuffs or fetterlock.

From a pit in insula XIX. was recovered an upper quern stone, still
retaining its original wooden handle.

Although a considerable area in the southern part produced no pits
or traces of buildings, the ensule excayated are quite up to the average in
point of interest, and their addition to the plan completes a very large
section of the city.

A detailed account of all the discoveries was laid before the Society
of Antiquaries on May 4, 1899, and will be published by the Society in
‘ Archeologia.’

The Committee ask to be reappointed with a further grant.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 497

Ethnological Survey of Canada.—Report cf the Committee, consisting
of Professor D. P. PENHALLOW (Chairman), Dr. G. M. Dawson
(Secretary), Mr. E. W. Brasroox, Professor A. C. Happon, Mr.
K. 8. Hartuanp, Sir Jonn G. Bourtnot, Abbé Cuoag, Mr. B.
SuLTE, Abbé Tanauay, Mr. C. Hiti-Tout, Mr. Davin Boyte,
Rey. Dr. Scappina, Rev. Dr. J. MacuEan, Dr. Merte Beav-
CHEMIN, Mr. C, N. Bett, Hon. G. Ross, Professor J. Mavor,
and Mr. A. F. Hunter,

APPENDIX PAGE
I. The Origin of Early Canadian Settlers. By B. SULTE : , ; » 499
Il. Studies of the Indians of British Columbia. By C. H1uu-Tour . : . 500

Durine the past year the work of this Committee has been extended in
important directions, although the great number and diversity of interests
to be considered, the difficulty of securing interested and competent
observers, and the great reluctance of many people to be made the subject
of such investigations, however simple, serve to make our work one of
slow progress. We nevertheless experience a sense of gratification in
view of the increasing interest in our investigations manifested during the
last year, and we feel confident that as the nature of our work becomes
better and more widely known this interest will gain in strength.

A large number of schedules giving detailed directions to observers
have been distributed ; but it was found necessary to issue supplementary
instructions respecting facial types and directions for certain measure-
ments. Through the courtesy of Professor F. W. Putnam and Dr. F.
Boas, we have been enabled to make use of the excellent series of facial
types employed by the Bureau of Ethnology of the World’s Columbian
Exposition at Chicago.

Several requests for anthropometric instruments have been received,
but, owing to delay in obtaining the instruments ordered, this work has
not progressed as rapidly as we had hoped, and the expected data will not
be available until another year. Several observers have already forwarded
extensive records of measurements, but it would be premature at the
present time to undertake any analysis of these, as the investigations to
which they relate are still in progress.

Much of the work in progress is of such a nature that returns cannot
be looked for under a year or more, but with the present organisation it
may be expected that each year will witness an increasing amount of
material from the various observers. Steps have been taken for the
special study of groups in different provinces, and it is hoped that these
efforts may result profitably in the near future.

The introduction into the North-West of large bodies of Europeans
who are to become permanently incorporated in our population has sug-

_ gested the importance of securing, at as early a date as possible, such

facts relating to their general ethnology as may seem to establish a suit-

_ able basis for the study of these people under the influence of their new

environment. Satisfactory arrangements have been made with respect to
the Doukhobors, and it is probable that similar arrangements may be
1899. KK

498 REPORT—1899.

compieted during the coming year with respect to other large bodies of
immigrants.

The exceptional circumstances surrounding the Indians of British
Columbia ; the fact that it is becoming more difficult each year to obtain
reliable accounts of these people ; the rapid disappearance of old customs,
dress, and mode of living ; and also the present availability of the services
of an expert and enthusiastic observer, have seemed sufficient reasons for
devoting to their study a much larger share of the resources of the Com-
mittee than might otherwise appear justifiable.

The work now in progress includes :—

1. Customs and Traditions of the Huron Indians of Lorette, P.Q.
Mr. Leon Gerin, Ottawa.

2. Anthropometric Studies. Dr, C. A. Hibbert, Montreal; Mr. A. F,
Hunter, Barrie, Ont.; Dr. F. A. Patrick, Yorkton, N.W.T.; Dr. F.
Tracey, Toronto.

3. Photographie Studies of the North-West Coast Indians. Dr. C. F.
Newcombe, Victoria, B.C.

4. Studies of the Early Settlers of Canada. Mr. B. Sulte, Ottawa.

5. Ethnological Studies of the Indians of British Columbia. Mr. C.
Hill-Tout.

Apart from the records of measurements previously alluded to, the
completed work of the past year is represented by the two papers
appended hereto.

1. The Origin of Early Canadian Settlers. Mr, B. Sulte, Ottawa.

2. Studies of the Indians of British Columbia. Mr. C. Hill-Tout,
Vancouver, B.C.

The important studies of Mr. Hill-Tout have been prosecuted under
considerable difficulties, but with the most painstaking care. They repre-
sent, for the most part, material which is altogether new, while those
which cover ground previously worked over embody results in such a way
as to preserve their value as contributions to our knowledge of these
people.

One of the principal difficulties met with by Mr. Hill-Tout has been
the reluctance of the Indians to submit themselves to the process of
measurement, or even, under satisfactory conditions, to the camera.

Prints, in duplicate, of a certain number of photographs already ob-
tained by Mr. Hill-Tout accompany this report, and it is hoped that a
more important contribution of this kind may be forthcoming next year.

Also accompanying this report is a series of fifteen prints, in duplicate,
of photographs of the villages and totem-poles of the Haida Indians of
the Queen Charlotte Islands, taken by Dr. G. M. Dawson, Director of the
teological Survey of Canada, while engaged in a survey of these islands
in the year 1878. These are the first photographs taken of the villages in
question, and they possess some interest as a matter of record in conse-
quence of the fact that the objects and conditions represented by them have
now almost wholly disappeared. Some of these views have been reproduced
in the Report of Progress of the Geological Survey for 1878-79, to
which reference may be made.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 499

APPENDIX I.
Early French Settlers in Canada. By B. Sure.

Leaving aside the men engaged in the fur trade, and who did not
adopt the colony as their home, we find that only 122 actual settlers or
heads of families arrived in Canada during the period of 1608-1645.

Nine-tenths of these men have numerous descendants still amongst
us. In this respect Canada is far ahead of any colony. The New England
States can hardly name twenty families coming from their first stock,
that is before 1645, although their immigration was five times at least
larger than ours.

There was no special organisation for recruiting in France.

Nearly every one of these 122 men married just before leaving for
Canada or soon after their arrival in the colony. They all belonged to
that class of people devoted altogether to agriculture, such as grains, hay,
oats, vegetables, hemp, flax. They understood thoroughly well the work
of felling trees and clearing land, because the provinces they came from
were of good soil, but not adapted for fruits and vine, nor fit for pasturage
on a large scale.

Eighty-four men arrived from 1634 to 1641, nineteen only from 1642
to 1645, probably on account of the raids by the Iroquois.

From 1608 to 1645 Normandy sent 38, Perche 27, Paris 5, Beauce 4,
Picardy 3, Maine 3, Brie 3, or a total of 83 from the north of the river
Loire to the English Channel.

The married women numbered 119, out of which 68 were from the
north of the Loire; Perche 24, Normandy 23, Paris 10, Picardy 7,
Anjou 2, Beauce 2.

Women whose provinces are not known number thirty, but it would
seem they were also from the north, and had followed their parents and
relatives. Therefore the eighty-two ' married men enumerated in the list
as coming from the north were equalled by the same number of married
women from the same region, whether the wedding took place in France
or in Canada.

Five women born in Canada married in the colony before 1645: three
of them became widows and remarried. Three women born in France,
and who had arrived with their husbands, became widows, and remarried
during that period. Girls thirteen or fourteen years old married young
men newly settled.

The women from Champagne, Auvergne, Saintonge, Rochelle, and

Poitou are nine in all, with eleven men from these same parts. Besides
this Brittany furnished 2 men, Lorraine 1, Nivernais 1, Forez 1. They
undoubtedly came by themselves, like those of the north.

The proportion is about the same of men and women whose places of

origin are not indicated, a sixth of the total immigration.

1 Including one widower and two bachelors.

500 REPORT—1899.

APPENDIX II.

Notes on the N’tlaka'pamue of British Columbia, a Branch of the great
Salish Stock of North America. By C. Hiuu-Tovr.

The following notes on the N’tlaka’/pamug are a summary of the
writer’s studies of this division of the Salish of British Columbia. They
treat to some extent of the ethnography, archeology, language, social
customs, folklore, &c., of this tribe, recording much, it is believed, not
hitherto gathered or published. For my folklore, ethnography, and
social customs notes I am chiefly indebted to Chief Mischelle, of Lytton,
than whom there is probably no better informed man in the whole tribe.

Ethnography.

The N’tlaka’pamug is one of the most interesting of the five groups
into which the interior Salish of British Columbia are divided, They
dwell along the banks of the Fraser between Spuzzum and Lillooet, and
on the Thompson from its mouth to the boundaries of the Sxquapmua,
and have also some half-score villagers in the Nicola valley. They
possess altogether some sixty-two villages throughout this area : eleven on
the Thompson, nine in the Nicola valley, eleven on the Fraser above
Lytton (Tlk-umtci’n)—their headquarters from time immemorial—and
thirty-one below. These are respectively :-—

THOMPSON RIVER.

1. Tlk-umtci’n, present Lytton, meaning 8. Cpa’ptsEn, from Spa‘tzin = Aselepias,

unknown. or great milkweed, from ~ which
2. N’kau’men, meaning unknown. natives make their thread, string,
3. N’hai/ikEn, 3 5 nets, &c. Place where ‘Spa/tzin’
4, N’kum'tcin, Spence’s Bridge, mean- grows.

ing unknown. 9. C’npa’, barren or bare place.
5. N’koakoaé’tko, yellow water. 10. Sklale, place where the Indians
6. Pimdi’nis, grassy hills. secured a certain mineral earth
7. ’P’kai'st, white rock (contracted from with which they covered the face

St’pek = white). to prevent it from chapping.

11. N’tai’kum, muddy water.
NIcoLA VALLEY.

1, Klakli’ok, a slide. 6. N’cickt, little canon.
2. Caokuna, a stony place. 7. Zogkt.
3. N’hothotko’as, place of many holes. 8. Koiltca’na.
4, Koaskuna’. 9, S'tcukosh, red place (?),
5, Cult’c, open face (cf. radical for

face).

ON FRASER ABOVE LYTTON.

1. N’homi'n, 8. N’cék’p’t, destroyed (refers to the
2. Stain, Stain Creek. incidents of a story).
3. N’okoié’kEn. 9. TcEté’q.
4, Yuo't. 10. TsuzEl, palisaded enclosure contain-
5. S'tcaékEn. ing houses.
6. N’k pan, deep. 11. Skaikai’Eten.
7. N’ta'-ko, bad water.

ON FRASER BELOW LYTTON.

1. Spapi’um, level grassy land (river 2. N’kai’a.
bench opposite Lytton). 3. Sk-apa, sandy land,

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 501

4, K-okdiap’, place of strawberries. 22. Tkkdéau'm.
5. Si’ska, uncle. 23. Sku’zis, jumping. Place where the
6. Ahulga. people were formerly much given
7. N’zatzahatko, clear water. to jumping.
8. Sluktla’ktmn, crossing place (Indians 24. Ckio’kEm, little hills.
- crossed the river in canoe here). 25. Tca’tia.
9. Statcia’ni, beyond the mountain 26. Skudia’‘k’k, skinny (people),
(Jackass Mountain). 27. Tik’tiltc.
10. N’ko'iam’, eddy. 28. C’kueét.
11. N’ka’tzam, log bridge across stream. 29, Cuimp, strong (head village of the
12. K-apasloq, sand roof (a great settle- Lower N'tlaka’pamuaq, just above
ment in former times). Yale).
13. Cuk’, little hollow or valley. 30, Cpu’zum or Spu’zum. Name has re-
14, Sk’miic, edge of the flat. ference to a custom prevalent here
15. C’nta’k’tl, bottom of the hill. in the old days. ‘he people of
16. Spé/im, pleasant, grassy, flowery spot. one place would go and sweep
17. Tzau’amuk, noise of rolling stones in the houses of the people in
bed of stream. another, and they would return
18. N’pEk’tEm, place where the Indians * the compliment next morning at
obtained the white clay they daybreak. This was a constant
burnt and used for cleaning wool, practice.
&e. (ef. pEk= white). 31. N’ka’kim, despised. Name has re-
19. Ti’metl, place where red ochre was ference to the poor social conditior
obtained. of the inhabitants of this village
20. Klapatci’tcin, North Bend = sandy in former days. . They were much
landing. looked down upon by the Spu’zum
21. Kléau’kt, rocky bar. people. Hence the name.

Social Organisation.

The primitive customs of the N’tlaka’pamua, like those of their neigh-
bours, have for the most part given way to new ones borrowed from the
whites. Some few are retained in a more or less modified form, and are
still practised by the older people. The social system of the N’tlaka/pamug
seems to have been a very simple one. I could hear of nothing in the
way of secret societies, totemic systems, or the like. The whole group
was comprised under one tribal name, and spoke the same tongue with
slight dialectal differences. They were, however, divided into numerous
village communities, each ruled over by an hereditary chief. Of these
latter there were three of more importance than the rest, viz. the chief of
the lower division of the tribe, whose headquarters was Spu’zum ; the
chief of the Nicola division, which was called by the lower division
Tetia'qamuq ; and the chief of the central division, whose headquarters
was Tik-umtcin (Lytton).! Of these three the most important was the

chief of the central division. He was lord paramount. The conduct of
affairs in each community was in the hands of the local chief, who was

1 Dr. Boas divides the tribe into five divisions. It is true there are five groups,
but not, in the strict sense of the word, five divisions. There were the central
Tik-umtci/nmuQ at the confluence of the Fraser and Thompson (who, together
with the neighbouring communities, constituted the N’tlaka’pamugoé, i.e. the
N’tlaka’pamuq proper), and the villages on the Fraser above Tlk-umtci'n, which
formed the central division; the villages on the upper part of the Thempson, and
those of the Nicola valley, which formed the upper division; and the villages below
the N’tlakapamugoé, which formed the lower division. Dr. Boas has named this
_ division Uta'mpt, as if it were the divisional name of these lower communities.
_ This is a misconception. The term means, rather, ‘below river’ people or ‘down
river’ people, and is applied by these very people themselves to the Yale tribe
below them, and by the Yale people again to the other Kau'itcin tribes farther
down the river. I know of no proper ‘group’ name peculiar to the lower division
other than the general term N’tlaka’pamuq.

\ \

br

502 REPORT—1899.

assisted by a council of elders. In all the relations of life the elders of
the bands played an important part, and in all family consultations their
advice was sought and listened to with the greatest deference and
respect. In addition to the hereditary chiefs, martial chiefs or leaders
were temporarily elected during times of warfare from among the
warriors. It was a rare thing for the district or communal chief to lead
or head a war party. The only part it seems they played was in sanc-
tioning fights and in bidding them cease. My informant told me that
the N’tlaka’pamugoé chiefs were, as a rule, peace-loving men, always
more anxious to prevent wars than to bring them about; and that the
grandfather of the present Lytton chief would go out after a battle and
purchase the prisoners taken captive in the fight, who were held as slaves
by their captors, and set them free and send them back to their own
people again. How far this was general I cannot say. That war, how-
ever, with the neighbouring tribes was not an unusual occurrence is clear
from the fact that it was found necessary to fortify their villages or some
particular portions of them by palisades, inside of which the people would
retire when hard pressed by the enemy. The name of one of the upper
villages close to the boundary of the Stlatlumu bears testimony to this
fact, as it signifies in English ‘a palisaded enclosure with houses inside,’
and the old men of Lytton can recall the old fort of their village. These
protective measures would seem to bear out my informant’s statements
that the N’tlaka’pamug were not a warring people, and all the notes that
I could gather of past encounters with other tribes show the N’tlaka’pamug
to be the defenders and not the attackers.

Weapons of Warfare.

The warrior’s weapons were the bow and arrow, stone swords, and
clubs, &c. Of these latter there were several kinds. One of these was a
sling-club formed by inclosing a round stone in a long strip of elk-hide.
The stone was placed in the centre of the strip and securely sewn there,
the ends of the hide being left to swing the weapon by. This was a
deadly weapon in the hands of a skilful person, but awkward to handle
by those not accustomed to its use; for if not properly wielded it was just
as likely to damage the holder as the person he struck at. A wooden
club fashioned from the wood of the wild crab-apple tree was another
effective weapon much used by the warriors. This would sometimes be
studded with spikes of stone or horn. It was fastened to the wrist by a
thong when fighting (see fig. 1). Besides these there were also stone-
tipped spears or javelins, and elk-horn or stone tomahawks. Poisoned
arrows were used in warfare, and these were always put in a special
quiver of dogskin. The stone tips of these arrows were always larger
than those used for game. The poison was obtained either from the
rattlesnake or from certain roots. For protection the fighting men wore
a short sleeveless shirt of doubled or trebled elk-hide, which hung from
the shoulders, and was fastened at the sides by thongs. This shirt was
called N’tsk‘rn in the Thompson tongue. It was usually covered with
painted figures and symbols of war (see fig. 2).in black, white, and red
paint. The two latter colours were mineral products. Red ochre is
found in considerable quantities within their boundaries. The white
paint was obtained by burning a certain kind of mineral clay which,
when burnt, produced a fine white powder easily converted into paint by
mixing with oil or fat, This powder was also employed by the women in

:

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 503
the weaving of their goat-hair blankets. A trivial matter or misunder-
standing would sometimes bring about a fight. It is recorded that a
party of Indians from the interior paid the Thompsons a visit once upon

Fig. 1.—Ancient war club made from wood of the wild crab-apple tree, after
drawing by Chief Mischelle, of Lytton, B.C.
:
Fig. 2.—N’tlakfpa’mugQ warrior’s shirt of the old days, after drawing by Chief
: Mischelle, of Lytton.

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atime. The visitors wore soles of pitch upon their feet to protect them.
This novel style of foot-gear excited the mirth of the Thompsons so
much that their visitors became deeply offended, and a big fight was the
result.

As far as I could learn, the hunting, fishing, and berry grounds of the

504 REPORT—1899.

N’tlaka/pamug were common property. But no one under penalty of a
severe punishment could take a fish, pick a berry, or dig a root until after
the Feasts of First Fruits had been held. These feasts were conducted
as follows :—When the salmon, for instance, begin to run, word is brought
to the divisional chiefs that the fish are coming upriver. Messengers are
then sent to the neighbouring villages, calling a meeting of the people on
a certain day, at which all must attend at the appointed place. When the
day has arrived and the people have assembled, the head chief, attended
by the other lesser ones and the elders, opens the ceremony at daybreak
by a long prayer. While the prayer is being said everybody must stand
with eyes reverently closed. To ensure this being done, as it was regarded
as an essential part of the ceremony, certain of the elders were assigned the
duty of watching that no one opened his eyes while the prayer was being
said. Exactly to whom these prayers were addressed my informant could
not tell me. All I could gather was that the ‘old Indians’ believed in
some great and beneficent power who dwelt behind the clouds, and who
gave them the salmon, fruits, roots, &c. ; who, if they showed themselves
ungrateful or unthankful, could, and might, withdraw his gifts from them.
He could not give me any of the words of these prayers.! After the prayer
is over every one present is given a bit of salmon which has been cooked
for the purpose. As soon as all have partaken of the salmon a feast is
prepared at which each is free to eat as much as he desires. When the
meal is concluded, a dance takes place. Each person lets down his or her
hair and a space is cleared for the dancers. Singing always accompanies
the dancing, and a certain individual leads the dance song in a loud voice,
and the dancers keep time with the singer. They dance on this occasion
in a circle, with the hands extended, palm upwards, before them, swaying
them with a rhythmic motion from side to side as they sing and dance.
Towards the conclusion of the dance the time quickens and the move-
ments are more rapid and vigorous. As the dance is about to end the
master of the ceremonies calls to the people to stretch their palms
towards the sky and look upwards. They continue in this attitude for a
little while, and the chief presently brings his hands together, closing them
as he does so, as if he held something in them, and lowers them gently to
the level of his breast and then places them, one fist over the other,
against his breast. This action signifies the reception of the gifts asked
for in the prayer and song. The whole ceremony is conducted throughout
with the greatest decorum and reverence. This dance is repeated again
at noon and at sunset. The Feast of Berries and Roots is conducted in a
similar manner. Besides these periodic prayings, daily prayers were said
by one of the elders in each ‘keekwilee-house’ every morning at day-
break, all the worshippers closing their eyes reverently the whole time and
repeating in an earnest tone the closing formula Aksai/as, which signified
to them very much what our Amen does to us.

Other dances were indulged in at times besides these at the Feasts of
First Fruits, at which all the actors sat and swung their extended hands,
palm upwards, from side to side, keeping time to a song called K-dia/tct.

Tn an account of the training of the young men of the tribe given below, the
young man addresses his prayer to a being called Adana'hkoa, who is the giver of the
gifts he desires. From the strong resemblance this word bears to those having
reference to the sun, and to heat, day, &c., 1am disposed to think this being to
whom the N’tlaka'pamuq addressed their prayers was the Sun God of the Coast
tribes (see below)

ON fHE ETHNOLOGIGAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 505

The N’tlaka/pamug apparently never used masks of any kind at their
dances, such paraphernalia being quite unknown to them.

Puberty customs seem to have been much simpler among the N’tlaka’-
pamug than among other tribes. All I could gather concerning them
was that when a girl arrived at puberty she must withdraw herself from
her family for a time and live apart by herself. I could not gather that
any particular course of life was prescribed for the occasion, or that she
was forbidden to eat certain kinds of food. It would appear that their
whole lives were much simpler and more natural than those of their con-
geners elsewhere. We see this in their marriage customs, for instance,
which are simple compared with those of other tribes, or even with those
of the ‘Stalo’ or River Indians below them.

Marriage Customs. ,

When a youth arrived at marriageable age he generally had a maiden
in his eye whom he wished for wife. He would first put himself in her
way and they would stroll out together. He would next send her little
presents from time to time. If she was not averse to his suit she would
accept these ; if otherwise she would refuse them. If his gifts were ac-
cepted he would then declare his liking for her, and tell her he would give
her a year to make up her mind in the matter. If things went. smoothly
: during this period, at the end of the time he would then send a present by

a friendly elder of his family to the girl’s parents. If they accept the
__ present they call together the relatives and friends of the family, who dis-
cuss the subject ; and if the young man is acceptable to the majority of
them, the girl’s father takes an elk-hide, cuts it into strips of useful
lengths, and gives each one present apiece. This witnesses to their agree-
ment. After this has been done one of the old men of the girl’s family
goes to the young man and informs him that his suit is acceptable to the
family, and that he may have the girl for wife. Supposing that a majority
of the family be against him his present is returned and he is notified as
before that he cannot have the girl, and must look elsewhere for a wife.
When he has been accepted the bridegroom goes the day following to the
girl’s home, accompanied by all his friends and relations, who carry food
and other gifts with them. A feast is prepared from this food, the gifts
are distributed, and a general good time is indulged in. After the meal
is over the old people declare themselves satisfied with the arrangements
in a loud voice. The young man and his bride are now man and wife,
and share the same blanket that night. Next day the girl returns with
her husband to his home, and some days later her parents and relatives
come and pay them a return visit, bringing with them also food and gifts.
A second feast is then prepared, the gifts are distributed, and all partake
of the food as before. This concludes the marriage ceremony, the pair
after this being regarded as man and wife by the whole community. A
man was free to marry whom he might outside of his own family.

Shamanism.

_Shamanism was prevalent among the N’tlaka’pamug. This we can
gather readily enough from their stories, and certain spots and localities
are pointed out by the older Indians as the places where certain celebrated
Shamans underwent their fasts and training to gain their powers. There
are several such spots on the banks of Stain Creek, a mountain

‘ stream

506 REPORT—1899.,

that runs into the Fraser about five miles above Lytton. Worn and
hollowed places are pointed out here and there, and these are said to have
been made by the feet of the aspirants after Shamanistic powers in the
performance of their exercises. We find several groups of rock paintings
along this creek, which are believed by the present Indians to have been
made in the past by noted Shamans. It is interesting to note that these
paintings are invariably found high up on the cliff surfaces above the
reach of the tallest man—in some cases as high as twenty or thirty feet
from the ground. It is clear, therefore, that they must have used some
kind of ladder or platform to reach these heights. This, to the Indian
mind, always adds to their mystery. The modern Indians seem to have
no knowledge of the signification of these paintings, and say that the
pigments used by themselves will not stand the weather or endure like
those of the ancients.

Names.

The ceremony of name-giving was observed by the N’tlaka’pamug
nobility. It would appear that when a child was born it might be called
by any name. Later, when he had grown up, his parents gave a great
feast, to which all the friends of the family were invited, and a name was
then chosen from among the names of his dead ancestors and bestowed
upon him by which he was thereafter known. Among the common
people the men kept the names given at birth, or had nicknames applied
to them.

Mortuary Customs.

Very little could be learned directly of their ancient mortuary customs.
They have been so long under missionary influences that their old prac-
tices have for the most part died out and been forgotten. A few of these,
however, they still keep up, such as cutting the hair short and special
washings or cleansings in the river. The widow must not lie in her bed,
but on branches spread on the floor, and every morning she must undergo
a purification by washing her body with fir-tips. This is kept up for a
longer or shorter time, as the widow’s feelings dictate or prompt.

I could not learn that slaves were ever killed at the burial of their
masters ; and there is certainly nothing in the disposal of the bodies of
the ancient dead, as far as is now discoverable, to warrant a belief in such
practices, In modern burials horses and colts are frequently killed, but
not, my informant was at pains to tell me, for sacrificial or religious
purposes, but that their flesh might supply food for the burial feast. The
skins of these slain animals were afterwards hung upon the branches of
some neighbouring tree. I have seen several of these skins myself on
trees near the burial-grounds.

Birth Customs.

The birth customs, like the death customs, have also been much
modified by missionary influence. In the days before the whites, when a
child was born, it was wrapped in a bundle of the soft inner bark of the cedar
prepared for the purpose. Later it was wrapped in soft skins and placed
in its cradle, which was (and still is) made, in the case of the poorer class
of natives, from birch-bark, and in the case of the better class from neatly
woven basket-work. It would seem that no cradle was ever used twice
over for different children, but after the child had grown out of it, and

—————— OO

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 507

needed it no longer, it was taken to the burial-ground and placed in or
under a tree with all the paraphernalia belonging to it wrapped up inside ;
or was suspended to the branches or placed in a fork of a tree in the
forest. I have myself found many such thus placed or hidden away. In
the modern cradle one invariably finds the bottom lined with a piece of tin
cut from the side of a kerosene can. This in former days was, of course,
impossible. They are also sometimes highly decorated with the brass cases
of rifle cartridges fastened through the cap-hole by thongs to the edge of the
cradle. They doubtless had a practical as well as an esthetic value. The
jingle of them would attract the infant’s attention and amuse it. Infants
were, and still are, always nursed and dandled in the cradle, which the
mother always carries about with her. On Sundays nothing is commoner
where there is a church than to see the mothers bringing "their cradles to
the service with them. When the child is fretful they rock the cradle
on their knees or set it upright so that the child may look about it and
see what is going on. Generally the head of the cradle is covered with a
movable hood, which can be pushed back or drawn forward at will.

Tattooing and Painting.

Tattooing was, and to some extent still is, practised by the women.
The commonest marks are three parallel lines. On old women these are
seen on the side of the face, and sometimes on the chin, but on the
younger ones more commonly on the wrist or arm. I made many
inquiries, but was unable to discover what signification these marks had
other than that they were decorative. I am disposed to think, however,
that in earlier days they had some special significance, this particular
marking of three simple lines being so common and so universal among
the women. The women also formerly pierced the septum of the nose, in
which the dentalium shell was worn. Facial and body paintings were
quite common among the men of the N’tlaka’/pamug. To express joy they
painted the face white and red, as we learn from their stories. The
warrior always painted his face before going into battle, and the youths
in their morning sports and exercises covered their bodies with all kinds
of fanciful designs.

Games.

They were fond of games, like their neighbours, and utilised the level
grassy river benches for various games of ball. One of these games,
called by them swh'-kul-lila'-ka, was not unlike our own game of football.
The players were divided, as with us, into two groups, and at each end of
the field was a goal formed by two poles planted several feet asunder.
The play commenced from the middle of the field, and the object of the
players was to get the ball through the goal of their adversaries. The
ball was made from some kind of tree fungus, cut round and covered with
elk-hide. I could not learn anything of the rules of the game ; nor was
my informant certain whether the feet or hands, or both, were used in
propelling the ball. Mention is made of this game in one of the stories
here recorded. Gambling was also a favourite pastime here as elsewhere.
The game known by the term L’tpig was that commonly practised.
Much betting went on among the players, and all bets were made and
‘booked’ before the game commenced. The method of ‘booking’ was
primitive. The objects staked were simply tied or fastened together and
set on one side till the game was over, the winner then taking his own

geen

308 REPORT—1899:

and his opponent’s property. The game seems to have consisted in
declaring in which hand the player held the marked one of two other-
wise similar short bone rods, which could easily be held in the closed
palm. My informant possessed a pair of these, which he was good
enough to give me. Besides these two rods there were also twelve short
pieces of wood used as well. These seemed to have played the part of
counters, but of this I am not certain, this part of the game not being
clear to me.

Clothing.

The old-time clothing has entirely gone out of use, with the exception
of the moccasin, which is still almost exclusively worn by the old people
of both sexes. A man’s clothing in former days consisted of a shirt
which reached to his middle, made from the skin of the elk, deer, coon,
or ground-hog. Below this he wore leggings of deer-skin or other suit-
able material which reached to the top of the thigh. In addition to this
he would sometimes wear a breech-clout of skin. For his feet he had
neatly made moccasins ; and for his head, when he so desired it, a cap of
the skin of the porcupine or of a loon with the feathers on. Commonly
they wore no head covering, living as they did mostly within the dry
belt of the province. The dress of the women of the nobler class con-
sisted of a long doe-skin shroud or smock, reaching from the neck to the
feet, and tied in at the waist with a band fastened on either side (see
fig. 3). They were usually fringed at the side seams and at the upper
and lower seams of the arms. They were also, in the case of chiefs’
wives and daughters, at times profusely decorated with beads, shells, and
other ornamentation. The native name for this garment was ¢latli’k.
Below these they sometimes wore leggings called matta’s, and on their
feet finely wrought moccasins. 'The commoner women and female slaves
wore only a short skirt, and went bare-legged and bare-footed.

Sweat-houses.

The sweat-house was and still is a great institution among the
N’tlaka’pamug. My informant, who on my last visit to Lytton was
saffering from paralysis of his lower limbs, was looking forward to the
time when he would be so far recovered as to be able to take a sweat-
bath. The method of taking the bath appears to be the same here as
elsewhere, and as a description of these houses has been given before by
Dr. G. M. Dawson, it will be unnecessary for me to give it here.

Food,

The food of the N’tlaka’/pamug depended somewhat upon the location
of the various divisions of the tribe. The chief food of the Thompsons
was venison, and the men of this district were usually skilful hunters and
trappers. They sometimes followed the game with the bow and arrow,
accompanied by dogs trained to pull down the quarry ; but most of their
game was taken by means of traps and snares of various kinds. Of these
the noose, pit, and drop-snares were the commonest. Mention is made
of the noose snare for catching deer in one of the stories given below.
On the Fraser below Lytton the Indians were mostly fishers and poor
hunters. Their method of taking the salmon between Lytton and Yale
was by means of the dip-net. When the salmonare running, the Indians
may be seen in great numbers thus fishing on the banks of the river.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 509

Tia. 3.—Pattern of ancient dress of a chief's wife or daughter, after drawing
by Chief Mischelle, of Lytton, B,C. Material, soft doc-skin,

Sag” REPORT—1899.

This net scarcely needs description : its name implies its use and form.
Briefly it is a meshed bag, from three to four feet deep, attached to a
hoop-like frame, to which a long slim pole is fastened. The fisher holds
this pole in his two hands, and dips in the net on the up-stream side of
him, with its mouth towards the current, and draws it slowly and
regularly against the stream, as far as the pole allows, and then returns
it in the air and repeats the action again. He continues thus till he has
secured a fish. The women stand by to receive the fish, which they kill
by a blow on the head. They then quickly and deftly cut it open, wrench
off the head by inserting a stick through one of the gills and out through
the mouth, and, giving it a dexterous turn of the wrist, cut out the back-
bone, spread the two halves open, and hang it up to dry in an open shed
constructed of poles for the purpose near by on the bank. Scores of
these may still be seen along the line of the railway as one passes from Yale
to Lytton. The knives which the women use for this are fashioned after
the pattern of their own old implement, and are quite commonly made

from a piece of an old hand-saw about five or six inches long, on the back —

of which is secured a grooved piece of rounded wood about one and a half
inches thick, which runs the whole length of the steel, and serves as a
handle. The opposite or blade edge is ground down, and the ends are
rounded, having, when completed, very much the appearance of a meat
or suet chopper. I was told by some Indian women whom I watched at
work that they prefer this style of knife to any other ; and to judge by
the dexterous manner in which they ran the edge from the vent upwards
along the belly of the fish, opened it out, cut out the backbone, and had
it ready for drying, it certainly is an effective instrument for the purpose
in their hands.

Above Lytton on the Thompson, where the water is too clear for
catching fish in nets, they spear them by torchlight. The fish show
white at night under the glare of the torches, and the men go out in
canoes and spear them readily. The spearman occupies the centre of the
canoe, and when the salmon, attracted by the glare of the torches, comes
near, he throws his spear at it and rarely misses his mark. The fish is
now quickly seized by one of the others, knocked on the head, the spear
withdrawn, and the fish thrown to the bottom of the canoe.

Salmon Oil and Butter.

The N’tlaka’pamug had another way of treating the salmon besides
drying them. They extracted oil from them in considerable quantities.
To do this they would place some forty or fifty fish, according to their
size, in a large trough which they hollowed out from the trunk of a tree,
as they did their canoes, with fire and adze. When the salmon were ripe,
that is in a rotten state, water was poured in upon the mass in sufficient
quantities to just cover the whole. Heated stones were then put in and
the whole mass stirred till it was reduced to a hot pulp. The stones
were then taken out and a pailful of cold water was poured on, which
caused the oil to rise to the top. The oil was at this stage of a reddish
tinge, and had, so say the Indians, no offensive smell. It was now
skimmed off into birch-bark buckets with a spoon, made sometimes from
the horn of the mountain sheep and sometimes of wood. It was
allowed to stand overnight and boiled afresh next day and skimmed till
quite clear. The oil was then stored away in bottles very ingeniously
made from whole skins of medium-sized salmon. The skin for this pur-

ee

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. Hat

pose was drawn from the salmon much as one draws off a tight-fitting
glove that will not come off without being turned inside out. It was
then carefully cleaned by rubbing with dry punk-wood, after which it
was rubbed with deer or mountain-sheep suet. The skin was then ready,
and was turned right side out ; the oil was poured in and the mouth securely
fastened. In the meantime the flesh of the salmon had not been
neglected. After the oil had been skimmed off, the water was strained
away and the remains worked up and kneaded into balls and put in the
sun todry. While drying it was occasionally smelt to see that it was
sweet and devoid of flavour. After a time it was squeezed and washed
and kneaded again and put to dry once more. When quite dry and free
from all smell it was broken up and rubbed fine between the hands till
it took on the appearance of flour. Some of this was then placed in the
bottom of a birch-bark basket, and on this were laid the bottles of oil ;
and when the basket was full more of the salmon flour was spread over
the top and down the sides until the bottles were encased and buried in
it. The whole was then stowed away for winter consumption. In addi-
tion to this way of preserving the oil, they had another way of treating
it. A kind of butter was manufactured from it by mixing it with equal
quantities of the best kidney suet, taken from the deer or, preferably,
from the mountain sheep. The oil and suet were boiled up together,
thoroughly mixed, and then set to cool. When cool the compound had
the consistency of butter, and was esteemed a great delicacy among the
natives. It was eaten, among other things, with the compressed cakes
which they made from the service (amalanchier) and other berries, of
which great quantities grow in their region. Only the wealthier class
could afford food of this kind. Besides venison and fish, wild fruit of all
such kinds as grew in their neighbourhood and was edible, and roots and
many kinds of herbs, were eaten. As Dr. G. M. Dawson has given a list
of these, with their botanical names, and has also described with some
detail their method of preparing them in his ‘Notes on the Shuswap
People of British Columbia,’ it will be unnecessary for me to enumerate
them here.

Utensils,

For boiling their food the N’tlaka’pamug always used basket kettles
made like their other basketry from the split roots of the cedar.1 These
roots are sometimes dyed red and black, and very beautiful patterns are
made from the three different colours. According to my informant, the
red dye was obtained from the bark of the alder-tree, and the dark stain
was obtained by soaking the roots in black slime or mud.? So skilfully

' Dr. G. M. Dawson, in his ‘Notes on the Shuswap People of British Columbia,’
tells us that these baskets were made from roots of the spruce, and Dr. Boas, in
his Report on the Shuswaps, informs us that the basketry of the Shuswaps and
N'tlaka'‘pamug was made from the roots of the white pine. I cannot say what
material the Shuswaps constructed their baskets from, but if my informant is
correct, the N’tlaka’pamuq always used the root of the cedar; and I know no better
authority among the Thompson Indians than Chief Mischelle, of Lytton, from whom
to obtain information of this kind. [As the N’tlaka’pamug were pre-eminent in
basket-making, it is possible that the information gained by Mr. Hill-Tout may be
accepted as correct, although the cedar (Zhuya) is not abundant in the Thompson
River country.—G. M. D.]

* According to Dr. Boas the black dye was obtained from the fern root. It is
possible it was got in both ways.

512 REPORT—1899.

did the women make these baskets that they would hold liquids without
trouble. In preparing any food two kettles were customarily used—one
containing water for washing off any dirt that might adhere to the heated
stones, and the other for holding the food. In boiling salmon for eating
the fish were tied up in birch bark to prevent breaking and falling to
ieces.

4 The house furniture and utensils were few and simple. Tables and
chairs, or such like conveniences, were quite unknown. Wooden dishes,
hollowed out from the solid block by means of stone, bone, or beaver-teeth
chisels, and wooden or horn spoons were sometimes used by the wealthier
class ; but usually the food was served up and eaten off reed mats, which
served also as seats, carpets, and beds. These latter were commonly laid
directly on the ground, which was strewed with the bushy ends of fir
branches. The beds of the common people were simply a few reed mats,
but in the houses of the chiefs and headmen these were supplemented
with skins and blankets woven from the hair of the mountain sheep or
goat. The people always disrobed when going to bed, and as there
were no division or apartments in the ‘keekwilee-houses,’ but for the
dusk there could not have been much privacy about the matter. Yet it
is clear from their folk-tales that the maidens of the upper ranks, at least,
were modest and diffident, and when out bathing always chose the most
secluded spots, and were as embarrassed and shamed at being seen naked
as any white maiden might be. I have been struck again and again in
my work among the Indians with this keen sense of modesty in the
girls of the interior, particularly those who have come under the influence
of the Sisters.

The houses of the N’tlaka’pamug resembled those of the other interior
tribes. or the greater part of the year they lived in semi-subterranean
dwellings known in the trade jargon as ‘keekwilee-houses.’ These
houses, of which there is no perfect specimen left in the province,
were of varying dimensions. Those of Lytton were from 30 to 50 feet
in diameter. Nothing of them now remains but the saucer-like depres-
sions which mark the spots where they formerly stood. As a descrip-
tion of these dwellings has been given both by Dr. Boas in his Reports,
and by Dr. G. M. Dawson in his ‘ Notes,’ &ec., it will be unnecessary
for me to give another here. I will only say that the dimensions of
these dwellings as given by the above writers fall considerably below the
dimensions of those commonly found among the central and lower
divisions of the N’tlaka’pamug. Of the upper I cannot speak from per-
sonal knowledge. Dr. G. M. Dawson speaks of those he saw as having
a diameter of from 10 to 30 feet ; and Dr. Boas describes his as having
a diameter of from 12 to 15 feet.'. The shortest diameter to be found on
the old camp site at Lytton was 34 feet, and they rise from this to 54
feet ; and the old men of the neighbourhood, whom I questioned on this
matter, and most of whose lives had been spent in them, informed me that
60 and even 70 feet were not uncommon diameters. There is one now,
which I measured in company with Mr. Harlan Smith, of the New York
Museum of Natural History, on the left bank of Stain Creek, not far

1 The dimensions given by me were not from actual measurement, and I am ready
to accept Mr. Hill-Tout’s figures. Dr. Boas’s illustration of the construction of these
houses, in one of the Reports of the B. A. A. S. Committee on the N. W. tribes, is
incorrect, as afterwards stated by him. The actual method of construction is shown
in a diagram in my paper, here several times referred to by Mr. Hill-Tout,—G. M. D.

|
|

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. ols

from where it joins the Fraser, that measures 59 feet from the posthole
on one side to the corresponding hole on the other. These dwellings were
usually inhabited by several families, more or less closely related to one
another ; and in the very large ones sixty or seventy souls would often pass
the winter together. Commonly there was but one fire in the centre, but
if the weather was very cold smaller fires would be kindled near the four
great supporting poles. Fires were also at times lighted here for culinary
purposes, when many families inhabited the same house. The floors of
these houses were kept covered with small fir branches, which were
renewed about every three or four days. The entrance to these houses
was through the smoke-hole in the roof, a notched tree which projected
some way beyond the hole being used asa means of ascent and descent.
The central space between the four supporting poles was common ground
in the centre of which was the fire. Behind this, under the sloping
roofs, each family or group had its own quarters.

The summer dwellings were extremely simple, consisting merely of a
framework of light poles covered with mats or wattled, and all cooking
was done in the open air. The food supplies of the central N’tlaka’pamug
were invariably stored in caches, i.c. holes in the ground, which were
roofed with poles or boards, and then again covered with earth or sand.
The food was commonly protected from the soil or sand by bark. Re-
mains of these caches or cellars, with rolls of birch and other bark in
them, may be seen at any of the old camp sites. Many such, now filled
with sand to the level of the surrounding ground, are found at Tlk-umtci’n.
In the lower division and elsewhere small sheds were erected on poles
standing from 5 to 10 feet above the ground, to be out of the reach of dogs
and other animals. As a rule these structures are found only where the
ground is rocky, or of such a nature as makes excavations difficult or
impossible, as along the Fraser Cafion above Yale.

Hospitality.

Hospitality was recognised as a virtue, and practised as a duty, among
the N’tlaka’pamuag, and every one was constrained to offer the stranger or
visitor the best he possessed. !

Customs.

The N’tlaka‘pamug had many singular and superstitious customs and
practices, some of which we may gather from their folk-tales. Some of
these they still practise. For instance, when roots are to be baked,
women only must do it. I could learn no satisfactory reason for this.
The old-time training for young men has many interesting and unique
features about it. Of these I learnt the following, none of which are any
longer practised. In the days before the advent of the whites, when a
youth wanted to fit himself to become a hardy hunter, he would go down
to the river's edge at the close of the salmon run, when the carcasses of
dead and maggot-filled salmon would be found lying along the banks in
great numbers, and thrust his hands up to the wrists in the rotting,
maggoty mass, and keep them there for hours together. This was said to
harden them, so that they became impervious to the cold when out
hunting in cold weather. They would do this many times in their late
boyhood. Another method of attaining the same end was to lie down at

; ' See the story of Snikia’p, &e., p, G51,
1899, LL

514 REPORT—1899.

the edge of the river all night with the hands and wrists soaking in the
cold water. They would also repeat this many times before the desired
callousness to cold was attained. The old people affirm that the young
men of their day and earlier were hardier and stronger than the young
men of to-day. They say the present youths would succumb to the
training and hardening endured by their grandfathers. In the old days
a youth was generally ambitious of becoming a great hunter, or warrior,
or runner, or athlete generally. To acquire a superiority over his fellows
he was ready for the greatest acts of self-denial and self-discipline. ‘his
spirit of emulation was encouraged and enjoined by the elders, and they
were taught to pray to the great spirit known as Kéana/koa, and seek gifts
from him in the following manner. When a young man desired any
special blessing or gift, he would rise early in the morning, some time
before daybreak, and go alone and unseen to the top of some hill or emi-
nence, or to the river’s side, and pray. This act in itself required, on his
part, no small courage and self-conquest, the forest and mountains at
night being peopled in the lively imagination of the Indian with spirits
and shades of all kinds. If he sought for some physical athletic gift he
would practise himself therein as well as pray for it in words like the
following : ‘O Koana‘koa,| make my arm strong, my chest strong, my
legs untiring. Make all my body strong ; make my heart good. Make
me a great hunter, a great man, a great warrior, a great runner or jumper,’
as the case might be.

In order that the prayers and exercises might be efficacious, it was
necessary that the suppliant should arise before any one was awake
or stirring ; and his prayers and exercises must be finished and he on his
way home before the sun appeared above the horizon. He does this
three mornings successively, and if he has been careful to observe the
rules and conditions twice out of the three times at least, his prayers will
be granted, and he will receive the gifts asked for. If, on the contrary,
he has been lazy and careless, and did not rise early enough, and was seen
leaving the camp, or did not perform his exercises or say his prayers
before sunrise, instead of his requests being granted some evil gift will be
given him instead.

Besides these special trainings and exercises undertaken at their own
desire, there were the daily morning exercises. The young men of the
village were accustomed to turn out early in the morning and go to the
river to swim, after which they would return to the camp and indulge
in various athletic exercises. There are two big boulders standing

1 It is interesting to note here that the name of the power to whom the youths
prayers are addressed contains the same radical as is found in the Nootka and
Kwakiutl terms for morning, viz., Koa’-koai'la and Ko’atl, which both signify that
light or day is coming. The same root is found in the Coast Salish terms for day
identical in form or slightly modified, as Koa-(yil) and Skia-(yil), and which in
these dialects signifies sky also. It is also seen in the terms of both stocks for red
and blue, and for the terms expressive of heat and warmth. There can be little
doubt, I think, that this being was associated in the minds of the suppliants with
the sun, or sky, or light, all of which are intimately connected. I have pointed
out in another paper (see Proceedings of the Royal Society of Canada for 1898-99)
that the Salish and Nootka-Kwakiutl were originally an undivided people, or had
a common origin, the two languages being full of common terms of all kinds
employed in identically the same way, and that between the extreme members of
the stocks, rather than those contiguous to each other, between whom we know
no intercourse or communication has taken place from time immemorial.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 515

in the midst of the village site of the old Lytton people. They are
of irregular shape, 10 and 44 feet high respectively and about 20 feet
apart. Their perimeters are 31 and 27 feet respectively. After the
Tlikumtci/nmug youths had been in the river it was the custom for them
to exercise themselves near these rocks. They would run in succession up
the side on to the top of the lower one, pause there a moment, and then
run down the side facing the other rocks, reach it in three strides, and
leap upon the top. They would then shake their clubs and spears as if
defying an enemy, leap down again, and run at the boulders with uplifted
weapon, as if they were enemies. Those practices have long since been
given up, and the youths of the present day are very different from those
of the past.

Canoes.

The N’tlaka’pamugoé used three different kinds of canoes, the birch-
bark, cedar, and skin canoe. The commonest and that most preferred for
ordinary use was the birch-bark canoe. Sometimes the place of this
would be taken by one constructed from cedar hollowed from the log in
the usual way by means of fire and adzes. The skin canoe, made by
stretching the skin of an elk or caribou over a framework of wood, was:
essentially the hunter’s canoe, and was mainly employed by him in ferry-
ing himself and his belongings over bodies of water that lay in his path
when out hunting. The paddles for both the skin and bark canoes were
double-bladed. For the cedar canoe a single-bladed paddle was employed.

Archeological.

Under this heading, and as announced in the last report of this
_ Committee, I had prepared a somewhat lengthy paper, before the
American Museum of Natural History had published Mr. Harlan Smith’s
Report on the Archeology of Lytton and Neighbourhood. But, as this
publication covers the same ground as my own, it will be unnecessary
at this time to publish a second report of this area. I shall therefore
_ simply add a few further remarks upon the method of stone-cutting
employed by the old-time dwellers in this region, as evidenced by the
partially cut stones themselves, recovered from the ancient camp sites of
this locality. In his report Mr. Smith inclines to the opinion that the
cutting was done by sandstone slips or flakes. That many of the cuts
were effected in this way there can be no doubt, as I pointed out some two
years ago ; the bevelled sandstone grinders found in great numbers on
the old camp-sites fitting these grooves to a nicety. And that these can
make grooves of this kind in the greenstone boulders I have demonstrated
by grinding them out myself. Indeed it surprised me to find how readily
the hard serpentine or harder nephrite (jade) could be grooved in this way
But all the boulders were not so cut. Dr. G. M. Dawson was informed
by some of the old men at Lytton that the old people’ used to cut out
their jade, adzes, and chisels from the block by means of quartz crystals,
Chief Mischelle also made the same statement to me, and explained
further how they effected it. Having selected a suitable boulder, the
Stone-cutter would fasten two strips of wood together at a distance of
about half an inch apart, something after the principle of parallel ruler
only the parallels are rigid in this case. This he laid upon the surface of
block for holding his crystal in place and keeping his line straight
the cutting utensil working to and fro between the parallel bars or strips
= LL2

516 REPORT—1899.

When the groove is sufficiently deep’ to hold the cutter in place, this
apparatus is thrown aside and the cutting is continued without its aid.
Water is used throughout the process to keep the cut clean and open.
Rock crystals of various kinds were employed for the purpose, agate being
a favourite. I have attempted cutting the jade block with an agate
crystal myself ; and, although the progress is not so rapid as with the
sandstone grinder, the crystal soon cuts into the stone, and there can
be no doubt that the boulders can be cut in this manner. And that
they were so cut sometimes in the old days is perfectly clear from the
evidence of the grooves themselves, which in such cases are entirely
different from the curvilinear grooves made by the bevelled sandstone.
They are distinctly angular, and the bottom of the cut narrows to a point,
the outline of the cut having the appearance of a triangle standing on
its apex. Mr. Smith must either have secured no specimens of this
kind of grooving or have overlooked the difference between this and the
rounded grooves given in his illustrations.

The advantage of cutting with a crystal over the sandstone grinder
would appear to be a saving of material, less of the block being cut away
in the process ; and although there is no scarcity of greenstone blocks, they
are not all of jade or of the first quality, and this fact may have weighed
with the cutter at times. In any case, whatever the reason may have
been, the fact remains that the ancient stone cutters employed both crystal
and sandstone to cut out their adzes and chisels from the rough block.
The polish afterwards put upon these and others of their polished tools and
utensils was effected by first rubbing with rushes and afterwards with the
naked hand. The old Indians would sit for hours together by the camp
fire rubbing a stone in this manner ; and I was informed that the polish
found on some of the highly finished stone pestles or hammers would take
more than one person’s lifetime to effect. I secured some good examples
of the crystal-cut boulders in my last visit to Lytton. Some of these are
now in the Provincial Museum at Victoria, and a particularly interesting
specimen I recently forwarded to the Dominion Geological Survey Museum
at Ottawa. This last is doubly interesting from the fact that it exhibits
in itself the two different modes of cutting, some of the grooves being
curvilinear in section and some angular. The workman who owned this
block, however, favoured the grindstone method, for on one of its sur-
faces we find three shallow, rounded grooves, parallel to each other, as if
the cutter had been marking the block off into sections to see how many
pieces he could cut out of it. It is quite possible that the cutter found it
easier to start his cuts by grinding, and when the groove was deep enough
to hold his crystal, he jinished the cut by this means. This particular
block favours this idea. At any rate it is perfectly clear that there were
two methods of cutting employed, and not one as indicated by Mr.
Smith.

I concur with Mr. Smith in his conclusion that there is no evidence
for supposing the old-time dwellers on these prehistoric camp sites to be
of a different race from the present tribes. No evidence as yet has been
gathered which takes us back more than a few centuries at most.
Mr. Smith secured many skulls from this locality, and it would have been
interesting if the indices of these had been compared with the indices of
the heads of the present N’tlaka’pamugq. I think they will be found
interesting. In speaking of the arrow-heads of this district Mr. Smith
remarked that the prehistoric points were invariably larger than the more

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. SLA

modern ones. This appears to me to be a misconception on his part. His
collection of arrow-heads is not as large as mine, nor is he, perhaps, as
familiar with the several varieties as I am ; and from my own observation,
as well as from the reports of others who have worked on these grounds,
I should say the reverse was the case if there is any difference at all, or it
this difference can be determined, which I much doubt. It has always
been considered one of the peculiarities of this district that so many very
small arrow-heads have been found there. I have myself seen scores less
than half an inch in length. Indeed, some of them seemed too small
for practical purposes, but the old Indians say they were undoubtedly
used for game, while the bigger ones were used in warfare.

Another point of interest on which a few further remarks will not be
out of place is the number of knives and ‘flakes’ found in these old
burial-grounds. These are at Tlk-umtci’n commonly formed from a kind
of obsidian, called by Dr. G. M. Dawson augite-porphyrite. At least 75
per cent. of these are chipped on one or more of their edges. On the
other side of the river large quantities of agate, chalcedony, and jasper
of various colours have been found in the old burying-grounds. These
latter resemble closely the flint knives, flakes, and scrapers found in the
old mounds in England. Except for the difference in material it would
be impossible to distinguish between the two. On inquiry from the old
Indians as to what purpose the ancients put these small knives and
flakes to, I was informed they employed them to cut or scarify their bodies,
particularly their legs. ‘It lets out the bad blood,’ said one old man,
‘and makes a man good and strong.’ One of the peculiarities of these
flakes or knives is that a considerable number of them are more or less
curved in form. Whether these forms are accidental or otherwise I
am unable to determine.

Physical Characteristics,

Owing to the absence of most of the men from Lytton and the neigh-
bouring villages during my last visit to them, and the extreme reluctance
on the part of such of the women as remained at home to be measured or
photographed, I am unable to add any new matter of importance to
our knowledge of the physical characteristics of N’tlaka’pamug. Dr. Boas
has already shown that the men of this tribe are a finer and taller race
than their congeners on the coast. This fact is so patent that it requires
no comparative measurements to demonstrate it. This is probably due to
two distinct causes—environmental conditions and intermixture with
non-Salishan tribes. With regard to the first, while the lower Fraser and
coast tribes spent a large portion of their lives squatting in canoes on the
water, the N’tlaka’pamug spent the larger portion of theirs in hunting and
land exercise ; and with regard to the second, the presence of two distinct
types among the people clearly reveals itself in their countenances. The
photographs I secured at Lytton will make this quite clear. The differ-
ence in colour, too, is also here more remarkable than in any other group
I am familiar with, and this incidentally supports the evidence I have
set forth elsewhere of an oceanic origin for the ancestors of the Salish
stock. Some of the natives are fairer than the darker races of Europe,
while others recall strongly the dark hue of the Tongan Islanders. They
are more than swarthy ; and the other characteristics of their features are
negroid of the Oceanic type.

Intermediate types between these two extremes are of course common,

518 REPORT—1899.

but if a large number of people were brought together the observer would
have no difficulty in classifying them under one or other of the two pre-
dominant types. The same holds good equally, or more so, of the cast of
countenance. In the one we see the high prominent cheek bones, the
squat concave nose, and thick coarse lips; in the other the cheek bones
are inconspicuous, the nose straight or slightly aquiline and pointed, and
the lips of average thickness. In this latter type the ear is small and
very finely developed, and sits close to the head.

LINGUISTICS.

In the following linguistic notes on the Lower N’tlaka’pamug, I have spared no
pains to make them as accurate and reliable as possible. I did not content myself
with obtaining information from one or two persons, but checked my notes again
and again with different individuals whenever an opportunity offered. As far as my
notes go I think they may be relied upon as trustworthy and accurate. I am largely
indebted to an educated young woman named Ma/li, who was for many years at the
mission school at Yale, for my knowledge of the grammar and structure of
N’tlaka’pamug. She is a member of the Lower N’tlaka/pamuq.

PHONETICS.
VOWELS.

@ as in English hat 7 as in English pique
a re a3 father 0 a a pond
a a 40, velo 7] 6 » . tone
é ” ” pen U ” ” bud
é . oh, whey ut 44 >» boot
E 5 » flower ai) 8 » aisle
a ” ” pin au ” ” cow

0) kas sve jitiael

The vowel sounds in the N’tlaka’‘pamuq tongue, as in others of this region, are
frequently very indefinite. The short vowels are practically interchangeable. In the
mouths of many Indians 6 and # run into one another. The same may be said of @,
é, ai, and @, and of iand i,

CONSONANTS.

t, as in English. This does not appear to interchange with our d, which as far as
my experience goes is an unknown sound in Lower N’tlaka’pamuq.

g, k, as in English.

e', k-, somewhat as in the English word hick, but more forcibly and gutturally.

q, as in the German ch in Bach.

Q, approximately like our wh in the word who, but rather more forcibly than we
commonly utter it.

H, as in German ch in ich.

h, as in the English word house or how.

y, as in English; b, p, w, m, n, 1, s,as in English; c=sh in English; te=ch
in church; ts, tz, as uttered in English; dj = English j; tl, an explosive 1. This
latter sound as often resembles kl as tl, I have, however, followed Dr. Boas’s usage
and written it invariably as tl. The dl (dorso-apical) of some of the other dialects
I could not detect in the Lower N’tlaka’pamuqQ.

INTERCHANGES.

The commonest interchange of consonant is s with c. Where the Upper and
Middle N’tlaka’pamug commonly use s, the Lower invariably employ ¢; but through-
out the whole area the interchange is quite common. Other common consonantal
equivalents are q=Q=H=h; k'=k; k-=g',k=g; ts=tz=tc; b=p=m.

It is distinctly noticeable that the rough breathings are very indeterminate in
character, making it at times difficult to detect the differences. The mild aspirate
h. appears and vanishes in a word in quite a bewildering fashion. Ifa native is asked

ON THE ETHNOLOGIGAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 519

to ¥epeat a word two or three times, in many instances, if it be a characteristic
Indian term, the inquirer will be in doubt how to write it on account of the appear-
ance and disappearance of the rough breathings. A word uttered slowly and apart
from its context has often a different sound from the same word uttered quickly in
ordinary speech. The same words in the mouths of women and children are often
quite different from what they are in the mouths of the men. The consonants are
much softer and the aspirates are less guttural, or even wholly wanting, in the
former.

NUMBER.

The noun, I think, has no true plural; its place is supplied by a distributive
formed by amplification of the stem, commonly by reduplication of the first syllable of
the word, as skai'uq, man; skai'akaiu’q, men; tiio't, boy; titiio’t, boys ; slanats, girl;
slasla‘nats, girls ; which, in such sentences as the following, approaches the character
of a real plural: cicai’a tik skai’akaiu’q ’n tlun tskau'tl, there are two men in the
boat ; quit] tl skai’akaiu’q ’n tlen mita/tlug, there are several men in the church;
muemucéd’ksta, bring four pieces (of wood) at a time.

The plural of the adjective is formed in the same way: as tait, (he is) hungry;
ti'tait, (they are) hungry, when standing as the complement of the verbwm substan-
tivum. Sometimes the distributive is formed by epenthesis or dizresis, but this is
comparatively rare, reduplication being a strong feature in the N’tlaka’pamua,

INSTRUMENTAL NOUNS.

There is a large class of nouns which take a suffix -tEn, and which may be
termed instrumental nouns; as,

N’po'etzn, bed, i.e. thing to sleep on. N’cii'ptmn, ashes.
N’tl’ko’aptrn, chair, i.e. thing to sit N’tuktci'ntzs, door,
ou. * WN’keltci/ntmn, key.
N’tzaukii’cqatzn, lamp, i.e. instru- Tzaula'tEn, shovel.
ment of light. N’kiiénci’tun, Janguage.
N’koano’cten, window, ie. instru- N’tsak:d'étctEn, pipe.
ment for letting sunlight through. N’kii'atEn, shot pouch.
Nukoatlictzn, eye, i.c. the part of the
face that lets light through. ‘

This initial »’, which appears as a regular prefix in most of these terms, is probabl+
apreposition. There is a prepositional form of this kind; as, n’ tla kiia’koa, in the box }
n’ tla tci’tiQ, in the house; n’ tlen po’etEn, in bed.

AGENT NOUNS,

‘There is another large class of nouns which takes a suffix in +wél, and which carries
with it the idea of agency or action ; as,

pekhpekhEmu’tl, a hunter, - from pe’khum, to hunt

tzauEmtzauEmu'tl, a fisher, 4 tzau’Em, to fish, cf. tzautzau, a fishing ground
teti/teiEmu’tl, a worker, 5, tceu'km, to work

uk‘ai’Emutl, a shooter, », krai'Em, to shoot

tlaha/ndju’tl, an eater, ,, tlaha’ndj, food

fiwi'Emu'tl, a laugher, » fiwi'pm, to laugh

wi wi u’tl, a crier or caller, », Wawi', a cry or call

1'tlitlemu’tl, a singer, » 1'tlem, to sing

tlezuzu'tl, a lazy person, » tlezu'z, lazy .

kumakumu'tl, a digger (of roots) ,, ku'mmEn, to dig for roots

yu’k yukEmu’tl, a planter, » yu'kEm, to plant or bury in the catth
pea’/kEmu'tl, a wood gatherer, » pea'kum, to gather wood

kié’auEmu'tl, a berry picker, » kiéau’Em, to pick berries ; from skic‘it,

[berries

Of the above terms those that end in -zm are verbs in their simplest, uninflected
form. This form may be called the substantive form of tle verb. This is not
peculiar to the N’tlaka'pamua, but is characteristic of most, if not all, of the Salish

5020 REPORT—1899.

dialects. It will be observed that whenever the action is continuous or repeated, the
stem of the word is reduplicated. This reduplication serves several purposes. It not
only expresses the plural and continuous repeated action as above, but enters also
into the ideas of diminution in several ways.

DIMINUTIVES.

Kau 'igii’'sk'En, a little axe, from kaui’sk'En, axe; spEzu'zd, a little bird, from
spu’zo, bird; pipi’éokQ@ ‘just a few trees, from pié/dka, one tree; cikata’na, J
strike it strongly; cikci/kata'na, I strike it a little; kiénta’ta, talk to me; kueék-
uénta/ta, talk to me a little; pi'latci/na, I speak; pilpi’pElatci’na, I speak very
little. Sometimes a different word is employed forthe same purpose; as, tzHzoi'tsta,
chop it in big pieces ; tcimima/tsta, chop it in little pieces.

The diminutive is also expressed by compounds as st6’matl, ox; sto’matl-titi't, a
little ox; sk‘a’qa, dog; sk‘aqa’-tza, a puppy ; or by a different word; as, tii’ot, boy ;
cina, a little boy; sla’nats, a girl; ma’qa, a little girl.

COMPOUND NOUNS.

Compound nouns are a common feature of the language. Examples of one class
of these are formed by simple juxtaposition with or without modification: 6’iyip-
tsk-au’tl, fire-canoe, 7.c. steamer; q’k‘’’Opa, beaver, from qtluk:‘t=broad and cii’pa=
tail; n’krltza-sk‘a’qa, horse. Another and commoner class are the ‘instrumental’

and ‘agent’ nouns given above,

GENDER,

There is no evidence of grammatical gender in N’tlaka’pamug. When a speaker
wishes to distinguish between male and female he does so either by the use of
separate words ; as,

skai'uq, man; s’mit’tlatc, woman ;
ti’ot, boy; sla’nats, girl ;

ci'‘na, baby boy ; ma’qa, baby girl;
ck’ca, nephew; sklumké’&t, niece ;

or, by adding to the class-word in a more or less modified form the terms for man
or woman; as,

dog, sk‘a’-kai’uq; bitch, smi-mz’tlatc.

When there is no possibility of ambiguity the class-word is not used, but just one or
other of these two terms, as the case may be.

A few words are used of male and female alike, without distinction, when there
is no possibility of ambiguity or need to mark the sex; but all these general terms
can, and sometimes do, add the words for man and woman when there is need to be
explicit.

Doctor, mH’laqmé’it ; skti’kEmit, child

widow, ]
widower, |
orphan, cua/ka, boy or girl.

slEié/amEt ;

Many class nouns are omitted in common speech when qualified by an adjective,
as in English; as, ku’/tlamin, old man or woman. The full form of these would be:
kuw'tlamin tik skai’uq; ku'tlamin tik smi'tlatc. A great many of the adjectives
may thus be used substantively,

CASE.

Ordinarily the noun undergoes no inflexion for case, but in expressions denoting
possession or ownership there is a modification of the stem which might at first
sight be taken for a genuine inflexion ; as, tcitiig, house; tci’ttige ha ‘nska'tza, the
house of my father, or ’n-ska'tza tcittiQe, my father’s house.

But this is not a true inflexion; it is nYerely one of tle affixes of the possessive
pronoun, These affixes are seen also in the intransitive verbs, and are likewise

— ~~ Ll, LC. C.dCdd, eeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 521

suffixed to adjectives when they stand as the complement of verbs of incomplete
predication, or of the verbum substantivum. Schematically they are as follows :—

ha-’n-tei'tie, my house; ha-tci’tig, thy house ;
ha-tcituge, his or her house ; ha-tei’tiQz't, our house
ha-tei'tigd@p, your house ; ha-tci'tuQ?’ys, their house.

It is interesting to notice that in the first and second persons singular the pro-
nominal elements are prefixed, while in all the others they are suflixed. The
common prefix /a- is ademonstrative particle, and signifies the presence of the thing
possessed. It may be replaced by ¢la, which signifies the absence of the thing
possessed (see under Pronouns). ‘hese particles are abbreviated forms of the
demonstrative pronouns ‘this’ and ‘that.’ They have also the function of a definite
article in N’tlaka’pamuQ in certain constructions.

The object-noun presents some interesting features. Generally speaking, the
object of a transitive verb follows the verb in an unmodified form, and is distinct
from it; as,

pui'cena tlum smztc, I killed a deer;
kiiéta’ta smztc, cook the meat ;
O’ita’ta tcz'téie, burn down the house;
nika’ta ctizpum, cut the wood ;
n’saua'ta tzatl, wash the dish.

But sometimes the noun is verbalised, taking on regularly the inflexions of the
transitive verb; as,

pamata, make a fire; from spam, a fire ;
n'tuktci’nta, shut the door; from n’tuktci’ntEn, a door.

In other instances the object noun is incorporated into the verbal synthesis in a
contracted modified form between the stem and the personal inflexion ; as,

tct-kai'n-na, I struck him on the head, from tctta’na, I strike, and k‘u’mk:an,
head ; tcit-ii’cena, I struck his face, from tcitta’na and sk’tlii’c, face; qo’ni-akst-kin,
I have hurt my hand, from go’ni-kin, I am hurt, and Jakst, hand or finger;
pau’-c-kin, my face is swollen, from pau’it, swollen, and sk’tlu'c, face, more. literally,
I am swollen as to my face ; nik-qkr’n-kin, I cut my foot, from nikkin, I am cut,
and 1a’kaqEn, foot or toe.

It would appear that when the object affected by the verbal action is a person, or
any part of a person’s body, such object is almost invariably incorporated with the
verb, as in the examples given above. There seems, however, to be one striking
exception to this rule. When the object happens to be the third person singular, no
incorporation or modification of the object takes place, but the pronoun follows the
verb as in English; as,

Po'ista’na tcini’tl, I killed him or her ;
Teuta’na teini’tl, I struck him or her;
CEu'ksta’na tlEna, I know that person.

Tn all other instances it would appear that the pronominal object is invariably
incorporated into the verbal synthesis, and placed between the stem of the verb and
the termina] inflexions ; as,

Huz-tcz'-n, I love thee;
Huz-té'i-c, he loves us;
Huz-ti'gs-na, I love them.

(For other examples see under Verbs.)
The same principle holds good for the incorporated reflexive pronoun tcit ; as,

Oi-tei't-kin, I burn myself;
Quz-tcw't-kin, I love myself.

It wiil be seen in the above incorporative nouns that their synthetic forms differ
from their independent forms. This difference consists in the main in a cutting
down of the independent form of the word, which is not infrequently a compound
term. At times a different radical is used, but in such cases, I think, it will always
be found to be a synonymous term, which has by chance taken the place of the
common term, Much of the differentiation in the Salish dialects has been brought

522 REPORT—1899.

about in this way, a good example of which may be seen in the teritis for beaver.
In the N’tlaka’pamug we find the common word for this animal is s’ntiya. But the
primary signification of this term is not beaver but ‘wealth,’ ‘treasure,’ ‘riches.’
Beaver-skins in the old fur-trading days were a standard of value; hence beaver-
skins are ‘ wealth’ or ‘ riches,’and hence the application of the term to the animal
itself. But there is also another term.quite commonly employed to designate the
beaver by, viz., gk” dpa, which is derived by severe syncopation from gtlukt, broad,
and cu'pa, tail. Hither of these terms may stand for the word beaver, yet neither
of them is the primitive term commonly employed before the division of the Salish
stock took place. The word common to the greatest number of tribes is ske’lé, or
some modification of it. It is the ordinary term for beaver in the dialects of
contiguous tribes, both above and below. It is also used by the Coast and Vancouver
Island Salish, and even by one division of the Kwakiutl. It must, therefore, have
been thrust aside in the dialect of the N’tlaka’pamug and forgotten, and the
other synonymous terms taken its place, for I could not find it upon inquiry.

The following expressions will serve as examples to show the difference between
the compounded and the independent forms :—

Compound
Forms

Independent

English Bonhe

Examples of Synthesis

|
|
| pau-c-kin, I am swollen in the
| face.

|) teti-tic-ena, I struck him on
the face.

| {ers hair.

face —iic and —c | sk’tli’c .

!
—kan and

head —k'ain

tet-kai'n-na, I struck him on

the head.

f qo'ne-akst-kin, I have hurt my |

\ hand; more correctly, I am
hurt as to my hand.

{fist og thumb, z.e, the
|

| ku’mk-an

hand —akst . ké'uq 4

finger . —kainkst lakst ‘first finger;’ koa’-kainkst,

—cin and

—tcin

mouth .

people . . | —muq.

nose —ak's

—kumau- .
pam .
skap-.

breast
fire 4
hair

house . —iQg and tlig

-mai— and

light , a

ften’tein or

| splu’tein
citkinmugq
sp’sa‘k's .

ska‘am .
c’pam

..| skapk‘an

tei’tig

rtd

finger-nail.
stli'pein, jaw or chin.
n’tew'tein.
{ K-umtcin’/-muq, people of
K-umtci'n.
{ tza'ak's, long-nose, from tzaqt,
long, and sp’sa’k's, nose.
tlil-kumau’-tcih, chest.
pam-a'ta, make a fire.
skapka'tmm, to be struck on the
head. The difference between
this term and the one aboye
in the compound for ‘head’
is interesting. When the
blow has been given by some-
| body ‘ain’ must be used;
when the blow is from above
on that part of the head
| where the hair grows, in-
flicted by an inanimate ob- |
| ject by striking the head |
against it, ‘skap’ is always
used.
( Swa/tlig, white man’s house. |
mita’tlug, church, i.c. house of
| prayer.
| ma/-qEtEn, moon, lit. light-

above instrument; mEA’,
daybreak ; ma’auiEnu’Q,
dawn, lit. light is spreading.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 528

PRONOUNS.
The independent personal pronouns are :
= *ntcau’a, I, me. nimé’mEtl, we, us,
iwi, thou, thee. piya’pst, you, you.
tcini’tl, he, she, it; him, her, tcinko’st, they, them.

The function of these pronouns in N’tlaka'pamugQ is practically the same as that
of the corresponding forms in English. They are used in answer to such questions
as, ‘Who did it?’ They are never used with the verb, which has its own inflected
forms. They are sometimes, however, added to the verbal forms to emphasise them,
both as subjects and as objects; as, ’xtcau'a podista’a teini’tl, Z killed him; ’xtcau'a
Quztci'n, T love thee; teinz’tl Quatéis nemémutl, he loves us; Quztigsna tcinkdst, I love
them; Quztoi’men pzya'pst ta'kamop, I love you all.

The synthetic personal pronouns form two distinct classes, one for transitive and
another for intransitive verbs. This latter class also undertakes the function of the
verbum substantivum. It may be suffixed to almost any part of speech, verb, noun,
adjective, adverb, pronoun, &c. For example, in the last sentence in the preceding
paragraph the terminal p in ta'kamdp is the characteristic terminal of this pronoun
in the second person plural, ta‘kamop being otherwise written as ta’kamds = all, the
whole. Other examples will be found in other parts of the paper.

The two classes schematically given are as follows :—

TRANSITIVE.
—tena (often abbreviated to —na or even —a), I,
Singular; —tauq ,, 53 se q, thou.
| tas “f re a s or c, he, she, it.
f —tam, we.
Plural ; —tap, you.
| —tigs, they.
INTRANSITIVE.
—kin, I. —k"'t, we,
RPP AR thou. Eiurals —k”’p, you.
rae Lb ca

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

Of these there are also two classes, or, more strictly speaking, the pronominal
elements are modified by two distinct particles which have the function of marking
the presence of the object possessed in the one case and its absence in the other; as,

Object Absent
tl—En my as: tlen—tci'tuQ, my house.
Singular | tl—a thy as: tla—tci'tug, thy house.
thes. Anis his, her as: tl—tci’tug s, his or her house.
tS Gs) onr as: t1—_tci'tug kt, our house.
Pal) ...ap your as: ti—tcl'tuQ ap, your house.
tl...igs their as: t/_tcitti'gs, their house.
Object Present
ha—n my as: ha—’n—ska’tza, my father.
Singular] a thy as: ha—a—ska’tza, thy father.
ha...s_ his, her as: ha—ska’tzas, his or her father.
( eves Ko Our as: ha—sk4’tzak’t, our father.
Plural; ha... ap your as: ha—ska’tza ap, your father.
| ha we tee ther as: ha—ska’tzai’gs, their father.

These particles that mark the absence and presence of the thing possessed are
abbreviated forms of the demonstrative pronouns qaha’ ‘this,’ and tlaha’ ‘that,’ and
consequently signify ‘here’ and ‘there.’ The position of the object noun varies.
One may say ha’n ska’'tza tci’tug-s, my father’s house; or tci'tugs ha’n ska'tza, the
house of my father. The latter, however, is the more usual construction.

O24 REPORT—1899

In the contiguous Shushwap Dr. Boas has recorded ‘inclusive’ and ‘ exclusive’
forms for the first person plural and the possessive pronouns. I have not been able
to discover these differentiations in the Lower N’tlaka’pamuq dialect.

SUBSTANTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

These forms are used in answer to the question, ‘ Whose is this?’

hawi'ntl, thine, or it is thine, sometimes wintl.

tcini/ntlc, his or hers, or it is his or hers.

nEmé’meEtlk’t, ours, or it is ours.

pia'pstalEp, yours, or it is yours.
Ltcinku’ctatli’gs, theirs, or it is theirs.

*ntca’ntl, mine, or it is mine.
Singular

Plural

There is another form compounded from a word meaning ‘belongings,’ ‘ posses-
sions,’ &c., and the possessive pronoun, and which is the equivalent of our phrase
‘this is mine.’

*n—ci/tEn, mine, or this is mine.
Singular ; 4—cii'tEn, thine, ,, ,, ,, thine.
| cu’'tEn—s, his,,, ,, ,, his or hers.
( cu'tEnk’t, our, 5, GF Stouts:

Pluval, ci'tEnap, yours, ,, ., ,, yours,
| ci/tEnigs, theirs, ,, ,, ,, theirs.

This term cii'tEn is also verbalised ; as, cii/tEnsta'na, I own it; ci/tEnmi’na, I hold
= ; ? ,
possession of it.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

sqttat or ciiat? who? ex., ciat Qa? who is that?
ciiat q? who are you?
ha’ntla? which? ha’ntla wintl? which is thine?
ha‘ntla ha sk‘a’qa? which horse is yours ?

But in the question ‘ which of them?’ Aqa'n? is the correct form; sta? what? what
do you want? stakas hoakst? Aska‘num? what? what are you eating? sta’adpinog ?
what colour? aska’num mita? nik sta? In what? In the phrase ‘which horse is
yours?’ the term for horse is abbreviated to sk:a’qa, which commonly means dog.
This abbreviation is quite common in conversation. The full term in Lower N’tlaka’-
pamugQ is n’g'«'ltza-ska'ga; in the Tlk-umtci''nmuQ dialect it is intsa-sh-a'qa.

RELATIVE PRONOUN.

The N’tlaka’pamuq rarely, if ever, use relative pronouns as we do; indeed, I
doubt if a true relative exists. But in translating an English sentence with a rela-
tive pronoun in it they sometimes use the particle tas to represent our ‘who’ or
‘which ;’ as, tlaha’ ko’kpi tas teitcams, ‘The heavenly chief who made me,’ but
more often they express themselves thus: Quzte’na tlr’n kiq tla tzok-, I loved my
sister who is dead,’ which, literally taken, is rather, ‘I love my sister (absent), that
one dead.’

EMPHATIC REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

n’tcau’amatl, I myself. nEmé/mEtlmat], we ourselves.
Awi'matl, thou thyself. piya’pstamatl, i
tcini’tlmatl, he himself. tcinko’stamatl, -

There is another reflexive form used with verbs, viz., tciit, as oié¢cw/tkin, I burn
myself; kestan/cut, becoming bad in oneself. I have not found this form apart from
the verb.

DEMONSTRATIVES.
qaha’, this. tlaha’, that.
qa qa ha’, these. tla tla ha’. those.

ha, tla, the.

tr
bo
Cur

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA,

NUMERALS.

Of these there are several classes formed by amplification of the stem of the
regular cardinals. The common cardinal numbers are :—

1. pai‘a. 16. 6’penakst atl tlakama’/kst
2. cai’a. It ee , tet’tlka

3. ka’'tlec. 18. - » pi/dpe

4, mis. ie A ,», te’mutl pai’a
5. tcikst. 20. citl 6'penakst

6. tlakama’kst. ha ts Fs atl pai’a

7. tew'tlka. 30. katl o’penakst.

8. pi/dpe. Shevrss sy atl pai’a,
9. te/mutl pai’a. 40. mttl ,

10. 0'penakst. 50. teitl ,,

11. o’penakst atl pai’a 60. tla’kamtl 6'’penakst

12. 0’penakst atl cai'a 70. teu'tlk’tl o’penakst

3. o’penakst atl ka’tlec 80, pi/d’th a

14. & » mus 90. te'mutl pai’atl o’penakst
15. . », tcikst 100. hutet peka'qEnakst.

In 5, 6, 11, and all the decades of the above the suffix -akst appears. This is an
abbreviated form of Zzkst, hand. ‘To this suffix in 100 is added the synthetic form
for foot, gen. The analysis of the remaining part of the compound is not clear to
me, but the meaning is obviously so many ‘ hands’ and ‘feet.’ Nine has the signifi-
cation of ‘one less than,’ ‘one wanting.’ Five means the ‘ whole hand’ or ‘ fist.’
Six means another added to the whole fist.

The following forms are used in counting persons :—

1, papai’a 6, tlaktla‘kama’kst 11, opE’penakst atl
2, cicai’a 7, tciltcn'tlka papai’a

3, kEka’tlac 8, pid’pst (2) 12, opE’penakst atl
4, mo’cmas 9, tEmutl papai’a cicai’a

5, tcitci’kst 10, opE’penakst

The following are used when counting animals :—

1, pié’a, or pEpié’a 4, mome 7, teu'tctlika
2, caici’a 5, teitci/ikst SANG)
3, kEk’tlEc 6, tlaktlumkst 9, tE’mutl pEpic’a

10, 6’pEnEkst

The following are used when counting trees, Kc, :—

1, pie’okq , 4, musé/okQ 7, tcei'lkacé’okq
2, cié'oka 5, tcikce’okq 8, pi/opce’okQ
3, kEtlé’okq 6, tla'kamekcé’dkQ 9, te’mutlpié’okQ

10, d’penakcéokQ

There is a secondary form for trees, wood, &c., the distinction between which and
the above my informant was not able to make clear to me. Examples of this form
may be seen in the following: mucmucédk:sta = ‘bring four pieces of wood at a time;’
pipi’éokq = ‘ just a few trees,’ said by a native when the trees or bushes are scat-
tered. The reduplication here seen is a good example of the opposite uses to which
it is put in N’tlaka’pamug. In the one instance it expresses augmentation; in the
other, diminution or scantiness.

The following forms are used when counting houses :—

1, pia’tlig. 4, moca’tlig. 7, tceiitlka’tlia.
2, cia'tlig. 5, tceiksta’tliag. 8, pi/dpsica’tlia.
3, keka’tlig. 6, tla’'kamaksa’tlia. 9, te‘mutl pai‘atla’tlig.

10, d’penakca’tlig.

The distributive is Apparently formed by suffixing the particle t/ag to the cardi-
nals. This particle has an independent existence, and carries with it the significa:
tion of ‘ only ;’ as,

pai’atlog, eai‘atlég, &¢., ote only, two otily, &e,

526 REPORT—1899.

ORDINALS.
first, ké'a. fourth, asmi’stc. seventh, astcu'lkaste.
second, ascai’astc. . fifth, astci’kstc. eighth, aspiho’pstc.
third, aska’tlastc. sixth, astlakama’kstc ninth, astE/mElpai’aste,

tenth, aso’penakstc.

ADVERBIAL NUMERALS.

These are regularly formed by suffixing the particle atl; as, pai’atl, once;
cai’atl, twice, &c. With regard to this suffix it is interesting to note that the same
form is seen in the Kootanie in one of its three kinds of numeral adverbs; as,
gokwé'ndtl, once ; gaska'tlétl, twice, &c.

ADJECTIVES.

The position of the adjective varies with the construction of the sentence.
Commonly it precedes the word it qualifies, and is attached to it by a kind of
article thus: 1/4 ¢ik ti'ot, a good boy. The place of this article is always between
the substantive and its qualifier. It seems sometimes to perform also the function
of a partitive article; as, kwonam’ata tz ko, bring me some water; Qoa’kskin tik
sni/ya, I want some money. It must likewise always stand between a numeral and
a substantive; as, pai’a tik tci’/tiQg, one house; cicai’a tik skai'akaiu’g, two men.
It is probably the same particle as is seen in the Bilqula dialect under the form ti,
though the functions of the two are not quite the same.

In such a sentence as’ ‘ This house is good,’ the adjective commonly follows its
noun ; as, qah’a tik tci/tiq i’a.

Comparison of the adjective is effected in the following manner :—

Positive Comparative Superlative
tlikt, sweet tiwa tlikt, sweeter ki/atik tlikt, sweetest
Qo'zEm, great Qo’zEm tiwa, greater ki/atik Q6’zEm, greatest

The superlative form is simply the numeral adjective ‘ first’ joined to the positive
by tik. This is the ordinary method of comparison, but the following phrases show
that the comparative and superlative may sometimes be otherwise rendered:
ohitca’hasi’as = ‘ better ;’ where o’hitca’ means ‘ more,’ ha(s) ‘ this,’ and i’a(s) ‘ good,’
and the whole compound is equivalent to our ‘ this one is more good;’ kwumkwumet
tik ia, ‘ best,’ ‘very good.’

ADVERBS.

The position of the adverb varies with its sense and the construction of the sen-
tence in which it occurs, but the temporal adverb is invariably placed at the
beginning of the sentence; as, tlakamz'g tlo hazQuztca'mogq, always, you have loved
me; tlenagrends awikta'na tlana’, long ago I saw him. Speaking generally, the
adverbial modifier will be found as a rule before the word it modifies, but there are
many exceptions to this rule.

VERBS.

The N’tlaka’pamugq possess a verb of being. It enters largely into the composition
of the other verbs in certain of their tenses. It is conjugated by means of suffixes
and prefixes. It cannot be used independently, but must always take a comple-
mentary noun or adjective before or after it. Severed from its complement it is
conjugated as follows :—

PRESENT TENSE.

na’kin, I am. iia’k’t, we are.
Singular } tiau’q, thou art. Plural 5 ia’k’p, you are.
i1a’q, he or she is. ua'tzaq, they are.

PAst INDEFINITE TENSE.

This is formed by suffixing the particle ¢/wm to the present tense forms; as,
takintlum, I was, &c.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 52

-1

PHRFECT TENSE.

tloa’qtion, I have been. tloa’quot, we have been,
Singular, tloa’qoq, thou hast been. Plural 4 tloa’qop, you have been.
Ltlsa'qaqe, he has been. tloa’tzaqoqe, they have been.

FUTURE TENSE,

ho’ikinia’q, I shall be. ho’ik’tiia’q, we shall be.
The other persons follow regularly.

POTENTIAL Moop.

haua/quontlo, I may be. haua'qottlo, we may be.
haua’qoqtlo, thou mayst be. haua'qoptlo, you may be.
haua’qoctlo, he may be. hana'tzaqo'ctlo, they may be.

IMPERATIVE Moop.
tia’qawa, be thou. ua’qosa, be you.

INFINITIVE Moon.
tiaq, to be. tloaq, to have been.

kiatiEn’ska = if I were good. k-e’sttienska = if I were bad.

In such sentences as these the complement precedes the main part of the verb,
but in a simple direct sentence it follows; as, a/akin i/a, I am good.

In composition this verb is not regularly employed as the verbum substantivum in
English is. In the present tenses the personal inflexions only appear in such
sentences as we form with an adjective and the verbum substantivum. Thus:

PRESENT TENSE.

; tai't-kin, Iam hungry. tait-k’t, we are hungry.
Singular ¢ tai’t-q, thou art hungry. Plural< tait-k’p, you are hungry.
{ tait, he or she is hungry. _ti-tait, they are hungry.

PAST INDEFINITE TENSE.

tait-ki/n-iia, I was hungry. ‘tait-k’ttia, we were hungry.
Singular< tait-qia, thou wast hungry. Plural< tait-k’piia, you were hungry.
tait-tia, he or she was hungry. ti-taittia, they were hungry.

PERFECT TENSE.

tloa’qiiontait, I have been hungry. tloa'quotait, we have been hungry.
tloa’qoqtait, thou hast been hungry. tloaqoptait, you have been hungry.
tloa’qoctait, he or she has been hungry. tloatza‘qoctait, they have been hungry.

FUTURE TENSE.

‘Ikin-tait, I shall or I am going to be hungry.
q-tait, thou wilt or thou art going to be hungry,

Singular i
1-tait, he will or he is going to be hungry.

|
Plural 1

h

hoik’ttait, we shall or are going to be hungry.
hoik’ptait, you will or are going to be hungry.
hoiti-tait, they will or are going to be hungry.

DUBITATIVE TENSE.
tl’ma'taitkin, I may be hungry.

The other forms follow regularly, the particle tl’ma' = ‘perhaps,’ being prefixed
to the present tense forms, as in the first person.

By suffixing the particle ag or nag to the above, as tai'tkin-oq, we can get an
intensive or emphatic form of the same expression, I am very hungry. Also
kweno'gkin-oq, I am very sick ; tcz’lcHau’qkin-q, I am very glad.

A very constant feature of the verbal system of the N’tlaka’pamug is that the
verbal stem is always preceded by the tense sign in the future. The meaning of the

528 REPORT—1899.

future is nearer our ‘I am going to be’ than ‘I shall be.’ There is another form of
the future less positive than this, viz., ho'ikin-nok-kweno’q, ‘I am afraid I am going
to be sick.’

The negative forms are thus rendered :—

tata kinskwen6’q, I am not sick.
tata qaskweno’q, thou art not sick.

The negatives strengthen each other as in Greek, the s here strengthening the
independent negative tata.
Noun sentences are formed in the same way as the adjective sentences; as,
N’tlaka’pamugQ-kin, I am a N’tlaka’pamua.
a -q, thou art a N’tlaka’pamuaQ.

— heor she isa N’tlaka’pamuqQ.

-k’t we are N’tlaka’pamuq.

-k’p you are N’tlaka’pamuq.

The disjunctive personal pronouns may be added to these if emphasis is needed ;
as,
*nteau’a N’tlakapamuq-kin, 7 am a N’tlaka’pamuq, &c.

The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is very clearly marked
by the use of entirely different pronominal suffixes. The intransitive take the same
pronouns as the adjective as given above, but usually form their past tense by
suffixing the particle tlum ; as,

PRESENT TENSE.

Nackin. I go. nack’t, we go.
Singular , Nacq, thou goest. Plural, nack’p, you go.
Nac, he or she goes. nilic, they go.

Past TENSE.

kitckin tlum, I went. kitck’t tlum, we went.
Singular 4 kitcq tlum, thou wentest. Plurals kitck’p tlum, you went.
kite tlam, he went. ki’etc tlum, they went,

FUTURE TENSE.

ho/ikinnae, I shall go. hod’ik’tnac, we shall go.
The other persons follow regularly.

IMPERATIVE Moop.

* nactiama'ltlo, go thou. naciiaza’tlo, go ye.
The two following forms are also used imperatively :—
na‘cha_ =| na/coza
nacia'tlo | Suse Seer aa:
DUBITATIVE Moop.
{l’ma'na’/ckin, perhaps I may go. tl’ma'na'ck’t, perhaps we may go.

The other persons follow regularly.

hacu’koéc tluma’ na/ckin is another form of this mood ; it expresses indecision on
the part of the speaker ; as, ‘maybe I'll go.’

POTENTIAL Moon.

qaqa'tak-krnsnac, I can or may go.
qaqa’tak-cEné’yEt, we ,, me
qaqa’tak'kEsnac, thou canst or mayest go.

3 -cEncap, ye can or may go,

ey ~cnacic, he 5 4

» ~cbneé’yestc, they ean er may ga,

or
ho
ie)

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA.

OPTATIVE FORMS.
enslékasnac = I want you to go. tata kinsnac ma/mon, I don’t want to go.

INFINITIVE Moop.

nac, to go. nactlo, to have gone
PARTICIPLES.
nactl, going. nactlum, gone.
ho'i-k’t-amal-tlo-nac, let us all go. naict, we are going,

TRANSITIVE VERB,
TO LOVE.

PRESENT TENSE.

Quzta’na, I love. { Quzta’m, we love.
Singular , Quztau’g, thou lovest. Plural , Quzta’p, you love.
| Quzta’s, he, she, loves. | Quzti’gs, they love.

In the past tenses of the transitive verb the particle tlwm appears to play but a
small part, its place being supplied by the verb ‘to be.’ This particle tlum, besides
forming the past tense and perfect participle of the intransitive verbs, is otherwise
employed to indicate absence from the speaker ; as, tcini'tl tlum, he (absent), tcinkést-
tlum, they (absent).

PAST OF INCOMPLETE ACTION.

f Quzta’na tld, I have loved. Quzta’m tld, we have loved,
Singular ) Quztau'g tlo, thou hast loved. _— Plural § quzta’p tla, ye have loved.
| Quzta’s tld, he has loved. | Quztigs, they have loved.

PAST OF COMPLETE ACTION.

f Quzta'natia, I have loved. f Quzta’m, we have loved.
Quztau'qia, thou hast loved. Plural ] Quzta’p, you have loved,
Quzta’siia, he has loved. Quztigs, they have loved.

Singular

&

The distinction between wa and tld is very nice. The former is used when the
action or feeling no longer exists at the time of speaking; as, tlakamiq-tia hazquz-
teamoq. always thou hast loved me (up to this time); the latter when the feeling or
action is continuing ; as, tlakamiq-tlohazQuztcamoq, always thou hast loved me and
still dost. It will be noticed in these two sentences that the adverb takes the past
signs and not the verb. They sometimes precede the verb; as, tloquzta’na, I have
loved. The amplification of the verbal stem here observed marks the continuity of
the action and strengthens the adverb.

The indefinite past is frequently expressed by the present without any modifying
particles, the context or sense of the passage making the time of the action clear ;
as, Quzta'na tly ’nkiq tle tzok, I loved my sister who is dead: more literally, ‘I love
that my sister that one dead.’ The past action of the verb is here implied by the
absence or death of the object. Other examples are tet-uc-Ena, I struck him on the
face ; tcii-kain-na, I struck him on the head.

In these examples of incorporated object the subject pronoun sometimes suffers
contraction as well as the object, as seen in these two instances. Occasionally the
indefinite past takes ¢lum; as, piii’cena tlum smitc, I killed a deer.

FUTURE TENSE.
ho'iquzta’na, I shall love. The other persons follow regularly.

POTENTIAL Moop.

haquzta'natlac, I may love. The other persons follow regularly.
1899, MM

530 kEPORT—1899.

IMPERATIVE Moon.

Quzta'ta, love thou; Quztato'za, love you;

Quztea'ma, love thou me.
Quztcamo’za, love you me.

POTENTIAL PASSIVE.

{ haquatce'manac, I may be loved.
Singular. } haguztci’toc, thou mayest be loved.
| hagquzsta'moc, he may be loved.

haquzsté'toc, we may be loved.
Plural. ; haquzsto'imato’c, ye may be loved.
haquzti’/gsatamo’c, they may be loved.

In verbs formed from nouns or adjectives the imperative inflection is -sta; as,
tcimi’matsta, ‘cut it in little pieces, more literally, ‘little it ;’ tzdzo’itsta, cut it in
big pieces ; mucmucéd'ksta, ‘ bring four pieces of wood at a time. ’ Tn each of these
expressions the only verbal element is the sign of the imperative -sta.

The following are examples of the incorporated pronoun object, with the excep-
tion in the third person singular, as mentioned above :—

Quztci’n, I love thee.
Quzto'imEn, I iove you.
Quztci’t, we love thee.
Quzti’estcatc, they love thee.
Quzti’gsna, I love them.
Quzti’gsniiq, thou lovest them.
Quzta/c tcincod’st, he loves them.
Quztca’mq, thou lovest me.
Quztca/ms, he loves me.

Quzté'c, he loves us.

Quztana tcini'tl, I love him.
guztau'gq tcini'tl, thou lovest him.
quzta's tcini’tl, he loves him.

Quztci'c, he loves thee.
Quzto'imEc, he loves you.
Quzto'imat, we love you.

(2) they love you.
Quzti’gscti'tim, we love them.
Quzti'gscenu’q you love them.
Quzti/gs tcinco’st, they love them.
Quztcé’ip, you love me.
Quzti'gscatcams, they love me.
tlatla’ huzté'ic, they love us.
Quzta'm tcini’tl, we love him.
Quzta'p tcini'tl, you love him.
Quzti’gs teini’tl, they love him.

PREPOSITIONS AND PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES.

The prepositional elements of the N’tlaka’pamug tongue vary with the construc-
tion of the sentence. Some of these are: tla’kut, across; tutl, beyond; n’kpa’nik

na, under.

na, on.
n, In.

mitca’k'a na tEmu’q, sit on the ground,

’n tla tci'tia, in the house.
’n tla k-oa'koa, in the box.
’n tlHn po/itEn, in the bed.
na kod, on the water. |

pa'kwata tsk-au’tl na ko, launch the boat on the water.

tla’kut ko, across the river.
na sqEnq, on a stone.

n’kpa/nik na squng, under a stone.
tlatlat na ko, near the water.

MISCELLANEOUS PHRASES, &c.

What are you eating? sta/adpinog ?

Who will do this? cttatka ditci’tamos ?

The sun is shining, ntEllric a skoa'koac.

It is raining, ta/tEktl.

Launch the canoe on the water, pa'kwata tsk-au’'t] na ko.
And one of them accordingly went, atl tlo-asna’c ha papai’a.
IT alone will possess the treasure, au! kwonaQEna aitl sni’ya.
Alas! what a world is this! au ! kanum neka ha na’ hai’a!
Long ago I saw him, tlena’Qunos awiktana tlEna’,

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. bat

Immediately the cock crew, tlo na a’ as haimno ha sp’z0,

I cut my foot, nikqu’nkin.

I hurt my foot, qo/niqh’nkin.

My face is swollen, pau'ckin.

Where is the axe? Han kani’sk’En ?

It is there, ani tla ha’.

The moon is bright, mama’ tla ma’qEtEn.

Make a fire, pama’ta.

A hungry person came here, tait tik tluskai'uq tlakita’ya’.

I know that person, cEu'kstEna tlEna’.

I nail it, tlauktana. I have driven it home, akstlaukEnaQgkEna.

I know, yequmstana. I know it thoroughly, yegumwi’gstana.

I have four houses, muca’tliq ha’n tcttcitie.

A good house, ia’ tik tci'tia.

That house is good, tla-ha tik tcitiiQ ia’.

Sit down, mitcaka.

Tam still sick, tia’kin tlo kweno’q.

I was sick yesterday, I am better to-day, kweno’qkintia spiqau’'tl tcahai'tl ia’
wia’qkin.

Bring it in, ilksta. That will do, homa’tl.

Here is some bread, hak ha pi'skwI.

Are you tired? papi/iktkuon ?

Come to-morrow, ha tlaha’q tuk tlspiqau'tl.

Give me the saw, anakstcima tana’tlos.

Are you awake? a-ketlaqon?

and, atl; but, kamatl; kik! hark! ana’! alas! tlo, then; tcatl, now ; takumo’1

ae tatlo’ ta, none ; ta! kum or ta'kEnds, all; tsitsia, such as, like; sémi’q, the
whole.

VOCABULARY OF LOWER N’TLAKA’PAMUQ TERMS.
Lerms of Relationship.

father ska’tza.* sister-in-law (said by cia'ctrm.
mother sk'i/Hoza.* girl)

* These terms are not commonly used °Y tio't.
by children when addressing their Youth tui’ot.
parents, the secondary forms are those stl sla’nats.

Old women are Orphan, ena‘ka (this term is common to

enexally employed.
e Mi eat both sexes).

commonly addressed as k‘1HOza.

man skai'aq.
father man or mama. woman smi'tlate.
mother kik or ki/ka, old man ku'tlamin.*
grandfather capaza. old woman
grandmother kal. 4
grandchild é'mite. * Abbreviated from ki’tlamin tik
uncle (father’s ci’ckan. skai’iq and ku’tlamin tik s’mi'tlate.
brother)
uncle (mother’s : people cai'tkinmaq.
brother) person tluskai’uq.
> aunt (mother’s skoz’. husband Qai’owl (used by
sister) : wife when ad-
aunt (father’s 33 dressing her hus-
sister) band).
nephew ck"’ca. husband squai'owi (general
niece sklumke’sEt, term).
brother (elder) katck"’. wife cEm’a’m.
sister ia kiq’. wives cEmE’/mam
sister (younger). tcE’tca, infant sk-‘ikumE’met.
rother ,, . cinci’. Ms sk-a/kEmit (general
brother-in-law (said cia‘ctEm, term).
by: girl) child (speaker’s) sko'za.

MM 2

chief

REPORT—1899, .

tcimameé't (general
term).

teimé’t, offspring,
family ; also em-
ployed when
speaking of chil-
dren of a certain
family.

ko’kpi, skiau’tl.

Parts of the Body.

head or cranium
head (entire)
crown of head
forehead

hair

face

cheek

jaw, chin
saliva

eye

eyebrow

ear

nose

mouth

tongue

tooth

breast (of woman)
chest

back

stomach

arm

hand

finger

fingers

little finger

thumb

finger-nail
knee

foot

feet

toe

toes
toenail
bone

bone (of fish)
blood
heart
skin
Genera

fog
tide
wave
eddy
current
hail
snow.
rain
ice

k'umk:an,

skutlu'c.

n’k-umawu'isk:an.

n’k'umu’ciis,cinez,

ska'pk'an.

sk’tluc

kiza'pé.

stli’pcin.

ntcu’tcin.

nukoatlictEn.

k’tl’pai'st.

tl’a’ni.

sp’sak's.

tei’tcin.

ta’tla.

qi’auq, qai’oq.

sk‘aam.

tlikumau’tcik.

ciqitskin

oiye’n,

ké'uq, kéikq.

kéiks (his hand).

lakst.

lala‘kst.

cu/tum kakanakst
(cu’tum = yonng-
est).

skia-kainkst (first
finger).

koa/kainkst.

sk’maswasqEn.

sk-oat, sk‘oaqt.

sk:oa/quat.

la’/kqEn.

lakala‘kqrEn.

koa/kainkst.

oqk:d'otl, kok-dol,
kvioktdlte.

tsam.

peti’la.

cua’/kok.

cEpa'ts.

Terms.

cputlet.
cme’katko’ma,
cenakq.
cezi/oko’ma’,
cqu/ako'ma.
ctla’is.

cokt.

stEktl.

n’pau’,

water
sea, river
wind

sky
moon
sun

star

day
night
morning
dawn
daybreak
evening
sunset

dark
dark

light
earth, land
lake
mountain
hill

tree

trees

leaf

bark

rock, stone
fence (picket)
house

house of white man
houses

canoe

canoes

knife

axe (iron)

axe (stone)
door

garden

nail (iron)
window
mirror

meat

flesh
spruce-tree
moccasin
leggings
firewood

lize

steamer

ushes

embers, sparks
smoke

dog

horse

bear (black)
deer

grizzly

rat

beaver

ko.

koqoe,

naut, snaut.

stlek’t.

ma’qEtEn.

sk‘6a'koatce.

n’koki’'tcEn.

ci’/tl kt.

ci'tict.

niwa’nian.

maaui’Emuq.

mEa’.

ts00'z.

rap or dap (there is
no true 7 in
N’ntlaka’pamuq)

k-lypE’p (as in an
eclipse).

klz'pitkle’pit (as
in the night).

mama’.

tEmi'q..

pala’cko.

sk’m, sk‘oEm.

sk‘oak’m.

cua’p, ci’Ep.

ci/EpEwa’p or cil’E-
pera’p.

p'tcictl.

pai’am.

cEnq, sqEnq.

skEq.

tcitig or tci'ta.

swatli’a.

tcitei'ti’Q.

tsk'au'tl.

tsk'tsk‘au tl.

cE’lis

kaui'sk‘En,

ci’ lkist.

n’tuktci'tEn,

niu'kamin.

klo'komin.

n’koano/ctEn.

kiEm6’sEn.

smite.

slek.

sklpa’ka.

ciltzait’'i.

skrl, mata/’s.

cil'ipEm,

c'pam, di'yip. ,

o'iyip-tik-tsk-au tl.

n’cui’ptEn.

dukti'kq.

catc or sqatc.

sk-a’qa.

n’g"E ltza-sk'a’qa, or
simply sk-a’qa.

spate.

smite.

ciiqed.

qaut.

sni’ya, qk opa

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA.

coyote
magpie
diver
puppy

tly (common house)

mosquito
wolverine
badger (?)
marten
weazel
maggot-fly
bird (generic)
beast,

fish x

slave

slaves

fight, battle

noise

sounds (made
nature)

snikia'p.
Qai/non.
tzala’s.
sk-a/qatza.
mu’za,
ko’k‘oaské,
koi/lgkin.
n’Qoeni’ken.
Qua’kqoc.
teiteq.
haha/niks.
sp’z0.

”
ewatl.

cau’iit, caicu’ltk.

cau’cEcit,
k-oatoaq.
halu’kii.

by emi’nim.

sound ofhuman voices caud’.
spirit or soul or life ctimaqk.

ghost

spring (of water) petok.
cold weather tsetltcin.
cold tsetl.
summer-time spandj’k: (lit. fruit
season),
now tucai’tl.
to-day teahai'tl.
to-morrow tuk spihau’t.
yesterday tl spihaut.
midday neEpi‘kEn.
midnight tetoa'hauc.
sunrise bop tlum skéakoac.
moonrise boptlum ma’qEtEn.
pond cpac.
waterfall tcoktcé’oq.
bridge nEhu'lioc.
lamp n'tzaukii’sqatEn.
half-moon ckethau’ca.
full-moon - cai’.
glimmer oau'letc,
twinkle (of the stars) tlipci’am.
n’po‘itEn,
chair n’tl’ko'aptEn,
horn skwai’yakun.
name skoast.
feathers (big) co'kbost.
down eqins,
forest tzhau’elt.
mat (common) cep.
post (in keekwilee- sku’tzamin.
house)
box qoa’koa,
hat kamo't.
joy, pleasure k-u'Ikutl.
*keekwilee-house’ __ sai’istikin.
arrow ski’,
bow ski’nak.
book tsuktsuk.
letters tsuktens,
figures paiapai’aus,
bright, brightly mami’,

claska’lui,

hot
warm

(The difference be-

tween these

terms is that the
former means ‘warm

from /ire-heat,

latter from sun-heat.)

sweet
hard

high
heavy

bad

good
broad
narrow
white
black
blue
large, great, big
small, little
strong
cold

all

this

that

these
thcse
none

no, not
yes
hungry
sick

ill

well
swollen
sharp
many, much
to chew

I sit down
‘to be’

to go

I say

I pass by
I find

to increase
IT kill

I obtain

I steal

to hunt

T send

to shoot
to work
to fish

to hunt

to laugh
to call

to sing

to dig

to plant
to gather wood
to pick berries
J strike

s'loq.

533

kumkumet, qoate.

tlekt.
tlot.

wist.
Homa’ nk,
kest, k‘ect.
1a,
tlu’kkt.
tqiqEt.
stEpk’k.
stupta’kt.
st'k-o.
Q6zE/m.
q’'mé'ma,
z0z0' pt.
tsa’atlt.

ta'kmm, ta/kEmds.

qaha’.
tlaha’,
qaqaha’.
tla tla ha’.
tatlola.,
tata.

iii, eh.
tait.
kweno’q.
n’kio’q.
Wwil’q.
pau’it.
QuzQuz.
quat,
khEm.
mitcakin,
ia’q.

nac.
teu’na.
tlaha/qkin.
punu’‘mna.
wig.
pui’cena.
kuonawe’na.
nauq.
péa/kEm.
kitamu’tcin.
k‘aigm.
tcu/Em.
tzau’Em.
pekhrEm.
dtwi’Em.,
wawi'Em.
i’tlem,
ku/mrEm.
yu/kEm.
pcea’kEm,
k'iéau’Em.
cikata'na,

534. REPORT—1899.

I speak pi’ latci’na, to paint qi’kas.
I cut nikata’na, to see miki’q.
I know cEuksta’na. to trap ko’qEm.
to help ki’ntEm. to watch tzomi/ntEm.
to lend kwaku’mstEm,
FOLKLORE.

In recording the following folk-tales of the N’tlaka’pamua, I have
sought throughout to keep them as true to the spirit of the Indian mind
as possible. I was the better able to do this as my informant possessed a
more than common knowledge of English for an elderly Indian. Having
acted as interpreter for many years to the missionaries, and also in the
law courts, he had a fair command of words. Much, therefore, of the
wording of the stories is his own. I have not sought to curtail or shorten
in any way the details of the longer stories, believing these to be of the
highest value in comparative studies. Mischelle is a born raconteur, and
has always taken the deepest interest in the stories and old customs of
his people. My method of recording was in the shorter tales to write
the story almost verbatim as he related it. In the case of the longer
detailed ones I wrote down the chief incidents of the story at the time of
recital, filled in the rest from memory immediately afterwards, and then
read the whole over to Mischelle next day to see that I had got it cor-
rectly. By this means, although I am responsible for the English, the
spirit of the stories is Mischelle’s.

Story of the Elk-maiden.

Tn the remote days of long ago, when the animals spoke and behaved
like human beings, there lived in the far north an elk-man and his wife.
They possessed an only daughter, and the one grief of their lives was that
no husband could be found for her. The daughter, who had no wish to
remain single all her days, grew dissatisfied with her lot, and determined
to leave home and seek an old aunt, a sister of her father’s, who lived
somewhere in the far south. She accordingly set out and travelled by
herself for many weeks and moons. She had not, however, gone far
before her aunt, who was a very wise woman, learnt in a dream that her
niece was on her way to seek her.

Now, in the old elk-aunt’s village, of which she was chieftainess, and
which consisted of many keekwilee-houses, or semi-subterranean winter
dwellings, there were no women or females of any kind. The whole
community, except herself, was composed of males. Being a wise old
woman, she foresaw that as soon as her niece should arrive she would be
pestered to death by suitors for the maiden’s hand, and that trouble and
discord would arise upon her appearance among them. She therefore
set her wits to work to devise some plan by which she might keep her
niece to herself and prevent discord and jealousies from disturbing the
peace and harmony of the village. And this is the way she did it. She
straightway sent for young Night-hawk, because he had a strong voice,
and bade him make known to all his companions that if they desired to
win a beautiful young elk-maiden for wife they should come to her on a
certain day. Night-hawk soon made the news known to his companions.
His tidings caused much commotion in the village, and not a youth was
missing on the appointed day. When all were assembled the old aunt
told them briefly that her niece was about to pay her a visit, and as she

«

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. doo

was unmarried would probably desire to have a husband and settle down
with her. ‘Among so many desirable youths,’ said she, ‘I find it difficult
to select one whose claims are greater than the rest. In order, therefore,
that each one of you may have a chance to obtain the maiden I have
decided to let you race for her. You shall all be placed at one end of the
village, and she at the other. At the word “Go,” you shall start after her,
and whoever first catches her shall have her for wife.’ This plan was not
equally pleasing to all. Young Deer and the other fleet-footed youths
thought the idea an excellent one, each believing that he could easily
snatch the prize from his fellows ; but Tortoise thought it was hardly fair
to him and his friends, who were not gifted with long and nimble legs.
His objection, however, was overruled, and he and his friends pacified by
a promise of a good start in advance of the rest. All unconscious of the
excitement the news of her expected arrival had caused in her aunt’s
village, the maiden had gradually neared her destination, and was now
but a few miles distant. The old aunt had followed her course day by
day in her dreams, and knew exactly where she was and when she would
appear. So when she was but a little way off she went forth to meet and
bring her in. She said nothing to the others as she went, hoping that
she might pass out and in unobserved. But they had seen her stealing
off, and when she returned a little while later with her niece every youth
in the place was on the look-out for them. The maiden was wholly
unprepared to pass the gauntlet of eyes that now met her, and was much
embarrassed by the presence of so many males, and by the ardent glances
they cast upon her. After one hurried look round, she bent her eyes to
the ground, and did not raise them till she was within her aunt’s keek-
wilee-house. The excitement in the village now became intense, and the
old chieftainess saw that if she wished to prevent trouble and discord she
must have the contest for her niece’s hand settled without unnecessary
delay. She accordingly fixed a near day, and bade all be in readiness.
On the day appointed every youth in the village presented himself at the
aunt’s dwelling. The old chieftainess then arranged them for the contest,
placing all the slow-footed competitors in the foremost rank, with Tortoise
in front of all, and Deer and his comrades in the rear. She then led
forth her niece, clad in a beautiful doeskin dress, embroidered from top to
bottom with many-coloured beads and shells, and painted with numerous
mystic symbols. A buzz of admiration greeted her as her aunt led her to
the far end of the camp and instructed her to make straight for the house
again as soon as the word was given to start. The aunt then went back
to the others, and, bidding them be ready, gave the word to start. Such
a rushing and striving as then followed was never seen in the village
before, as each youth strove to outdo the others. At the command to go
all had seen the maiden disappear behind the farthest keekwilee-house,
and each endeavoured to be at the turn first. But no sooner had the old
woman given the word to start than she exercised her magic powers and
caused the sky to become quickly overcast with thick dark clouds, which
effectually shut out the light of day and enveloped the runners in its
bewildering folds, so that none could discern his fellow or see whither he
went. One ran into another and eagerly clasped him, thinking he had
secured the prize ; but, finding his mistake, let go his hold and started
afresh, only to find himself repeating the same mistake again and again.
‘IT have her!’ ‘I have her!’ cried a dozen voices at once. ‘No, she’s
mine!’ ‘She’s mine!’ shouted young Raven, as he grasped the bark of a

536 REPORT—1899.

cedar tree which was hanging loose and fluttering in the wind, and tore
it off in his excitement, thinking he had caught the maiden by her dress,
which had given way in his hand. ‘She is mine! I have her!’ he repeated
again, as he grasped the tree in his arms. But before he could realise his
mistake he was dragged back from the tree by a dozen hands, and had to
take up the hunt again. And thus they strove in vain to find the maiden,
until they had torn the clothes from each other’s backs, and the light of
day had returned once more. ‘Who's got her?’ ‘Where is she?’ was
now the cry all round ; and, to the astonishment of all, no one seemed to
have secured the prize. She had escaped them all, and, moreover, was
now nowhere to be seen. While all these frantic struggles in the dark
had been going on, the old aunt had run round the other way and led
back her niece into the house again, and, taking off her beautiful dress,
had straightway hidden her in a large basket fashioned like a cradle,
which she had prepared for the purpose. This she placed on a shelf just
under the roof, where no one would be likely to investigate and discover
its contents. Every one now wondered what could have become of the
maiden, but none save crafty keen-eyed Lynx suspected that a trick had
been played upon them by their chieftainess. It was commonly supposed
that the sun, observing the beautiful maiden as she ran, had become
enamoured of her, and had left his abode in the heavens and come down
and seized and carried her off. ‘ How else,’ argued they, ‘could you
account for the sudden darkness of midnight at noonday?’ But Lynx
thought otherwise, though he said nothing. He, like the others, had
entered the race, but, finding himself outstripped at the commencement,
gave up the contest, and kept his keen eyes upon the chieftainess. He
thought he had seen her run round the other side of the house and return
again with her niece, but was not quite sure, as the darkness had baffled
even his keen sight. Nevertheless he inclined to the belief that the
maiden had returned to her aunt’s dwelling, and even now lay concealed
there, and he determined to satisfy himself on this point before long.
For several days and nights, therefore, he hung round the old woman’s
keekwilee-house, making all sorts of excuses to pay her sudden and
unexpected visits. At one time he would take her a fine salmon, at
another some rare roots, and at another a haunch of venison ; but enter
as often and as suddenly as he would, no trace of the maiden could he
see. Having failed in this plan, he had resort to another.

On each occasion that he had visited the old aunt’s house since the
girl’s disappearance he had noticed the large cradle-basket on the shelf.
He could not remember to have seen it before, and from its appearance
it was plain that it was not an old cradle; so he could not help connect-
ing its presence with the disappearance of the maiden. He vowed he
would learn by some means the contents of that basket before long ; but
as there was no chance of doing this openly he must find some other way.
So accordingly one night, when the whole village was asleep, he stole to
the roof of the old woman’s house and began sniffing over the spot where
he knew the cradle lay, and having a keen nose soon assured himself
that the maiden lay there asleep. Having satisfied himself on this score,
he now carefully and quietly removed a little of the bark covering from
the roof, thus making a small hole therein large enough to peep through
and see the maiden sleeping soundly beneath him. Enlarging the hole
a little, he thrust in his paw, and gently removing the blanket from her
breast spat three times upon her abdomen, He then replaced the

we

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 5357
blanket, restored the hole as before, and slunk home to his own quarters.
For three successive nights he repeated this action, after which he
returned no more, but went about his business as usual and -awaited
results. In the meantime life had not gone very merrily with the
maiden. Pent up in her narrow quarters she grew wearier each day as
the weeks went by, and begged her aunt again and again to allow her to
come out of her basket. But this the old chieftainess would not do.
But as time went on the maiden presently discovered herself to be in a
peculiar and distressing condition. It seemed as if she would shortly
become a mother. When the first consciousness of her condition dawned
upon her she would not believe it, but as the days went by she could no
longer entertain any doubt of it. She hid the matter from her relative
until it was no longer possible to do so, and then the aunt was angry
indeed, and bitterly reproached her niece for the disgrace she was bring-
ing upon her, and would not at first believe that the girl herself was
innocent in the matter. But having presently convinced herself of this,
she set her wits to work to discover who it was that had outwitted her
in this way. But though exceedingly wise and versed in much magic she
yet could not discover directly who the offender was, but was obliged to
get her information in a roundabout way. But now the maiden’s full
time had come, and she was delivered of a male child, who grew in an
incredibly short space of time into a strong and vigorous boy. The old
chieftainess, having thought out her plan of action, now sent once more
for her public crier, young Night-hawk, and bade him inform the village
of the birth of a child to her niece, and tell his companions that they
were all to present themselves at her house on a certain day, and bring
each of them a present for the child.

This they all did, with the exception of two, each burning with
curiosity to learn when the maiden had returned, and who had secured
her for wife. The bidding of the tribe to her house was part of the old
aunt’s plan for discovering the father of her grand-nephew. By her
magic powers’ she had learnt that if each visitor presented the child with
a gift, he would accept and retain one only, viz. the present offered by
his own father, and would reject with disdain those of all the others.
Thus she would be able to discover the perpetrator of the deed. On the
day appointed each brought his present. As they descended they offered
their presents one by one to the child, who took them, only to throw
them aside again the next moment. This happened until all the presents
had been made, and all the visitors had assembled. As the child had
shown no interest in anything that had yet been offered him, the old
woman knew from this that some one must be absent. She therefore
angrily demanded who had disobeyed her injunctions ; and after some
little delay and calling of names it was ascertained that Young Rabbit
and his brother Lynx were absent. A messenger was immediately
despatched for them, and in a few minutes they arrived, Rabbit descend-
ing first. As Rabbit clambered down the notched pole that served for
ladder, the child now for the first time evinced some interest in what
was going on, and looked up and smiled at Rabbit and held out his hand
for the present. For a moment he seemed inclined to play with it, but
threw it aside at once when he perceived Lynx descending. As the latter
approached he crowed and laughed and clapped his hands with delight,
eagerly stretching them out for Lynx’s present, which he retained and
immediately began to play with. The old chieftainess knew from this

538 REPORT—1899),

that the child’s father stood before her. She now related to the assembled
guests all that had taken place.

Pointing to Lynx, who hung his head in silence, she exclaimed,
‘What shall be done to a creature guilty of such meanness? Death is
too good for such a one. I will tell you what shall be done to him... .
He sought to rob me of my niece ; now that he has disgraced her he
shall have her whether he will or no ; but he shall possess her in loneli-
ness ; he shall not live with us. I have been thinking of changing camp
for some time past ; we will do so now, and leave him and the girl and
child behind to look after themselves as best they may.’ As they left
the house every one of them, even Lynx’s own brother, Rabbit, gave him
a kick or a cuff, so that by the time all had gone poor Lynx was a mass
of bruises and sores. When all had at length left, the girl, who had been
watching the whole proceeding in shame and anger, now came forward
and washed and tied up poor Lynx’s battered head, mildly reproaching
him the while for the trouble and disgrace he had brought upon them.
Meanwhile the others were busy preparing for the departure across the
water, which divided their present encampment from the country beyond.
There were many among them who, while they felt no pity or com-
passion for Lynx, were yet sorry for the girl; and in packing up their
food stores purposely left some scraps behind for her in their food-cellars.
In a short time they were ready to start, and the old chieftainess giving
the word, they paddled away, leaving the pair behind them. The old
aunt had left very little of her store of food behind her, so that in a few
days the forsaken couple found their larder empty. Then it was that

Lynx remembered that there were other food-cellars in the village, and ~

suggested that the girl should go round and see what she could find in
them.

She soon discovered the food that was left behind ; and, poor and
scanty as it was, she was grateful for the kindness of those who had
thought of her in this way, and promised herself that if opportunity
offered she would not forget their kind acts. The food thus secured lasted
them till Lynx had recovered from his wounds and was able to go out
hunting. But the night before he was to start he had a dream, and in
his dream his guardian spirit came to him and told him not to despair or
be downcast at the turn events had taken ; that he would assist him, and
that one day he would be a great man and rule over his tribe. He was
further instructed to prepare a bow and arrows after the pattern shown
him in his dream, and go to the woods at the back of the village, and
there he would always find game in plenty. Accordingly, next day, after
relating the dream to his wife, he fashioned himself a bow and a quiver
of arrows, after the pattern he had seen in his dream, and went forth to
hunt. He had scarcely left the village behind him when fat deer sprang
up on all sides. Having killed as many as he deemed enough for them,
he returned to the village to inform his wife of his good luck, and to
secure her help in bringing home the game. From this time on they had
game and skins in plenty, and lived upon the fat of the land. So plenti-
ful indeed had all kinds of food now become that that precious possession,
mountain goats’ and sheep’s kidney fat, was as common as meat, and the
boy was given a ball of it to play with ; and so much had the wife thrown
away through the smoke-hole that the roof was coated with congealed
masses of it.

Now things were quite otherwise on the other side of the water, Soon

—

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 539

after elk-woman and her people had settled there all the game had
suddenly disappeared, and now the best and keenest hunters could find
nothing to bring home after,a long day’s hunt. Famine was busy among
them, and they were anything but happy in their new quarters. This
state of things had been going on for some time, when one day Raven
took it into his head to fly across the water and see how the deserted
Lynx and his family were faring. Greatly exhausted by his exertions in
his half-famished state, he was glad to alight on the ridge-pole of Lynx’s
keekwilee-house. Recovering himself he looked round him and could
scarcely believe his eyes when he saw a chubby child actually playing
with a ball of precious kidney fat, as if it were of no value at all. Seizing
an opportunity, when the child had rolled the ball of fat towards him, he
pounced down upon it and, urged partly by hunger and partly by greedi-
ness, strove to swallow it whole. But the ball was too big for his mouth
and stuck in the back of his throat. The child, seeing Raven gobble up
his plaything, set up a howl, which speedily brought out his mother. Per-
ceiving what had happened she seized Raven by the neck and forced him
to disgorge the ball again. Then, giving him a good shaking, she
demanded from him what he was doing there, robbing the child of his
plaything. Raven confessed that he had flown over, out of curiosity, to
see how they were getting on, and, being very hungry, could not resist
the temptation to swallow the ball of fat when the opportunity was given
him. ‘But how came you to be so starving ?’ questioned the woman ;
‘you are surely not short of food over the water.’ ‘Indeed, we are,’
responded Raven ; ‘we are worse than short of food, we are all starving.’
‘Ah!’ said the woman, ‘you have rightly fallen upon the lot you desired
for me. Go back to your companions and tell them I rejoice to hear of
their misfortunes. My husband and I shall enjoy our food the more from
knowing your stomachs are aching with hunger.’ She spoke thus bitterly
because Raven’s presence recalled their desertion of herself and child.
But Raven pleaded so hard for a meal first that she relented and gave
him as much meat and fat as he could eat, and told him he might come
over every day and get a meal on condition that he did not tell the others.
This Raven readily agreed to. When Raven first flew over he was thin
and poor, but after a little while the generous diet began to show its
effects upon him, and he grew plump and saucy once more, while his com-
panions grew thinner and thinner. His condition soon attracted atten-
tion, and his comrades began to suspect that he knew of some stores of
food which he selfishly kept to himself. So one day they seized him and
threatened to kill him if he would not reveal the source whence he
secured his food. At first Raven was true to his promise, and would
disclose nothing ; but seeing that his companions were in earnest, and
would undoubtedly kill him if he hid the matter from them any longer,
he confessed that he had been going to the old settlement, and had been
generously fed by Lynx and his wife, who were living in plenty. On
hearing this they determined to pocket their pride and return to the old
camp the very next day. In the meantime, while they were making their
preparations, Raven flew over and told Lynx and his wife what had
transpired. The woman, on hearing the news, recalled the promise she
had made to herself, and hastened to stock the food-cellars of those who
had thought of her in her distress. She filled their cellars with the
choicest game and fat, but put not a morsel in the cellars of the others,
Next day, when the tribe returned, those whose kind actions had borne

540 REPORT—1899,

fruit feasted upon Lynx’s game as they had not feasted for a long time
before. The others, whose cellars were as empty as their stomachs,
gathered round Lynx’s keekwilee-house and eagerly picked up and
devoured the scraps which the woman had purposely thrown out. Little
Ant and several of his relatives climbed on the roof and began to eat the
fat that had gathered there. For some days neither Lynx nor his wife
would show themselves, but each morning they threw out a basketful of
bones and pickings, which were quickly seized and devoured by the
starving crowd. When the woman thought she had sufficiently humbled
their pride and revenged herself for their cruelty to her, she bade her
husband make a great feast and invite them all to it. This he did, and
when they had eaten their fill he told them of his vision and the promise
his guardian spirit had made to him. From this they perceived that he
was ordained to be their chief. They accordingly denounced the old
chieftainess, declaring that she should have known all this, and, deposing
her, they made him chief in her place.

Thus Lynx’s dream was fulfilled, and he became a great man among
them from that time forward.

Tla'pas Cima'ms, or the Forgotten Wife Story.

There was once a young man who was very desirous of becoming a
great ‘medicine’ man, or Shaman. Following the usual custom of the
Indians he retired to a solitary spot that he might be alone. He sub-
jected himself to the severest discipline, fasting till his body was so
wasted that his bones almost came through his skin, but he met with no
success. No dream or vision came to him ; no spirit promised him its
aid and help. Giving up the trial in despair, he resolved to go and visit
a certain famous Shaman who lived in another part of the country. On
his journey thither he came upon a secluded village through which his
path ran ; and, as it was near night, he resolved to stay there till next
morning. To his surprise he found the village deserted, but for one
old woman. Going up to her he saw that she was very old and decrepit,
so old, indeed, that, she could not sit upright, her body falling forward
between her knees as she crouched over the embers of a decaying charcoal
fire. By her side was a basket of koakoé’la, or ‘husband’ roots ; while
from every joint in her limbs and from each side of her head there grew
out young fir-trees. These appeared to incommode her considerably, and
as soon as she saw the young man she begged him to cut them for her.
Being of an obliging nature, and seeing that she was extremely old, and
probably wise and gifted with supernatural power, he complied with her
request. She then begged him to make her a little fresh charcoal for her
fire and place it by her side. This he did also, and then began to question
her as to why she was all alone and why her people had deserted her,
‘They have not deserted me,’ answered she, ‘they are all dead, I have
outlived them all. J am very old, so old that the fir-trees grow upon me
as you have seen.’

‘ But how have you managed to live so long?’ questioned the youth.
‘Because my “medicine” is good,’ she answered. ‘See these roots at my
side? That is my ‘‘power.”’ I have eaten nothing but these since I was
a girl, In their strength I have lived on, while all my kinsfolk have died
and passed away. I have learnt, too, to read the secrets of the heart ; I
know your ambition and the object of your journey through the forest,

Sa —=<x---- =” °°

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 541

But you will not attain your desire unless I assist you. This I will doin
return for your kindness to me. Take this root, peel off the skin, and eat
it when you are going to rest for the night, carefully preserving the root
itself for the future. In your sleep you will have adream. Come to me
in the morning and tell me what you dreamt, and I will advise you of
your future course.’ The youth took the root, promising to doas she bade
him. Before he lay down to sleep he carefully skinned the root as he had
been bidden, and then ate the skin, putting the root aside. In his sleep,
as the old woman had foretold, he had a strange and peculiar dream. He
dreamt that he had arrived at the Shaman’s house, and had been sent by
him to perform three herculean tasks, which if he accomplished he was to
have the Shaman’s beautiful daughter to wife, but if he failed he was to
be cast to a fierce and dreadful beast, which the Shaman kept in aden for
the purpose of devouring the bodies of the young men who failed to
accomplish his tasks. Next morning he related his dream to the old
woman, who then told him the nature of his first task, adding that if
he succeeded in accomplishing this he would receive help and advice
from another source with regard to the others. ‘You will have to clear
a large tract of forest land in a given time; and so dense is the forest,
and the time allowed to do the work so short, that you cannot possibly do
it of yourself ; but if you will be careful to follow my instructions you
will be enabled to perform the task within the allotted time and outwit the
Shaman. When he takes you to the field and asks if you will undertake
the work, answer boldly, ‘Yes, if you will supply me with a suitable
tool.’ He will at once consent to do this ; then ask to see his mattocks.
When they are placed before you laugh at him, and ask if he thinks you
can use such children’s tools as those. He will be surprised, and ask you
what kind of tools you want. Request him then to have a mattock made
for you that will take the strength of twenty men to lift. He will be
astonished, but will do as you request.’ ‘But,’ interrupted the youth,
‘what shall I do with such an unwieldy instrument as that? I am not
stronger than twenty men.’ ‘Be patient and listen,’ replied the old
woman. ‘The root I gave you last night is a “magic” root. Eat a
morsel of it now and test it.’ The youth bit off a mouthful, and before
he had finished chewing it he felt a strange power enter his body, and
with it a desire to exercise his strength. ‘Take up this log,’ said the
old woman, ‘and swing it round your head.’ The youth obeyed, and took
up a log that required the strength of a dozen ordinary men to lift, and
swung it round his head as if it had been a spear-haft. ‘Now,’ said the
old woman, when he had cast the log to one side, ‘you need not fear the
weight of your heavy mattock ; only if you desire the root to be effective
you must give good heed to my instructions. You will be tempted to
partake of the food from the Shaman’s table before you set out to perform
your task. This you must on no account do. Turn your back upon his
breakfast and satisfy your appetite with the root I gave you. Eat it on
an empty stomach and have confidence in its virtue, and you will
successfully accomplish your labours.’ The youth thanked the old woman
for her good advice and the root, and, bidding her good day, continued on
his way. On the following day he came to the residence of the great
Shaman. As he approached the house the younger daughter of the
Shaman saw him coming, and perceiving him to be a goodly, well-favoured
youth, her heart went out to him, and she was moved with pity, knowing
the evil that awaited him at her father’s hands. When he arrived at the

542 REPORT—1899.

house the Shaman came and asked him what he could do for him. The
young man answered that he sought to become a Shaman, and desired his
aid and advice to that end. ‘Very good,’ said the Shaman, ‘I am willing
to help you on certain conditions. You must become my servant for a
time, and must undertake to perform certain tasks which I will set you.
Tf you succeed in accomplishing these I shall see that you are fitted to
become a Shaman, and will initiate you into the mysteries of my profes-

sion, and will also bestow upon you one of my daughters for wife.’ ‘On

these terms,’ broke in the youth, ‘I am willing to become your servant,
and attempt the tasks you may set me.’ ‘Stay a while, my friend,’ said
the Shaman, ‘you have heard but half the conditions. If you fail to
accomplish either of your tasks you will be cast to the fierce beast in the
den yonder,’ and he pointed to a huge and fearful-looking creature which
was penned up near the house, and which now roared horribly as the
Shaman spoke. The sight of this ravening beast might have deterred a
less determined man than this youth, but remembering his dream and the
power which was his by virtue of the old woman’s root, he again declared
his eagerness to essay the tasks and enter upon his novitiate. ‘ Very
good,’ said the Shaman with a wicked smile, ‘to-morrow morning you
shall begin your work. Come and I will show you your first task.’ And
with that he led him to the forest. ‘To-morrow before sunset you must
clear and prepare for planting seventy “fathoms” square of this land,’
said the Shaman when they had reached the timber. ‘ Very well,’ replied
the youth, to the Shaman’s astonishment, who expected to hear him ery
out and declare such a task to be impossible for any man ; ‘I will do the
work provided you supply me with proper tools.’ ‘There are plenty of
mattocks in the house,’ said the Shaman ; ‘I will have them brought to
you and you can choose your own.’ When the tools were placed before
the youth he laughed at the Shaman, as the old woman had bidden hin,
and said they were children’s tools, and that he wanted a man’s tool.
‘What kind of mattock do you want ?’ then exclaimed the Shaman, more
astonished than ever at the manner of the young man. ‘I will give you
whatever tool you require.’ ‘Very well,’ then said the youth, ‘have a
mattock made for me that will require the united strength of twenty men
to move it, and I will clear your land for you.’ The Shaman, marvelling
much at the confident manner of the youth before him, promised that the
tool should be ready for him at sunrise next morning. On the morrow
the young man was up before daybreak. He went to the stream and
plunged into the cold water ; he then exercised himself after the custom
of the Indian youth of the old times, after which he made his breakfast
of the koakoe’la root. This, not being very large, only served to whet his
appetite ; and when the Shaman presently invited him to sit down to
breakfast with himself and family, the savoury smell of the fish and
venison sorely tempted him to comply, but remembering the admonition
of the old womar he thrust aside his desire, turned his back upon the
meal, and went forth to his task. He had no sooner left the house than
he felt a rush of energy and strength to his body and limbs, and catching
up the newly made mattock swung the huge implement with ease round
and round his shoulders. Without loss of time he betook himself to the
forest, and such was the marvellous power of the koakoe'la root that ere
the sun had reached the zenith he had cleared the piece of land and felt
little the worse for his task. He now returned to the house, and the
Shaman, seeing him coming, wearing a bold and self-confident look,

a

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 543

Scarcely knew what to think ; and when told that the work was done

would not believe it till he had examined it with his own eyes. Finding
the task really satisfactorily performed, a great hate now sprang up in
his heart towards the youth, and he secretly determined to cut his life
short, lest he should prove a future rival to himself and rob him of his
influence and power. To this end he prepared a snare for him. Pre-
tending to be well pleased at the manner in which he had performed his
first task, he told the young man that he would not wait till he had
accomplished the other tasks before giving him his daughter to wife, but
would bestow her upon him that very day. The young man, nothing
loth to possess so desirable a wife as one of the Shaman’s daughters,
asked which of the two was to be his wife. Said the Shaman, ‘ Choose for
yourself, my son ; you may have which you like.’ The youth looked at
the two young women, and to his surprise found them so exactly alike
that he could not tell the one from the other, and was at a loss for the
moment which to choose, till he caught the soft and yearning look in the
eyes of the younger, whose heart he had unconsciously won, when he
hesitated no longer, but chose her. ‘Very well,’ said the parent, ‘TI will
prepare a house for you, and to-night you shall find both it and her ready
for you.’ Now the young woman’s love for the youth made her suspect
her father’s motives, and feigning complete indifference for her future
husband she sought to discover her parent’s purposes. He, never sus-
pecting that her feelings had been roused, or that she cared one jot for the
youth, made no secret of his purpose. He had caused a deep hole to be
made in the ground, just before the door of the chamber he had prepared
for the newly wedded pair, at the bottom of which he had built a huge
fire of charcoal, and over the top of which, on a level with the ground, he
had placed a cunningly contrived door that revolved on a central pivot.
This door was so evenly hung that it remained balanced by its own
weight, effectually covering the hole and the fire beneath ; but should one
not familiar with the contrivance be unwary enough to place his foot on
either half of the door, it would immediately give way beneath and pre-
cipitate him into the yawning furnace below, from which there was no
possible escape. This was the bridal couch the jealous Shaman prepared
for his unsuspecting sdn-in-law, and the latter would doubtless have thus
miserably ended his life but for the love and warning of his bride.
Having ascertained that her father entertained no doubts that his trap
would successfully dispose of her lover, and that they would be left in
peace, at least for the night, if he succeeded in passing the death-trap, she
took the opportunity, unobserved by her sister or parents, to acquaint her
husband with the whole plot, telling him how to safely cross the door.
He saw from this that his young wife’s help was the aid the old woman
had told him would be given him after he had performed the first task,
and feeling that some friendly power was working for him, he awaited
the approach of night without agitation or concern. When they had
eaten their supper, and the young women had retired, the Shaman pointed
out to the youth the apartment occupied by his bride, and Jeft him to
join her, As he approached the door he trod very carefully, trying the
ground in front of him before he put his foot down. When he had got

uite near the door he felt the ground give way beneath his advanced

foot, and pressing upon it a little discerned the outlines of the trap-door ;
and putting his foot in the centre, as his wife had instructed him, he gave

a leap and crossed the treacherous spot without harm, and the warm wel-

544 REPORT—1899,

come of his bride soon made him forget the danger he had run in reaching
her. Next morning, when the Shaman, according to his wont, aroused
his family, he was greatly astonished to see the young man appear safe
and sound from his daughter’s quarters ; but dissembling his feelings he
bade him good morrow and hoped he was ready for his second task that
day. ‘O yes,’ responded the youth, ‘I am quite ready and eager.’ When
he had gone for his morning plunge and exercise, the father took the
opportunity of warning his wife and daughters that they were on no
account to give the youth any hints or advice. ‘He has some powerful
medicine,’ added he, ‘ working in his behalf, or he could not have accom-
plished the task I set him yesterday or escape the trap I placed for him
last night. If I do not destroy him I foresee he will outwit me and
deprive me of my prestige and power.’ He little suspected that his
younger daughter had already revealed the nature of his second task he
proposed to set him, and had conspired to outwit him and assist her hus-
band. But so it was ; for before they had risen that morning she had
told him that her father would change herself and sister and mother into
three beautiful speckled trout, so exactly alike that it would be impos-
sible to tell one from another without assistance from the fish themselves.
Said the young wife, ‘I will wag my head from side to side as I swim
about : by this means you will be able to distinguish me from the others
when you are asked to point me out, without exciting my father’s sus-
picions that I am helping you ; for,’ added she, ‘ the task that awaits you
to-day is to point out which of the three fish is your wife. Be careful not
to point me out at the very commencement of the trial. Pretend for a
while to be in doubt, and declare the task to be impossible, and only
when you have exhausted my father’s patience make a real and final
effort.’ The young man promised to do as she had bidden him, and
thanked her for her good advice,

All breakfast-time the Shaman was very merry and talked much,
telling the youth how many young men had come to him to be initiated
into the mysteries of Shamanism and had proved themselves unworthy,
and had been cast to the beast and been devoured. The youth was not
to be dismayed by the misfortunes of those who had tried before him and
failed. Secure in the love and assistance of the Shaman’s own daughter,
and mindful of his dream, he maintained, to the Shaman’s secret chagrin,
the same self-confident air that he had worn on the previous day. As
soon as the morning meal was over, the Shaman bade his daughters fetch
a large basket-tub and fill it with water. As soon as they had done this
he called the young man to him and said, ‘Now you must essay your
second task, and if you fail, notwithstanding your success of yesterday, I
shall cast you to the beast.’ Transforming his wife and two daughters
therewith into three speckled trout, so exactly alike that it was impossible
to detect the slightest difference between them, he cast them into the
basket of water and bade the youth come near. After watching them for
a moment he asked the young man which had the smallest tail. ‘It is
impossible to say,’ replied the youth; ‘they seem to me to be exactly of
the same size.’ ‘ Which has the largest head, then?’ questioned the
Shaman. ‘I cannot say,’ said the youth. ‘Which has the finest fins ?’
‘They are all equally fine,’ was the answer. And thus the Shaman ques-
tioned him upon all their points, always receiving a similar answer from
the youth, as his wife had instructed him. The Shaman then put the
real and final question: ‘ Which of the three is your wife, my youngest

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 545

daughter?’ ‘ Really, I don’t think I can say,’ pretended the youth ; ‘it
‘seems impossible to determine.’ ‘Oh, but you must,’ declared the
Shaman, now so delighted that he could scarce hide it, ‘or pay the
forfeit.’ And as he spoke he pointed to the beast, which roared horribly
at the same moment. The young man then put forth his hand as if to
point out the fish he thought his wife, but immediately withdrew it again
with a show of doubt and hesitation. He repeated this mancuvre several
times until the Shaman, losing patience and believing that the youth
was now in his power, declared he must hesitate no longer, but make his
choice and abide by the result. The youth then closely watched the
three fish for a moment, and seeing one separate itself a little from the
other two and shake its head vigorously, he quickly pointed to it and
said, ‘That one is my wife and your younger daughter.’ As he uttered
the words the three fish were transformed back to women again, and
stepped out of the basket. The Shaman was so disappointed at the turn
events had taken that he could scarcely hide his feelings, but making
pretence, he congratulated the youth, declaring that one day he would
become a very great Shaman if he were lucky enough to be successful in
his third and final trial, which was fixed to take place on the morrow.

The next morning, before they rose, the young wife informed her
husband that the task which awaited him for that day was a race with
her father, who was so exceeding fleet of foot that no man had ever
successfully competed with him. ‘You cannot of yourself, said she,
‘hope to beat him—his medicine is too strong for that. I alone can aid
you, and if you will place your trust and confidence in me I can promise
you success. When you find my father gaining on you in the race and
your strength failing, you must fix your eyes steadfastly upon my face,
and you will then find yourself able to outrun him. Do not neglect my
instructions, or ill will it be for both of us.’ He thanked her for her help
and advice, and made up his mind to do as she had told him if he found
he was losing ground.

The Shaman presently called him aside and informed him that he
must now prepare himself for the third and final trial, ‘ which,’ said he,
‘is a race with myself.’ The youth prepared himself accordingly, and
presently stood side by side with the Shaman, waiting for the moment to
start. The three women had gone to the other end of the course to see
the finish. The signal being given they started, and ran neck and neck
for the greater part of the way. But as they approached the goal the
Shaman began to make use of his medicine and leave the youth behind.
The latter strove again and again to overtake the Shaman, but all his
efforts were in vain : he found himself slipping farther and farther behind,
and it was only when his strength began to fail him, and the Shaman was
almost at the goal, that he recalled his wife’s instructions. Quickly fixing
his gaze upon her face, he felt in an instant a sudden rush of energy to
his limbs as her eyes seemed to burn through his brain, and his feet
seemed as if they had taken wings to themselves, for they now carried
him along without any effort of his own, and landed him at the goal
several yards in advance of his father-in-law, whose rage and disappoint-
ment were now so great that he could not speak for anger. But still he
dissembled and acknowledged his son-in-law’s victory, and forthwith
undertook to initiate him into the mysteries of his profession if he would
‘settle down with him and become his pupil. This the youth consented to
do, being still wishful to become a Shaman. But the Shaman’s daughter,

1899. NN

546 REPORT—1899.

his wife, was troubled in her mind, knowing that her paretit would never
spare her husband’s life, but would continue to plot against him till he
had destroyed him. So when night came, and she had an opportunity of
conversing with him alone without arousing suspicion, she communicated
her fears to him concerning his safety under her father’s roof, and coun-
selled immediate and secret flight to his own village and home. The
youth assenting to her plan, they set out together that very night, making
all the haste possible that they might be well advanced upon their journey
before they were missed. In the morning, when the Shaman roused his
family as usual, he was surprised to find his daughter and son-in-law
absent, and as the day advanced, and there was no appearance of them, he
became convinced that they had fled together from him. Said he to his
wife, ‘ Now I understand where his assistance came from. Our daughter
has betrayed me, and now run away with her husband. But they shall
not escape me thus. I will after them and bring them back.’ And as he
spoke he sought for their trail, which, as they had made no attempt to
hide it, trusting to their start, he soon discovered and hastened to follow
up. With the aid of his Shamanistic powers he was able to travel much
faster than they; and he had not pursued them long when the runaway
daughter cried out to her husband: ‘My father is pursuing us and is
close upon us; I know it by the trembling in my body. Now stay a
moment, and I will use my medicine.’ Forthwith she transformed her
husband into a little sugar-tree' where he stood, and herself into another
close by over against him; and where a moment before two human beings
had stood there now grew in their place two old and partly decayed
sugar-trees. The transformation had scarcely been effected when the
Shaman came up. When he reached the sugar-trees he found the trail
suddenly stop, and look and search as he would he could find no continua-
tion of it. Casting his eyes around him, he presently perceived that the
trail ended at the sugar-trees, so having the power to converse with trees
he addressed them, and asked if they had seen a young man and
woman pass that way. The sugar-tree that was his daughter replied that
no one had passed by that way since they had grown there. ‘How long
have you been growing here ?’ questioned the Shaman. ‘Oh, we are very
old,’ said the daughter. ‘Cannot you see how decayed we have become ?’
Never suspecting that he was conversing with his daughter, after search-
ing all round again and finding no clue to follow, he gave up the pursuit
and turned back homewards again. When he was out of sight the
daughter resumed her proper form, transforming at the same time her
husband to his own shape, and both continued on their way as fast as
they could. The Shaman, on reaching his home, was asked by his wife
why he had returned alone. He related his experience, telling her that
the trail was clear and easy till he came to the sugar-trees, and then it
ceased suddenly, and no trace of the fugitives could be found beyond.
‘You silly man,’ said the wife, ‘don’t you see that the sugar-trees were
your daughter and her husband? You know that she possesses the
“power” as well as you. Hasten back after them, and don’t be fooled by
her again.’ Perceiving that she must be right, he started after the run-

1 The ‘ sugar-tree,’ called by the natives gwa'hit, is a species of pine—the white
pine of the district, as far as I could gather from my informant’s description of it.
When the tree is first tapped the sap is sweet and not unpalatable, but after a day’s
exposure to the atmosphere it becomes disagreeable and unpleasant to the taste.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 547

aways once more, and presently arrived at the spot where the sugar-trees
had stood, which were now nowhere to be seen. Desperately angry at
finding he had been outwitted again by his own daughter, as his wife
had suggested, and perceiving the trail broad and clear before him, he
hastened to overtake them once more. It was not long after this that
the young wife cried out to her husband, ‘ My father is pursuing us again,
and will speedily overtake us and seize us if I do not do something to
prevent it. I know it by the trembling in my body.’ Immediately she
set to work to gather two bundles of brushwood. This done, she trans-
formed them into two wretched, broken-down huts, and herself and
husband into a pair of decrepit and grey-headed old people. She had no
sooner accomplished this second metamorphosis than her father arrived,
and finding the trail stopped short here, he accosted the old couple and
asked them if they had seen two young people pass that way. The
daughter answered for both again, and replied that no one had passed that
way for many years. “ Have you been living here long?’ questioned the
Shaman. ‘We were young and active when we first settled here,’ an-
swered the daughter ; ‘now you can see for yourself that we are old and grey.’
‘It is strange,’ replied the Shaman, ‘here are their tracks to this very spot,
and nosign of them beyond. Perhaps they have hidden themselves in your
houses.’ ‘ You are welcome to look,’ said the woman, ‘ but I am sure they
are not there.’ The Shaman then made a close search of both hovels, but
found no trace of those whom he sought ; and after a fruitless effort to
discover the trail beyond the huts gave up the search and returned home
once more. As before, no sooner was he gone than the pair, resuming
their proper forms, started off again on their journey without delay.
When the Shaman arrived home he related his second experience to his
wife, who laughed at him again for not perceiving in the old pair another
ruse of his daughter’s. ‘The old man and woman were your daughter and
her husband without doubt. Return quickly and you will still secure
them.’ The Shaman set out yet a third time after the runaways, and
coming to the spot where the cottages had stood a little while before dis-
covered nothing there but two heaps of brushwood, beyond which he now
clearly discerned the tracks of the fugitives. Taking up the trail again
he hurried after them. As he was about to come up with them the young
woman cried out, ‘I am all in a tremble again : my father is close upon us.
I must use my power once again, and if we succeed in deceiving him this
time he will molest us no further.’ And with that she spat upon the
ground and the spittle became at once a lake. She then transformed her-
self and husband into a pair of mallard ducks, and entering the water
bade her husband follow her. They had been in the water but a few
moments when the Shaman came up, and finding the trail lead into the
water he stopped and looked about him. Understanding the language of
birds he now accosted the ducks and asked them if they had seen a young
man and woman cross the lake. The daughter, answering for both, as
she alone knew the language of birds, replied shortly that they had
not. The Shaman then requested them to swim over to the other side of
the lake and see if they could discover any tracks leading out of the water.
Said the female duck ‘Go, and look for yourself ; we cannot wait upon you.’
The Shaman, though by this time weary and footsore, dragged himself round
to the other side of the lake, but perceiving no footmarks there concluded
that the fugitives had drowned themselves, and presently returned home
and gave up the chase. The young people, starting on their way once
NN2

548 REPORT—1899.

more, shortly came near the young man’s home. As they approached the
village he said to his wife, ‘Now, I want you to remain here in the wood
while I go forward and prepare my mother and father for your arrival.’
She demurred to this, asking why she could not accompany him. ‘Oh!
that would never do,’ said he ; ‘my parents must have time to prepare for
your reception. I will only go forward and inform them that I am
bringing home a wife and then return for you.’ She continued to demur
to the arrangement. ‘ Have you any brothers ?’ questioned she presently.
‘ No,’ he answered, ‘I have no brothers, only two sisters.’ ‘Promise me,
then,’ said she, ‘that if I let you go you will not let your family kiss you
before you return to me.’ ‘ Why do you wish me to make that promise ?’
asked he. ‘ Because if your sisters or your father and mother kiss you
before you come back to me you will forget all about me and will not
return, but leave me here all alone in the woods.’ The young man, who
was very fond of his wife, declared that was impossible ; but willing to
gratify her he readily promised to do as she requested, and bidding her
have no fear of his speedy return he left her there and entered the village.
He had not got far before his two sisters perceived him coming, and rushed
in to inform their parents, who no sooner heard of his arrival than they
ran out to meet him, followed by their two daughters. When they got
near they embraced him fondly, and he, in the pleasure of meeting them
again, forgot all about his promise to his wife, and suffered himself to be
kissed by them. And as they led him into the house all recollection of
his young wife anxiously waiting for him at the edge of the forest left his
mind, and he forgot her as completely as if she had never existed. When
he had been absent some hours and night began to come on without any
sign of him, she began to fear that he had broken his promise ; and as day
after day went by she became certain of the fact. So she built herself a
little house on the edge of the village close to the roadway, and at the
back of it she added a small lean-to. When she had done this she took a
lump of clay, and after kneading it she made from it two clay birds. She
next transformed the clay effigies into real live birds, and placed them in
the lean-to at the back of her house. Several days had now elapsed since
she had lost her husband, who, having completely forgotten that he had
ever been married, at the suggestion of his parents began to look round
for a wife. Having chosen a maiden that suited his fancy, he asked his
parents to take the necessary steps to bring about the marriage. Nego-
tiations were opened, presents accepted and exchanged, and a day was
fixed for the ceremony. The father of the bride-elect was desirous of
marking the event in a very conspicuous manner ; so he gave notice that a
great feast would be held in honour of the occasion, and sent out inyita-
tions far and wide. He also invited all those who possessed any curious
or interesting things to come and exhibit them, being determined to make
the feast a memorable event. The forsaken young wife at the edge of
the village heard the news of the approaching marriage of her husband in
some mysterious way, and laid her plans to prevent it accordingly. A
day or two before the feast a young man chanced to return from the
forest, whither he had gone to gather roots for the feast, by the path that
led past her hut. As he passed the door she came out and asked him
what he had in his basket. ‘They are roots,’ answered he, ‘that I have
been gathering for the feast.’ ‘Ah!’ said she, ‘that is just what I want
for my tame birds. Iwill buy them from you.’ ‘ But I cannot sell them,

returned he ; ‘ they are for the feast. But let me take your birds instead ;

thane

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 549

we want all the meat we can get.’ ‘No, I do not want to part with my
birds,’ replied she ; ‘but come in awhile and talk to me.’ The youth,
perceiving her to be a very agreeable and pleasing young woman, nothing
loth, acceded to her request, and entered the hut with her. She now
pretended to make love to him, and he, falling into the snare, desired to
spend the night at her house This was what she desired for her purpose,
and bade him welcome. When they were about to retire for the night,
and he had disrobed himself, a sudden commotion took place among the
birds in the lean-to. ‘Oh!’ cried she, ‘I have forgotten to place my pets
on their perch. Do go out and set them on the perch for me.’ He
wanted her to leave them as they were, but she insisted that he should
first set them on the perch before he lay down. Thinking it best to
humour her, he went out, undressed as he was, and tried to set the birds on
the perch ; but no sooner had he placed one on it than the other tumbled
off again. When he had spent a little time thus to no purpose, he cried
out to her that they kept falling off the perch, and that he must leave
them as they were. But this she would not hear of; he must set them
on the perch or he could not return to her. Being anxious not to vex
her, this he again tried to do. But so contrary and perverse were the
birds that they fell off as fast as he put them on. As he now began to
feel cold in his undressed state, he begged again and again that she would
allow him to leave them and return to her ; but each time she made his
return conditional upon his permanently setting the birds on the perch,
and laughed at him for his stupidity in not being able to do so simple a
thing. But do what he would the birds slid off their perch as quickly as
he placed them on it, and dawn began to appear before he at last succeeded
in getting them to remain there. Glad that at length he might now
return to her, he eagerly rushed into the house as the first beams of the
sun shot across the sky. He found the young woman up and dressed,
and when he would fain have spent a little while with her in amorous
dalliance she coldly bade him hasten away before the village was astir,
and he was seen leaving her house by the elders, thus bringing disgrace
upon himself and her. This argument appealed to him so strongly that
he forthwith caught up his clothes, and without stopping to put them on
ran from the hut to the village, and got home before he had been seen by
any one. In his haste he had left his basket of roots behind him, which
was just what the Shaman’s daughter had planned for. But such an
experience as the youth had gone through could not be kept long to him-
self ; and before the day was over he had related it to several of his
comrades, one of whom, fired by his account of her attractions and beauty,
determined to pay the young woman a visit himself that same evening.
‘You will not succeed,’ said the first youth, ‘any better than I did; she
is not so easily won as you think.’ ‘Oh, won’t I?’ retorted the other ; ‘T
will carry some string with me and tie the creatures to their perch.’ So
when evening arrived he took some string in his clothes and a basket on
his arm with some roots in it, and passed by the young wife’s house, as his
comrade had done. She came to the door and asked what he had in the
basket. ‘I am taking home some roots for the feast to-morrow,’ said he.
‘Oh, sell them to me, won’t you ?’ requested she ; ‘I want some roots for
my birds.’ ‘What birds have you got ?’ questioned he ; ‘we want all the
animals we can get for the feast to-morrow. Won't you exchange them
for my roots?’ ‘Iwill see,’said she. ‘Come in and show me your roots.’
He entered the house with her, when she speedily bewitched him with her

550 REPORT—1899.

charms and beauty, and made him ready and willing to do whatever she
bade him. He said he would like to spend the night at her house. To
this she pretended to assent, and when he was about to lie down, having
disrobed himself for the night, a disturbance taking place as before in the
bird-house, she begged him to slip out quickly and set her birds on the
perch for her, declaring they would give her no peace if they were not
placed on the perch. Thinking himself a match for the stupidity or per-
versity of the birds, he made no demur to this, and as he thought he would
be returning in a moment or so he did not trouble to clothe himself, but
went just as he stood. He experienced just the same difficulty as his
comrade had done the previous night. The birds would not stay on the
perch ; and when he tried to tie them with the thongs he had brought he
found that the task was not so easy as he had imagined. Again and
again he thonght he had securely fastened them, but just as he turned to
leave the birds slipped each time from the perch, and set up such a cackling
that he was fain to try again. At last he succeeded in getting them to
remain on the perch, but by this time the morning was breaking, and as
he entered the hut the sun showed himself on the edge of the horizon, and
he knew he could safely linger no longer. Moreover, the young woman
was now cold and distant to him, and repulsed his advances, bidding him
return to the village before he brought disgrace upon them both. Re-
solving that on his next visit to her he would not be so easily fooled, he
caught up his clothes and ran hastily into the village. The talk of the
young men among themselves soon noised abroad the fact that the stranger
on the edge of the village possessed a pair of remarkable birds. This
presently reaching the ears of the father of the bride-elect, he sent a special
messenger to request the young woman to be present at the feast and ex-
hibit her odd pets. This was just what she had all along been working for,
and she readily consented to be present and show her birds. Accordingly
she came, and stood among those who had some tricks or exhibitions to
make ; and when they had gone through their parts she came forward and
placed her two birds on a mat in front of her husband and the chief guests.
Her husband scarcely noticed her, and certainly no thought of his relation
to her entered his mind. When she had set the birds down she took from
a basket at her side some of the roots she had secured from the youths
and threw them to the birds. The male bird instantly gobbled them all
up, driving the female away ; at which, to the great astonishment of all,
the hen bird began to speak in human language and upbraid and reproach
her greedy spouse for his selfishness and gluttony. Said she, ‘Why won’t
you let me eat of the roots? I did not treat you like that. Don’t you
remember how kind I was to you when my father would have killed you
by letting you walk into the hidden fire ? And this is the return you make
tome! I did not think you could be so unkind and forgetful.’ Every-
body wondered what the bird meant by such strange words. When it
ceased speaking the young Shaman was seen to look perplexed and
puzzled, as if he were trying to understand something that was not yet
clear to his mind. The young woman now threw the birds some more
roots, whereupon the male bird did as before, drove the other away, and
ate the roots himself. Again the hen bird reproached him, saying, ‘ How
can you treat me so unkindly? Don’t you remember what I did for you
when my father changed me and my sister and mother into trout and you
had to declare which fish was your wife or be thrown to the fierce beast
and devoured ?’ Her words, however, made no impression upon the cock,

FE —————<—

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 1
who each time the young woman threw them roots drove his mate off and
ate them all up himself. But as the hen recalled to the memory of the
selfish cock her deeds of past kindness one after the other, which corre-
sponded exactly to the acts of the young Shaman’s lately forsaken wife,
his memory became clearer and clearer until in the last scene of this litile
domestic drama of the birds, when the hen said, ‘ Didn’t I tell you that
you would forget and forsake me if you allowed your sisters and parents
to kiss you before you returned to me?’ the full memory of the past
suddenly rushed to his mind, and in the young woman before him exhi-
biting her birds he recognised his forsaken and forgotten wife. He sprang
up with a great ery and embraced her before the whole assembly, calling
her by all the dear names he could think of. His action caused great
astonishment to those present, but he explained that the stranger was his
wife, and told them how he had won and lost her. Even the bride-elect
and her relations could not complain, and he was permitted to withdraw
from the proposed marriage. Compensation in the form of presents was
made to the father of the disappointed young woman who had so strangely
been robbed of her prospective husband, and another suitor was found
for her.

Story of the Adventures of Snikid’p' the Coyote, and his Son N’tlikeu'mtum.

In the old, old days Snikia’p lived all alone by himself. He had
neither wife nor children, He much desired a son, and being a medicine-
man of great power it was not difficult for him to obtain his desire. One
day he got a lump of pitch,? and, working it in his hands for a while,
fashioned it in the form of a human being. Having done this he laid it
on the ground and stepped over it three times, saying at the same time,
‘Rise up.’ After the third time the effigy rose upon its feet and became
a living being. He now bids his son to be exceedingly careful never to
go where it was hot. ‘Harm will come to you, my son,’ said he, ‘if you
do, When the weather is very warm you must go and swim in the river,
and when it is cool you can safely come home again.’ The boy, who
steadily grows, followed his father’s instructions carefully for a time ; but
after a while he gets tired of passing the best part of the day in the water.
So one day he finds a large flat stone on the bank and lies down upon it
inthe sun. The sun’s heat soon begins to act upon him, and ina short
time he melts away. When evening came and he did not return as usual,
Snikia’p goes out to look for him, and presently discovers the melted pitch
on the ground. He now determines to create another son for himself who

‘ Dr. G. M. Dawson has recorded a brief account of the doings of Snikia’p the
Coyote, from notes supplied him by Mr. J. W. Mackay, in his ‘Notes on the Shuswap
People of British Columbia,’ Zrans. Roy. Soc. Canada, sect. ii. 1891. According to my
informant, Chief Mischelle, of Lytton, an exceptionally intelligent and well-informed
man, the name should be written as I have transliterated it. I have heard it called
Shnikia’p by the Indians, and also by Mischelle himself once. In the mouth of the
Indians of this region the dental sibilant s commonly changes into the corresponding
palatal sh, the speakers being apparently unaware of the change themselves. Accord-
ing to Dr. Dawson the Shuswaps of Kamloops call this being Skila'p. Snikia’p is
the N’tlaka’pamug for Coyote. The Coyote always goes by this name in the stories
(see below). This Skila'p, or Snikia’p, is frequently confused in the stories with
Skoe’qt-koatlt, the Culture-hero of the N’tlaka’pamugq. See the writer's account of the
doings of this hero in the Zransactions of the English Folklore Society for this year.

? Dr. Dawson has also recorded a brief account of a story similar in part to this
in his ‘ Notes,’ only in the Shuswap version it is a lonely grizzly woman who creates a
gon in this way for herself, and the after incidents are also different,

552 REPORT—1899.

should not be subject to the disadvantages under which the other had
laboured. As he was thinking out of what material he should make him
this time, his eyes fell upon a jade boulder lying on the bank. ‘Oh!’ said
he, ‘that is a fine material. I will make a jade son.’ So he took the jade
boulder and fashioned it into the form of a boy, going through the same
ceremony of stepping over it three times as before. When the stone son
was come to life he admonished him never on any account to go near the
water or try to swim in the river, or he would surely suffer for it. The
jade-lad observed his commands for some time, but being very hot one
day, and the water looking cool and tempting, he forgot his father’s in-
junctions and plunged into the river to bathe. Immediately he sank to
the bottom and was drowned. When Snikia’p learnt that his stone son
had disobeyed his injunctions and was drowned, he made yet another son
for himself. On this occasion he fashioned him from the fibrous matter
of certain vegetables and shrubs. He observed the same ceremonies as
before. This time the boy could do anything or go anywhere without
harm. When the boy had grown into a big lad, Snikia’p proposed that
they should go and pay a visit to a great tribe some way off. ‘The people
of this place were celebrated for their skill and power in hunting and
fishing, and in wood splitting. Said Snikia’p to his son, ‘My medicine
informs me that they will try to kill us by means of a great conflagration
they will bring about. You must therefore practise jumping until you
are a great jumper. They will try to kill you first in another way. They
will give you a fine-looking woman for wife, and also a spear, and send you
to spear salmon. When you go to the river you will see salmon with hair
on them, and painted salmon, and animal salmon with legs. Be careful
not to spear any of these. Spear a good eating salmon and hold this rush
in your hand all the time,’ and Snikia’p gave the lad a magic rush. ‘ When
you have speared your salmon,’ he continued, ‘hold on tight to your spear,
and you will be pulled into the water. Don’t be alarmed at this ; you
will not drown. As soon as you are in the water open the rush I have
given you with your fingers and get inside of it. You will find that you
can do this, and you will then float down the river. In a little while you
will drift to the bank. Get out then, and you will see the salmon again.
Use your spear again when a good salmon passes you and spear two.
Take these home with you. When you arrive you will find them making
preparations to kill me. When they see you they will desist.’

When Snikia’p and his son arrived at the village of this tribe, every-
thing happened as Snikia’p had foretold. The boy followed his father’s
instructions, doing exactly what he had told him. On getting back with
the fish he finds the people about to kill his father, not expecting his
return, thinking he would fall into the snare they had set for him and be
drowned. When they see him approaching, they desist from their attempt
to kill his father and propose that they should all go hunting. This they
do’; and when they are out they fire the bush in several places, so that
Snikia’p and his son are surrounded by a great ring of fire. They are
both much burnt and scorched, and only manage to escape with their lives
by taking immense leaps over the burning grass and timber. The fire has
spread everywhere and no spot is safe. ‘We must find a trail,’ said
Snikia’p, ‘or we shall be lost.’ After jumping about a good deal they at
last come out upon a broad trail. They lie down on this with their faces
to the ground, and the fire passes by them, having nothing to feed upon
in the beaten path. But they were much scorched by the heat, and the

os

~~

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. D008

Coyote has ever since worn a yellow skin in consequence. After a time
they get up and follow the trail, and presently come upon a strange
village, where the people are kind and hospitable. The son now marries
two wives, the daughter of the eagleand the daughter of theduck. The
first had red hair and a red face, and the other had light hair and a white
face. The youth now travels about a good deal; he is also a successful
hunter. He grows rich and becomes the possessor of many shell beads !
(Stlak’), of a species of the dentalide, and fine clothes. A son is born to
him by his eagle wife. One day he goes out hunting with his father and
his wives and child. Since he has been married his father, who now
desires a wife, has envied him very much and cast longing eyes towards
his daughters-in-law. At night they camp out, and the old man kindles
a fire of cedar wood. This, after the manner of cedar wood, shot out so
many sparks that the eagle-wife drew back from the fire to escape the
sparks which fell upon her dress. The duck-wife, on the contrary, sat on,
only pulling up her legs. In sitting thus she exposed the lower part of
her body and legs to her father-in-law, Snikia’/p. From this time he
schemed to deprive his son of his wives and take them for himself. He
therefore climbs a tree, and in its topmost branches builds:a bird’s nest, de-
fecates in it, and transforms the excrement into young eagles. This he did
on the second day of the hunting, when his son was absent. He had
remained at the camp for the purpose. When the son returns in the
evening he hears the cries of the eaglets and looks round to discover the
nest. Snikia’p now comes forward and says, ‘I discovered an eagle’s nest
in this tall fir to-day, and by the sound of the birds they must be almost
ready to tly. If I were you I should climb the tree and get them. Eagle’s
feathers would look well with your other ornaments.’ Now, as eagle’s
feathers were a great prize, not easy to get, the youth determined to follow
his father’s advice and climb the tree and secure the young birds before
they flew away. The crafty father was not only desirous of securing his
son’s wives for himself, but also his handsome robes, and so when his son
would haye climbed the tree as he stood in his clothes he suggested that
he should first take them off and leave them at the foot of the tree for
fear of injuring them. The son, suspecting no guile, did so, and climbed the
tree naked. When the son had climbed a good way up the tree the father
began to draw and distort his face, screwing up first one eye and then the
other. Thereupon the tree began to grow up—up it went into the clouds,
carrying the climber with it. Presently, when the point shot through
the clouds, they closed upon it like a vice and held it fast. Meanwhile
the son had reached the nest ; but when he got there, instead of young
eagles, he finds only human excrement. He now seeks to return, but finds
his way down the tree barred by the clouds. He cannot get down. He
now perceives that his father has duped him, and he sits down and cries.”
Presently he gets up and walks forward. He continues walking all the
rest of that day till night comes on. He now feels cold, for he has no
clothes on, but he lies down and covers his body as best he may with his
long hair. The next day, and for several following days, he walks on till
he hears a sound of knocking. He now looks about him, and the smell of

* My informant told me that the natives used to get these shells from the
Okanagan Lakes, and not from the coast.

* In the stories of the Indians men are often found to cry. Crying on the part
of a man seems not to have been regarded as unmanly.

554. REPORT—1899.

smoke strikes on his nostrils. Presently he spies a little framehouse
covered with mats. When he gets near he peeps in and sees there two
old women who are both blind. He now perceives that the knocking
proceeds from them. They are pounding up fir branches for food. One
of them presently gathers up the pulp and passes a portion of it to the
other. The youth intercepts the food and eats it himself. The old woman
who should have got it now begins to grumble at her sister for not giving
her a share of the food. ‘I did give you your share,’ retorted the other.
‘T put it into your hand. I felt you take it.’ The other declared she
hadn’t got it. ‘ Well, here’s some more. Hold out your hand and be care-
ful to take it this time.’ The other held out her hand, but the young man
intercepted the food again, and ate it himself. The old woman who was
being thus robbed now began to get angry, and upbraided her sister for
selfishly keeping all the food for herself. The other defended herself, and
declared she had passed the food and felt her take it. ‘Now, give me
your hand once more and let me put it in the palm of it,’ said she. Again
did the youth seize the food, and the two old women now began to revile
each other. Presently one of them began sniffing and smelling, as if she
scented something strange. Said she, ‘I smell N’tlikcu’mtum.’' ‘How
do you know it is N’tlikcu’mtum ?’ said the other ; ‘you have never seen
him.’ ‘ Well,’ answered the first, ‘ there’s nobody but ourselves andthe
spider and his wife in this country. They are not here, and you say you
didn’t get the food I put into somebody’s hand, so it must be N’tlikeu’m-
tum.’ The youth now reveals himself and speaks to the old women. ~ He
chides them for quarrelling, but as they have done him no great harm,
only called him N’tlikcu/mtum, he will not put an end to them outright,
but will transform them into something useful. Taking one of them by
the nose, he said, ‘ You will be good meat for the hunter when he is far
from home and bigger game is scarce,’ and therewith threw her to one
side of him and she became a willow-grouse. He then took hold of the
other in the same way and threw her intoa ‘ sugar-tree,’® and she straight-
way became a black-grouse, or tcuk-tcukt,? commonly known as the
‘booby-grouse.’ ‘You will be of service now too,’ said he, ‘and hunters
will easily snare you and pull you off the branches by noosing you. You
will both of you now be much happier because you can both see to gather
and eat your food when you are hungry.’ Thus were the willow- and
black-grouse brought into being. He now proceeds on his way, and
seeing some pretty flowers growing by the side he plucked one. It
came up by the root in his hand, leaving a small hole in the ground.
Now, as the crust of this cloudland earth was very thin, this hole went
right through to the other side and let the wind up. It rushed through
with some force, and he put his foot over the hole to stop it up. From
this point he travelled on, still in his naked state, till he came to some
forest land, the sight of which much cheered him. Presently he sees
some smoke rising in the air. He hastens in its direction, hoping to find
somebody who will help him. On getting nearer he perceives a keekwilee-
house before him. He approaches it quietly and peers down the smoke-
hole, and sees an old man sitting within as naked as himself, engaged in

1 This term has reference to the dirty trick played upon him by his father. It
is the name by which he is known from this time forward. I was unable to obtain
its exact signification, but it is connected with the eagle-nest incident.

2 See note above on this tree.

3 Tcuk-tcukt means tame, and refers to the tameness of these birds.

~

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, Doe

rolling Spa’tzin (Asclepias speciosa) on his thigh into rope.’ This old man
was Ska/kit, the Spider, whose home is in the clouds. On seeing the
shadow caused by the youth he looked up and perceived him. As soon
as his eyes fel] upon him he began to weep and lament. ‘O dear wife,’
said he, ‘here is our grandson all naked and cold. Bring some blankets
and skins for him.’ To the youth he cried out, ‘ Come down, dear grand-
son ; I am so sorry for you. I knowhow badly you have been treated by
your father.’ The youth descends, and they cover him with blankets and
make him lie down by the fire and give him food to eat. Next morning
the grandson rises early and goes out to bathe in the stream. As he
leaves he sees his grandfather, Ska/kit, busily spinning the Spa’tzin grass
into rope, coils of which lay about the house. After some days had
elapsed, and he had recovered from the fatigues of his long journey, he
began to grow weary of doing nothing besides watching his grandfather
spin Spa‘tzin into rope. So he said to his grandparents, ‘ Have you any
game in this country? I should like to go hunting.’ ‘ We always snare
our game here,’ said the grandfather. ‘I never shoot, although I have an
arrow.’ ‘Give me yonarrow, grandfather ; I am a great hunter and I will
shoot you lots of deer.’ Ska’/kit gave him the arrow, and thereafter he
went out hunting every day. One day, as he was leaving, he said to his
grandfather, ‘ Why do youspin so much Spa’tzin ? You are always making
rope ; what do you want so much for?’ ‘It is for your sake I spin so
much,’ responded the Spider. ‘I am going to help you get back to your
own country again.’ Said the youth, ‘I am happy here with you ; I don’t
wish to leave you.’ ‘That is quite right and proper for you to desire to
stay with us,’ said Ska‘kit ; ‘but this is no country for you. For me it
does not matter much where I live. I can go where I want to. I can
just stick my thread on anywhere and climb up or down as I wish, or let
the wind carry me where it will. But you can’t do this, you see, and you
ought to return to your eagle-wife and little son. They want you very
much, and are grieving over yourabsence. I shall soon have enough rope
now for my purpose.’ The youth said no more, but the next time he went
out he plucked four hairs from the lower part of his abdomen and threw
them on the ground. Immediately three or four acres of the land adjoin-
ing the stream became covered with fine Spa’tzin grass. When he returned
home he asked his grandfather where he got his supplies of Spa’tzin from.
‘Oh, we have to go a long way to get it,’ answered he ; ‘it does not grow
hereabout.’ ‘That’s odd,’ said the youth ; ‘I certainly thought I saw a
fine tract of it just beyond the stream. When you go down to the stream
next, just see if I am not right.’ Ska’kit went down to the stream shortly
after, and found the grass growing there as his grandson had said, and as
it was unusually fine and long he now soon finished his rope. When this
was done he bade his wife bring out the goat-hair blankets she had woven.
The grandmother fetched out four dozen of these. ‘ Now bring the dried
meat and fat,’ said Ska/kit. And she brought out four dozen prime pieces.
He then told her to get the cradle-basket she had made for the occasion.
When all lay before the Spider he said, ‘The pack will be too big ; we
must make it smaller. Shut your eyes, both of you, and don’t open them
till I tell you.’ They did so. He then closed his own, and waving his

1 Spa'tzin is the Asclepias or great milkweed, yielding a fibre grass from which
the natives of this region make all their fish-nets, lines, &c. It grows sometimes three
or four feet long, and is then highly prized. It has given the name to Spatzum Station
on the Canadian Pacific Railway,

556 REPORT—1899.

hand over the blankets and meat the four dozen of each was reduced
apparently to two dozen each. ‘It is still too big,’ said he. ‘Shut your
eyes again and I will make it smaller still.’ He did the same as before,
and the two dozen blankets and pieces of meat were reduced to the com-
pass of two of each kind. ‘Now,’ said Spider to his grandson, ‘I will
tell you what we intend todo. We are going to put you and your pack
in this cradle, and cover it up and let you down through a hole by the
Spa’tzin ropes to your own country again. But you must be careful to
heed my instructions and do exactly what you are told, and then all will
go well with you. Between us and your country are three different zones
or lands through which you must pass to reach your own. The first of
these is the land where we now are. This is Cloudland. After that comes
Water-land. That is where the rain comes from. Next to that is Fog-
or Mist-land. After that comes the Earth, your country. Now when we
let you down from this place, after you have descended some distance you
will feel the basket stop. You must on no account get up or look about
you. Lie down in your basket and rock it from side to side. In a little
time you will break through the obstruction and descend again. This
will occur in your descent four times. Do as I have told you each time,
After the fourth stoppage you will find that you descend no more. Open
your basket then and get out, and you will find yourself in your own
country. When you get out pull the rope four times, and I shall then
know you have landed all right, and we wiil pull up the basket again.
Now get into the basket and lie down, and we will cover you up. Take
this sword with you,’ continued he, ‘as a present ;’ and the grandfather
gave him a long stone sword. The youth now got into the basket, and
when they had covered him up the old man lifted up a large stone that
lay at the base of the ladder and disclosed a deep hole. Down this
Ska’kit and his wife, standing on either side of the hole, let the basket
containing N’tlikcu’mtum and his presents by the Spa’tzin rope. When
the basket had descended about a half-score feet it stopped, being buoyed
up by the resistance of the wind that blew up through the hole. Finding
the basket would not descend, notwithstanding the rocking of N’tlk-
cu/mtum, Ska'kit bade his wife stoop over the hole and make the basket
heavier. The old woman thereupon squatted down over the hole and
scratched her thigh and leg till the blood ran freely and dropped down
upon the basket cover, but before it reached the basket it was changed
into big flakes of snow. This so weighted the basket that it was able to
overcome the resistance of the wind and descend again. Ska’‘kit and his
wife now commenced to dance and sing as they lowered the basket. The

basket remained stationary, he threw open the lid, and on looking out
found himself in a fine country. So he steps out and perceives that the
basket had landed on a large flat stone, close by what is now known as
Lytton Creek.! He now pulled the rope four times in succession, and the
basket is presently withdrawn to the upper regions again. He now takes

2 The old Indians point out a stqne near the creek which they believe is the
stone mentioned in the story.

ad

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 597

up his pack, but finds it and the big stone sword rather much to carry at
once. He decides to leave his sword there where he descended and get it
some other time. He thrusts it into the trunk of a tree that grew near
the spot to hide it, where, as the old Indians believe, it may be seen to
this day in the form of a peculiar knot that traverses the whole width of
the trunk. On looking about him he now sees tracks of many people, as
if a large party had passed that way. These he follows, and presently
perceives at some distance before him two old women who are swinging
fir branches from side to side of them as they proceed along. He wonders
why they are doing this, and on overtaking them questions them about it.
They tell him they do it to mark their sympathy for a very sad and dis-
consolate young widow who is a little way ahead of them. ‘ Why is she
so disconsolate ?’ asks he. They answer: ‘She mourns continually for
her young husband who has been evilly treated by his father, who sent
him into Cloudland, from which he cannot return.’ ‘Oh yes, he can, and
has!’ said he. ‘I am the young woman’s husband, and I have just
descended by the help of my grandfather, Ska’kit. Look at me and you
will see for yourselves.’ ‘We can’t see you,’ said the old women.
“Why ?’ said he. ‘Are you blind?’ ‘No,’ answered they, ‘ but we can’t
see you.’ ‘Look on your right and tell me what you see there.’ ‘We
can see Cia/kut’ (Thompson River), said they. ‘Tell me now, what do
you see on your left?’ then demanded he. Said they, ‘ We see N’tokti’auk’
(Fraser River). ‘Yes, you can see,’ said he. ‘Now look at me again.’
And with that he waved his hand before their eyes and became imme-
diately visible to them, and they knew him. -Then said he to them, ‘You
did wrong to walk as you did ; I must punish you. But as you did it
out of sympathy for my wife your punishment shall not be severe.’ He
thereupon transformed them into maggots, and then proceeded to overtake
his first wife. As he approaches, his little son, who is sitting on his
mother’s shoulder, looks back and sees him coming. He cries out,
‘Papa! papa!’ This makes his mother’s heart ache afresh, and she
chides him and bids him be quiet. But the child still cries out in a joyful
tone, ‘Papa!’ The mother gets angry and strikes the child with a stick
she is carrying in her hand. Still the child calls again, ‘Papa !’ By this
time the father is at the mother’s side, and takes her by the arm. She
does not look round to see who it is, but cries out in a sad, weary way,
‘Oh, let me alone! let me alone! Why are you always worrying me ?’
‘Look up,’ said the husband ; ‘I am your husband come back to you!’
Recognising his voice she looks up and embraces him warmly, and they
both cry for joy at meeting again. They sit down together, and the
father takes his son in his arms and plays with him. They have cried
and rubbed their faces so much that they are quite smeared and dirty.
To remove these stains he causes by his power a spring to bubble up
where they sat. At this they wash themselves. This spring is said to be
the one close by the trail that leads from Lytton to Britta’ni, a summer
resort of the Lytton tribe, about four or five miles north of the old camp
site, lying in a very beautiful little valley between the Thompson and the
Fraser. On this occasion it would appear the whole tribe had gone to
the valley. While they thus sat talking and enjoying each other’s com-
pany the larger of the two maggots, into which the two old women had
been turned, passed by. They enjoin upon her strictly not to reveal his
presence to any one in the camp. She is only to tell their slave, Little
Crow (Clog’), to build their tent somewhat apart from the rest. The slave

558 REPORT—1899.

did as she was told, and aroused the other slave, Big Crow’s (Ca‘hag)
curiosity. Ca’haq was servant to the second wife, who now lived with
Snikia’p, her father-in-law.

N’tlikcu/mtum and his faithful wife did not come into camp till it was
dark, and no one was aware of the former’s presence. After they had
retired Big Crow crept up to the tent to listen. Now the young wife
had been in the habit of crying and mourning every night for the loss of
her husband. Big Crow was aware of this, and wondered why the young
wife was not crying as usual. She peeped into the tent and noticed a
fine white blanket, which seemed to cover two persons. This further
roused her curiosity, and she ventured to enter the tent very softly. But
the woman heard her, and looked up and said, ‘What do you want?’
Ca/hag answered : ‘Oh, I came in to see how you were.’ ‘I am all right,’
responded she in a happy tone of voice, wholly unlike her usual tones.
This the Crow noticed at once, and asked, ‘Is any one here with you to-
night?’ ‘What makes you ask that question?’ queried her mistress.
Answered Crow : ‘To judge by the sound of your voice you seem much
happier than usual.’ ‘ You are right, I am happier,’ said the young wife ;
‘J have reason to be. My husband has come back to me.’ The slave now
began to cry for joy and sympathy. Said the young man, ‘ You must not
cry like that. Come here to me.’ Ca’hag went over to the young man’s
side. The wife now asks her if she had had her supper, and, on finding
she had not, gave the slave a good supper from the meat her husband had
brought. The young man then said she might tell the people he had
returned, but they were not to disturb him by visiting or coming near
him that night. The Crow was delighted to be the bearer of such news,
and soon communicated the fact of the young man’s arrival to all the
camp. Everybody expresses pleasure at the news, and they are all glad
and desirous of seeing him and hearing of his adventures; but they
respect his wishes, and leave him alone with his faithful wife and child
for that night.

The father of the youth, among the rest, had heard of his son’s return,
and early next morning came in crying and snivelling. The son took no
notice of him. That day he gave a great feast, to which everybody was
invited. After they had eaten their fill of the store of meat and fat he
had brought with him, he shared with them the blankets his grand-
mother had woven and packed up for him. He cut several in two so that
all might have a share. The next day he went on to Britta‘ni, and built
there a large camp. He was now made a chief, and became a great man
among them. One day, when he was out hunting with the others, the
desire came into his heart to punish Snikia’p, his father, for the deception
he had played upon him. Next day he said to his father and the others,
‘T shall go out alone to hunt to-day.’ They agreed, and he went off alone.
He presently shot a deer, and disembowelling it made a rope from the
guts. This he then transformed into a woollen rope. He now placed the
meat of the deer on his shoulders and returned towards home. When he
reached the stream that crossed his path he took half of the meat and
tied it with the rope he had made to a tree that overhung the brook.
The rest of the meat he took on with him. In the evening he informed
his father that he had left half of the deer’s carcass suspended from a
tree by the brook, and that he desired him to go for it in the morning.
‘ All right,’ said the father. Accordingly next morning Snikia’/p set off
to bring the meat home. As he left the son shouted out to him to be

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 559

very careful of the rope the meat was tied with, as he prized it very
much, and didn’t want it lost or broken. The father promised to be very
careful of it. He had no difficulty in finding the meat, which he took
down from the tree and slung across his shoulders ; but as he was cross-
ing the stream the rope broke, and the meat and rope fell into the water
together. The old man immediately jumped into the stream to secure the
rope. He did not care so much about the meat. ‘I must not let the
rope be carried away,’ said he, ‘or my son will be grieved and angry.’
So saying, he caught hold of it ; but as he did so the current swept him oft
his legs, and he was carried, rope and all, down the rushing stream to the
Thompson, and from thence into the Fraser and far down that river. He
was stopped at last by a barrier or weir, which was built across the river
near its mouth. As he approached the weir he transformed himself into a
small smooth board. Now this weir was held by four witch sisters.! As
Snikia’p floated towards the barrier in the form of a piece of wood, the
youngest of the sisters, who had gone to see if any drift wood had lodged
against the weir, observed the wood, which was about thirty inches long,
and thought it would do well for a dish, and straightway fished it out.
She took it home with her, and the next time they cooked a salmon she
laid it on the board. As they were eating it the fish seemed to last them
a very little while, and when it had all gone they were far from being
satisfied. ‘I haven’t had enough,’ said one. ‘I don’t seem to have eaten
any,’ said another. ‘ We will cook another fish,’ said the third ; ‘I can
eat some more myself.’ So another salmon was cooked ; but this dis-
appeared as rapidly as the former one, and they are still feeling hungry.
Said the eldest of the sisters now, ‘I think there is something wrong with
this dish. I shouldn’t wonder if it isn’t that Snikia’p that was drowned.’
‘That can’t be,’ said one of the others. ‘ How could he turn into a piece
of wood ?’ Oh, he is a very powerful wizard,’ said the eldest. ‘Let us
throw it away anyhow,’ said another ; ‘ throw it into the fire and burn it.’
This was done, and the seeming piece of wood began to burn. As soon
as the fire began to consume it the board began to cry like a child. This
affected the youngest sister, who wanted to save it from the fire. ‘No,
no,’ said the eldest ; ‘let it burn.’ ‘I want to save it ; it must not burn,’
declared the youngest. And she straightway took it out and washed it
and dressed its burns, which soon healed up. The piece of wood now
becomes a baby boy, who soon grows up and plays about the weir, and
observes all that the sisters do. One day, when he had grown to be a big
boy, the sisters all go for a walk, leaving him behind. Now they had
four boxes in the house, in which were stored the wind, the smoke, the
flies, and the wasps. These boxes had never been opened in the child’s
presence, and he was curious to know what was in them, for he had been
forbidden to go near or touch them. On this occasion they warned him
not to touch the boxes ; but when they had gone, his curiosity got the
better of him, and he opened the one containing the smoke, which came
out and nearly choked him. The sisters are soon made aware of what

| The story at this point seems to go over the same ground and be mixed up
with the story of Skoé'qt-koatlt. In the story of the great hero Skoé’qt-koatlt it is
he who comes in contact with these four women, and with the help of his brothers
breaks their power and destroys the weir, letting the salmon up the river. However,
the detail of this is different from that recorded by me in the story of Skoé’qt-koatlt,
See the writer’s paper on this fabulous hero in the Transactions of the English Folk-
lore Society for the current year.

560 REPORT—1899,

has happened, and rush home quickly, and collect the smoke and return it
to the box, scolding him the while, and telling him not to be so disobedient
again. The boy pleaded forgetfulness, and promised to let the boxes
alone for the future. The women set out again on their walk. When
this boy, who had Snikia’p’s soul within him, and Snikia’p’s cunning
and experience, was left alone the second time, he went out and examined
the salmon-weir. He perceives that it prevents the salmon from getting
higher up the river. The sisters presently return, and he is called away for
that time. One day they say they are going out for the morning. The
boy says he wants to go too, but they tell him they cannot be bothered
with him ; he must stay at home and look after the place. As soon as
the women have gone, Snikia’p opens one of the ‘ medicine’ boxes, and
the wind escapes and a gale arises. He then opens the other three boxes,
and lets their contents out also. He now proceeds to the centre of the
weir, and makes an opening in it through which the salmon swim up
river. The sisters soon perceive what has happened, and rush home.
They set to work to gather their scattered property, but can only secure
some of the smoke and flies. The wind gets away beyond their power to
recall, and they lose it entirely. Snikia’p now changes into an old man
again, and runs away, feeling happy and in good spirits. He has let the
salmon up the river, and the people above will be able to get them now.
There is only one drawback to his feelings of satisfaction—the smoke and
flies are troublesome, and the wasps are very annoying. However, he |
goes up river, shouting and singing, and in good time gets back to the
camp at Britta’ni. As he enters the camp he shouts to the people to _
come and see the salmon he has brought up the river. He does not
remain there, but goes up the river shouting to the people that he has
brought the salmon, By-and-by he gets tired, and walks quietly and
slowly. He picks some green branches and carries them over his shoulders.
As he passes the villages along the river he asks the people what they
would like to have. They answer, ‘We want some of the mountain-
sheep fat that grows on the neck and smells nice.’ ‘Can’t give you
that,’ replied Snikia’p. They then mention another rare luxury—the
back of a salmon. He declares they can have all they want of that, and
bids them go to the river, and they will find it full of salmon. He arrives
in time at Bridge River, where he makes a fall to stop the salmon from
going further by stepping to and fro across the river three times
But he does not make the fall high enough, and many of the salmon
jump it and get up the river. From thence he goes up the North Fraser,
and brings the steep banks of the river together to form a cafion, so that
the people there can more easily catch the salmon. He presently crosses
the river, and passes over into the Shuswap country. At this time he is
wearing a handsome buckskin shirt. He wanders all round the country,
and in time gets back to Lytton. No one recognises him when he returns,
he is so altered ; and he keeps up his disguise by speaking a strange
language and pretending ignorance of the N’tlaka’pamug tongue. The
people inquire among themselves who there is that is acquainted with the
other languages of the country. Some one says that Pi’iyaug, an old
woman, knows several tongues besides her own. She is sent for to see if
she can hold converse with the stranger. She begins by speaking
Sk-quamic. Snikia’p shakes his head at this. She now tries him with
the Yale tongue. Again he shakes his head. She next tries Okanakan,
but with no better success. Then Shuswap, then Lillooet, then Carrier ;

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 561

but he shakes his head at all. She knows no others, so the attempt at
communication fails. The people regard him as a great medicine-man,
and wonder if he will heal a sick woman they have among them. They
take him to the woman. He nods his head to indicate that he under-
stands their wishes and will do as they desire. He builds a sweat-house
and puts the woman in it, and made to go in with her himself. Big Crow,
who has been observing all that took place, is suspicious of the man, and
when Snikia’p would have entered the sweat-house alone with the woman,
she called out to the others that he was an impostor; that no true
medicine-man would enter the sweat-house with his patient. But the
people are angry at Big Crow ; but she declares she is right, and that he
only wants to enter the sweat-house with the woman for evil purposes.
She gets angry because they side with the stranger against her, and she
takes a club and hits Snikia’p over the head with it. He screams out at
the attack, and everybody recognises the voice of Snikia’p, and discovers
that he has been trying to trick them. They fall upon him and beat him
well. He begs for mercy, declaring that if he did wrong in the past he
has also wrought much good for them by breaking down the witches’
barrier across the river and letting the salmon through, and by giving
them the cool wind which, since its escape from its prison, had blown up
river continuously. They presently allow his claim for mercy, and let
him off without further punishment. From this time the salmon came up
the river regularly, and the prevailing wind of the region is an up-current
breeze which keeps the air cool even in the hottest weather. These two
blessings the old Indians believe were due to Snikia’p the Coyote, whose
memory they keep alive by this and other stories of him and his doings.

Matq, or the Fire Myth.

Long, long ago the Indians on Fraser River had no knowledge of fire.
Beaver, who travelled about a good deal in the night prospecting the
rivers, learnt from some source that away in the far north there lived a
tribe who knew how to make fire. He determined to seek out this tribe
and steal some of their fire and bring it back to the ‘Stalo’ (2.e. Lower
Fraser River) Indians. He told his brother Eagle to wait for him at a
certain point on the Fraser while he went down the river to the coast to
tell the people of the settlements along its banks that he was going to
steal the fire for them in the far north. When he reached the coast he
met a large tribe there. He begged from them the gift of a pair of clam-
shells in which to stow away the fire he should steal. They gave him the
shells and he then returned to his brother, and the two set out together
for the far north. ‘You go through the air,’ said Beaver to Eagle, ‘and
I will travel by water.’ They continued their journey in this way for
many days and nights, Beaver travelling by the Fraser. When they
arrived near the village of the people who possessed the fire, Beaver called
his brother to him and told him his plan of action. ‘To-night,’ said he,
‘T will build a dam across the water, and then burrow from the dam along
under the ground until I come up under the house where the fire is kept.
They will spear me sooner or later, and take me to the village, but
although they will spear me they will not be able to kill me. In the
meantime I shall build myself a house in the river, and when they see it
they will come out and spear me. When they have speared me they will
take me to the house where the fire is kept to skin me. I shall put the

1899, 0Q

562 REPORT—1899.

clam shells inside my skin, and when the knife is nearly through to the
shell beneath I shall open my eye and you will see a great flash of light in
the sky. You must be close by, and when you see the flash you must fly
over the house and attract their attention. They will leave me for a
moment and run out to try and shoot you. When they are gone I shall
seize the opportunity and open my clam shell and fill it with tire. I shall
then clear away the soil from above the passage I have made from the
river to the house, rush down it, and come out in the deep water of the
river above the dam.’

Eagle approved of the plan, and promised to do his share according to
his brother’s instructions. All that night Beaver worked at his dam and
the passage. By morning all was ready. When one of the women went
down to the stream to fetch her water next morning she found to her
surprise a large lake where before was only a small stream. She dropped
her pail and ran home, and told the people that a beaver was in the stream.
Everybody rushed for his spear, and all made for the stream. Some one
suggested breaking the dam and catching him in that way. This they
did ; and when the water was getting low Beaver came out of his house
and swam about as if trying to get away. He played with them for a
little while before he would permit them to spear him. Finally they
speared him and carried him with great rejoicings to the house. Every-
body now wanted his teeth, or his tail, or his claws. They presently set
about skinning him, but as the point of the knife touched the shell
hidden beneath the skin of his breast Beaver opened one eye. Now, the
boy who was holding his leg saw the action, and told the others, who only
laughed at him. Just at that moment Eagle, who had seen the signal,
came soaring over the house, making a great noise, which diverted every-
body’s attention from Beaver. ‘An eagle! an eagle! Shoot it! kill it!’
shouted everybody, and all ran for their bows and arrows except the boy
who was holding Beaver’s leg.

This was the moment Beaver had planned for. Shaking himself free
from the boy’s hold he took out his clam shells, quick!y filled them with
fire, and before the boy had recovered from his astonishment plunged head
foremost down the passage hole and made for the river. The boy’s cries
speedily brought the people to him, and he told them what had happened.
They now tried to dig out the hole down which Beaver had disappeared,
but they no sooner tried than the water rushed up and stopped them.
Beaver reached the stream safely, and from thence made his way to the
Fraser, where he was joined by his brother Eagle. As they returned
down the river Beaver threw fire on all the trees they passed, but mostly
on the cottonwood trees, and thus it was that the wood from these trees
was the best for making fire with from that time onward. He continued
to do this till he had reached the coast again, and all his fire was gone. After
this he assumed a human form and taught the Indians how to make fire
by means of the drill worked between the hands. He also taught them
how to preserve the fire when once secured in the following manner. He
procured a quantity of the inner bark of the cedar tree and made it into a
long rope. This he then covered with the bark of some other trees which
burnt less readily. When one end of this rope was lighted it would con-
tinue to smoulder for several days, according to the length of the rope.
When the Indians were travelling and likely to be away from camp several
days they always carried one of these fire-ropes, called by themselves
Patla/kan, coiled round their shoulders.

———————————————————— << LLC

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 563

After this great gift to them the Indians thought very highly of
Beaver, and he was usually called by them ‘our head brother’ because of
his wisdom and goodness.

Painted Blanket Myth.

When Beaver had finished his instructions to the ‘Stalo’ Indians he
returned tothe Thompson River, and hearing there that a young medicine-
man possessed a remarkable figured blanket which his father, a very great
and wise Shaman, had made for him, he determined to secure this treasure
for himself. Accordingly he and all the people of his village started off
to find the young Shaman’s dwelling. After travelling a great way they
finally discovered his home, and having told him the object of their journey
was to see his wonderful blanket, begged to be allowed to look at it. But
this the young Shaman was unwilling to do, knowing they would take it
from him if they once saw it. Disappointed by his refusal to show it,
some of them determined to kill him, and afterwards steal and make off
with the blanket. Their designs were revealed to him in a dream by his
guardian spirit, and he resolved to outwit and punish them for their evil
intentions. Leaving his house he went and camped on the edge of a steep
precipice, taking with him the bladders of several animals he had lately
killed, and which he seems to have kept for the purpose. He also took
with him his snow-shoes. He wetted the bladders and blew them out and
secured their mouths. He had not been settled long when several of the
men came over to him with the intention of murdering him and then
securing his magic blanket for themselves. But he, knowing their inten-
tions, was prepared for them. Taking his snow-shoes and the bladders of
wind, he placed them under his blanket in such a manner as to make them
appear like a dog at his side. He sat with his face towards the precipice,
between him and which there was but a narrow strip of ground. In the
dusk the edge of the precipice was not discernible. As the men
approached he cried out to them not to come too close to him, as his dog
was very savage and fierce. They therefore went and sat down some little
way from him, just on the edge of the precipice with their backs towards
it, and their faces towards him. As they seated themselves the young
Shaman shifted his seat so that he sat upon one of the bladders, from
which he now permitted the wind to escape in sudden jerks and gusts,
which made a noise like the angry growlings of a fierce dog. The men grew
alarmed ; the more so as he now pushed forward the toes of his snow-shoes,
which to them seemed the dog’s fore-paws. At the same time the youth
cried out, ‘Take care now, take care! You have made my dog angry and
dangerous,’ and at the same moment he pushed the snow-shoes farther
towards them. In their fear of the dog they moved back a little, and the
young Shaman moved witn them as if he were trying to restrain the dog.
Opening a second bladder, and pushing the snow-shoes again towards
them, the two things together caused them to retreat still farther until,
all unknown to themselves, they sat upon the very brink of the preci-
pice. He now opened the third bladder, which made a horrible noise as
the wind escaped, and at the same time pushed forward the snow-shoes
again. Thinking to avoid the supposed dog they all moved backward, and
before they had realised their danger were over the brink and falling
headlong down the precipice, at the bottom of which they were dashed to
pieces. Thus did the young Shaman outwit his would-be murderers and
robbers. He now determined to run away and hide himself from the

02

564 ay REPORT—1899,

annoying curiosity of the rest of the tribe ; but before he had gone far
Beaver found his trail, and led the people after him. They overtook him
at nightfall, whereupon he climbed a high tree. ‘Well,’ said Beaver, ‘he
cannot get away from us now. Let us camp round the tree, then when he
descends in the morning we will ask him again to show us his wonderful
blanket.’

They made their camp at the foot of the tree, and felt sure he could
not get away without their knowledge. But before the night was half
over the young Shaman called his magic powers into play and caused them
all to fall into a deep sleep. Beaver, who was watching, felt the sleep
stealing upon his senses, and resisted the spell for a long time ; but the
Shaman was too powerful for him, and he, like the rest, at length fell into
profound slumber. As soon as Beaver and his party were asleep, the
young Shaman descended from the tree and continued his flight. It was
late the next day before they all awoke from their magic sleep, and they
were scarcely surprised to find that the young man had gone. But Beaver
had no intention of being beaten in this way, and encouraged them to
take up the trail and follow him again. ‘They travelled fast, and overtook
him just about nightfall. Again he hid himself in a high tree, and again
they encamped at its foot, determined not to give way to sleep this time.
But one by one they all dropped off to sleep, again being wholly unable to
resist the Shaman’s power, with the exception of Beaver. This time he
was proof against the spell of the Shaman, who presently began to
descend the tree. As he reached the ground he saw that Beaver was
wide awake and watching him. From this he perceived that he must
give way, as the medicine of Beaver was stronger than his own. He
therefore presented Beaver with the wonderful blanket, and went his way.
Beaver now carefully examined the blanket, and found it to be covered
with pictures of all kinds of utensils and weapons. These pictures repre-
sented the originals of all the articles used by the Indians, with the
exception of the fish spears which had been given to the Thompson Indians
by their culture hero, Benign Face.

Beaver now cut the blanket up into pieces according to the patterns
of the paintings upon it, so that each piece represented in outline the
form of some tool, or utensil, or weapon. From these patterns, under the
instruction of Beaver, the people are said to have made everything they
had in use in the way of weapons or tools when the whites first came in
contact with them. Throughout this adventure Beaver had worna human
form, but after he had taught the Indians how to make useful things for
themselves from the patterns on the magic blanket, the young Shaman
transformed him into an animal, under which guise he is still recognised
by the wise Indians. Thus did the Shaman revenge himself upon his
adversary. But this act did not satisfy him for the loss of his blanket
and power; he would revenge himself also upon the people for whose
sake Beaver had won the blanket from him. Up to this time they had
not returned home, but when Beaver was transformed into an animal
they began to think of doing so.

Koakoé'la, or Husband root Myth.

They had, however, no sooner started than the young Shaman caused
them to become bewildered and lose their way and each other. They wan-
dered about looking for the path and each other for days, and though they
all got back eventually, with the exception of one woman, they suffered many

a

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 565

hardships by the way. This one woman could not find her way back, and
had to build a shelter in the woods and support herself upon roots and
berries as best she might. After she had lived some while in this lonely
state, as she could not get a man for a husband, she determined to take
for husband a certain kind of root. This root now goes by the name
Koakoé'la, or ‘Husband-root.’ By this root-husband she became the mother
of a male child. When the child had grown into a strong youth he one
day asked his mother where his father was. The woman was ashamed to
tell him what kind of a father he had had ; she dissembled therefore, and
told him that his father had been drowned. On hearing this the youth
went to the river and reproached it for drowning his parent. The river
denied the charge, declaring that his father had not been drowned. Upon
hearing this he returned to his mother, and said, ‘Mother, you have
deceived me ; my father was not drowned. Why don’t you tell me truly
where my father is?’ The mother still prevaricated, and said, ‘ Your
father is dead, my son; it is true he was not drowned ; he fell from a
lofty tree and was killed as he was trying to take a hawk’s nest.’ The
boy, to whom the language of all nature was familiar, now reproached the
trees for the death of his father ; but they one and all deniedit. He
returned again a second time to his mother, and entreated her to tell him
the truth concerning his father, and where he was. The request was too
embarrassing for his mother to comply with, so she put him off again by
declaring that his father had fallen over a precipice and broken his neck.
But when the youth taxed the precipice with the deed it indignantly
denied the charge. As he was returning home he found his feet catching
in a certain kind of root, which constantly tripped him up. As this had
never happened to him before, he wondered what it meant. When he got
home he said to his mother, ‘ Mother, I see you do not intend to satisfy
my longing to know who and where my father is ; you have deceived me
these three times. I shall not ask you again ; but, tell me, why does this
root trip me up all the time to-day when I walk in the woods?’ and he
held a root in his hand similar to that which his mother had taken for
husband. The mother turned away and would not answer him, though
she perceived that the knowledge he sought would soon be made known to
him. He now determined to prepare himself to become a Shaman. He
therefore left his mother and lived apart by himself, and fasted and exercised
his body till a Shaman’s dream came to him, and with it great Shamanistic
power. In his dream he learnt also that he was the son of a root. This
knowledge made clear to him at once why his mother had sought to
deceive him about his father. He now determined to seek out the tribe
to which his mother belonged. In the course of his journey he came one
day upon a great concourse of people watching a game of ball. They
asked no questions of him as he joined the players ; but when he presently
struck one of his opponents’ legs they got angry and mocked him, calling
him the ‘son of a root,’ and from this time forward he was known by the
name Koakoé’la.!. He was so struck with shame at this taunt that he
covered his face with his hands. Some of the people are sorry for him,

! Dr. G. M. Dawson has given the name Awil-7-elt’. In his account of this hero
he records deeds performed by him which were done by his friend Skoé’qtkoatlt,
according to my informant, Chief Mischelle, of Lytton. Compare Dr. Dawson’s
account in his ‘Notes on the Shuswap People of British Columbia,’ Zrans. Loy.
Suc. Canada, 1891, with the writer’s account of Skoé’qtkoatlt in Zransactions of the
English Folklore Society for 1899,

566 3 REPORT—1899,

and try to cheer him up. But he cannot endure the thought of having
his birth thrown in his teeth every time any little disagreement occurs ;
so he goes away by himself again and undergoes a longer fast and training
than before. In course of time he becomes a very great and powerful
Shaman whom everybody fears and respects, and no one again ventures to
remind him of his ‘ Koakoé’la’ descent. Some time after this he meets
the hero Sqoe’qtkoatlt | and his two brothers. Each endeavours to test the
other’s powers ; but finding they are equally strong and invincible, they
desist from their efforts and become great friends. The Shaman youth, to
show his powers, made with his finger three small holes in the rock, and
caused them to become instantly filled with a savoury soup. He then
gave Sqoé’qtkoatlt’s two brothers a spoon each, and told them to eat the
soup. ‘That is soon done,’ said one of them ; ‘itis butaspoonful.’ ‘ Well,
try now,’ said Koakoé’la, ‘and see if you can eat it in a spoonful.’
Laughing, they both dipped their spoons in and emptied the holes at once,
but before they had swallowed the soup the holes were full again. And
this continued till each had taken as much as he could eat, yet the holes
remained full. Sgoé’qtkoatlt, who understood the trick, looked on and
smiled. When they could eat no more the Shaman laughed at them, and
bade them continue and persevere, and perhaps they would exhaust his
supply. They said they could eat no more. ‘Oh yes, you can,’ said the
Shaman ; and taking them in his arms, he shook them so well that on
being placed on their feet again they found they could eat some more. So
they attacked the holes of soup again ; but eat as much or as fast as they
would the holes always remained full. They presently confessed them-
selves beaten, and gave up the contest. ‘Ah!’ said the Shaman, ‘ you don’t
know how to do it. It is quite simple. Watch me.’ And dipping the
spoon in each hole, he emptied them in a moment. What happens to the
Shaman after this my informant was unable to relate, and the story came
to an abrupt ending here.

This meeting of Koakoé’la and Enpatci’tcit, or the three Bear brothers;
is said to have taken place at the Indian village of Nikai’ah, on the
Fraser, a little below the junction of this river with the Thompson ; and
the little holes said to have been made by him, as related above, are
pointed out in the rock by the Indians to this day.

Oi'teat Story.
(She burns herself.)

Once upon a time the Loon was a very great man in his village. He
had a very beautiful daughter whom he kept secluded in the privacy of
his keekwilee-house. She was permitted to leave the house only at night
or very early in the morning. Besides this beautiful daughter he had a
son into whose heart came one day evil thoughts towards his sister. One
night, when all were asleep, he crept to her bed and lay with her in her
sleep, As he was about to leave her she awoke and found him at her

1 For an account of this hero see my paper in the Jowrnal of the English Folklore
Society. In this paper I have written the name thus, Sgaktktquacit. After hearing
some half-dozen Indians pronounce it in my last visit, I believe it is best spelt as I
have here given it. Dr. Boas has written a short account of this hero in his
Indianische Sagen, Mr. Hartland informs me, in which he writes the name thus,
Q'oeqtlkotl. The name is not an easy one to write in English, but there can be no
doubt that the word begins with a sibilant and ends with a dental in the mouth of
a Lytton Indian. My phonology is the same as that of Dr. Boas.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 567

side. As the house was in darkness she could not tell who he was, and
presently he stole away on her scolding him for his intrusion. When he
left her side she watched the smoke-hole to see if he left the house, but
seeing no shadow against the sky she came to the conclusion that he was
an inmate of the house. As there were several families in the same
keekwilee-house, it never entered her mind to suspect that the intruder
was her own brother. After a few weeks had elapsed the maiden found
herself with child. She was greatly distressed when she discovered her
condition, the more so as she knew not the man who had brought this
trouble and disgrace upon her. The least she could do before she told her
parents of her condition was to discover his name. Suspecting that he
would sooner or later pay her a second visit, she resolved to lay a trap to
discover his identity. She thereupon begged from her mother some paint
of two colours, black and red. ‘What do you want with paint?’ said the
mother ; ‘you cannot paint yourself.’ ‘I don’t wish to paint myself,’ replied
the girl. ‘I need it for some other purpose,’ and she teased and worried
her mother till she gave her what she wanted. Before retiring that night
she took some grease and mixed it with the paint, after which she covered
the insides of both of her hands with the mixture, red on one and black
on the other. Thus she awaited the next visit of her betrayer. One
night he stole again to her couch and lay with her again as she slept.
She awoke earlier this time, and before he left her she endeavoured to
make him speak to her, so that she might discover his identity by the °
sound of his voice ; but this he would not do. Finding he would not
thus betray himself, as he sought to leave her she made pretence to
detain him by putting her arms about him. While she held him thus for
a moment she impressed the palms of her paint-smeared hands firmly upon
his shoulders and left a clear imprint of them there in red and black. He
now left her, all unconscious of the tell-tale marks she had placed upon
him. ‘In the morning,’ said she to herself, ‘I shall know him by the
pattern on his shoulders.’

Now it was customary for Loon to call all the young men of his
household early in the morning to go out to swim, and exercise themselves
in various kinds of sports. After the youths had taken their swim in the
river they would paint themselves in fanciful designs, and then contend
together in racing and other exercises. On this particular morning the
girl begged so hard to be allowed to go out for once and see the
games that at last her mother consented. She bade her daughter put
on her best robes. This the girl did, and clothed herself in a beautiful
soft elk-hide dress, which was covered throughout with handsome bead-
work. On presenting herself to the neighbours she was regarded with
much astonishment by all, but she took no notice of any of them, her
whole attention being given to scanning the backs of the young men
before her. She passed them one by one in silent review before her, but
could discover on the shoulders of none of them the imprint of a pair
of human hands in red and black. She was puzzled, as she knew very well
that the paint could not be washed off in the water. She never thought
to look at her brother until presently he ran close by her and exposed his
shoulders to her gaze. In a moment her eye caught the impression of
her hands in the red and black paint upon his back.

At first she would not believe her sight, but when she could doubt no
longer she gave a shriek of pain, and putting her hands to her face cried
aloud and rocked herself in her distress and grief. The bystanders

568 REPORT—1899.

thought the brother had accidentally struck her in the face as he was pass-
ing, and chided him for his carelessness ; but she said nothing, only sat
rocking herself and sobbing. Presently she got up and returned to the
house. All that day she cried and wept for the shame her brother
had brought upon her and her parents. That same night her brother
stole again to her couch. She was awake on this occasion, and repulsed
him, telling him she knew who he was, and upbraided him for his selfish-
ness and the wrong he had done her. ‘How do you know I am your
brother ?’ said he. ‘Your voice would tell me now if I did not know
before,’ replied she ; ‘buat I discovered who you were this morning.’ She
then told him what she had done on his last visit to her, and how she
discovered him that morning, and also the condition she was in. ‘ How
could you bring this shame upon our father ?’ she continued. ‘ When the
people know they will point the finger of scorn at him, and he will be
dishonoured among them ; it will kill him with shame. There is but one
thing for us now to do. We must go away somewhere by ourselves and
never come back again, so that none may know the disgrace you have
brought upon us. Let us go away now at once before it is light and the
people are stirring.’ To this the brother presently assented, and they
stole away in the dark together.

As the girl left her father’s keekwilee-house she pulled off strips
of the bead-work of her dress, and as she went she hung bits of it on the
branches of the trees or on projecting points of rock every ten steps she
took. This she continued to do until she had stripped and hung up all
the bead-work on her robe. They had been journeying ten days before |
this happened through the pathless forest. When she had hung the last
bit she stopped and said to her brother : ‘ We will stay here, we have gone
far enough now.’ So they stopped there, and he built a house for them.
After a few months had passed the girl gave birth to a child, a fine,
healthy boy, who speedily grew up to be a strong youth. One day he
ran crying to his mother, asking her why he had no grandmother or
grandfather. The poor mother’s heart bled at the child’s question, as she
told him all his relatives, save his father and herself, were dead. When
the lad had grown to be a sturdy youth the mother told the brother it
was time for them to make the final preparations. They had often
talked together in their loneliness, as the child was growing up, as to the
course they would pursue when he had grown to be a big boy, and he
now took his weapons and went out to hunt. This he continued to do
day after day until he had brought home enough skins of the mountain
sheep and goat for her to weave twelve large blankets from their wool,
and also lay by a nice store of dried meat and kidney-fat. When their
tasks were completed the mother called the lad to her and told him that
she had deceived him when she had said he had no other relatives but
herself and his father. ‘Ten days’ journey from here,’ said she, ‘lies the
village of my father and his tribe. You are now big enough to make the
journey thither alone, and we propose to send you to see your grand-
parents.’ ‘But why don’t you come too?’ questioned the boy. The
mother found it difficult to satisfy him on this point, but he presently
consented to make the journey alone and come back and bring them
later. ‘But how shall I find the way?’ said he. ‘That will not be
difficult,’ replied the mother ; and taking him to the edge of the forest she
showed him a bit of bead-work hanging from the lower branch of a tree.
‘You see this bead-work ?’ said she. ‘ Well, every ten paces on your way

ON THE ETHNQLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 569

you will find another piece. If you look out for these and follow the
course they mark, in ten days you will come to your grandfather’s village.’
‘ But how shall I know my grandparents when I get there ?’ queried the
youth. The mother answered : ‘ You have an uncle who has but one eye ;
when you find him all will be well.’ She then instructed him in many
things which only medicine-men know—how to make himself invisible,
and many other things. In the meantime his father had been busy
stacking a huge pile of pine-logs in the keekwilee-house. ‘Why is father
stacking so much wood in the house?’ asked the boy. ‘ Winter is not.
coming on. Why do you want so much wood now?’ The mother
answered, ‘ Your father and I have a use for it, my son ; we have a great
task to perform when you have gone.’ The boy was curious to know
what this was, vut his mother would say no more. Everything being
ready, the time now came for the boy to start. His mother made a pile
of the blankets she had woven, in which she wrapped a large supply of
their dried meat and fat, and told her son he was to take the blankets and
meat to his grandparents as a present. The youth put the bundle on his
shoulders, and though it was bulky and heavy he found no inconvenience
from it, as his mother had uttered ‘medicine’ words over it, which made
it light and easy to carry. He now bade them good-bye and set out on
his long journey. His parents watched him go, and shed many tears as he
passed into the forest out of their sight. Then taking each other by the
hand they went back towards the house. ‘Come, brother, our work is
nearly finished ; let us complete it,’ said the woman. When they entered
the house they lit a fire at the base of the pile of pine-logs, and, climbing
upon the top together, they lay down side by side, hand in hand. In a
few moments the Hames from the pitch enveloped them, and in a short
while the pile was consumed, and they with it.

Thus had they planned to wipe out the disgrace which had darkened
their lives.

In the meantime the son of the unhappy pair had been making his
way through the forest as his mother had directed him ; when, coming
to an eminence and, disregarding his mother’s injunctions not to look
back after he had once started, he cast his eyes in the direction of his
home, and was startled and shocked to see flames and smoke coming from
the roof of the house. Casting down his bundle without a moment’s
consideration, he ran back upon his trail as fast as his legs could carry
him ; but he only arrived in time to see the roof fallin. The heat was
too great for him to go near the ruins ; he could only watch the flames
consume the last timbers of his home. He wondered what had become
of his parents, and feared they had been destroyed in the fire. Presently
he groped his way among the charred remains, and saw enough to con-
vince him that his parents had perished. He could not understand it all,
and sat crying all that day and the following night. During the night
he had a dream which revealed to him many things. He learnt why his
parents had left their home, and the punishment they had planned for
themselves, and that they had deliberately burnt themselves to death in
expiation of his father’s offence. Very sad at heart he turned his back
next morning upon the ashes of his parents and old home, and once more
set out on his journey. Finding his pack, he continued his way through
the forest, following the guiding strips of bead-work, until at last he
arrived at the village of his grandfather. He now recalled what his
mother had told him about his one-eyed uncle, and looked about for such

570 REPORT—1899,

a person. He saw presently a little old man before him, aiid as he
approached him he deemed it wise to make himself invisible for the time.
He now saw that the little old fellow was shooting on the ground with
his arrows. He saw too that he had but one eye, and wishing to test
whether he was his uncle or not he placed his foot on the spot at which
the little man was shooting, and caught one of his arrows between his
first and second toes. When the little fellow went to get his arrows he
could not draw this one away, as the youth held it tight between his toes.
He now spoke to the little man, who was much frightened at the sound
of a voice so near him when he could see no one. The youth told him
not to fear ; that it was his ‘medicine’ that prevented him from seeing
who he was. Making inquiries he soon discovered that his grandparents
were still alive, and that the little man before him was his uncle. When
he told him that he was his nephew he would not believe it. To prove
to the uncle that what he said was true, he asked him if he could re-
member how his lost sister used to speak. ‘Oh yes,’ said he; ‘I can
remember quite well.’ ‘ Was it like this?’ said the youth, and he imitated
his mother’s voice. ‘Yes, yes!’ said the uncle, ‘that is her voice.’
‘ Now look at me,’ said the nephew, ‘and tell me if I am like your sister
or brother.’ And as he spoke he made passes in the air with his left hand,
and became immediately visible to his uncle, who knew him at once to be
really his nephew from his likeness to his lost brother and sister. The
lad then told the little man the story of his mother’s and father’s life, and
the reason of their mysterious departure from the village, and bade him

go to tell his grandmother privately that he had come. ‘ But she will not —

believe me,’ said the uncle, ‘and will be angry with me for trying to fool
her.’ ‘Stay, then,’ said the youth; ‘I will give you some proots of my
presence to show her, and then she will not doubt you. Tell me, what is
the matter with your eye?’ ‘I am blind in it; I was born so,’ replied
the little uncle. ‘ Well,’ answered the youth, ‘I will give you sight in it
with my ‘“ power,” and you can then show it to my grandmother if she
doubts your word.’ With that the nephew passed his hand over his
uncle’s eye four times, and the latter’s blind eye was made whole, and he
saw with it for the first time in his life. Full of wonder and admiration
for his nephew’s power, he ran off to tell his mother. When he first
whispered the tidings in her ear she was angry with him for attempting
to fool her, as she thought, but when he showed her his blind eye restored
she could no longer disbelieve him. Immediately she ran out to find her
daughter’s son, and was much delighted to find so comely a youth claiming
her as his grandmother. When she questioned him concerning his parents
he repeated to her the story of their lives as he had told his uncle, and as
it had been revealed to him after their death. The old woman wept! as
she listened to the tragic end of her children. When the grandfather
was made aware of his grandson’s arrival, and had also heard the account
of his lost children’s death, he called all the village together and informed
them of the youth’s arrival and the events which led to his parents’
voluntary death. Meantime the old lady bade the girls clean up the
house and strew clean fir branches on the floor in honour of her grandson’s
coming. When he entered the house he undid his pack and presented
his grandmother with his parents’ presents. The old woman spread out

1 My informant told me that this story would always make the women and girls
weep whenever they heard it related. It is one of their favourite stories.

a

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. Val

the twelve beautiful blankets, and set the meat and fat ready at hand for
the feast which the chief now proclaimed. The whole village now came
together to see the youth and the presents he had brought his grand-
parents. During the feast the story of his mother’s and father’s life was
retold again, and their sad end drew tears from all the women present.
At the close of the feast the grandmother told her neighbours that they
would see her grandson no more, as she intended to keep him secluded as
she had his mother; which thing she did, and the lad never left the
keekwilee-house except at night when all the village was asleep, or early
in the morning before they had arisen.’

Now it had happened that when the people had been invited to the
feast two old witch-women had been overlooked, as their dwelling was
somewhat apart from the others ; and when they heard later of the occur-
rence they were angry, the more particularly as they were very curious
to see the boy. They determined to be revenged for the slight, and to
see the youth at the same time whose advent had been a nine days’
wonder in the village. So one day they took some human ordure, and
mixing it with earth fashioned it in the form of birds. By their witch-
power they then transformed these clay effigies into real live birds of
beautiful and attractive plumage. They had not long completed their
task when the little uncle chanced to come that way, and seeing the
pretty strange birds he much desired to secure them for himself. Having
his bow and arrows with him he tried to shoot them. He struck them
again and again, but could not kill them. The most that he did was to
knock a few feathers out of them. ‘Ah!’ said he to himself, ‘I wish
my nephew were here ; he would be able to kill them all right.’ And so
saying he gathered up the brilliant feathers to take home to show him
and his mother. Calling his mother’s attention to the beauty of the
feathers, and telling her of his ill success with his shooting, he begged her
to let his nephew come out for a little while to shoot the birds for him.
The old mother would not at first hear of it, but on the nephew himself
expressing an earnest wish to go out with his uncle to secure the birds,
she presently gave way, and permitted the two to go off together. The
youth easily shot and killed the birds. To carry them home he put them
inside the breast of his shirt next his skin. While the shooting had been
going on the two spiteful old witch-women had taken a good look at him,
and so won their desire.

As they were returning home the youth complained of an unpleasant
odour. ‘What is this nasty smell?’ said he. ‘Where can it come from ?
Have you not stepped on something nasty, uncle?’ But as he spoke he
felt something wet and cold against his skin under his shirt. Pulling
open his shirt, he saw inside, where a few moments before he had placed
the beautiful birds, now neither birds nor feathers, but the nasty material
from which they had been made by the witches. Perceiving he had been
tricked, and horribly disgusted, he cast his garments aside and plunged
into the river to cleanse himself, bidding his uncle at the same time fetch.
him some clean garments. After he had washed himself and put on clean
clothes, he felt so mortified and ashamed that he determined to leave the
spot and go and live by himself in the woods. He informed his uncle of

1 This curious habit of seclusion seems from the stories to have been quite a
fen custom. Instances oceur again and again, particularly in the families of
chiefs -

572 REPORT—1899.

his intention, and invited him to accompany him. The little man, who
had grown very fond of his nephew, was only too delighted to go with
him, and so they set out together. They lived alone in the forest for
several years, till the youth had come to mature manhood, when a restless
spirit came over him. At last he said to his uncle, ‘I am going to look
for a wife for myself. I know of two beautiful women in Cloudland. I
shall go and get them for wives.’ He thereupon shot a large mountain
eagle, and carefully skinning it, he dried and prepared the skin, leaving
the feathers and wings on. When he had finished it he put it on himself
and attempted to fly. As he mounted into the air his uncle cried out to
him not to fly away and leave him all alone. ‘ Don’t be afraid, little uncle,’
answered he ; ‘I am not going away yet. Iam only practising.’ When
he had practised enough he returned to his uncle again, who begged him
not to fly off and leave him. ‘ Very well,’ answered the young man, ‘I
can take you with me, but only on one condition. You must promise to
keep your eyes shut tight all the time we are in the air.! If you open
them we shall fall to the ground.’ The uncle readily gave the promise.
The nephew then took him in his arms and soared aloft with him. They
had not, however, gone far when the uncle felt a great curiosity to see
what it looked like down on the earth, and forgetting his promise opened
his eyes. Immediately they descended rapidly to the ground. ‘O
uncle, you broke your promise, I know,’ said the nephew ; ‘ you must have
opened your eyes. Now if you do that we can never get up.’ The little
man was very sorry, and promised not to open his eyes again. They

started a second time, but they had not got very far up before the desire -

to open his eyes was too strong for the uncle to resist. As soon as he
opened them they returned to the ground as before. The nephew, finding
he could not trust his uncle, told him he must leave him behind. ‘ But,’
said he, ‘I will change you into whatever animal or bird you would like
to be while I am away.’ The little man thought for a moment, and then
said he would prefer to be a little duck and sport in the lake. The nephew
thereupon turned him into a little red-eyed duck. ‘When will you return
to me, nephew ?’ asked the uncle. ‘When you see the clouds in the sky
get very red you will know I am coming. That shall be my sign,’ replied
the nephew. Having thus disposed of his uncle he now flew off. The
little duck watched him till he could see him no longer, and then began
to disport himself after the manner of his kind in the water. Meanwhile
the nephew flew into the clouds, and after some little time came to a
small island there. Alighting on a tree, he stood for a moment to survey
the prospect. At no great distance from him he perceived a house out of
which a beautiful young woman was now coming. He watched her as
she made her way to a lake at the foot of the tree on which he was
resting. On nearing the lake the maiden cast aside the beautiful robe
she was wearing, and which resembled the dress of a magpie, and stood
naked, all unconscious that a man’s gaze was upon her. She approached
the lake and was about to plunge in for a swim when she caught sight of
the reflection in the water below her of the eagle in the tree above her
head. Ina moment she was overcome with shame, and knew that the
seeming eagle was really a man in disguise who had looked unhindered
upon her nakedness. Immediately she drew her long hair about her and

1 The shutting of the eyes during prayers and the performance of Shamanistic
tricks, incantations, and such like seem to have been regarded by the N’tlaka'pamugq,
at least, as essential to the success or efficacy of the act.

a ee |

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 573

crouched down in confusion on the edge of the bank. The youth looked
on, but uttered no word. Presently the maid cast her eyes upward
towards him, and addressed him in these words: ‘I know that you are
not a bird, but a man disguised as one. You have looked upon me in my
nakedness and brought shame upon me.'! I must now become your wife.
But I have a sister; you must sec her too,’ and with that she sprang
towards her dress, drew it hastily about her, and rushed home. On
arriving there she threw herself on her bed, sobbing and crying, and
would make no reply to her sister when she sought to learn the cause of
her trouble and grief. Finding it vain to attempt to get an answer to
her queries, she took the water-bucket in her hand and went off to the
lake to get some water, and to see if she could discover why her sister
had returned so quickly, and what had caused her trouble. She was
robed as a kingtisher is robed, and on getting near the lake she also threw
off her dress and made to plunge into the water to bathe, but was likewise
arrested in the act of doing so by the image of the eagle in the water
beneath her. But, unlike her sister, she was not overcome with shame
at being caught naked.? She addressed the disguised young man thus :
‘Oh, now I see what is the matter with my young sister. Well, she must
be your wife now; but not she only, you must also marry me. Come
down from the tree and cast aside your disguise.’ The young man de-
scended from the tree, cast off his eagle-skin, and hung it upon a branch
close by. Meanwhile, the woman had put her robe on again and filled
her pail with water. Together they walked to the sisters’ house, and he
became husband to them both. He lived thus with them for some time,
and each of his wives gave birth to a son. They were now five in all,
and one day the young man said to his two wives, ‘We are getting too
many for this small place; let us return to Earth again and go back to
my old grandfather, the Loon.’ The wives consenting, he once more
donned his eagle-skin, and taking a wife under each arm, and a child tied
to each of his legs, he descended thus from the Cloud Island.

While he had been absent the little duck uncle had each day watched
for signs of his nephew’s return. One day he was gladdened by seeing
many red clouds in the sky. ‘Now,’ said he to himself, ‘I shall see my
nephew once more.’ He kept his little red eyes on the clouds, and
presently saw his nephew approaching the spot where he was. Ina few
moments more he alighted, and presented his wives to his uncle. ‘ Now,’
said he, ‘ will you come home with us?’ But the little uncle felt a pain
at his heart, for he had perceived that his nephew’s affections were no
longer his own as in the former days. He now had children and wives to
love and care for. So the little man answered, ‘ No, nephew ; I will
remain here. You do not need me any longer ; you have your wives and

‘ I have already pointed out in my remarks on the social customs of the N’tlaka’-
pamug that the girls of this tribe were very shy of being seen in a disrobed condi-
tion, being much confused and shamed if caught naked. The words put into the
mouth of this girl in the Cloud Island seem to suggest that she lay under some sort
ot obligation to become the young stranger’s wife, since he had looked upon her
nakedness, whether she would or no. I could, however, gather no confirmation of
this idea, but in the story of Ha'nni’s wife, p.579, we havea similar case. H ere, too, the
girl who is surprised while bathing goes off and becomes the wife of the chief of
the Salmon who surprised her. In this case it may be that she was carried off and
could not help herself.

* It would seem that the second sister was elderly, and had outgrown her
hashfulness.

57 REPORT— 1899.

children now.’ ‘ Very well,’ replied the nephew, ‘do just as you like.’
So the uncle remained on the lake as a duck, and became the progenitor
of all the little red-eyed ducks now in the country.

Bidding the uncle good-bye, the young man took his wives and
children, and directed his way to his grandfather's village. When they
arrived there was great rejoicing once more. The old Loon and his wife
were still alive, and encouraged their grandson to settle down with them.
This he did, and his descendants in course of time became a great and

powerful tribe.
Sni'ya c'pita'kostl, or Beaver Story.

A long time ago Beaver lived all alone in his keekwilee-house just
below the village of Spuzzum. He had two sisters, the Mouse and the
Bush-rat. They lived together at Swimp, and the Frog lived with them.
Both sisters had several children. One day Sni’ya got out his canoe
and crossed the river to Spuzzum late in the evening. He went on
to Swimp and visited the house of his sisters. When Sni’ya saw the
Frog, whose arms from the elbows to the wrists were adorned with
bracelets, he admired her much. She came and sat down by the fire,
holding herself so that her bracelets might be easily seen. Snt’ya
presently tells his sisters that he would like the Frog for his wife. He
sat at the fire till it had burnt itself out and all was in darkness.
The others had all retired earlier. When itis dark Snit’ya crawls over
to the Frog’s sleeping-place and pulls her blanket. ‘ What do you want ?
Who are you?’ said the Frog. Sni’ya says nothing, but pulls the
Frog’s foot. The Frog cries cut again, ‘Who are you, and what do you
want ?’ Sni’ya now reveals himself, and the Frog says again, ‘ What do
you want?’ ‘I want. you to become my wife,’ said he. The only
answer the Frog gave was to lift her foot and kick Sni’ya in the face.
He does not mind this in the least; he simply falls on his back and
laughs. He pulls her by the foot a second time, and she kicks him away
again. Again Sni/ya laughs and tells her he does not mind her kicking,
and intends to make her his wife. The Frog now remarks that she does not
desire him for her husband. ‘You are not the kind of man I want,’ said
she. ‘Do you think I like a round, big-bellied, big-headed creature like
you for husband?’ Sni’ya only laughs at this. This makes the Frog
angry, and she begins to revile him in bitter language. Still Sni’ya
does not mind. But presently, finding he can make no impression upon
her, he gave up his efforts and left her, and went over to his sister the
Mouse, and told her to take her children and go with them to the hill
near by. ‘There is a cave there,’ said he ; ‘it will hold you all nicely.’
He then goes to his other sister, the Bush-rat, and bids her do the same.
The Mouse sister now wishes to know why she should go in the night.
‘Would not the morning do?’ said she. Sni’ya tells her that the Frog
has shamed and scorned and insulted him. Bush-rat then asks what he
is going to do when they are gone. ‘Oh!’ said he, ‘I am going to have
some fun all to myself, and I don’t want you to be present.’ This is all
they can get from him. However, they both get up, roll up their blankets
and mats, and leave him alone with the Frog-woman. The Frog has not
spoken a word while this conversation was going on. As soon as his
sisters and their families have gone Sni’ya begins to dance and
whistle. When ke whistles the Frog gets very angry, calling him many
objectionable names, and bidding him go and leave her to .sleep in

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 575

peace. Snii’ya pays no attention whatever to her, but continues to
whistle and dance more vigorously than ever. It was a rain-song that he
was whistling called élazmiu/gtcin.' ‘tlaz-pe-e-e-e-e-e-e-e'-iiq-tein,’ ‘tlaz-pe-
e-e-e-e-e-e-e'-iiq-tcin,’ tlaz-pe-e-e-e-e-e-e-e'-iiq-tcin,’ sang Snii’ya, and pre-
sently the rain began to fall gently. But as the song continued and Sni’ya
danced faster and faster it fell harder and harder until it descended in
sheets, no such rain ever having been seen before. In a short time the
creek near the house began to rise and roll the rock about with a
thunderous noise. Soon the water overflows and spreads itself every-
where. It enters the keekwilee-house, and soon Snii’ya is swimming
about and beating time to his song with his tail on the water. The
Frog’s bed begins to get wet : she gets up and raises it higher. In a little
while the water is up to it again. Asecond time she raises it. But now
Sni/ya knocks a hole in the wall with his tail, and the flood pours in upon
them. Sni’ya now swims home across the river. The day now begins to
break. He gets into his canoe and paddles merrily away, still whistling
the Rain Song. In the meantime the Frog is floating about on her bed-
board, and is carried to the mouth of the creek, calling aloud for help.
She presently perceives Sni’ya paddling by in his canoe, and calls out to
him to come and save her, telling him she will take him for husband.
To all her entreaties Snii’ya replies, ‘What do you want?’ and whistles
away. The Frog implores him to bring his canoe over and save her.
‘Ob, come and take me into your canoe and I will be your wife,’ cried
she. Sni’ya answers back, ‘Use your own stomach fora boat. I'll not
trouble myself about you.’ The Frog still continues to beseech him to
deliver her, calling him by all the endearing terms she can utter. The
eddies whirl her about and greatly alarm her. Sni’/ya now begins to
mock her. ‘Oh, you could not be my wife. You surely could not marry
a round-headed, big-bellied, short-legged, flat-tailed creature like me,’
said he, repeating the ill names she had so disdainfully called him by a
little time before. The current soon carries her past him out into the
great Fraser, down which she floats till she comes to a spot about four or
five miles above Yale called Ni’ksakoum. Thus did Sni’ya revenge
himself upon the disdainful Frog for refusing to accept him as her
husband.

Story of Snikia’p, Qai'non, Tzala’s, and Spate.?

Once upon a time Snikia’p, Qai/non, Tzala’s, and Spate lived in the
same locality, each in his own keekwilee-house. Snikia’p being one day
without any food in his house, bethought him that it would be a good
time to pay a neighbourly visit to the house of Qai’non. On reaching
Qai'non’s keekwilee-house he looked down the smoke-hole and accosted
him. Qai’non replied in a friendly manner, and bade his visitor come in.
Snikia’p clambered down. Said he, as he took a seat near the fire, ‘I
was feeling very lonesome this morning, and thought I should like to
come over and have a neighbourly chat with you.’ ‘I am truly delighted

) It will be seen that I have spelt this term first with an‘m’ and afterwards in
the song with a‘p.’ Ihave done this purposely. In the title my informant dis-
tinctly uttered the ‘m,’ but in repeating the word in the song he as distinctly changed
itintoa‘p. Thisis an interesting instance of the interchange of these two letters
in the mouth of the same person. With the N’tlaka’‘pamugQ ‘p’ frequently takes the

_place of the ‘m’ seen in the other divisions of the Salish.
? Snikia’p = Coyote ; Qai/non= Magpie; Tzala's= Diver; Spatc=Black Bear.

576 REPORT—1899).

to see you, responded Qai’non ; ‘I am always glad to see a friend drop in
for a chat. Snikia’p now began to look about him, and perceived that the
house was well stocked with lots of dried deer-flesh. Presently, after
they had chatted awhile, Qai/non said, ‘You must have some dinner
before you go away.’ Looking towards his stores of dried meat, he said,
‘I can’t offer you this dried stuff; I should like you to have some fresh
meat. Just stay a moment, and let me run out to my deer-trap and see
if there is anything in it. I ought to find a deer there.’ And with that
Qai’non hastened to go to the trap. Snikia’p, as soon as he had gone out,
climbed up the notched pole and observed with much curiosity and
interest Qai’non go towards his deer-trap, which was not far from the
house. He saw him pause there a moment to inspect the trap, which
held no deer, and then pass on to the wood beyond. Presently a big
buck sprang up in Qai’non’s path. The deer took no notice of Qai’non,
who now began to revile it in insulting language. At first the buck paid
no attention to the remarks of Qai’non, but presently his language became
so bad that he grew angry and ran at Qai’non to punish him. This was
just what Qai’non wanted, and as the angry deer approached him he
turned and ran towards the snare, keeping just a few feet in front of his
pursuer. When he was close to the trap he opened his wings and shot
through the opening in a twinkling. The deer, not perceiving the snare,
blindly followed, and was caught by the noose, and thus fell a victim to
Qai’non’s cunning. Qai’non now took his knife and cut the deer’s throat
to bleed him. He ‘then quickly skinned him, cut off a large piece of the
meat, and returned to the house with it. ‘Ah!’ said Snikia’p, when
Qai’non came near, ‘I see you hunt your game just as I do. I always |
catch my deer that way.’ Qai’non was surprised to hear Snikia’p say
this, being under the impression that he himself was the only person who
hunted in this way. He said nothing, however, but hastened to cook
some of the venison. When the food was ready Snikia’p ate very
heartily, being very hungry, but could not eat all that had been prepared.
Wishing very much to take some home with him, he said to Qai’non :
‘I think I will borrow your mat and take home some of this cooked meat
for my supper ; it will save me cooking to-night.’ The other was quite
willing, and readily loaned him the mat. Snikia'p wrapped up all that
was left from their meal, and now took his departure, saying as he went,
‘You must come and pay me a visit soon, and then you can get the mat.'
I like to have a visit from my friends,’ The day following Qai’non
thought he would return Snikia’p’s visit. Approaching his house, he
shouted down the smoke-hole, ‘Good day, friend ; I have taken you at
your word, and am come to have a little chat with you.’ ‘ Oh, come in,
dear friend,’ said unctuous Snikia’p, ‘I am truly delighted to see you.’
But even as he spoke he felt in his heart that he would much rather his
visitor had remained at home ; and he wondered what he should do for a
dinner, having nothing in the house. However, he put on an air of
welcome, and entertained his visitor till dinner-time came. Said he then
to Qai’non, ‘It is time I was looking after the dinner ; you must stay
and eat some with me.’ To this Qai’non agreed rather more readily than

1 The mat here referred to was that off which they had been eating their dinner.
In the olden days the Indians of this district always made use of mats for table-
cloths, One or more of them was spread on the ground, and the food set out upon
them. They were made from reeds and swamp grasses, and were one of the
commonest articles of native furniture,

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 577

Snikia’p desired. ‘I must get you some fresh meat,’ he continued. ‘1
will run out and see if there is a deer in my trap.’ Snikia’p now went
out and looked at his deer-trap, which he had constructed after the plan
of Qai’non’s. There was nothing init. He had not really expected to
find anything, but he knew Qai/non was observing him, so he followed
the course he had seen Qai’‘non do. He now went into the wood, and
presently, to his surprise, came upon a fine buck. The buck looked
scornfully at him for a moment, but otherwise took no notice of him.
Snikia’p, remembering what Qai’non had done, began to call the buck ill
names. For some time the buck ignored his presence, but presently his
language became too bad, and the deer ran at him with antlers down to
punish him. Snikia’p turned tail, and ran as fast as his legs would
carry him in the direction of his trap, with the buck close behind him.
When he got close to the trap he made a leap to go through, as he had
seen Qai’non do, but he failed in his attempt, and stuck fast in the
middle, being unable to get through or go back. The infuriated buck
now took his revenge, and prodded poor Snikia’p with his sharp antlers
in his rear. Snikia’p howled with agony, and called upon Qai’‘non to
relieve and help him. Qai’non now came forward, killed the deer, and
relieved Snikia’p from the snare. ‘You should not hunt in this way,’
said he to poor crestfallen Snikia’p ; ‘you do not understand the trick.
I would advise you to stick to your own mode of hunting, and not copy
anybody else’s.’ Qai/non now cooked some of the deer for them, and
after the meal bade his friend good day, and returned to his own house.
It took Snikia’p some time to recover from the wounds inflicted upon him
by the angry deer ; but by the time he had consumed the remains of the
deer’s carcase he was able to get about again. Having met with no luck
in his hunting, and being very hungry, he said to himself one day, ‘I
think I will go and see Tzala/s to-day ; maybe I can get a dinner from
him. He set off on his visit, and presently came to Tzala’s’ house.
‘Good day, neighbour Tzala’s ; how are you feeling to-day ?’ said he, as
he looked down the smoke-hole. ‘Is that you, friend Snikia’p?’ said
Tzala’s very cordially. ‘Come down and have a chat.’ Snikia’p de-
scended. Says he, ‘I was feeling lonely this morning, and thought I
would come over and see how you were getting on, and have a friendly
chat with you.’ ‘I am very glad you came,’ amiably responded Tzala’s,
and they chatted away together till dinner-time. Tzala’s now said,
‘You must have some dinner before you go ; but I can’t Jet you eat this
_ dried fish,’ ! and he pointed to the stores of dry fish that hung in abun-
dance from the rafters of his house. ‘T’ll just run out for a minute, and
see if I can’t find some fresh fish in my traps.’ Tzala’s, thus saying, went
down to the river, which was at the time covered with a thick sheet of
ice. Every here and there, however, small openings appeared in the ice.
Pausing for a moment on the bank of the river over one of these, Tzala/s
took a long breath, dived downwards, and shot through the hole. He
reappeared in a short time with a long string of fine fish. Snikia’p had
' observed the action, and, as Tzala’s returned, remarked, ‘I see you catch
your fish as I do. I always dive for them that way myself.’ ‘Oh,
indeed,’ said Tzala’s the Diver ; ‘I was not aware of that. I thought I
was the only one who fished in. that way.’ Tzala’s said no more, but

The rules of Indian hospitality demanded that a guest should be given the best
food procurable.
1

PP

578 REPORT—18995

speedily prepared the fish. Snikia’p ate very heartily, but some of the
fish were left over. These he coveted for himself. Said he presently,
‘Tf you will lend me the mat, I think I will take a bit of this fish home for
my supper with me; it will save me cooking to-night.’ Tzala’s made no
objection, and Snikia’p bundled the whole up in the mat, and then bade
his friend good-bye. ‘ You must come and see me shortly,’ said he as he
left ; ‘I like my friends to pay me a visit sometimes.’ Tzala’s promised
to make an early call.

Next day Tzala’s determined to redeem his promise and pay Snikia’p
a visit and bring home his mat. When he arrived at Snikia’p’s house
Snikia’p was a little surprised to see him appear so soon, and was not too
well pleased ; but he made pretence to be overjoyed at his visit, and did his
best to entertain his visitor till dinner-time came. Seeing that Tzala’s
was intending to stay to dinner, he thought he must do something to
prepare it. So he presently observed, ‘You will stay and have some
dinner with me. I was just going dewn to the river to look at my traps
when you came. T’ll just run down now and sce what is in them.’ So
saying he ran down to the river’s edge. Tzala’s watched him go, and
looked on with some curiosity. When Snikia’p got to the river he stood
a moment on the bank as he had seen Tzala’s the Diver do, then took a
deep breath and plunged headforemost into the nearest vent-hole. But
he had miscalculated once more, the hole was not big enough to let his
body through. ‘The force of his plunge had carried his head and shoulders
through, but then he had stuck fast and could now neither get up nor
down. He was thus in serious danger of drowning, and wriggled and
twisted his body frantically to free himself. Had not Tzala’s been looking
on and seen the dilemma into which he had got himself, and hastened
down and released him, he would assuredly have been drowned. When
the good-natured Diver had got him out of the hole and had bound up
the cuts he had received in his struggles, he expostulated with him for
attempting to copy him in his methods of fishing. ‘It’s all very well for
me to dive down through the ice—it’s my trade; but you should not
attempt any such thing. You will surely get into trouble some day if
you interfere with other people’s business.’ So saying he plunged into
the river and presently returned with a string of fine fish, These he then
cooked, and together they made a hearty meal. After dinner he took his
mat and returned to his own house. The fish that were left over lasted
Snikia’p for some little time, after which he was again without food for
days, and was very hungry. This time he bethought him he would pay
Spate the Bear a visit. Reaching Spatc’s house he accosted him as he
had the others, and was invited in by the Bear, who presently, when
dinner-time came, brought out some berries in a dish and put them down
before the fire. He then washed his fore-paws, sat down close to the fire,
and held them over the dish close to the flame. In a little while the
Bear’s claws began to drip with liquid fat, which he caught in the dish
containing the berries. When he had thus secured what he thought a
sufficient quantity of fat, he set the dish between himself and Snikia’p, and
together they made a hearty meal. They did not eat it all, however, and
Snikia’p said he would take what was left home with him if Spate would
lend him the dish. To this the Bear agreed, and also promised to pay
Snikia’p a visit at his house very shortly. Now, while Spate had been
drawing the fat from his paws, Snikia’p looked on for a moment and then
observed that he was in the habit of getting his grease in the same way.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 579

Spate looked as if he did not believe him, but said nothing. Snikia’p
presently took his leave, carrying the remains of their dinner home with
him in the Bear’s dish. The very next day Spatc took it into his head to
return Snikia’p’s visit and get back his dish. So just before dinner-time
he dropped in on Snikia’p. The latter made a great show of welcoming
‘him, and presently, when dinner-time came, got up to get the dinner.
Having no berries, he put the empty dish before the fire as he had seen
Spate do, then washed his paws, and, seating himself before the fire, held
them towards the flames. In a very little while the heat began to try
him and his paws began to smart ; but he would not let Spatc see it, and
continued to hold them before the fire. Presently the pain made him
groan and writhe. ‘What is the matter?’ said Spatc, who had been
closely observing him, Answered Snikia’p, ‘The grease does not run
freely this morning, and I feel the heat a little.’ ‘You do not put them
close enough to the fire,’ replied Spate. Snikia’p put his paws still closer
to the fire, and kept them there till the pain made him howl with agony.
Spatc, in the meantime, smiled grimly, and when Snikia’p would have
given up he grasped his paws in his own and held them before the fire till
poor Snikia’p’s flesh was burnt and his muscles drawn and twisted by the
great heat, saying as he did so, ‘Let me hold your paws for you, dear
friend.’ When he thought Snikia’p had been sufficiently punished fer his
humbugging and insincerity he let him go, and picking up his dish went
off home, leaving Snikia’p in a sad and disabled condition. It was some
time before his paws healed up, and even then they were not as before.
The cords and muscles had been so severely scorched that they remained
contracted, and he could never again stretch out his paws as before.
Thus was Snikia’p the impostor punished by Spatc, and thus it is that
the Coyote’s paws are contracted and bent to this very day.

Story of Ha'nni’s Wife and the Revenge of her Son.

A long time ago there lived at Tl’k-umtcin (Lytton) a chief who had
an only daughter who was very beautiful. The girl led a very secluded life,
never being permitted to mix with the other girls or leave the house
except at night. The maid gets very tired of this dreary kind of life, and
one day begs her mother to allow her to go out and bathe in the river.
The mother at length consents to her going. She chooses a secluded spot
on the river’s bank, disrobes there, and enters the water and swims about.
As she was thus engaged the young men of the Salmon tribe came up the
river. They came with the intention of seeking her in marriage, so
renowned had she become on account of her beauty. Four of her salmon
suitors came up in their canoe. Three of these were named respectively
Koié'ya (spring salmon), Swaas (‘Sockeye’ salmon), and Ha’/nni (hump-
back salmon). They happened to land just where the girl was bathing.
At first she did not see them, but presently, when they had landed and
she was about to come out of the water, she caught sight of them. Being
naked, she feels abashed and ashamed, and sits down in the water to hide
her person, and asks them to give her her clothes. The salmon reply that
they have come to take her away. They give her the clothes and take her
away with them to the coast without further ceremony. They cast lots
whose wife of them she shall be, and Ha/nni the Humpback salmon gets
her. She becomes his wife, and a son is born to them. In the meantime
the parents and friends of the girl make diligent search and inquiries for
her everywhere, but can hear nothing of her. They suppose she has been

PPQ

580 REPORT—1899,

drowned. The following year the Humpback Salnion husband, accom-
panied by all the other fish, canoed up the river to the girl’s old home at
Lytton. As they neared the place two little river fish, the teoktci’ and
the ni/nrktcin, hastened on before and told the parents that their daughter
was returning with the Coast fish. Everybody is delighted to hear the
news, and the people paint their faces white and red to show their joy.
The news of her arrival soon spreads far and wide, and the people of Nicola
heard of it among the rest. Now at this place there were many notable
men. Four of these, named respectively Koi’ukin (Wolverine), N’Qoeni’ken
(Badger ?), Qua’/kqoc (Marten), and Tcitce’q (Weasel), determined to go
down to Lytton and carry the girl off. They arrived during the night.
When they got there a great gambling bout was going on in the keekwilee-
house of the father of the girl. All the Fish people were there, as well as
the chief’s own friends. <A big fire had been built to light up the house,
that everybody might watch the game. The large crowd of people and
the big fire made the house very warm. The daughter begins to feel the
heat very trying. Presently she can stand it no longer, and asks to be
allowed to go out and get some fresh air. She is permitted to pass, and
climbs the notched pole that led through the smoke-hole. The four
Nicola men are just outside, and have observed all that took place. They
see the girl climbing the pole below them, and when her head appears at
the opening Tciteq the Weasel makes a jump, and passes through her
mouth into her stomach. The girl is unconscious of what has taken
place, she only suddenly feels sick. When her head is out of the smoke-
hole Qua’kqoc the Marten leaps into her mouth and passes into her
stomach. The girl at this feels as if she were half dead, and hastens to
get outside. But when she is partly out Nqoeni’ken the Badger makes a
leap, and passes also into her stomach. She is fainting now as she steps
out from the hole ; and when K6i'lekin the Wolverine follows his fellows
and jumps into her stomach she falls down dead. A little later, when
the others come out, they find her lying dead on the ground. Everybody
is in great distress, and the greatest medicine-man of the district is called
in to see if he can restore her to life again. He performs a great dance,
but all to no purpose. The young woman remains dead. Other medicine-
men now try their skill, but with no better success. They desist from
their efforts to restore her, and next day they bury her. The party now
breaks up, everybody being very sad. The Salmon and Coast fish return
home again. The night following, the Nicola chiefs, who had caused her
death in the way related, now restore her to life, and return with her to
their own country. Here the young woman lives with them. In course
of time a rumour of her presence among the Nicola tribe reaches her own
people. Word is sent all round to all the camps and to all the Fish
people of the coast. A meeting is convened at which war is declared by
the Fish tribe against the Nicola people, who are all members of the
Animal tribe. All the Coast fish, with Ho’atl the Sturgeon at their head,
swarm up the Fraser to Nicola. In such numbers did they come that
the upper river was too narrow and confined to hold them all. <A fierce
battle now takes place between the Fish of the Coast and the Animals of
Nicola. The Animals came in from all parts to help their friends at
Nicola, and after a bloody conflict the Fish are beaten, and great numbers of
them are killed. Those that escaped from the fight are followed by the
victorious Animals, and not one of them, except the mighty armoured
Sturgeon, escapes to get back to the coast again. Even the great

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 581

Sturgeon is often hard pressed, and obliged to use strategy to get away
from his pursuers. It is to his efforts to thus escape that the winds and
turns and angles in the Fraser are due. He caused them to appear when
his pursuers were getting too near and embarrassing him.

When the Sturgeon chief gets back to the coast, the son of the
captured woman is much grieved to hear of the disaster which has befallen his
tribe, and he determines to avenge the slaughter of his friends when older.
He thereupon undergoes a course of discipline and exercise to fit himself
to become a powerful medicine man. In course of time he acquires great
power. He now determined to take his revenge upon the Nicola men.
He goes up the river, and in time gets to Nicola. When he arrives he
goes to where his mother is. She does not recognise him in the tall and
handsome man before her. The people are much surprised at the visit of
the stranger, but treat him hospitably. They inquire from what direction
he comes. He answers: ‘From below.’ The Grizzly, the Black-bear,
the Badger, the Wolverine, the Weasel, the Wolf, and the Coyote suggest
that they shall hold a great dance and test their medicine powers against
that of the stranger. He agrees, and that same night a great medicine
dance is held. They first let the fire out, and then they began the
contest, one by one. The Black-bear opens the dance, but he is a failure.
The others follow in due order, but none of them is able to do anything
very wonderful till Snikia’p the Coyote comes forward. Snikia’p has
power over the north wind, and can summon it at his will. When he
begins to dance the wind begins to rise. As he proceeds and his dancing
quickens, the wind increases in force and volume, till presently the very
ladder is shaking and the snow is falling fast. This dance is considered
a great success by his companions. When he stops, the wind and snows
stop too. It is now the stranger’s turn. Before he begins he goes to his
mother and tells her she must go outside. She leaves the keekwilee-house.
As soon as she is gone he begins his dance, singing as he dances a fire
song : ‘0/1, 6/1, 6/1, 61,’ &e. (stem of term ‘fire,’ as seen in the word d'iyip=
to burn). Sparks now began to fly about, and presently sheets of flame
appear, and in a short time the house is on fire, and every one is much
frightened. The stranger stops and utters the word Aho’sa, and the fire
disappears. Snikia’p now dances a second time, and again the cold north
wind and the snow appear. Ha’nni’s son exhibits his power again in like
manner, and is followed a third time by Snikia’p. The young man now
finds that he has the strongest medicine, and prepares to carry out his
scheme of revenge. He commences to dance a third time. This time he
sings his fire song louder, and dances more rapidly. Soon the flames
spread everywhere. They burn the house and the people, and when
everything is well on fire he gives a great jump, and leaps out through
the smoke-hole. Everybody is destroyed by the fire, and the slaughter
of his tribe is thus avenged. He now returns to the coast, taking his
mother back with him.

The N’tlaka’pamug Indians account for the presence of the fish in the
rivers up country by saying that when the Nicola Animals killed the
Coast Fish the spawn of many of the latter was left in the streams, which
later developed into fish. One of the effects, though, of the great licking
the Fish got is seen, they believe, in the form of the descendants of some
of them. For instance, the flat-headed river-cod is said to have inherited
his flat head from his ancestor, who was killed by a great blow, which
knocked his head flat.

582 REPORT—1899,

General Remarks.

A consideration of the foregoing folk-tales brings out many points of
interest. Jt will be seen, for instance, that the number 4 is an oft-
recurring number. It is undoubtedly the sacred mystic number of the
Salish stock, as we find it holding an equally predominant place in the
myths and stories of the Bella Coola tribe on the coast, between whom
and the N’tlaka’pamug there has been no intercourse from time imme-
morial. I am unable at present to say how far it is common to the
mythology of the other tribal divisions of this stock ; but finding it in
these two widely divergent branches separated by impassable physical
barriers, we may fairly conclude that it is common to the whole. Our
knowledge of the mythology of the other great divisions of the Salish is
not yet very extensive if we except that of the Bella Coola recently pub-
lished by Dr. Boas ; and it will be interesting and profitable to gather
collections similar to these from all the other divisions. Whether all the
tribes of the Salish have such a store of folk-tales, or are as imaginative as
the N’tlaka’pamug, I am unable to say. That they possess more, or have
more active and lively imaginations, [ much doubt, for it seems scarcely
possible to find a people more highly imaginative than the folklore of the
N’tlaka/pamug shows them to be, or rather to have been. There is not a
single peculiar feature of the landscape which has not its own story
attached to it. There is no conspicuous object of any kind within their
borders but has some myth connected with it. The boulders on the hill-
sides, the benches of the rivers, the falls, the cafions and the turns of the
Frazer, the mud slides, the bare precipitous cliffs, the sand bars, the
bubbling spring and the running brook, the very utensils they use, all
have a history of their own in the lore of this tribe. Every single pecu-
liarity in bird, or beast, or fish is fully and, to them, satisfactorily
accounted for in their stories. The flat head of the river cod, the top-
knot of the blue jay, the bent claws and dingy brown colour of the coyote,
the flippers of the seal, the red head of the woodpecker, and a host of
other characteristics, all have their explanation in story.

Some of the tales here recorded are extremely valuable to us in the
glimpses they afford of the past and, for the most part, forgotten life,
customs, thoughts, and beliefs of this people. The intense repugnance in
which they held incestuous intercourse, the deep shame and disgrace that
followed a lapse from virtue in the unmarried of both sexes, and the
serious and damaging reflections it cast upon the parents, are portrayed in
the somewhat pathetic story of the sister who was wronged by her own
brother. The pains she took, and the lonely exile she bore to shield her
father’s name from dishonour, and finally her own and her guilty brother’s
self-destruction, all make this abundantly clear. Whether this story has
any foundation in fact, or whether it was told merely to inculcate virtue
and a hatred of incest, is quite immaterial. That it showed and embodied:
the feelings of the people on this head is perfectly clear, and that is the
point which is of interest to us. The praise and enjoinment of virtue,
self-discipline, and abstinence in young men is no less clearly brought out,
while the respect and consideration paid by the young to the elders of the
family and tribe is an equally conspicuous virtue. In no other way could
we learn these things. The folk-tales alone can now recall the vanished
past for us. Hence their high value in ethnological inquiry, and the im-
portance of bringing them together and recording them while there is yet
opportunity. The pictures which these tales reveal to us of the ancient

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 583

life and condition of these village communities is that of a rude and
simple, but virtuous people, living at peace among themselves under the
mild patriarchal sway of their local chiefs, who were assisted in their
government by the elders of the tribe. We find them skilful and resource-
ful in the adaptation of means to ends, exhibiting at times remarkable
ingenuity—as witness their skill in basketry ; hardy and _ successful
hunters, preferring peace to war, but ready and prepared to defend their
homes and property when called upon to do so. The picture makes their
lives stand out in strong contrast to those of their congeners on the
coast, whose totemic and clan system, secret societies, ceremonial dances,
and other peculiar institutions find no counterpart here at all. If we
admit the principle that the simpler the life and institutions of a people
are, the nearer they are to their primitive original condition, we learn
from a consideration of these stories that the manners and customs and
life of the coast Salish have been much modified since the separation of
the stock into its present divisions. This, it may be pointed out, inci-
dentally confirms what Dr. Boas and other investigators have called atten-
tion to in their writings.

It may be of interest to add here that a body of mythological matter,
collected by Mr. James Tait, of Spence’s Bridge, B.C., from the upper
N’tlaka’pamug, has recently been published by the American Folklore
Society. I have not yet seen this, but I have no doubt a comparison of
the two will bring out many points of interest.

Marriage Customs of the Yale Tribe.

The following account of the marriage customs of the Yale tribe of the
Salish stock of B.C. was given to the writer by chief Mischelle, of Lytton,
whose father was a Yale Indian. These customs have been much modified
of late years. Some of the Indians are now married, after the manner of
the whites, by the priest or minister, some few retain the old customs,
and others unite, the church service with the customs of their forefathers,
and thus go through what is practically a double marriage.

Formerly, when a young man wished to marry a girl he went to the
house of her father at daybreak and squatted down just inside the door
with his blanket so wrapped about him that only his face was visible.
When the father rose he perceived the young man there, but passed by
him without taking any notice of his presence. All the other members of
the household did the same. They prepared the morning meal, sat down
to it, and still continued to ignore the young man’s presence, who, as soon
as the meal was finished, quietly left the house without speaking. The
members of the girl’s family make no comment upon the occurrence. The
following morning the young man enters the house and squats down again
by the door. After breakfast he departs still without speaking. After
his departure on this second occasion the father of the girl calls the family
and relatives together and discusses with them the eligibility of the suitor.
If acceptable to the family, when he presents himself next morning he is
invited to breakfast, and knows thereby that his suit is accepted. After
the meal is over, without in any way referring to the object of his visits,
he leaves the house, and in the course of a day or two sends a message to
the girl’s father saying that he intends paying him a formal visit. The
girl’s people make preparation to receive him and the friends who accom-
pany him. Accordingly at the time appointed, in company with his
friends, who all, as well as himself, bring gifts and food to the girl’s father,

he makes his formal call, and presents the gifts of himself and friends,

584, REPORT—1899.

When these have been received they sit down to a feast to which all the
friends and relatives of both parties have been invited. After the feast is
over the bridegroom takes his bride and departs with her to his own
house. When two or three weeks have intervened, the wife’s relations
send word that they are coming to pay the young couple a visit of
ceremony. The young wife forthwith prepares a feast for them, and all
the young man’s friends and relatives turn up again, together with those
of the wife. Presents of value equal to those given by the bridegroom
and his friends are now presented to him by the wife’s father and friends,
after which all sit down to the feast prepared for the occasion. When
this is over, the marriage is regarded as consummated, and the two are
man and wife in the eyes of the whole community.

But, on the other hand, should the suitor not be agreeable to the girl’s
parents, the eldest male member of the girl’s family is appointed to
acquaint the youth on his third visit that his advances are not acceptable
to the family, and that he had better discontinue his visits. On the third
morning, therefore, when the young man presents himself and squats
down in the customary place, the old man chosen for the office of mes-
senger goes over and informs him that the decision of the family is against
him, and that he had better seek a wife elsewhere. If the young
man’s affections have not been very deeply engaged, he will accept his
dismissal and trouble them no more ; but if, on the contrary, he has set
his heart on getting this particular girl for his wife, he will now
go to the forest and cut down a quantity of firewood. He chooses for this
the best alder-wood he can find, as this is more highly esteemed than other

kinds among the Indians on account of its emitting no sparks when burn-

ing. This he will take to the house of the girl’s father next morning at
daybreak, and start a fire for the inmates. If the girl’s parents are serious
in their rejection of him as their daughter’s husband, they will take both
fire and wood and throw them out of the house. The youth is in no wise
daunted by this, and repeats his action on the following morning, when
they again reject his services, and cast out the wood and fire as before.
But during that day, seeing his determination to get the girl for his wife,
her people call another family council, at which the father points out to
those assembled the young man’s perseverance and earnestness, and asks
for their advice under the circumstances. They all answer that he must
do what he thinks right and fitting. If the objection to the young man’s
suit has come perchance from the mother of the girl—as it frequently
does if she thinks the youth will not make a good food supplier for her
daughter—the father asks her what she now thinks about the matter.
She will probably reply that if they refuse any longer to accede to the
young man’s wishes they will give him pain, so she withdraws her opposi-
tion. The girl is then for the first time in the ceremony consulted in the
matter, but as her desires are mostly what her parents wish, she rarely
dissents from the arrangement. The matter thus being satisfactorily
settled, the next morning, when the persevering youth presents himself
with his wood and builds a fire, some of the elder members of the family
come and sit round and warm their hands over it. By this action the
youth knows that his suit is at last accepted, and that his perseverance is
not to go unrewarded. He presently joins them at the morning meal, and
the conclusion of the affair from that moment follows the course already
described where the suitor was at the outset accepted.

ee ae

——— es rT

THE ANTHROPOLOGY AND NATURAL HISTORY OF TORRES STRAITS. 585

The Anthropology and Natural History of Torres Straits. Report of
the Uommittee, consisting of Sir WiLLIAM TuRNER (Chairman),
Professor A. C. Happon (Seeretury), Sir MicHaeL Foster, Dr. J.
Scott Kerutie, Professor L. C. Mian, and Professor MaRsHALL
Warp.

APPENDIX TAGE
I.— Notes on the Yaraihanna Tribe, Cape York, Queensland. By Dy. A. C.
HADDON . . c . : : - : z : ‘ . 585
Il.— Contributions to Comparative Psychology from Torres Straits and
New Guinea. By Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, C. 8. MyERs, and W.
McDouGALL . : . : ; : ‘ © - ; . 586
Ill.— Linguistic Results. By SIDNEY H. Ray. F : - - . 589
1V.—Sceclusion of Girls at Mabuiag, Torres Straits. By C.G.SELIGMANN . 590
V.—Notes on the Club Houses and Dubus of British New Guinea. By C.G.
SELIGMANN : ’ : : . . : : 2 : . 591
VI.—Wotes on Savage Music. By ©.S. MYERS . ; : : . 591

A brief account of the work of the expedition has been published in
the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society (September, 1899, p. 302),
and a more detailed one, giving a number of anthropometrical results, was
published in Watwre (August 31, 1899, p. 413). These may be taken as
the official Report of the Expedition.

The following abstracts of papers are samples of some of the work
accomplished.

All the results of the Expedition will be duly published by the Uni-
versity of Cambridge in a series of memoirs,

APPENDIX.

I. Notes on the Yaraikanna Tribe, Cape York, North Queensland.
By Dr. A. C. Happon, FBS.

The Yaraikanna are fairly typical Australians in appearance; six men were
measured, average height 1:625 m. (6 ft. 4in.), cephalic index 74:7 (extremes,
72'4-77'7). A lad is initiated by his mawara, apparently the men of the clan
into which the boy must subsequently marry; he is anointed with ‘ bush-medicine’
in the hollow of the thighs, groins, hollow by the clavicles, temples, and back of
knees to make him grow—the bull-roarer is swung. Inthe Yampa ceremony the
initiates (/anga) sit behind a screen in front of which is a tall pole, up which a man
climbs and catches the food thrown to him by the relatives of the langa. Then
the bull-roarer is swung and shown to the langa; lastly, a front tooth of the langa
is knocked out, with each blow the name of a ‘land’ belonging to the boy’s mother
or of her father is mentioned, and the land, the name of which is mentioned when
the tooth flies out, is the territory of the lad. Water is next given to the boy,
who rinses out his mouth and gently empties his mouth into a palm-leaf water
vessel ; the clot by its resemblance to some animal or vegetable form determines
the art of the lad. The ari appears to be analogous to the manitu or okkt (or
‘ individual totem’ of Frazer) of the North American Indians. After the ceremony
the boy is acknowledged to be a man. Other a7 may be given at any time by
men who dream of an animal or plant, which is the arz of the first person they
meet on awakening. The Okara ceremony was alluded to, and various customs,
among which may be noted, children must take the ‘land’ or ‘country’ of their
mother, a wife must be taken from another country, all who belong to the same
place are brothers and sisters,

586 REPORT-—1899

II. Contributions to Comparative Psychology from Torres Straits and
New Guinea.

1.— General Account and Observations on Vision, Sc. By W. H. R. Rivers,

Previous work on the psychology of savage peoples has been limited to deduc-
tions from their behaviour, customs, and beliefs. The special object of the psycho-
logical work of the Cambridge Anthropological expedition was to employ exact
experimental methods in the investigation of the mental character of the natives
of Torres Straits and New Guinea. By means of these methods it is only possible
to investigate directly the more elementary mental processes, but in the course of
such work one meets indirectly with many facts which illustrate the higher and
more complex developments of mind.

Observations were made in Murray Island by Messrs. McDougall, Myers, and
myself on about 150 individuals. The subjects investigated included visual acuity,
sensitiveness to light, colour vision, including colour-blindness, binocular vision,
and visual space perception; acuity and range of hearing, appreciation of differences
of tone and rhythm; tactile acuity and localisation, sensibility to pain, estimation
of weight; smell and taste; simple reaction times to auditory and visual stimuli,
and choice reaction times; estimation of intervals of time; memory; strength of
grasp and accuracy of aim; reading, writing, and drawing; the influence of various
mental states on blood-pressure; and the influence of fatigue and practice on
mental work.

In Kiwai and Mabuiag fewer observations could be made, owing to the fact that
most of the apparatus had been taken on to Borneo, but observations were
made by Mr. Seligmann and myself on more than 100 individuals, many of
whom were not, however, natives of these islands. The subjects investigated were
chiefly visual acuity and colour vision; auditory acuity; smell and touch; writing
and drawing.

It is not possible now to do more than give a rough sketch of our results. Most
of the methods used had been in some degree modified to meet the unusual condi-
tions, while some were new, and the consequence is that, with one or two
exceptions, we have very few data with which to compare our results. The
exact bearing of most of our observations will only become apparent when
comparative data on European and other races have been collected.

Our observations were in most cases made with very little difficulty, and, with
some exceptions, we could feel sure that the natives were doing their best in all
we asked them to do. This opinion is based not only on observation of their
behaviour and expression while the tests were being carried out, but on the con-
sistency of the results. The small deviations of individual observations from the
average (mean variation) showed that the observations were made with due care
and attention.

The introspective side of psychological experimentation was almost completely
absent. We were unable to supplement the objective measurements and observations
by an account of what was actually passing in the minds of the natives while
making these observations. Attempts were made in this direction without much
success.

One general result was to show very considerable variability. It was
obvious that in general character and temperament the natives varied greatly
from one another, and very considerable individual differences also came out in our
experimental observations. How great the variations were as compared with those
in a more complex community can only be determined after a large number of
comparative data have been accumulated.

Another general result which should be of great interest to anthropologists is that
the natives did not appear to be especially susceptible to suggestion, but exhibited
very considerable independence of opinion. Leading questions were found not to
be so dangerous as was expected. It is hoped that when our results are worked
out, it will be possible to express in some definite manner the suggestihility of
these people as compared with Europeans, ;

THE ANTHROPOLOGY AND NATURAL HISTORY OF TORRES STRAITS, 587

_ Of the special investigations undertaken by myself, that on visual acuity will
be the subject of a paper in another Section.

The colour vision of the natives was investigated in several ways. A hundred
and fifty natives of Torres Straits and Kiwai were tested by means of the usual
wool test for colour-blindness without finding one case. About eighty members of
other races, including Australians, Polynesians, Melanesians, Tamils, and half-castes,
were also tested without finding one case, except among natives of Lifu. No
less than three out of eight natives of this island were found to suffer from well-
marked red-green blindness of the ordinary type. Unfortunately the number of
Lifu natives who could be examined was too small to allow any definite conclu-
sions to be drawn, but the possibility is suggested that colour-blindness may be
a racial peculiarity, a fact which, if established, would be of great ethnological
importance.

The names used for colours by the natives of Murray Island, Mabuiag, and
Kiwai were very fully investigated, and the derivation of such names in most
cases established. The colour vocabularies of these islands showed the special
feature which appears to characterise many primitive languages. There were
definite names for red, less definite for yellow, and still less so for green, while a
definite name for blue was either absent or borrowed from English.

The three languages mentioned, and some Australian languages, seemed to
show different stages in the evolution of a colour vocabulary. Several Australian
natives (from Seven Rivers and the Fitzroy River) appeared to be almost limited to
words for red, white, and black. In Kiwai there was no word for blue, for which
colour the same word was used as for black, while the name applied to green
appeared to be inconstant and indefinite. In Murray Island the native word for
blue was the same as that used for blacks, but the English word had been adopted
and modified into di/w-biilu. The language of Mabuiag was more advanced ; there
was a word for blue (maludgamulnga, sea-colour), but it was often also used for

een.

id Corresponding to this defect of colour terminology, there appeared to be an
actual defect of vision for colours of short wave-length. In testing with coloured
wools, no mistake was ever made with reds, but blues and greens were constantly
confused, as were blue and violet. The same deficiency in seeing blue seemed also
to be shown in experiments on the threshold of sensitiveness for red, yellow, and
blue, carried out with Lovibond’s tintometer. Experiments on the distance at
which small patches of different colours could be recognised also showed great
inferiority in seeing blue as compared with red, but the few comparative observa-
tions so far made do not enable one to say that there is any striking difference
between Europeans and Papuans in this respect.

Observations were also made on the colour vision of the peripheral retina, on
after-images, and on colour contrast.

Observations were made by means of Hening’s fall experiment which showed
the existence of binocular vision in all except one man with an orbital tumour.

Quantitative observations were made on some visual illusions.

Numerous observations were made on writing and drawing, the former chiefly
in the case of children. ‘The most striking result here was the ease and correctness
with which mirror writing was performed. In many cases native children, when
asked to write with the left hand, spontaneously wrote mirror writing, and all
were able to write in this fashion readily. In some cases children, when asked to
write with the left hand, wrote upside down.

Experiments were made on the estimation of time. The method adopted was
to give signals marking off a given interval; another signal was then given as the
commencement of a second interval, which the native had to finish by a similar
signal when he judged it to be equal to the given interval. This somewhat difficult
procedure met with unexpected success, and intervals of 10 seconds, 20 seconds,
and one minute were estimated with fairly consistent results,

Nearly all the investigations gave some indication of the liability to fatigue
and the capability for improvement by practice, but these were also the subject of
a special investigation carried out by modifications of Kraepelin’s methods,

588 REPORT—1899,

2.—Obser vations on Hearing, Smell, Taste, Reaction Time, &c.
By C. 8. Myzrs.

The conditions for testing acuity of hearing were very unfavourable on
Murray Island, owing to the noise of the sea and the rustle of the cocoanut palms,
The general results of many experiments lead me to conclude that few Murray
Is’anders surpass a hyper-acute European in auditory acuity, while the majority
cannot hear as far. For the determination of the upper limit of the perception of
tcne I used Hawksley’s improved form of Galton’s Whistle. Of the fifty-one
Murray Islanders who were investigated, all save one readily appreciated the
difference between the pure hich note and the noise of the blast that is inseparable
from it. Experiments were also made to determine the minimum perception of
tone-differences. Twelve islanders were tested for their sense of rhythm; this
was found to be remarkably accurate for 120 beats of the metronome to the minute,
and somewhat less so for 60 beats. Most of the subjects had a tendency to vary
in the direction of increasing the rate of the taps.

Olfactometry is very difficult to prosecute for various reasons. Until I have
made further comparative observations on Europeans, I can draw no certain con-
clusions as to the relative smell-acuity of the former and the Murray Islanders;
but so far as my experiments go, they seem to indicate no marked superiority in
the development of this sense among the islanders. Doubtless hyper-acuity is
more common among them, but there seems no reason to believe that they are able
to perceive such traces of odour as would be imperceptible to the most sensitive
European noses.

Experiments were made to determine the appreciation and recognition of the
common tastes—sweet, salt, bitter, and acid. Sugar and salt were readily recog-
nised, acid was compared to unripe fruit; the bitter is the most uncertain—
evidently there is no distinctive name for it in the Murray Island vocabulary.

Binet’s diagram used for testing visual memory was employed on twenty-eight
people with interesting results.

Numerous time reaction experiments were made, more on simple auditory re-
action than on simple visual reactions; a few visual choice reactions were also
made. The time of the simple reaction is not sensibly longer, but probably in
many cases even shorter, than would be that given by a corresponding class of
Europeans. The experiments clearly showed the great difference of temperament
among the individuals investigated. There was at one extreme the slow, steady-
going man who reacted with almost uniform speed on each occasion; at the other
extreme was the nervous, high-strung individual who was frequently reacting
prematurely, and whose mean variation in consequence was relatively great. Yet
the mean variation, save in the choice-times, was extraordinarily low for such
unpractised people.

3.—Observations on the Sense of Touch and of Pain, on the Estimation of Weight,
Variations of Blood-Pressure, §c. By W.McDoveatt.

The power of discrimination of two points by the sense of touch was investi-
gated in a series of fifty adult males. On half the number of subjects the obser-
vations were made on the skin of the thumb, of the second toe, and of the nape of
the neck, and on the skin of forearm on all the subjects. There was a general
correspondence of delicacy of discrimination in the different parts of the skin tested
in any one subject. A few of the subjects showed a very much greater delicacy of
discrimination than the others, while the latter showed a fairly uniform delicacy
which is considerably greater than that shown by the short series of white men
who have been tested by the same method.

Observations on the sensitivity to pain produced by simple pressure on the skin
were made by means of Cattell’s algometer. With this instrument it seems to be

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THE ANTHROPOLOGY AND NATURAL HISTORY OF TORRES Sigaits. 589

possible to register accurately the point at which, with increasing pressure, a
painful element is first perceived. The sensitivity to pain as thus determined
seemed to be, roughly, inversely proportional to the delicacy of touch discrimina-
tion in the series of individuals, and in the whole series the sensitivity seemed to
be distinctly less than in the short series of white men observed.

Similar series of observations were made on thirty children. It should be
understood that the degree of pain produced was in all cases so slight as not to
spoil the pleasure and interest of subjects in the proceedings.

The accuracy of localisation of touch sensations was also measured in a number
of the same subjects, and temperature spots were mapped out in a few.

In the same subjects a series of observations on the delicacy of discrimination
of differences of weight was made, and other series were made with the purpose of
determining the degree of suggestibility of the people—the effect of size as appre-
ciated by sight and grasp on the judgment of weight. It was interesting to find
that although the abstract idea of weight seemed entirely new to the minds of
these people, and no term in their language answered to it exactly, yet their power
of discrimination of difference is at least as good as our own.

In the same series of people the blood-pressure was observed by means of
Hill and Barnard’s sphygmo-manometer during rest, muscular work, mental work
and excitement, and slightly painful skin-pressure, and marked variations recorded
under these conditions. No series of observations on white men under similar
conditions have yet been made for comparison.

Ill. The Lingwistic Results of the Cambridge Expedition to Torres Straits
and New Guinea. By Stpney H. Ray.

The geographical position of the Torres Straits Islands renders an accurate
knowledze of the construction of the languages important, especially for determining
the relation of the Australian languages to those of New Guinea and the Malay
Archipelago, and also, perhaps, to languages further west in Southern India and
the Andaman Islands. Several missionaries have worked among the Hastern and
Western tribes of the Straits, and the existing gospel translations are reputed to
have been made by them, but no one has preserved any record of, or can throw
any light upon the construction of the languages. The translations were analysed
in a former work by Dr. Haddon and myself,' but the result was somewhat
unsatisfactory. As we had dealt exhaustively with the vocabularies, my atten-
tion during my stay in the islands was mainly concentrated upon the grammars
of the two languages.

The construction of the Eastern (Murray and Darnley Islands) language was
found to be very complex, modifications of sense being expressed by an elaborate
system of prefixes and suffixes.

The grammar bears no resemblance to the Melanesian, and but little to the
Australian. The speech used in school and church is a debased form of the
original ; as my native informant described it, ‘ they cut it short.’ As most of the
young people know English, it is very probable that the pure language will die
out with the older folk.

The language of the Western tribe was studied at the central island of
Mabuiag, but the closely allied dialects spoken on Warrior Island, Saibai, and
Prince of Wales Island, were also investigated. The grammar of this language is
decidedly of Australian type, though there is no marked connection in structure or
vocabulary with languages of the neighbouring mainland. Of these latter, the dialect
of the Yaraikanna tribe in the neighbourhood of Cape York was also investigated.

In New Guinea, at Port Moresby, the Motu language is well known, and I
used it as the means of obtaining from Koitapu natives some illustrations of their
strange language. The results show that there are people living in the Motu

1 ©A Study of the Languages of Torres Straits.’ By S. H [Ray and A. C. Haddon,
Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. (3) 1898, ii. p. 463 ; iv. 1897, p. 119.

590 Py REPORT—1899,

villages, whose languages are totally distinct from that of the Motu both in structure
and vocabulary. A language (Koiari) similar to the Koitapu was found to
prevail in the district inland from Port Moresby.

At Port Moresby I also obtained from some Cloudy Bay natives specimens of
their language, which, like those of Koitapu and Koiari, approaches the Australian
type, but has nothing in common with the Melanesian.

At Bulaa (Hula), Hood Peninsula, the structure of the dialects of Bulaa,
Keapara (Kerepunu), and Galoma were the subject of conversations with Kima,
the intelligent chief of Hula. These dialects are related to the Motu, and, like
it, are in grammar and yocabulary very closely akin to the languages of the
Melanesian Islands. -

At Saguana in Kiwai Island in the Fly River Delta, I took advantage of a
fortnight’s stay to make a first investigation into Kiwai and Mowata grammar.
The language is very difficult, with exceedingly complex forms. It shows some
ited of connection with the speech of the Eastern Islanders of the Torres

traits.

IV. Seclusion of Girls at Mabuiag, Torres Straits.
By C. G. SELIGMANN.

When the signs of puberty appear, a circle of bushes is made in a dark corner
of the girl’s parents’ house. The girl, now called Kerngi gasaman, is fully decked
with cross shoulder-belts of young cocoanut leaf, with leglets just below the knee,
with anklets, with petticoat, with chaplet round head, with armlets of cocoanut
with cut draceenas in them ; with shell ornaments hung on front and back of chest,
and with nautilus shell ornaments in her ears, She squats in the centre of the
bushes, which are piled so high round her that only her head is visible. This
lasts for three months, the bushes being changed nightly, at which time the
girl is allowed to slip out of the hut. She is attended by one or two old women,
the girl’s maternal aunts, who are especially appointed to look after her. These
women are called Mowai by the girl; one of them cooks food for the girl at a
special fire in the bush. The girl may not feed herself or handle her food, it being
put into her mouth by her attendant women. No man—not even the girl’s
father—may come into the house; if he saw his daughter during this time he
would certainly have bad luck with his fishing, and probably smash his canoe the
first time he went out. The girl may not eat in the breeding season turtle or
turtle eggs; no vegetable food is forbidden. The sun may not shine on her; ‘ he
can’t see daytime, he stop inside dark,’ said my informant. At the end of three
months a girl is carried to the fresh-water creek by her Mowat, she hanging on to
their shoulders so that not even her feet touch the ground, the women of the tribe
forming a ring round the girl and Movwaz, thus escorting her to the creek. Her
ornaments are removed, and the Mowai with their burden stagger into the creek,
where the girl is immersed, all the women joining in splashing water over the
three. On coming out of the water, one of the Mowat makes a heap of grass for
her charge to squat on, while the other runs to the reef and catches a small crab.
She tears off its claws, and with these she runs back to the creek, where a fire has
meanwhile been made, at which the claws are roasted. The girl is then fed on
these by the Mowat. She is then freshly decorated, and the whole party marches
back to the village in one rank, the girl being in the centre, with the Mowaz at her
side, each of them holding one of the girl’s wrists. The husbands of the Mowat,
called by the girl Waduam, receive her, and lead her into the house of one of
them, where all eat food, the girl being now allowed to feed herself in the usual
manner. The rest of the community have meanwhile prepared and eaten a feast,
and a dance is held, in which the girl takes a prominent part, her two Waduam
dancing, one on each side of her. When the dance is finished the Mowat lead the
girl into their house and strip her of her ornaments, They then lead her hack to

her parents’ house.

THE ANTHROPOLOGY AND NATURAL HISTORY OF TORRES STRAITS. 591

V. Notes on the Club Houses and Dubus of British New Guinea.
By C. G. SELIGMANN,

One or more houses larger and more highly decorated than the rest, called in
the Gulf and Mekeo districts elamo and marea respectively, are to be seen in every
village of these parts of British New Guinea. No women may enter these, they
are the club houses of the men, the home of the unmarried youths, and strangers
are quartered there. Each family or family group, called ztzubu in the Mekeo
district, is responsible for the upkeep of one of these. Among the Toaripi much
stress is laid on the convenience and advantage of an e/amo in keeping the young
men from the women’s quarters, and their legend of the origin of the edamo relates
how one of their ancestors, called Meuliave, was visited by Avara Laru, who rules
the N.W. squalls, who bade him build a house for the unmarried youths into
which no woman might come. Infringement of these rules is still met by Avara
Laru destroying the elamo. Wooden effigies of birds and fishes are hung outside
elamos, but these are not reverenced—the beast they represent is eaten when
opportunities offer, and the family group is not called by their name. East of
Delena elamos or mareas are not found, but their place is taken by the dubw, a
platform, often two-storied, with elaborately carved corner posts and cross-pieces
stretched longitudinally across the tops of these, which are hollowed to receive
them. One man called Dubu Tauna, from each principal family of a family
group (?duhz), looks after and is responsible for the dubu. The office is hereditary,
not necessarily in the direct line. Women may not approach the dubu except on
the Hood Peninsula, where once a year the girls who have become marriageable
assemble on the dubu. The products of the garden and chase are sometimes hung
on the dubu, which may rarely be painted red and white. Semon! notes that he
has seen skulls hung on one, but does not state where. Before fighting, warriors
fully decked and armed resort to the dubw and there mutter the names of their
ancestors. After killing a man the successful warrior would, on his return to the
village, go straight to the dubu, and on it eat his first meal. But little could be
determined as to the meaning of the carving, the origin of the dubus themselves
being unknown to the natives. At Qualimarupu there is a carefully excavated
hollow in one of the corner posts, said to represent a bowl. The pattern, as a rule,
is made up of a number of four-sided pyramids carved on the wood, and the tops
of the corner posts are carved so as to resemble jaws, between which the cross-
pieces rest. Perhaps these represent the jaws of a crocodile, the pyramids being
conventionalised scales, This form of decoration is, however, found among inland
people whose acquaintance with crocodiles must have been but slight.

VI. Notes on Savage Music. By C. 8. Myers.

As our modern orchestra admits the noises of drums and cymbals, and our
harmony allows chords which in a more classical period were inadmissible, we, in
our inquiry into past and primitive music, will not refuse to consider certain sounds
as musical even though they be noisy. Sympathy should be our sole test of music.
In savage life the songs of a tribe are itschief heritage. Certain songs recorded on
the phonograph in Murray Island, Torres Straits, are now obsolete, and will pro-
bably die out with the old men. Neither there nor in Borneo could any trace of the
notes of birds be found in the music. Of the two fundamentally distinct elements
in music, rhythm and melody, the one has its basis in bodily movement, the other in
the emotional recitative. In Murray Island the drum is beaten to accentuate the
words of the old songs, the music being singularly lacking in rhythm; among the
North American Indians, on the other hand, rhythm is well developed. The ex-
traordinary complexity of rhythm in certain Malay music was graphically recorded.

1 Im australischen Busch, p. 353<

592 REPORT—1899.

The Murray Islanders have a wonderfully developed idea of rhythm, as is proved
by their being able regularly to continue accurately recorded beats of prescribed
rapidity for a considerable period. Many suggestions have been made as to which
of the intervals came most naturally to the human voice. The Murray Islanders
have no polyphonic music, but in a chorus accompanying the songs of the Kenyah
and allied races in Borneo a long-drawn note a fifth below the key-note runs
drone-like through the song. A similar interval has been noted in one of the rare
examples of polyphonic music found in North America.

Writers have been led to conclude that various peoples employed far smaller
intervals than our own, misled apparently by viewing the numerous intervals as if
they formed a scale instead of a series of notes from which various scales were de-
rived. In this way travellers have been induced to look for quarter-tone music in
uncivilised parts of the world; but the author has no doubt that those quarter-
tones, which have been written down as occurring between any two whole (or
semi-) tones, merely express a gradual descent in the voice from one of these tones
to the other. The insensitiveness of the ear of the Murray Islanders to minute
differences of interval was estimated by means of tuning-forks. The common in-
correct intonation in savage music was alluded to.

Photographs of Anthropological Interest.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. C. H. Reap (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myres
(Secretary), Dr. J. G. Garson, Mr. H. Line Rots, Mr. H.
Batrour, Mr. E. 8. Harrnanp, and Professor FLINDERS PETRIE,
appointed for the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Regis-
tration of Photographs of Anthropological Interest.

Tris Committee was appointed by the British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science in September 1898, to provide for the ‘ Collection,
Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Anthro-
pological Interest.’

A similar Committee on Geological Photographs was appointed in
1889, and has organised the valuable collection preserved in the Museum
of Practical Geology. The Royal Geographical Society has gradually
collected a large number of geographical photographs, many of which are
also of anthropological interest. More recently the Hellenic Society has
announced a large special collection for the use of students of the topo-
graphy, civilisation, and art of Greece. And the Anthropological Institute
possesses a considerable collection of photographs, which have been lately
mounted and classified ; and has permitted the registration of these in the
list of the new Anthropological Photographs Committee.

The considerations which led to the appointment of this Committee
are briefly as follows :—

(1) A very large number of Anthropological phenomena can only be
studied in the field, or by means of accurate reproductions ; but the latter
are in many cases difficult to procure, except where typical examples have
been regularly published ; and even then it is frequently of advantage to
be able to acquire separate copies of single plates or illustrations, for pur-
poses of comparison, without breaking up a collection or a volume.

(2) On the other hand, most travellers, collectors, and museum officials
find it necessary to make many photographic negatives in the course of
their own work, for which they themselves have no further use, but which

’
;

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL INTEREST. 593,

they would gladly make accessible to other students, if any scheme existed
by which this could be done without trouble to themselves. Such nega-
tives also accumulate, and take up valuable space ; and are very liable to
damage through neglect.

(3) Further, though many professional photographers in remote parts
of the world have made admirable use of their opportunities of recording
native types, customs, and handiwork, there has hitherto existed no single
record of what has been done in this direction ; with the result that valu-
able collections have remained practically inaccessible to those in whose

‘interest they have been made. In the case of the Hellenic Society,

already cited, the inclusion, in the reference collection, of selected prints
from the negatives of professional photographers abroad has been found
to be of great advantage to teachers and students, who consult it with
the view of choosing the best representations to add to their own series.

What appears therefore to be required is, in the first place, a register
of the photographic negatives which can be made generally available,
illustrated by a permanent print from each, preserved at an accessible
centre ; together with an arrangement by which properly qualified
students may be enabled to have duplicate prints made from them for
their own use, at a reasonable price. In any such scheme it is understood
that the copyright, for purposes of publication, remains with the owner
of the negative, and that all duplicate prints distributed under this
arrangement are subject to that qualification.

In establishing such a Register and Collection of Anthropological
Photographs, the Committee invites the co-operation of all owners of
suitable photographic negatives, who are requested to submit for regis-
tration one unmounted print from each negative (which will be mounted
by the Committee and preserved either at the office of the British Asso-
ciation, or in some central and accessible place) ; together with a full
description of the photograph. The latter should state :

(1) The subject of the photograph, and the place where the original
subject is (or was) to be found, the date when the photograph was taken,
and name of the person who took the photograph.

(2) The name and address of the owner of the negative.

(3) The whereabouts of the negative itself : 7.e. whether it is retained
by the owner at his own address, or deposited with a professional photo-

- grapher at an address named, or with the Committee.

(4) The terms on which prints, enlargements, and lantern slides will
be supplied when ordered through the Committee.

The Committee has made arrangements for the storage and insurance
of any negatives which may be deposited on loan, and for the production
of prints and lantern slides from them to order ; and a number of negatives
have already been so deposited.

The Secretary of the Committee will be glad to supply forms for the
registration of negatives, and any further information which may be
required. It is hoped that it may be possible to publish a first list of
photographs in the next report.

1899, QQ

594 REPORT—1899.

The Lake Village at Glastonbury.—Fourth Report of the Commuttee, con-
sisting of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Mr. A. BULLE (Secretary),
Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, General Pitt-Rivers, Sir JOHN
Evans, and Mr. A. J. Evans. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

WE regret that from unavoidable reasons the excavations of the Marsh

Village near Glastonbury could not be reopened this summer, but the
investigations will be continued another year, and the examination of the
site proceeded with until completed. Notwithstanding the discontinuance
of the excavations this year, an important amount of work has been
accomplished since our last report was presented at the Bristol Meeting
last autumn.

The excavated ground mentioned in the following report was situated
at the centre and west side of the village, and includes fifteen dwelling
mounds and the ground around them. The more important dwellings were
the following :—

P.P.—A large mound situated near the west border of the village
‘ composed of four horizontal layers of clay one foot thick. Near the centre
of the mound there were ten superimposed hearths. The timber founda-
tion was strongest at the south and south-west sides of the mound, and

overlying the entire surface of the timber was a layer of rushes one foot.

thick, compressed to such an extent that it both cut and looked like wood
when making a section. Amongst the timber and vegetable débris in the
foundation of this mound were dug up a finely turned wheel-spoke, and
many fragments of pottery and bones, some very complete and well
preserved hurdle work, evidently part of a dwelling wall fallen flat ; near
this there were also a number of pieces of cut wood, the base of a wooden
tub, a wood mallet, and a wheel cut from the solid fifteen inches in
diameter.

Mound E E consisted of three floors of clay, the total thickness of
which was 2 feet 9 inches ; the dwelling that was contemporary with the
middie floor was evidently destroyed by fire. This mound was noteworthy
for the number of baked clay sling pellets, and for a human skull, the
latter object being discovered amongst the timber under the centre of the
dwelling.

Mound C C was in size an unimportant one, but was interesting in
many ways. It consisted of four layers of clay of irregular outline ; it
contained as many as ten hearths ; the timber foundation was slight,
except under the lowest hearth, where it formed a square platform from
five to six feet wide. In the upper, second, and lowermost floors, basin-
shaped depressions were found with the sides and base of baked clay ;
they were evidently circular holes cut in the clay floors, the sides carefully
smoothed and baked. Two of the depressions were within one foot of
their respective hearths. On and around this mound were dug up great
quantities of pottery, some loom weights of baked clay, five bone weaving
combs, three bone needles, one bronze fibula, and several perforated bones
and stone spindle whorls.

The remaining dwellings did not yield anything of special note. The
numbers of smaller objects found during the latter part of last season are as

~

ON THE LAKE VILLAGE AT GLASTONBURY. 595

follows :--Thirty pieces and implements of cut bone, ten pieces of bronze,
portions of two glass beads, fifteen pieces of cut horn, including seven
weaving combs. There were also objects of iron, lead, tin, and Kim-
meridge shale, four quern stones, fifteen spindle whorls, and the usual
quantity of pottery in fragments, bones, and baked clay. Since the last
report was read, Dr. J. H. Gladstone has very kindly made an exhaustive
examination and analysis of the metals, and in his three valuable reports
he says :—

Report A,

I have examined the specimens you kindly sent me from the Lake
Village both by the microscope and chemical analysis. The following are
the results arrived at :—

No. 1 Bronze.—This consisted of thin strips of metal, evidently coated
with oxide. The smaller piece was analysed just as it was, and gave

Copper . . : . : . - 60°8 per cent,
Tiny . : : . . : - 23:5 ditto

There was a little iron, but no lead or silver was found, nor any sulphur.
The deficiency on analysis must have been almost wholly oxygen. As
the tin is in such unusual proportion, I scraped the surface of both sides
of the larger strip, and obtained a very thin plate which showed metallic
lustre. This, pretty nearly freed from the crust of oxide, was analysed as
before, and then gave

Copper . . : . . . . 80:7 per cent.
Tiny? . . : . 5 . » 15:7 ditto

There was a small quantity of iron. The scrapings from the surface
proved to be almost entirely oxide of tin, but contained small quantities
of copper and iron. It was evident that in the slow decomposition of
this bronze, the copper had mostly disappeared while the tin remained in
the crust as the insoluble oxide. It is also evident that the original
bronze did not contain 23 per cent. of tin, which would be a very unusual
amount, but even 15 per cent. is a rich bronze, such as might be expected
where tin ore abounded. The absence of lead is significant, as that metal
was generally one of the components of Roman bronze of the period.

No. 2.—The lump of rust-coloured substance which surrounded the
bronze was found to be peaty matter infiltrated with iron oxide. There
was no tin, but a little copper, which doubtless had dissolved from the
adjoining metal. The second specimen was of very much the same
character.

No. 3.—This black powder is not antimony, but finely pulverised
galena (sulphide of lead). I find it leaves a black mark if rubbed on the
skin ; and from the articles with which it was associated I presume it was
used for the same purpose as stibium.

No. 4.—This white metal is pure tin, containing no silver, lead, or
copper in perceptible quantity. Jt had a slight crust of black oxide of
tin. The black powder, which you sent me in the same box, when
examined microscopically, was found to be minute fragments of quartz
encrusted with tinstone. This suggests that the fine sand containing
stream tin was carefully collected, and smelted in the village. It is
interesting to note that metallic tin was used for a finger ring in Egypt,

QQ2

596 REPORT—1899.

found at Gurob, which dates back about 1450 B.c. On analysing this it
was found that some particles of the unreduced black oxide were dispersed
through the metal.

Report B.

IT have made a careful analysis of the metallic rod from the Glaston-
bury village, both microscopically and chemically. For the purpose of
gaining an insight into the interior of the main portion, I have bored a
hole halfway through at about the middle of the rod, and a smaller one
at about a quarter of an inch from one of the bronze terminals. They
both revealed a central core of metallic tin covered by a very hard, but
somewhat brittle, crust ; in the first case, about one-eighth of an inch
thick, and in the second about one-twelfth. This inner core gave on
analysis 98-5 per cent. of tin. It may therefore be considered a very pure
specimen of that metal.

The crust of the products of oxidation exhibited under the microscope
great varieties of the oxides of tin, varying from semicrystalline pale
yellow pieces, to amber, reddish brown, and nearly black groups of minute
crystals. A portion analysed gave 85 per cent. of the oxide of tin, small
quantities of other mineral matter, about 5 per cent. of gold, and some
4 per cent. of combined water. All appearances indicate that this crust
has resulted from the slow oxidation of the tin rod in a marshy soil. As
no gold could be found in the interior tin, it is probable that the rod was
originally gilded in part or whole, and that the gold found in the crust
was due to this. One of the striking features of this crust is the number
of irregular longitudinal cracks, in some of which there is metal which
appears to have been squeezed up from below. This is doubtless due to
the gradual oxidation of the tin under the crust that was first formed.
As the oxide of tin occupies a much larger bulk than the metal from
which it is made, there must have been a great pressure from within, and
this has burst the outer crust just as the growth of many tree stems causes
the bark to split. Another feature is that the external crust is pitted
with a large number of little crater-like depressions, commonly of about
one-twelfth of an inch in diameter, but some very minute, and others
attaining to the size of a quarter of aninch. This does not appear to be
due to any external cause, but rather to the tendency of the oxide of tin
to arrange itself in this form.

The terminal pieces have been made of bronze ; but at least two differ-
ent qualities have been employed. They are also much corroded and rent
by fissures. A piece of the alloy pretty well separated from the disinte-
grated crust gave on analysis

Abb alee ‘ ° ‘ . 15:5 per cent
Copper. : " SEE OLe alas
Oxygen, &c. 5 > eS 5

It was, therefore, a bronze of no unusual composition, though with
rather more than the average amount of tin. Into each of these terminals
there seems to have been inserted a piece of bronze very much richer in
tin, and which has been almost entirely oxidated. The tin has become
cassiterite ; the copper is changed into the black oxide. It seems impos-
sible from these decomposed bronzes to say with any accuracy what has
been their original constitution. In the case of one piece taken from th¢

ON THE LAKE VILLAGE AT GLASTONBURY. 597

wedge, analysis shows at least twice as much tin as copper, besides a good
proportion of iron oxide, and a little alumina and lime, and much organic
matterand water. These latter constituents were doubtless derived trom
the marsh in which the rod had been lying for so many centuries.

The specific gravity of the whole object is 6-78. This agrees fairly
with what may be calculated from the relative amounts of tin and tin
oxide, with the bronze terminals, showing that it is solid throughout.
The slight double bend in the bar is probably due to the inequality of the
support during these ages. Even very rigid substances will suffer such
changes in long periods of time.

There remains the question as to the purpose for which it was made.
Originally, it probably appeared as a round bar of white metal, orna-
mented with gold, capped at each end bya bronze terminal. This suggests
the idea of some official mace or sceptre, sufficiently strong and heavy to
serve as a weapon if so required.

Report C.

T have examined all the metallic objects which you sent me recently.
First I thought it best to take the specific gravity of each, as that could
not injure the specimens in any way, while it might give good indications
as to the metals of which they are composed. The accompanying paper
gives their specific gravity, arranged from the highest to the lowest. You
will see that the objects fall into two groups ; four of them having a
specific gravity approaching that of lead (11-4) and the others that of tin
(73). In all cases the actual specific gravity is too low, but as the objects
are all more or less oxidated, mixed perhaps with some earthy matter, we
may expect such to be the case. The density of L 21 was not taken, as it
was manifestly an unwrought piece of melted tin, probably oxidated by
exposure to the air while still hot.

To commence with the larger group, that of tin L 12, the largest object,
is proved by its density, as well as its general appearance, to be a solid
ball of metallic tin, only very slightly oxidated ; while, on the other hand,
the three last in the table are possibly oxidated all through, as the specific
gravity of tin oxide itself is about 6°7.

As to the four which are classified as lead, the first two would appear
to be not far removed from pure metal, with a slight crust of suboxide
(specific gravity 9-7) and of carbonate (6-5) ; but L15 and L 25 are a
good deal lighter, though they do not seem to be much oxidised. They
both have brown patches on a yellowish white crust, and under the micro-
scope there are indications of the ridges, cracks, and small shiny spheres
which are seen in the crust of undoubted specimens of tin from Glaston-
bury. I thought it worth while, therefore, to cut off a small piece from the
end of the coiled ring L 25. The result of the analysis, after removing
the white incrustation as much as possible, showed 95°5 per cent. of lead ;
besides this there was some other substance which had all the appearance
of insoluble tin oxide. Supposing it to be really tin, it is so small in
quantity, that it probably arises from some accidental mixture of tinstone
with the ore from which the metal was reduced, and can hardly be looked
upon as having been purposely added. They, therefore, rather support
than contravene the opinion that the art of making pewter was not
practised in Britain before the time of the Romans.

¢

598 REPORT—1899,

Metal Objects from Glastonbury.

Label Weight in Grains Density Metal
19 36°78 10:98 Lead
W 116 18:72 10°74 hs
L 15 10°66 9:98 Seen
L'*25 9-42 9°91 if
L 12 127-21 7:26 Tin
L 20 | 20°33 718

W 54 47°33 | eli 3

| L 26 2-92 7-09 wf

| L 23 PANT 7:00 ¥
L 14 23°35 | 6°89 is
L il 51:97 | 6°80 %
W 111 26°64 | 6°65 7
Br 35 15:93 | 6°57 Ee
W 95 23°81 6:27 ss

Mr. C. W. Andrews, of the British Museum, has examined the later
discoveries of bird bones, and in July last he published an interesting
paper in ‘The Ibis,’ giving a list of birds in addition to those already
mentioned by Professor Boyd Dawkins. Mr. Andrews thinks from the
large number of specimens of Pelecanus crispus (Bruch) there can be little
doubt that the pelican inhabited the West of Britain in considerable
numbers, and that it not improbably bred there and was used for food by
the people of the lake dwellings.

The other species of birds which Mr. Andrews has found in the collec-
tion are :—

Corvus corone (L.), Carrion Crow.

Astur palumbarius (L.), Goshawk.

Haliaétus albicilla (L.), White-tailed Sea Hagle.
Milvus ictinus (Sav.), Kite.

Striz flammea (L.), Barn Owl.

Phalacrocorak carbo (L.), Cormorant.

Ardea cinerea (Li.), Common Heron.

Botaurus stellaris (L.), Common Bittern.

Ducks (Anatide) :—
Cygnus musicus. ? Spatula clypeata.
Anser sp. indet. ? Mareca penelope.
Anas boscas. Fuligula cristata.
? Clangula glaucion. > marila.
Querquedula crececa. Mergus serrator.

? Dajila acuta.

Puffinus sp. indet.

Crez, Corn Crake.

Fulica atra (1.).

Tachybaptes fluviatilis (Tunst.), Little Grebe.

Histology of the Suprarenal Capsules.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor E. A. ScHAFER (Chairman), Mr. SWALE
VINCENT (Secretary), and Mr. Vicror HORSLEY.

THE investigation has been carried on in birds and mammals, and com-
parisons instituted between the organ in these animals and that previously
studied in the lower vertebrates. The results have been embodied in a
paper published in the ‘ Internat. Monatsschr. f. Anat. u. Physiol.’ 1898.

eT

i im

ON ELECTRICAL CHANGES. 599

Electrical Changes accompanying the discharge of the Respiratory
Centre. Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. A. WALLER
(Chairman), Professor H. WaymMoutH Rep (Secretary), Professor
F. Gorcu, and Mr. J. 8. Macponatp. (Drawn up by Mr. J. 8.
MACDONALD.)

Further Examination of Changes in Phrenic Nerve and their
comparison with Simultaneous State of Blood Pressure.

Tue further prosecution of research has taken the form of an inquiry
into the nature of part (if any) played by alterations of blood presswre in
the causation of electrical phenomena observed in the phrenie nerve.

In a nerve well supplied with blood-vessels, and with a circulation
preserved in such good condition as that noted in experiments, errors
might be introduced by such alterations in several ways.

(A) By alteration of volume of blood and lymph in nerve, and so of
conducting media external to electrically disturbed tissue.'

By such means a change, produced in the relative proportion of current
derived through galvanometer circuit, might in records give rise to an
apparent change of total current.

(B) By action of changes of blood pressure upon the walls of vessels
or upon the flow of blood through them, setting up electromotive changes
of entirely different origin from intrinsic changes in nervous tissue.

(C) By direct effect of alterations of circulation upon the nervous
tissue itself, especially in nerve partially dried and cooled from exposure,
giving rise to intrinsic alterations in current of injury by altering condi-
tions of moisture, temperature, presence of waste products, &c., affecting its
development.

There were considerations which made it improbable that such causes
were at work in the production of current changes observed in phrenic
nerves. Amongst these may be mentioned—

(1) The constancy of base line in tracings.

(2) The character of the rhythmical oscillations, the first part of each
of which bore evidence of being a true negative variation ; the second part,
as observed both in galvanometer and electrometer, being due to return of
instrument to rest at a rate determined by instrumental elasticity.

(3) The observation that phenomena in phrenic ceased when blood
pressure was still considerable, and the heart continued its beat.

It was, indeed, anticipated that the relation between circumstances was
really in a reverse order. That the phenomena, being genuine indications
of large discharges from respiratory centre, would probably, in their most
extreme form, be accompanied by discharges of vasomotor centres leading
to alterations of blood pressure; and not that such indirectly caused
changes of blood pressure would declare themselves so obviously by
indirect effects upon injury current of phrenic nerves.

It was, however, deemed advisable to satisfy any criticism upon pre-
sence of errors of this nature by as careful as possible an estimation of

} Source of current of injury.

600 REPORT—1899.

their value. To do this it did not seem necessary, or even advisable, to
confine the research to direct experiments upon the phrenic nerve, as it
was presumed that errors (such as were sought for) would affect the appa-
rent changes in any nerve under similar conditions of experiment to a
degree dependent upon the vascularity of the nerve and the maintenance
of its blood supply.

Experimental means were obtained for the simultaneous record upon
same travelling surface of the movements both of a galvanometer and of
a blood-pressure manometer. In this way two curves were obtained, one
of electrical changes in tissue experimented upon and one of blood pressure
in general circulation, admitting of immediate contrast.

The nerves chosen for experiment were :—

(a) The central end of divided vagus.
(b) The peripheral end of divided vagus,
(c) The recurrent laryngeal.

In all these cases phenomena were found characteristic of each indi-
‘vidual nerve and irrespective of state of blood pressure, which will be
elsewhere described.

But in addition indications were obtained and records taken of a rela-
tion sometimes existing between change of blood pressure and change of
demarcation current in nerve, a fall of pressure being accompanied by a
fall of current, and a succeeding rise of pressure by an increase in current.

In such cases the parallelism of curves when obtained is of a crude
description, the galvanometer record following the main trend of the blood- -
pressure record, but not responding to the finer variations. It is also
thought that such parallel curves are best obtained at the end of an
experiment, when the nerve has presumably suffered from exposure.

A somewhat similar comparison! has been made previously by other
observers in the case of spinal nerves, in which the demarcation current
was noticed as dependent upon the condition of animal.

A very remarkable variation from such observations was, however,
several times obtained from the peripheral end of divided vagus, in which
the relation between the curves was inverted ; a rise of blood pressure
being accompanied by a negative variation in demarcation current, a fall
with an increase. There is also a marked difference in the nature of cor-
respondence between the two curves from that previously related, in this
case much more exact, finer changes being responded to and with a con-
stant latency.

The possible presence of a double relation of demarcation current in
the peripheral end of vagus to changes of blood pressure, one in the oppo-
site direction to the other, was naturally the cause of a multiplicity of
experiments made upon this stretch of nerve. It might be remarked that
whilst the first type of change is analogous to that so far found in other
nerves, this second is peculiar to the nerve in question ; and although
admitting of a simple explanation by the behaviour of electromotive
changes in the walls of blood-vessels contained in it, is not (for reasons to
be elsewhere advanced) thought to be so caused.

In continuation of general research an attempt was made to differen-
tiate between the secondary results of an altered circulation in nerve and

' Gotch and Horsley, Croonian Lectures, 1891.

ON ELECTRICAL CHANGES. 601

the direct effects produced by changes in the blood-vessels contained
in it.

For this purpose direct experiments of a similar kind were carried out
upon large blood-vessels. An artery was ligatured and divided, the cen-
tral end (towards the heart) dissected from its surroundings, raised in air,
and connected with galvanometer in same manner as nerves had been
connected. The stretching was found of importance, and the femoral
artery first chosen was abandoned for the carotid, as free from branches
and, therefore, from local injuries during dissection.

In such a preparation current changes are found proportional to
changes of blood pressure of a gross kind and with a marked latency.
The relation between two is of same kind as that found in the peripheral
end of vagus nerve, a rise of pressure causing a fall of current. Such
current changes are not due to alterations in resistance of tissue to any
current found there, as their nature remains unaffected by the compensa-
tion or over-balancing of the demarcation current, retaining always the
same direction whatever the direction of current traversing tissue may be.

As to the real source of such changes no positive statement can be
made. The most probable cause would seem to be an alteration in tonus
of muscular coat secondary to the change of pressure within vessel. This
is supported by the result of one experiment, in which an otherwise unin-
jured carotid artery was separated from surrounding tissues by a thin
sheet of indiarubber and a portion of its length connected with the
galvanometer. The galvanometric curve bore at first no relation to the
blood-pressure curve, but a relation was imperfectly introduced by injury
to artery at electrode distal from heart. In other experiments attempts
were also made to introduce electrodes into blood stream, but experiments
were lost owing to coagulation of blood and the effects of pressure upon
electrodes themselves. It is, however, felt that without further evidence
an attempt to fix source of origin is futile.

It was thought that the general research might be assisted by a study
of such changes as might be obtained under similar conditions from largest
combination of nerve and artery to be obtained in body. Experiments
were performed, in which the vagus and carotid, having been divided and
ligatured at same place, were lifted up without being separated from one
another. The piece of tissue so formed was stretched to its normal length,
and its distal end connected to galvanometer in usual way.

From this preparation it was found possible to obtain, with unfailing
regularity, a galvanometer curve having the most marked correspondence
to simultaneous blood-pressure curve, a rise of pressure being accompanied
by a negative variation of current.

It is to be noticed that the demarcation current obtained from this
tissue was exceedingly small, and that the variations in it were of a
magnitude bearing an extremely large ratio to it; in fact the most suc-
cessful comparisons were made in preparations in which the origina! current
was practically nil. Itis also of note that the quantity of change ob-
tained from this preparation in response to a change of blood pressure is
greater than that obtainable from carotid artery alone, and much greater
than that obtainable from vagus nerve alone.

In the total result it seems possible that a contribution is due to
artery, a portion to nerve, and that in this case the components have
same direction ; for ligature of nerve near to trunk and as far as possible

602 REPORT—1899.

from electrodes produced a diminution in the steepness of curve, and
it is believed an alteration of its character.

The value of this latter observation is enhanced by the manner in
which other changes unrelated to changes of blood pressure, but known
from further research to occur in nerve during conditions of experiment,
are swamped by the superposition of artery, it being presumed that value
of derived circuit through galvanometer is rendered comparatively negli-
gible by its relatively large resistance.

In cases of all previous part of research it may be said that the phy-
siological continuity of tissue examined is essential.

Summing up, it may be said that all the experiments upon which
statements have been based were carried out under the conditions of
original experiments upon phrenic nerves ; that is, that the experimental
method used for obtaining the alterations of blood pressure! consisted of
curarisation, artificial respiration, and intervals of its suspension.

This, though not a good method for the unravelling of secondary
problems which have presented themselves, allows one to translate all the
occurrences which have been found in other nerves and tissues to a pro-
bable occurrence during any one of phrenic experiments. The main results
may be tabulated as follows :—

(1) Current changes have been found in divided nerves directly pro-
portional to changes of pressure, the reiation between the two being
however, as to time and quantity of a gross kind.

(2) Current changes have been found in peripheral end of divided
vagus nerve inversely proportional to changes of blood pressure, in which
relation is much more exact.

(3) The latter class of changes has not been obtained from any other
nerve examined ;

(4) but is constantly to be obtained from the divided carotid artery,
though here less exact ; ,

(5) and with great exactness and magnitude from vagus carotid pre-
paration.

(6) That this latter result is diminished by ligature of vagus below
point examined.

Having thus obtained information of events met with in other tissues,
nerves, and blood-vessels, situated in near neighbourhood and obtaining
their blood supply from very similar sources, experiments were resumed
upon phrenic itself.

Simultaneous curves of electrical changes in phrenic and of general
blood pressure show no correspondence of a kind to explain the charac-
teristic phenomena obtained in phrenic nerve alone of all the nerves
examined, and the large alterations of blood pressure which occur in every
experiment cannot be even definitely said to constantly affect the base line
of phrenic tracing.

Te make the result more conclusive, simultaneous records were
taken both of current changes in phrenic and in vagus carotid preparation,
which latter is known to repeat all the incidents of a blood-pressure
curve.

The tracings obtained show the typical appearances of either. curve, of
quite diverse types, showing no relation of the kind sought for. Oscilla-

1 Chloroform anesthesia was used,

ON ELECTRICAL CHANGES. 603

tions in one curve are unaccompanied by oscillations in the other, with an
exception of no moment from point of view of question at issue.

It is worth stating that, as two galvanometers of same pattern but of
different internal resistance were used in the latter class of experiment,
care was taken to change the instrument connected to either tissue during
the course of experiment. This, however, may be looked at as of con-
siderable advantage, and serves to make result obtained more conclusive.

The final statement may be therefore made with positive conviction :—
‘That the phenomena obtained in phrenic nerves are independent of,
in the sense of being in no way due to, local changes of blood pressure or
of circulation ; neither in so far as such conditions affect the nerve nor
the blood-vessels contained in it.’

This does not affirm the absence of circumstances analogous to those
obtained elsewhere, but places them, when present, in a position of very
minor importance.

The Comparative Histology of the Cerebral Cortew.—RKeport of the
Committee, consisting of Professor GotcH (Chairman), Dr. G.
Mann (Secretary), and Dr. F. W. Mort.

Work upon this subject has been carried on or initiated during the year
by Dr. G. Mann in the Physiological Laboratory, Oxford ; details are
given in the subjoined report.

The brains (including the retinz) of five specimens of Macaque monkey
have been utilised for this inquiry. The material was fixed for histological
purposes in one of the following fixatives: (a) picro-corrosive formal-
dehyde ; (b) Zenker’s solution ; (c) Weigert’s solution of sodium bichro-
mate, chrome alum, and formol ; (d) Weigert’s solution of chrome alum,
glacial acetic acid, acetate of copper, and formol. All solutions were
injected into the animal as soon after death as practicable under normal
pressure. The Weigert methods did not yield good results, although slices
of the cerebral tissue, 5 mm. thick, were left for five days in the solutions
at body temperature. On embedding in paraffin and cutting sections, the
blocks were found to be over-hardened on the surface, whilst the interior
was insufficiently fixed. One of the specimens fixed in picro-corrosive was
unsatisfactory, as the tissue showed extensive waxy degeneration. A
second specimen fixed in the same way appears to give most satisfactory
results as far as the examination of the sections has at present extended.
Serial sections have been made of the olfactory bulb, the olfactory lobe, the
hippocampal region, the occipital lobe and the retinz, the motor regions of
the trunk and hind limb muscles ; sections of the motor regions of the upper
limbs, head, &c., have not yet been made. As regards the examination of
the olfactory bulb and the fascia dentata, it is of interest that the granules
present in these regions, if stained by the toluidine-blue and eosin method,
show Nissl’s substance, and thus appear to be true nerve-cells.

The examination of the retine has brought out several points of
interest. Sections in the horizontal plane, through the optic disc, and the
macula lutea, show that the structure of the retin in the Macaque appa-
rently differs from that of human retin as described by Schafer and
Golding-Bird. The macula lies 2°75 mm. from the centre of the optic
disc ; the outer rim of the cup measures } mm., the inner more depressed

604 REPORT—1899,

part of the cup } mm. The dipping inwards of the external limiting
membrane causes a circumferential cup around the innerone. The inner
and outer ganglionic layers, as well as the inner fibrous layer, are reduced
to very small proportions, there being in a section 10 » thick only 15
nuclei of the outer ganglionic layer scattered along the margin of the
macula. The thickness of the layer of the nuclei of the rods and cones
(outer nuclear) is greater when measured from within outwards in the
part opposite the macula than in any other region of the retina (55 y) ;
this is largely due to the loose arrangement of the cone nuclei. The most
interesting point is the peculiar arrangement of the rods and cones.
Opposite the macula the cones are erect, i.e. their inner, middle, and outer
segments are all in a straight line ; outside the macula, however, the outer
segments of both rods and cones all point towards the centre of the
macula, the angle which these segments make with the middle ones
depending upon the distance of the elements from the yellow spot. The
different segments of the cones are of the same length, whether the part
examined is within or outside the macula ; there is thus no evidence of
the shortening of the inner and middle cone segments which is present in
the macula region of the human retina.

The transverse dimension of a cone increases steadily in proportion to
the distance of the region examined from the macula. The large extent
of the increase on the temporal side is shown in the following table :—

Distance from Centre of Transverse Dimension of Cones
Optic Disc. in Micromillims (y).

4 millimetre . : : 3 . 4:25

1 ” . . . . . 4 .

ie : ; i : "4-95 Nasal side

2 millimetres . 4 P ; ~ Ab

Macula A 4 ; 5 . 125 Macula

3 re - 2°5

33 4:5

43 ) 55

5 Es 65 :

62 4 15 Temporal side

7% ‘ . 875

9 a 5 : 5 5 . 10

Both the inner and outer ganglionic layers reach their maximal
development on the temporal side of the retina, the greatest thickness,
measured from within out, of the inner ganglionic layer being 50 m on the
temporal and 14 to 16 » on the nasal side, that of the outer layer 55 u
on the temporal and 38 uw on the nasal side. On the other hand, the layer
of the nuclei of the rods and cones is nearly equal in thickness on these
two sides of the retina.

There is in the monkey a further sharp division of the outer fibrillar
(molecular) layer into a part consisting of the internal processes of the
nuclear layer of the reds and cones, and a part consisting of the external
processes of the outer ganglionic (inner nuclear) layer ; the fibrils in. the
former case run horizontally near their terminations, in the latter at right
angles to this distribution.

ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PEPTONE. 605

The Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors when introduced,
into the Circulation—Third Interim Report of a Committee, con-
sisting of Professor EH. A. Scuirer, F.R.S. (Chairman), Professor
C. S. SHERRINGTON, F’.2.S., Professor R. W. Boyce, and Professor
W. H. THompson (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

In pursuing this research during the past year, work has in the first
instance been directed towards the completion of the different portions of
the enquiry already in hand. In several of the sections this has been
achieved, and the results have been published in extenso in the ‘Journal
of Physiology ’ for the current year.

The following is a brief réswmé of the chief conclusions arrived at, as
given in the above articles.

The substances employed were—Purified amphopeptone, antipeptone,
deuteroproteose, protoproteose, heteroproteose, and, in certain cases,
Witte’s ‘ peptone.’

Section I. Jnflwence on Blood Coagulation.

(a) With purified amphopeptone only a retarding effect was observed.
The doses employed varied from 0-005 grammes to 0-2 grammes per kilo
of body weight.

(6) With antipeptone only a hastening effect was yielded by doses
up to 0°3 grammes per kilo.

(c) With each of the primary and secondary proteoses both phases of
coagulation effect were observed. In all, coagulation was hastened in eight
experiments, retarded in seventeen experiments.

Section IT. Jnflwence on Blood Pressure.

(a) All of the substances employed, with the exception of antipeptone,
possess undoubted vaso-dilating properties.

(6) The effect in question belongs to these substances in different
degrees, the products taking their places in increasing order of potency,
as follows : amphopeptone, deuteroproteose, heteroproteose, protoproteose.

(c) Antipeptone possesses practically no immediate lowering influence
on the tonus of blood-vessels, or at most an effect so transient that it is
doubtful if it should not be attributed to adhering impurity.

Section III. Influence on Vaso-Mobility.

(a) The vaso-dilating influence shown by the bodies under examina-
tion, in agreement with that caused by Witte’s ‘peptone,’ is brought about
by a peripheral effect on the vessel walls, causing a reduction or tempo-
rary suppression of vaso-mobility.

(6) Amphopeptone and deuteroproteose, while differing little from each
other, manifest far less effect in this respect than do the primary pro-
teoses. The latter exert this influence to a profound degree.

(c) Of the primary bodies, protoproteose is probably the more potent,
though not to a wide extent. Heteroproteose, indeed, almost equals in
influence its fellow body.

(d) The effect of Witte’s ‘peptone’ must therefore be mainly ascribed
to its protoproteose constituents. This body ordinarily forms a much
larger ingredient of the substance in question than does heteroproteose.

606 REPORT—1899.

(e) Antipeptone possesses no power of depressing vaso-mobility con-
sistently with its lack of influence in lowering blood-pressure.

Section IV. Local Vascular Influences.

In this section, in addition to completing the observations on the
limb, kidney, and spleen districts, the research was extended during the
year so as to include the vessels of two other regions, namely, those of the
intestine and liver. The following is a brief summary of the results as a
whole.

1. Intestinal Vessels.

(a) Direct observation and record verify the inference that dilatation
of the intestinal vessels accompanies and must to a certain extent account
for the fall of blood-pressure preduced by injection of Witte’s ‘peptone’
and similar products into the vascular system.

(6) It also establishes beyond doubt that the dilatation of intestinal
vessels is produced by peripheral depression, or even temporary abolition
of vaso-mobility, in the area in question.

(c) That the order of potency in regard to effect on intestinal vessels
corresponds with that above given for the splanchnic area in general;
the primary proteoses exerting much the most profound influence, that of
deuteroproteose and purified peptone being comparatively small.

2. Renal Vessels.

(a) The blood-vessels of the kidney do not share in the dilatation
brought about by these substances. On the contrary, the vessels of this
organ are much less distended under their influence than under ordinary
circumstances.

(b) Vaso-mobility in the renal area is much less profoundly influenced
than in the intestinal district.

(c) Bearing in mind the statement made in the foregoing paragraph,
the primary proteoses are also the most effective on renal vessels. Indeed,
they may be said to be the only members of the group which appreciably
reduce renal vaso-mobility.

3. Splenic Vessels,

(a) The vessels of this district share to a moderate extent in the dila-
tation which follows an injection of ‘peptone’ or of one of the proteoses. -

(6) Vaso-mobility is also diminished in the splenic district, but to a
less degree than in the intestinal. In this respect the vessels of the
spleen take a position intermediate between those of the kidney and the
intestine.

(c) Proto- and heteroproteose are here also the most effective of the
substances examined. Deuteroproteose and purified peptone have com-
paratively little influence.

4, Liver Vessels.

(a) The vessels of this district suffer an enormous dilatation under the
influence of ‘peptone’ and proteoses, corresponding to the period of
general fall of blood-pressure.

_ (6) This dilatation is primarily due to an increased onflow of blood
from the vessels of the portal system, and not to mere stoppage from sup-
posed weakening of the heart.

(c) Under conditions of great fall of blood-pressure resulting from

ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PEPTONE. 607

vascular dilatation in the splanchnic region, the chief accumulation of
blood seems to take place in the liver, exceeding even that in the vessels
of the intestine.

(d) The vessels of this district, owing to their easy dilatability, pro-
bably play the part of a safety receptacle to the heart, thereby guarding
it against over-influx of blood under conditions of great dilatation in the
splanchnic vascular territory.

(e) The substances examined produce a great depression of vaso-
mobility in the liver district, the vessels of this organ thus showing a
high degree of susceptibility to the influence of the bodies here employed.

(f) The different substances show the same order of potency in their
influence on the liver district as is manifested by them elsewhere.

5, Limb Vessels.

(a) Some influence is undoubtedly exerted on limb vessels by the pro-
ducts here dealt with, but this influence is very slight, less even than in
the case of renal vessels.

(6) Little or no dilatation is experienced by these vessels during the
period of fall of general blood-pressure.

(c) Here, also, the influence of the primary proteoses is greater than
that of the other bodies examined. Indeed, the former may be said to be
the only members of the group which possess any influence on limb
vessels.

From the foregoing local vascular manifestations, the following con-
clusions of a more general nature may be deduced :

1. That the blood-vessels of different vascular districts show different
degrees of susceptibility to ‘peptone’ influence, and play unequal parts in
producing the general results which follow an injection of peptone or
proteoses.

2. The vessels of the splenic, intestinal, and hepatic districts constitute
a group eminently sensitive to ‘peptone’ influence, while those of the
kidney and limbs are eminently insensitive in this respect.

3. Amongst the vessels of the first group, those of the splenic district
are least susceptible, those of the liver most so, while those of the intes-
tine occupy an intermediate position.

Section V. Hffects on Urinary Secretion.

Work in this section was also brought to a temporary completion, and
furnished interesting and important deductions. An article dealing with
these will shortly be published. The results attained invite further inves-
tigation, which it is intended to take in hand during the coming year.

Part of the work of completion just alluded to involved the perform-
ance of a series of control experiments to determine the influence which
the anesthetic employed might exert on the secretion of urine. These
showed that the peptone effects were in no wise modified by the influence
of the anesthetic.

Section VI. Lffects of Antipeptone-constituents.

Tt has recently been shown that antipeptone is composed of a number
of different bodies, the chief amongst these being Arginin, Histidin, and
Lysin. It was therefore deemed advisable to extend the research into an

608 REPORT—1899.

examination of the physiological effects produced by these substances when
introduced into the circulation. This was carried into effect with the kind
permission of Professor A. Kossel, in the Physiological Institute of Mar-
burg University. A preliminary communication dealing with the results,
so far as obtained, will, it is hoped, be made to Section I. at the forth-
coming Meeting.

The Influence of Drugs upon the Vascular Nervous System.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor F. GorcH (Chairman),
Professor HALLIBuRTON (Secretary), and Dr. F. W. Morr.

Tue physiological action of choline and neurine has been investigated by
Dr. F. W. Mott, M.D., F.R.S., and Professor Halliburton ; the results
of their experiments are embodied in the subjoined third report.

In the two reports which precede this, we have shown that cerebro-
spinal fluid from cases of general paralysis of the insane contains choline,
and that the fall of arterial blood-pressure that takes place when the
fluid is injected into animals is due to this substance. This base is absent
from normal cerebro-spinal fluid, and is doubtless, in the pathological
fluid, derived from the disintegration of lecithin in the cerebral tissue.
The proof that the base is choline rests partly on its chemical identifica-
tion in the fluid, and partly on the identical action which the fluid has
with weak solutions (0°2 per cent.) of choline or choline hydrochloride.

The closely related and much more toxic base, neurine, is absent.

In the case of choline, the fall of blood-pressure is partly cardiac and
partly produced by vascular dilatation, especially in the intestinal area.
Contrary to expectation the spleen does not participate in this dilatation,
but is constricted ; this constriction is followed by an increase of the
normal splenic waves. It seems probable that the material in extracts
of brain which Schafer and Moore found to produce the same effect is
choline. Neurine produces a much more intense constriction of the
spleen, but no exaggeration of the splenic waves follows. The action of
the base on the intestinal blood vessels is due to its action on the neuro-
muscular mechanism of the blood vessels themselves. This was demon-
strated by locally bathing the mesenteric vessels with solutions of choline ;
and by the fact that choline still continues to produce the usual fall of
arterial pressure, (1) after the spinal cord has been divided high up,
(2) after the splanchnic nerves have been cut, and (3) after the animal
has been poisoned with nicotine ; the last method excludes any action of
peripheral ganglia.

Neurine produces a fall of blood-pressure, chiefly due to its action on
the heart ; this is followed by a rise of pressure, due to constriction of
peripheral vessels. Using the same methods as in the investigation of
choline, this is not an action on the central nervous system. The con-
striction of the vessels is, however, probably due to the action of the base
on the peripheral ganglia, for after nicotine poisoning it docs not occur.

The animals used have been dogs, cats, and rabbits. These were
always anesthetised with ether, chloroform, or A. C. E. mixture ; in some
cases they also had a subcutaneous injection of morphine. If, however,
a small amount of atropine is mixed with the morphine, the effect of
choline is always a rise of blood pressure ; the lever of the intestinal
oncometer also rises.

ON THE MICRO-CHEMISTRY OF CELLS. 609

The Micro-chemistry of Cells——Interim Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor EH. A. SCHAFER (Chairman), Professor E.
Ray LaAnNKESTER, Professor W. D. Haturpurton, Mr. G. C.
Bourne, and Professor A. B. Macau (Secretary).

THE Committee beg to present an interim report.
The investigation was directed along the following lines :

(1) The detection and localisation of iodine in animal cells and organs.
In regard to the detection of this element considerable difficulty was
experienced in finding a suitable reaction ; for starch, the usual test for
iodine, being a colloid when in solution, cannot penetrate iodine-holding
colloid tissue-material. Another difficulty consisted in the firmness with
which organic compounds of iodine hold the element in ‘masked’ com-
bination. Both dithiculties were overcome by the discovery that solutions
of hydrochloric acid and mercuric chloride, under certain conditions, not
only set the iodine free in an inorganic form but yield it also as red mercuric
iodide. By this method it has been found that the iodine compound of
the thyroid gland is confined to its colloid masses, the gland cells being
free from traces even of the element. The ‘colloid’ masses of the pitui-
tary body gave no evidence of the presence of iodine, nor was any trace of
it found in the other organs. Experiments in this line are being made on
the tissues of certain invertebrates.

(2) The micro-chemical localisation of sulphur of inorganic and organic
combinations in animal cells. The reaction employed is that obtained
when a mixture of solutions of lead acetate and potassic hydrate with
glycerine, in such proportions as to yield a clear solution, is allowed to
act on tissue material which has been hardened for a long time in alcohol.
Inorganic sulphur combinations yield the result at once, while the lightly
bound organic sulphur gives the brown colour of lead sulphide on the
application of heat. The reaction has been found useful in determining
some points of importance, as for example the proteid character of a
number of structures in the protozoa and protophyta, and the presence of
sulphur in the chromosomes of the nucleus in the dividing cell, a fact
which indicates that these bodies, contrary to the view of some cytologists,
are not constituted of pure nucleic acid but rather of a nucleo-proteid.

(3) Observations on the distribution of organic phosphorus, in the case
of compounds digestible in artificial gastric juice. These demonstrated
that the soluble compounds are much more abundant than the insoluble
ones (7c. nucleins or chromatins) in the cells of the liver, thyroid,
suprarenals, and pituitary gland. In the latter organ the soluble com-
pounds are specially abundant, and they appear to constitute also a con-
siderable portion of the colloid material of this organ.

(4) The action of different mineral reagents on cellular structures
hardened in alcohol, under high pressures (8-12 atmospheres), and at
temperatures between 100°C. and 200° C. This line of work has been
followed for less than two months, and consequently the results are incom-
plete, but they are of interest when taken in connection with the results
of artificial digestion. It is proposed to compare these results with those
obtained by treating in a similar way the cell juices extracted from fresh
cells by hydraulic pressure.

899. RR

610 REPORT—1899,

(5) The elaboration of atom-group reactions of proteids for micro-
chemical purposes. Those which have proved to be the most useful are
the oxyphenyl (tyrosin) reaction, the CN (biuret) reaction, and that
resulting from the action of slowly concentrating sulphuric and hydro-
chloric acids, discovered by Elliott, and apparently due to the indol atom-
group. It has been found that the Reichl reactions, which are supposed
to indicate the presence of either indol or skatol in proteids, are without
value in micro-chemical application, and the same may be said of Krasser’s
reaction with alloxan, which is held to postulate the occurrence of
CH,:CH(NH,)‘COOH in the proteid molecule. The atom-group
reactions are being employed to study the characters of the nuclear com-
pounds in different cells.

Owing to the extent of the investigation undertaken, more time is
required, and the Committee ask to be reappointed.

Fertilisation in the Pheeophycee.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Prof. J. B. Farmer (Chairman), Prof. R. W. PHILuips (Secretary),
Prof. F. O. Bower, and Prof. HaRvEy Gipson. (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)

THE grant made last year for the furtherance of the study of the processes
of fertilisation among Phzophycez was 20/., and your Committee decided
to devote again the whole amount as an aid to Mr. J. Lloyd Williams in ©
his researches.

The following are some of the questions to which Mr. Williams has
been giving his attention during the past year :—

1. Dictyota dichotoma. The cytology of the sexual cells of the fertilised
egg, and of the parthenogenetic stages of the unfertilised egg, has been
fully worked out, and the results are now ready for publication.

2. Halidrys siliquosa and Himanthalia lorea. The life-history and
cytology of these plants have been further investigated. Mr. Williams
proposes to submit a paper on the former plant for the consideration of
the Section at Dover.

3. Laminaria saccharina and Alaria esculenta. Mr. Williams has
submitted the zoospores of these species to experiment, and has made
some interesting observations on their germination.

4, Fucacew. A joint paper by Professor Farmer and Mr. Williams
on the natural history of several species of Fucaceae is in course of
preparation.

5. Fucus hybrids. Mr. Williams has communicated to the ‘Annals of
Botany’ (vol xiii, No. 49) a short note giving the results of observations
on this subject.

The Committee consider that these investigations are likely to yield
more interesting results when they are carried still further, and they
would urge the renewal of the grant for another year.

ON ASSIMILATION IN PLANTS, 611

Assimilation in Plants.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
of Mr. Francis Darwin (Chairman), Professor J. R. GREEN (Secre-
tary), and Professor MarRsHALL WarD, appointed to conduct an
Experimental Investigation of Assimilation in Plants.

Tue Committee beg to report that they have expended two-thirds of the
201. placed at their disposal, and they request that they may be re-
appointed with a view to the expenditure of the balance.

The grant has been mainly devoted to aiding Mr. Blackman in the
construction of an expensive apparatus for the investigation of assimi-
lation, which is now complete ; and it is proposed to allot to him the
remainder of the sum for the continuation of his researches. These have
been in progress for some time’; they deal with the sources of the carbon
dioxide of leaf assimilation ; with the respiration of the stem as dis-
tinguished from the leaf ; with the magnitude of the absorption of carbon
dioxide from the soil ; and with kindred problems, of which a preliminary
account was given by Mr. Blackman at the Bristol meeting. The many
ways in which these various factors interact on one another make it
desirable not to publish the detailed investigations of one before those of
the others are completed. It is expected, however, that the results will
be ready for publication in the course of the coming year.

a aan

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POS TE ae COVA

= * i,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE Secrion.—Professor J. H. Poynrrne, D.Sc., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SHPTEMBER 14.

The President delivered the following Address :—

Tue members of this Section will, I am sure, desire me to give expression to the
gratification that we all feel in the realisation of the scheme first proposed from
this chair by Dr. Lodge, the scheme for the establishment of a National Physical
Laboratory. It would be useless here to attempt to point out the importance of
the step taken in the definite foundation of the Laboratory, for we all recognise that
it was absolutely necessary for the due progress of physical research in this country.
It is matter for congratulation that the initial guidance of the work of the
Laboratory has been placed in such able hands.

While the investigation of Nature is ever increasing our knowledge, and while
each new discovery is a positive addition never again to be lost, the range of the
investigation and the nature of the knowledge gained form the theme of endless
discussion. And in this discussion, so different are the views of different schools
of thought, that it might appear hopeless to look for general agreement, or to
attempt to mark progress.

Nevertheless, [ believe that in some directions there has been real progress, and
that physicists, at least, are tending towards a general agreement as to the
nature of the laws in which they embody their discoveries, of the explanations
which they seek to give, and of the hypotheses they make in their search for
explanations.

I propose to ask you to consider the terms of this agreement, and the form
in which, as it appears to me, they should be drawn up.

The range of the physicist’s study consists in the visible motions and other
sensible changes of matter. The experiences with which he deals are the impres-
sions on his senses, and his aim is to describe in the shortest possible way how his
various senses have been, will be, or would be affected.

His method consists in finding out all likenesses,in classing together all similar
events, and so giving an account as concise as possible of the motions and changes
observed. His success in the search for likenesses and his striving after concise-
ness of description lead him to imagine such a constitution of things that like-
nesses exist even where they elude his observation, and he is thus enabled to
- simplify his classification on the assumption that the constitution thus imagined is
areality. He is enabled to predict on the assumption that the likenesses of the
future will be the likenesses of the past.

His account of Nature, then, is, as it is often termed, a descriptive account.

Were there no similarities in events, our account of them could not rise

616 REPORT—1899.

above a mere directory, with each individual event entered up separately with its
address. But the similarities observed enable us to class large numbers of events
together, to give general descriptions, and indeed to make, instead of a directory,
a readable book of science, with laws as the headings of the chapters.

These laws are, I believe, in all cases brief descriptions of observed similarities.
By way of illustration let us take two or three examples.

The law of gravitation states that to each portion of matter we can assign a
constant—its mass—such that there is an acceleration towards it of other matter
proportional to that mass divided by the square of its distance away. Or all
bodies resemble each other in having this acceleration towards each other,

Hooke’s law for the case of a stretched wire states that each successive equal
small load produces an equal stretch, or states that the behaviour of the wire is
similar for all equal small pulls.

Joule’s law for the heat appearing when a current flows in a wire states that,
the rate of heat development is proportional to the square of the current multiplied
by the resistance, or states that all the different cases resemble each other in
having H+C?R¢ constant.

And, generally, when a law is expressed by an equation, that equation is a
statement that two different sets of measurements are made, represented by the
terms on the two sides of the equation, and that all the different cases resemble
each other in that the two sets have the constant relation expressed by the
equation. Accurate prediction is based on the assumption that when we have
made the measurements on the one side of the equation we can tell the result of
the measurements implied on the other side,

If this is a true account of the nature of physical laws, they have, we must
confess, greatly fallen off in dignity. No long time ago they were quite commonly
described as the Fixed Laws of Nature, and were supposed sufficient in themselves
to govern the universe. Now we can only assign to them the humble rank of
mere descriptions, often tentative, often erroneous, of similarities which we believe
we have observed.

The old conception of laws as self-sufficing governors of Nature was, no doubt,
a survival of a much older conception of the scope of physical science, a mode of
regarding physical phenomena which had itself passed away.

I imagine that originally man looked on himself and the result of his action in
the motions and changes which he produced in matter, as the one type in terms of
which he should seek to describe all motions and changes. Knowing that his
purpose and will were followed by motions and changes in the matter about him,
he thought of similar purpose and will behind all the motions and changes which
he observed, however they occurred ; and he believed, too, that it was necessary to
think thus in giving any consistent account of his observations. Taking this
anthropomorphic—or, shall we say, psychical—view, the laws he formulated were
not merely descriptions of similarities of behaviour, but they were also expressions
of fixed purpose and the resulting constancy of action. They were commands given
to matter which it must obey.

The psychical method, the introduction of purpose and will, is still appropriate
when we are concerned with living beings. Indeed, it is the only method which
we attempt to follow when we are describing the motions of our fellow-
creatures. No one seeks to describe the motions and actions of himself and of his
fellow-men, and to classify them without any reference to the similarity of purpose
when the actions are similar. But as the study of Nature progressed, it was found
to be quite futile to bring in the ideas of purpose and will when merely describing
and classifying the motions and changes of non-living matter. Purpose and will
could be entirely left out of sight, and yet the observed motions and changes could
be described, and predictions could be made as to future motions and changes.
Limiting the aim of physical science to such description and prediction, it gradually
became clear that the method was adequate for the purpose, and over the range of
non-living matter, at least, the psychical yielded to the physical. Laws ceased
to be commends analogous to legal enactments, and became mere descriptions. But
during the passage from one position to the other, by a confusion of thought which

+ PTE a Lo ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SEGTION A, 617

may appear strange to us now that we have finished the journey, though no doubt
it was inevitable, the purpose and will of which the laws had been the expression
were put into the laws themselves; they were personified and made to will
and act.

Even now these early stages in the history of thought can be traced by
survivals in our language, survivals due to the ascription of moral qualities to
matter. Thus gases are still sometimes said to obey or to disobey Boyle’s Law as if
it were an enactment for their guidance, and as if it set forth an ideal, the perfect
gas, for their imitation, We still hear language which seems to imply that real
gases are wanting in perfection, in that they fail to observe the exact letter of the
law. I suppose on this view we should have to say that hydrogen is nearest to
perfection; but then we should have to regard it as righteous overmuch, a sort of
Pharisee among gases which overshoots the mark in its endeavour to obey the law.
Oxygen and nitrogen we may regard as good enough in the affairs of everyday
life. But carbon dioxide and chlorine and the like ara poor sinners which yield
to temptation and liquefy whenever circumstances press at all hardly on them,

There is a similar ascription of mora] qualities when we judge bodies accord-
ing to their fulfilment of the purpose for which we use them, when we describe
them as good or bad radiators, good or bad insulators, as if it were a duty on their
part to radiate well, or insulate well, and as if there were failures on the part of
Nature to come up to the proper standard.

These are of course mere trivialities, but the reaction of language on thought
is so subtle and far-reaching tbat, risking the accusation of pedantry, I would
urge the abolition of all such picturesque terms. In our quantitative estimates let
us be content with ‘high’ or ‘ low,’ ‘ great’ or ‘small,’ and let us remember that
there is no such thing as a failure to obey a physical law. A broken law is
merely a false description.

Concurrently with the change in our conception of physical law has come a
change in our conception of physical explanation. We have not to go very far
back to find such a statement as this—that we have explained anything when we
know the cause of it, or when we have found out the reason why—a statement
which is only appropriate on the psychical view. Without entering into any dis-
cussion of the meaning of cause, we can at least assert that that meaning will only
have true content when it is concerned with purpose and will. On the purely
physical or descriptive view, the idea of cause is quite out of place. In descrip-
tion we are solely concerned with the ‘how’ of things, and their‘ why’ we pur-
posely leave out of account. We explain an event not when we know ‘why’ it
happened, but when we show ‘ how’ it is like something else happening elsewhere
or otherwhen—when, in fact, we can include it as a case described by some law
already set forth. In explanation, we do not account for the event, but we im-
prove our account of it by likening it to what we already knew.

For instance, Newton explained the falling of a stone when he showed that
its acceleration towards the earth was similar to and could be expressed by the
same law as the acceleration of the moon towards the earth.

He explained the air disturbance we call ‘sound’ when he showed that the
on and forces in the pressure waves were like motions and forces already
studied.

Franklin explained lightning when and so far as he showed that it was similar
in its behaviour to other electric discharges.

Here I do not fear any accusation of pedantry in joining those who urge that
we should adapt our language to the modern view. It would be a very real gain,

_a great assistance to clear thinking, if we could entirely abolish the word ‘cause’

in physical description, cease to say ‘why’ things happen unless we wish to
signify an antecedent purpose, and be content to own that our laws are but
expressions of ‘how’ they occur.

The aim of explanation, then, is to reduce the number of laws as far as possible,
by showing that laws, at first separated, may be merged in one ; to reduce the number
of chapters in the book of science by showing that some are truly mere sub-sections
of chapters already written.

618 REPoRT— 1899.

To take an old but never-worn-out metaphor, the physicist is examining the
garment of Nature, learning of how many, or rather of how few, different kinds of
thread it is woven, finding how each separate thread enters into the pattern, and
seeking from the pattern woven in the past to know the pattern yet to come.

How many ditferent kinds of thread does Nature use P

So far, we have recognised some eight or nine, the number of different forms
of energy which we are still obliged to count as distinct. But this distinction we
cannot believe to be real. The relations between the different forms of energy,
and the fixed rate of exchange when one form gives place to another, encourage
us to suppose that if we could only sharpen our senses, or change our point of view,
we could effect a still further reduction. We stand in front of Nature’s loom as
we watch the weaving of the garment ; while we follow a particular thread in the
pattern it suddenly disappears, and a thread of another colour takes its place. Is
this a new thread, or is it merely the old thread turned round and presenting a new
face to us? We can do little more than guess. We cannot get to the other side
of the pattern, and our minutest watching will not tell us all the working of the
loom.

Leaving the metaphor, were we true physicists, and physicists alone, we should,
I suppose, be content to describe merely what we observe in the changes of energy.
We should say, for instance, that so much kinetic energy ceases, and that so much
heat appears, or that so much light comes to a surface, and that so much chemical
energy takes its place. But we have to tale ourselves as we are, and reckon with
the fact that though our material is physical, we ourselves are psychical. And, asa
mere matter of fact, we are not content with such discontinuous descriptions, We
dislike the discontinuity and we think of an underlying identity. We think of the
heat as being that which a moment before was energy of visible motion, we think
of the light as changing its form alone and becoming itself the chemical energy.
Then to our passive dislile of discontinuity we join our active desire to form a
mental picture of what may be going on, a picture like something which we already
know. Coming on these discontinuities our ordinary method of explanation fails,
for they are not obviously like those series of events in which we can trace every
step. We then imagine a constitution of matter and modifications of it corre-
sponding to the different kinds of energy, such that the discontinuities vanish, and
such that we can picture one form of energy passing into another and yet keeping
the same in kind throughout. We are no longer content to describe what we
actually see or feel, but we describe what we imagine we should see or feel if our
senses were on quite another scale of magnitude and sensibility. We cease to be
physicists of the real and become physicists of the ideal.

To form such mental pictures we naturally choose the sense which makes such
pictures most definite, the sense of sight, and think of a constitution of matter
which shall enable us to explain all the various changes in terms of visible motions
and accelerations. We imagine a mechanical constitution of the universe.

Weare encouraged in this attempt by the fact that therelations in this mechanical
conception can be so exactly stated, that the equations of motion are so very
definite. We have, too,examples of mechanical systems, of which we can give
accounts far exceeding in accuracy the accounts of other physical systems. Com-
pare, for instance, the accuracy with which we can describe and foretell the path of
a planet with our ignorance of the movements of the atmosphere as dependent on
the heat of the sun. The planet keeps to the astronomer’s time-table, but the
wind still bloweth almost where it listeth.

The only foundation which has yet been imagined for this mechanical explana-
tion—if we may use ‘explanation’ to denote the likening of our imaginings to that
which we actually observe—is the atomic and molecular hypothesis of matter.
This hypothesis arose so early in the history of science that we are almost tempted
to suppose that it is a necessity of thought, and that it has a warrant of some
higher order than any other hypothesis which could be imagined. But I suspect
that if we could trace its early development we should find that it arose in an
attempt to explain the phenomena of expansion and contraction, evaporation and
solution. Were matter a continuum we should have to admit all these as simple

‘TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 619

facts, inexplicable in that they are like nothing else. But imagine matter to con-
sist of a crowd of separate particles with interspaces. Contraction and expansion
are then merely a drawing in and a widening out of the crowd. Solution is merely
the mingling of two crowds, and evaporation merely a dispersal from the outskirts.
The most evident properties of matter are then similar to what may be observed
in any public meeting.

For ages the molecular hypothesis hardly went further than this. The first
step onward was the ascription of vibratory motion to the atoms to explain heat.
Then definite qualities were ascribed, definite mutual forces were called into play
to explain elasticity and other properties or qualities of matter. But I imagine its
first really great achievement was its success in explaining the law of combining
proportions, and next to that we should put its success in explaining many of the
properties of gases,

While light was regarded as corpuscular—in fact molecular—and while direct
action at a distance presented no difficulty, the molecular hypothesis served as the
one foundation for the mechanical representation of phenomena. But when it was
shown that infinitely the best account of the phenomena of light could be given
on the supposition that it consisted of waves, something was needed, as Lord
Salisbury has said, to wave, both in the interstellar and in the intermolecular
spaces. So the hypothesis of an ether was developed, a necessary complement of
that form of the molecular hypothesis in which matter consists of discrete particles
with matter-free intervening spaces.

Then Faraday’s discovery of the influence of the dielectric medium in electric
actions led to the general abandonment of the idea of action at a distance, and the
ether was called in to aid matter in the explanation of electric and magnetic
phenomena. The discovery that the velocity of electro-magnetic waves is the same
as that of light waves is at least circumstantial evidence that the same medium
transmits both.

I suppose we all hope that some time we shall succeed in attributing to this
medium such further qualities that it will be able to enlarge its scope and take in
the work of gravitation.

The mechanical Cy nee has not always taken this dualistic form of material
atoms and molecules, floating in a quite distinct ether. I think we may regard
Boscovich’s theory of point-centres surrounded by infinitely extending atmospheres
of force as really an attempt to get rid of the dualism, and Faraday’s theory of
point-centres with radiating lines of force is only Boscovich’s theory in another
form. But Lord Kelvin’s vortex-atom theory gives us a simplification more easily
thought of. Here all space is filled with continuous fluid—shall we say a fluid
ether ?—and the atomsare mere loci of a particular type of motion of this frictionless
fluid. The sole differences in the atoms are differences of position and motion.
Where there are whirls, we call the fluid matter ; where there are no whirls, we call
it ether. All energy is energy of motion. Our visible kinetic energy, MV7/2, is
energy in and round the central whirls; our visible energy of position, our potential

energy, is energy of motion in the outlying regions.

A similar simplification is given by Dr. Larmor’s hypothesis, in which, again, all
space is filled with continuous substance all of one kind, but this time solid rather
than fluid. The atoms are loci of strain instead of whirls, and the ether is that
which is strained. ;

So, as we watch the weaving of the garment of Nature, we resolve it in
imagination into threads of ether spangled over with beads of matter. We look
still closer, and the beads of matter vanish; they are mere knots and loops in the
threads of ether.

The question now faces us—How are we to regard these hypotheses as to the
constitution of matter and the connecting ether? How are we to look upon the
explanations they afford? Are we to put atoms and ether on an equal footing
with the phenomena observed by our senses, as truths to be investigated for their
own sake? Or are they mere tools in the search for truth, liable to be worn out or
superseded ?

That matter is grained in structure is hardly more than the expression of the

620 REPORT—1899,

fact that in very thin layers it ceases to behave as in thicker layers. But when
we pass on from this general statement and give definite form to the granules or
assume definite qualities to the intergranular cement we are dealing with pure
hypotheses.

It is hardly possible to think that we shall ever see an atom or handle the
ether. We make no attempt whatever to render them evident to the senses. We
connect observed conditions and changes in gross visible matter by invisible mole-
cular and ethereal machinery. The changes at each end of the machinery of
which we seek to give an account are in gross matter, and this gross matter is our
only instrument of detection, and we never receive direct sense impressions of the
imagined atoms or the intervening ether. ‘To a strictly descriptive physicist
their only use and interest would lie in their service in prediction of the changes
which are to take place in gross matter.

It appears quite possible that various types of machinery might be devised to
produce the known effects. The type we have adopted is undergoing constant
minor changes, as new discoveries suggest new arrangements of the parts. Is it
utterly beyond possibility that the type itself should change ?

The special molecular and ethereal machinery which we have designed, and
which we now generally use, has been designed because our most highly developed
sense is our sense of sight. Were we otherwise, had we a sense more delicate
than sight, one affording us material for more definite mental presentation, we
might quite possibly have constructed very different hypotheses. Though, as we
are, we cannot conceive any higher type than that founded on the sense of sight,
we can imagine a lower type, and by way of illustration of the point let us take
the sense of which my predecessor spoke last year—the sense of smell. In us it
is very undeveloped. But let us imagine a being in whom it is highly cultivated,
say, a very intellectual and very hypothetical dog. Let us suppose that he tries
to frame an hypothesis as to light. Having found that his sense of smell is excited
by surface exhalations, will he not naturally make and be content with a corpus-
cular theory of light? When he has discovered the facts of dispersion, will
he not think of the different colours as different kinds of smell—insensible,
perhaps, to him, but sensible to a still more highly gifted, still more hypothetical
dog ?

Of course, with our superior intellect and sensibility, we can see where his
hypothesis would break down; but unless we are to assume that we have reached
finality in sense development, the illustration, grotesque as it may be, will serve .
to show that our hypotheses are in terms of ourselves rather than in terms of
Nature itself, they are ejective rather than objective, and so they are to be regarded
as instruments, tools, apparatus only to-aid us in the search for truth.

To use an old analogy—and here we-can hardly go except upon analogy—
while the building of Nature is growing spontaneously from within, the model of
it, which we seek to construct in our descriptive. science, can only be constructed
by means of scaffolding from without, a scaffolding of hypotheses. While in the
real building all is continuous, in our model there are detached parts which must
be connected with the rest by temporary ladders and passages, or which must be
supported tili we can see how to fill in the understructure. To give the hypo-
theses equal validity with facts is to confuse the temporary scaffolding with the
building itself.

But even if we take this view of the temporary nature of our molecular and
ethereal imaginings, it does not lessen their value, their necessity to us.

It is merely a true description of ourselves to say that we must believe in the
continuity of physical processes, and that we must attempt to form mental pictures
of those processes the details of which elude our observation. For such pictures
we must frame hypotheses, and we have to use the best material at command in
framing them. At present there is only one fundamental hypothesis—the mole-
cular and ethereal hypothesis—in some such. form as is generally accepted.

Even if we take the position that the form of the hypothesis may change as
our knowledge extends, that we may be able to devise new machinery—nay, even
that we may be able to design some quite new type to bring about the same

PEE

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 621

ends—that does not appear to me to lessen the present value of the hypothesis.
We can recognise to the full how well it enables us to group together large masses
of facts which, without it, would be scattered apart, how it serves to give
working explanations, and continually enables investigators to think out new
questions for research. We can recognise that it is the symbolical form in which
much actual knowledge is cast. We might almost as well quarrel with the use of
the letters of the alphabet, inasmuch as they are not the sounds themselves, but
mere arbitrary symbols of the sounds.

In this country there is no need for any defence of the use of the molecular
hypothesis. But abroad the movement from the position in which hypothesis is
confounded with observed truth has carried many through the position of equili-
brium equally far on the other side, and a party has been formed which totally
abstains from molecules as a protest against immoderate indulgence in their use.
Time will show whether these protesters can do without any hypothesis, whether
they can build without scaffolding or ladders. I fear that it is only an attempt to
build from balloons.

But the protest will have value if it will put us on our guard against using
molecules and the ether everywhere and everywhen. There is, I think, some
danger that we may get so accustomed to picturing everything in terms of these
hypotheses that we may come to suppose that we have no firm basis for the facts
of observation until we have given a molecular account of them, that a molecular
basis is a firmer foundation than direct experience. ;

Let me illustrate this kind of danger. The phenomena of capillarity can, for
the most part, be explained on the assumption of a liquid surface tension. But if
the subject is treated merely from this point of view it stands alone—it is a por-
tion of the building of science hanging in the air. The molecular hypothesis then
comes in to give some explanation of the surface tension, gives, as it were, a sup-

orting understructure connecting capillarity with other classes of phenomena.

ut here, I think, the hypothesis should stop, and such phenomena as can be
explained by the surface tension should be so explained without reference to mole-
cules. They should not be brought in again till the surface-tension explanation
fails. It is necessary to bear in mind what part is scaffolding, and what is the
building itself, already firm and complete.

Or, as another illustration, take the Second Law of Thermodynamics. I
suspect that it is sometimes supposed that a molecular theory from which the
Second Law could be deduced would be a better basis for it than the direct experi-
ence on which it was founded by Clausius and Kelvin, or that the mere imagining
of a Maxwell’s sorting demon has already disproved the universality of the law;
whereas he is a mere hypothesis grafted on a hypothesis, and nothing correspond-
ing to his action has yet been found.

There is more serious danger of confusion of hypothesis with fact in the use of
the ether: more risk of failure to see what is accomplished by its aid. In giving
an account of light, for instance, the right course, it appears to me, is to describe
the phenomena and lay down the laws under which they are grouped, leaving it
an open question what it is that waves, until the phenomena oblige us to introduce
something more than matter, until we see what properties we must assign to the
ether, properties not possessed by matter, in order that it may be competent to
afford the explanations we seek. We should then realise more clearly that it is
the constitution of matter which we have imagined, the hypothesis of discrete
particles, which obliges us to assume an intervening medium to carry on the
disturbance from particle to particle. But the vortex-atom hypothesis and Dr.
Larmor’s strain-atom hypothesis both seem to indicate that we are moving in the
direction of the abolition of the distinction between matter and ether, that we
shall come to regard the luminiferous medium, not as an attenuated substance here
and there encumbered with detached blocks—the molecules of matter—but as
something which in certain places exhibits modifications which we term matter.
Or starting rather from matter, we may come to think of matter as no longer
consisting of separated granules, but as a continuum with properties grouped round
the centres, which we regard as atoms or molecules.

622 REPORT—1899.

Perhaps I may illustrate the danger in the use of the conception of the ether
by considering the common way of describing the electro-magnetic waves, which
are all about us here, as ether waves. Now in all cases with which we are
acquainted, these waves start from matter; their energy before starting was, as far
as we can guess, energy of the matter between the different parts of the source,
and they manifest themselves in the receiver as energy of matter. As they travel
through the air, I believe that it is quite possible that the electric energy can be
expressed in terms of the molecules of air in their path, that they are effecting
atomic separations as they go. if so, then the air is quite as much concerned in
their propagation as the ether between its molecules. In any case, to term them
ether waves is to prejudge the question before we have sufficient evidence.

Unless we bear in mind the hypothetical character of our mechanical concep-
tion of things, we may run some risk of another danger—the danger of supposing
that we have something more real in mechanical than in other measurements,
For instance, there is some risk that the work measure of specific heat should be
regarded as more fundamental than the heat measure, in that heat is truly a ‘ mode
of motion.’ On the molecular hypothesis, heat is no doubt a mixture of kinetic
energy and potential energy of the molecules and their constituents, and may even
be entirely kinetic energy; and we may conceivably in the future make the
hypothesis so definite that, when we heat a gramme of water 1°, we can assign
such a fraction of an erg to each atom. But look how much pure hypothesis is
here, The real superiority of the work measure of specific heat lies in the fact
that it is independent of any particular substance, and there is nothing whatever
hypothetical about it.

Another illustration of the illegitimate use of our. hypothesis, as it appears to
me, is in the attempt to find in the ether a iixed datum for the measurement of
material velocities and accelerations, a something in which we can draw our co-
ordinate axes so that they will never turn or bend. But this is as if, discontented
with the movement of the earth’s pole, we should seek to find our zero lines of
latitude and longitude in the Atlantic Ocean. Leaving out of sight the possibility
of ethereal currents which we cannot detect, and the motions due to every ray of light
which traverses space, we could only fix positions and directions in the ether by
buoying them with matter. We know nothing of the ether, except by its effects
on matter, and, after all, it would be the material buoys which would fix the
positions and not the ether in which they float.

The discussion of the physical method, with its descriptive laws and explana-
tions, and its hypothetical extension of description, leads us on to the consideration
of the limitation of its range. The method was developed in the study of matter
which we describe as non-living, and with non-living matter the method has sufficed
for the particular purposes of the physicist. Of course only a little corner of the
universe has been explored, but in the study of non-living matter we have come to
no impassable gulfs, no chasms across which we cannot throw bridges of
hypothesis. Does the method equally suffice when it is applied to living matter ?
Can we give a purely physical account of such matter, likening its motions and
changes to other motions and changes already observed, and so explaining them ?

1 This risk of imagining one particular kind of measure more real than another,
more in accordance with the truth of things, may be further illustrated by the
common idea that mass-acceleration is the only way to measure a force. We stand
apart from our mechanical system and watch the motions and the accelerations of
the various parts, and we find that mass-accelerations have a certain significance in
our system. If we keep ourselves outside the system and only use our sense of
sight, then mass-acceleration is the only way of describing that behaviour of one
body in the presence of others which we term force on it. But if we go about in
the system and pull and push bodies, we find that there is another conception of
force, in which another sense than sight is concerned—another mode of measurement
much more ancient and still far more extensively used—the measurement by weight
supported. Each method has its own range; each is fundamental in that range. It
is one of the great practical problems in physics to make the pendulum give us the
exact ratio of the units in the two systems.

a

—— ss

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 623

Can we group them in laws which will enable us to predict future conditions and
positions? ‘Ihe ancient question never answered, but never ceasing to press for
an answer,

Having faith in our descriptive method, let us use it to describe our real attitude
on the question. Do we, or do we not, as a matter of fact, make any attempt to
apply the physical method to describe and explain those motions of matter which
on the psychical view we term voluntary ?

Any commonplace example, and the more commonplace the more is it to
the point, will at once tell us our practice, whatever may be our theory. For
instance, a steamer is going across the Channel. We can give a fairly good physi-
cal account of the motion of the steamer. We can describe how the energy stored
in the coal passes out through the boiler into the machinery, and how it is ulti-
mately absorbed by the sea. And the machinery once started, we can give an account
of the actions and reactions between its various parts and the water, and if only
the crew will not interfere, we can predict with some approach to correctness how
the vessel will run. All these processes can be likened to processes already
studied—perhaps on another scale—in our laboratories, and from the similarities
prediction is possible. But now think of a passenger on board who has received
an invitation to take the journey. It is simply a matter of fact that we make no
attempt at a complete physical account and explanation of those actions which
he takes to accomplish his purpose. We trace no lines of induction in the ether
connecting him with his friends across the Channel, we seek no law of force under
which he moves. In practice the strictest physicist abandons the physical view,
and replaces it by the psychical. He admits the study of purpose as well as the
study of motion.

He has to admit that here his physical method of prediction fails. In physical
observations one set of measurements may lead to the prediction of the results of
another set of measurements. The equations expressing the laws imply different
observations with some definite relation between their results, and if we know one
set of observations and that definite relation we can predict the result of the other
set. But if we take the psychical view of actions, we can only measure the actions.
We have no independent means of studying and measuring the motions which pre-
ceded the actions, we can only estimate their value by the consequent actions. If we
formed equations, they would be mere identities with the same terms on either side.

The consistent and persistent physicist, finding the door closed against him,
finding that he has hardly a sphere of influence left to him in the psychical region,
seeks to apply his methods in another way by assuming that if he knew all about
the molecular positions and motions in the living matter, then the ordinary physical
laws could be applied and the physical conditions at any future time could be pre-
dicted. He would say, suppose, with regard to the Channel passenger, that it is
absurd to begin with the most complicated mechanism, and seek to give a physical
account of that. He would urge that we should take some lower form of life where
the structure and motions are simpler, and apply the physical methods to that.

Well, then, let us look for the physical explanation of any motion which we
are entitled from its likeness to our own action to call a voluntary motion. Must
we not own that even the very beginning of such explanation is as yet non-existent ?
It appears to me that the assumption that our methods do apply, and that purely
physical explanation will suffice to predict all motions and changes, voluntary and
involuntary, is at present simply a gigantic extrapolation, which we should unhesi-
tatingly reject if it were merely a case of ordinary physical investigation. The
physicist when thus extending his range is ceasing to be a physicist, ceasing to be
content with his descriptive methods in his intense desire to show that he is a
physicist throughout.

Of course we may describe the motions and changes of any type of matter after
the event, andina purely physical manner. Andas Professor Ward has suggested,
in a most important contribution to this subject which he has made in his recently
published Gifford Lectures,' where ordinary physical explanations fail to give an

} «Naturalism and Agnosticism,’ Zhe Gifford Lectures, 1896-98, vol. ii. p. 71.

624 REPORT—1899.

account of the motions, we might imagine some structure in the ether, and such
stresses between the ether and matter that our physical explanations should still
hold. But, as Professor Ward says, such ethereal constructions would present no
warrant for their reality or consistency. Indeed they would be mere images in
the surface of things to account for what goes on in front of the surface, and would
have no more reality than the images of objects in a glass.

Tf we have full confidence in the descriptive method, as applied to living and
non-living matter, it appears to me that up to the present it teaches us that while
in non-living matter we can always find similarities, that, while each event is like
other events, actual or imagined, in a living being there-are always dissimilarities.
Taking the psychical view—the only view which we really do at present take—in
the living being there is always some individuality, something different from any
other living being, and full prediction in the physical sense, and by physical methods,
is impossible. If this be true, the loom of Nature is weaving a pattern with no mere
geometrical design. The threads of life, coming in we know not where, now
twining together, now dividing, are weaving patterns of their own, ever increasing
in intricacy, ever gaining in beauty.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. On the Spectroscopical Examination of Contrast Phenomena.
By Georce J. Burcu, JA.

The author has shown that by exposing the eye to bright sunlight in the focus
of a burning glass, behind a screen composed of ordinary ruby glass in conjunction
with a gelatine film stained with magenta, a condition of temporary red-blindness
may be induced, during which red flowers, such as scarlet geraniums, appear
black, and red roses blue, although the observer is still perfectly able to distinguish
colours composed of green, blue,and violet. Similarly blindness to green, to blue,
or to violet may be produced by fatiguing the retina with monochromatic light of
sufficient intensity and of suitable colour. Experiments of the same character by
Aitken, Hunt, Hess, and others, have since been brought to the author’s notice.
His own, which were made quite independently many years ago, differ from theirs
in degree rather than in kind, the light used by these observers having apparently
been not sufficiently intense to produce the full effect.

These phenomena, in the author’s opinion, are unfavourable to the theory of
Hering, but support that of Young and Helmholtz, with a slight modification.
They indicate the existence of a separate sensation of blue as well as of violet, a
possibility which Young was prepared to admit, though he could find no proof
of it.

On Young's hypothesis all complementary colours and all contrast effects may
be represented as coming under the same category as absorption spectra, in that
they are due to the subtraction of something from the normal sensations which
should result from the physical conditions of the experiment. According to
Hering’s theory, complementary colours cannot be regarded as due to the mere
absence, or diminution, or suppression of certain elements of a complex sensation.

So far as regards the effect of continuous light, the phenomena of artificial
colour-blindness seem conclusive against the view of Hering. The author described
apparatus by which the methods of spectroscopic analysis may be applied to the
investigation of the phenomena of complementary colours and of successive
contrast by intermittent light.

2. Preliminary Note on the Variation of the Specific Heat of Water. By H.
L. Cattenpar, JA., F.RS., Quain Professor of Physics at University
College, London, and H. T. Barnus, J.A.Sc., Demonstrator of Physics,
McGill College, Montreal.

At the meeting of the British Association at Toronto in 1897 the authors
communicated a note describing their new method of determining the specific

ee

=

we

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 625

heat of a liquid in terms of the international electrical units, and gave a few results
which had been obtained in the cases of water and mercury. The whole apparatus
was also exhibited in action to several members of Section A, on the occasion of
their visit to McGill College. One of the main objects of the work was the
determination of the mode of variation of the specific heat of water over the range
0° to 100° C., for which the method was peculiarly suited.

The progress of the investigation has been somewhat delayed by the removal
of Professor Callendar to London in May 1898. Since that time the work has
been in the sole charge of Mr, Barnes, who has now succeeded in obtaining satis-
factory results over the greater part of the range to be covered.

The general principle of the method, and the construction of the apparatus,
will be readily understood by reference to the diagram of the Steady-Flow Electric
Calorimeter given in fig. 1. A steady current of water flowing through a fine

Fic, 1.—Diagram of Steady-Flow Electric Calorimeter.

INFLOW GLASS VACUUM JACKET

tube, AB, is heated by a steady electric current through a central conductor of
platinum. The steady difference of temperature between the inflowing and out-
flowing water is observed by means of a differential pair of platinum thermometers
at either end. The bulbs of these thermometers are surrounded by thick copper
tubes, which by their conductivity serve at once to equalise the temperature, and
to prevent the generation of heat by the current in the immediate neighbourhood
of the bulbs of the thermometers. The leads CC serve for the introduction of the
current, and the leads PP, which are carefully insulated, for the measurement of
the difference of potential on the central conductor. The flow tube is constructed
of glass, and is sealed at either end, at some distance beyond the bulbs of the
thermometers, into a glass vacuum jacket, the function of which is to diminish as
much as possible the external loss of heat. The whole is enclosed in an external
copper jacket (not shown in the figure), containing water in rapid circulation at a
constant temperature maintained by means of a very delicate electric regulator.

Neglecting small corrections, the general equation of the method may be stated
n the following form :—

ECt=JMd6+H.

The difference of potential E on tke central conductor is measured in terms of
the Clark cell by means of a very accurately calibrated potentiometer, which
serves also to measure the current C by the observation of the difference of potential
on a standard resistance R included in the circuit.

The Clark cells chiefly employed in this work were of the hermetically sealed
type described by the authors in the ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ October 1897. They
were kept immersed in a regulated water bath at 15° C., and have maintained
their relative differences constant to one or two parts in 100,000 for the last
two years,

The standard resistance R consists of four bare platinum silver wires in parallel
wound on mica frames and immersed in oil at a constant temperature. The coils
were annealed at a red heat after winding on the mica, and are not appreciably
heated by the passage of the currents employed in the work.

The time of flow ¢ of the mass of water, M, was generally about fifteen to

twenty minutes, and was recorded automatically on an electric chronograph

reading to ‘01 second, on which the seconds were marked by a standard clock.
The letter J stands for the number of joules in one calorie at a temperature
which is the mean of the range, d6, through which the water is heated.
The mass of water, M, was generally a quantity of the order of 500 grammes.

1899, ss

626 REPORT—1899.

After passing through a cooler, it was collected and weighed in a tated flask in
such a manner as to obviate all possible loss by evaporation.

The range of temperature, d6, was generally from 8° to 10° in the series of
experiments on the variation of J, but other ranges were tried for the purpose of
testing the theory of the method and the application of small corrections. The
thermometers were read to the ten-thousandth part of a degree, and the difference
was probably in all cases accurate to ‘001°C. This order of accuracy could not
possibly have been attained with mercury thermometers under the conditions of
the experiment.

The external loss of heat, H, was very small and regular, owing to the perfec-
tion and constancy of the vacuum attainable in the sealed glass jacket. It was
determined and eliminated by adjusting the electric current so as to secure the
same rise of temperature, d6, for widely different values of the water-flow.

The great advantage of the steady-flow method as compared with the more
common method in which a constant mass of water at a uniform temperature is
heated in a calorimeter, the temperature of which is changing continuously, is that
in the steady-flow method there is practically no change of temperature in any
part of the apparatus during the experiment. There is no correction required for
the thermal capacity of the calorimeter; the external heat loss is more regular
and certain, and there is no question of lag of the thermometers. Another
incidental advantage of great importance is that the steadiness of the conditions
permits the attainment of the highest degree of accuracy in the instrumental
readings.

In work of this nature it is recognised as being of the utmost importance to be
able to detect and eliminate constant errors by varying the conditions of the
experiment through as wide a range as possible. In addition to varying the
electric current, the water-flow, and the range of temperature, it was possible,
‘with comparatively little trouble, to alter the form and resistance of the central
conductor, and to change the glass calorimeter for one with a different degree of
vacuum, or a different bore for the flow tube. Im all six different calorimeters
were employed, and the agreement of the results on reduction afforded a very
satisfactory test of the accuracy of the method.

The general results of the investigation, so far as it has been possible to work
them out for publication at present, may be gathered from an inspection of fig. 2,
which includes the results of previous observers plotted on the same scale. ‘The
curve marked Regnault, 1840, represents the well-known formula of Regnault
which has been adopted as the basis of much calorimetric work. This formula
was confessedly approximate, and was deduced from experiments on mixing water
at high temperatures with water at 15° C. The method could not be expected to
give any information with regard to the variation of the specific heat at ordinary
temperatures. The experiments of Jamin and Amaury (J. & A.), 1870, by the
method of electric heating, gave a very rapid increase of the specific heat at low
temperatures, but the science of electrical measurement, and the difficulties of the
electrical method, were not at that date sufticiently appreciated to render the
results of any value.

The discovery of the diminution of the specific heat of water with rise of
temperature from 0° to 30° C. was made by Rowland in his investigation of the
mechanical equivalent of heat by the method of Joule. His original results,
reduced to the scale of his own air thermometer, are shown by the dotted curve
marked Ro. The corresponding values of the specific heat in absolute measure
are shown by the scale of joules in the right-hand margin. His results have
recently been reduced to the Paris scale by the comparison of his thermometers
with a Tonnelot thermometer standardised at the International Bureau, and with
a platinum thermometer standardised by Grifliths.! The results so reduced are
indicated by the full curve Rp. The effect of this reduction is to lower the
temperature at which the specific heat is 4-200 joules from 10° to 7°C., to diminish
the temperature coefficient, and to lower the point of minimum specific heat to
about 29° C,

} Waidner and Mallory, Phil, Wag. Tune 1899,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 627

The experiments of Bartoli and Stracciati (1891) were made by the method of
mixtures, and are expressed in terms of a thermal unit at 15°C. The correspond-
ing curve, marked B. & S., bears a general resemblance to that of Rowland, but
shows a minimum at 20° OC. The errors and limitations of this method are well
known, and it is difficult to suppose it capable of an order of accuracy higher than
one part in a thousand, or to resist the impression that this excessive lowering of
the minimum point is due to some constant error inherent in the method, whick
cannot be eradicated by mere repetition of similar experiments.

The experiments of Griffiths (G) over the range 15° to 25° were made ky
observing the rate of rise of temperature of a mass of water in a calorimeter
heated by an electric current. His work threw a flood of light on the difficulties
of electrical calorimetry as usually practised, and explained the failure of previous
observers to secure satisfactory results by this method. Over the range of his
experiments he found approximately the same rate of diminution of the specific
heat as that given by the experiments of Rowland when reduced to the same
scale of temperature.

The curve marked CB in the figure, extending from 4° to 60°, represents the

Fie, 2.—Variation of Specific Heat of Water.

a ed

J. & A, Jamin and Amaury, 1870. ; G. Griffiths, 1893, ‘ KC
2, & 8, Bartoli and Stracciati, 1891. A cauaadnna Gadmaad seein Clay Cell
Ro. Rowland, 1880 ; tp. reduced to Paris scale, C.B. Callendar and Barnes, Mieke or i

results so far obtained in the present investigation. The points indicated by small
circles represent samples of single observations with different calorimeters, and are
inserted to give an idea of the order of agreement attainable by this metho?.
The order of accuracy diminishes as the temperature rises, owing to the greater
difficulty of satisfactorily regulating the temperature of the water-jacket at the
higher points. It is hoped, however, by a slight modification of the heating and
regulating apparatus, to secure good results at temperatures as high as 90° C.
on spp water-jacket, and to obtain an observation at 100°C. with a steam-
jacket.

According to the authors’ experiments, the curve representing the variation of
the specific heat is much flatter than that given by Rowland, and has a minimum
at 40°C. instead of 29° C. The experiments of Rowland did not extend sufficiently
heyond the minimum point to afford a really satisfactory determination. The

$§2

628 REPORT—1899,

value of the specific heat could not be determined by his method with the same
degree of precision at the extremities of the range as in the middle, and all the
probable errors of the method would be greatly increased as the temperature of
the calorimeter was raised so far above its surroundings. In particular, the
corrections and changes of zero of the mercury thermometers, and the rate of
external loss of heat, would be excessive at the higher points. In the authors’
method, on the contrary, there are no thermometric difficulties of this nature,
owing to the direct employment of platinum thermometers, and the external heat
loss increases very little as the temperature is raised, because the external water-
jacket is always at the same temperature as the inflowing water current, so that
the mean excess of temperature is always nearly the same.

Another indication that the temperature of minimum specific heat should be
not far below the middle of the range is afforded by the experiments of Regnault,
and more recently by those of Reynolds and Moorby, on the mean specific heat of
water between 0° and 100°C. Their results by entirely different methods agree
in showing that the mean specific heat over the whole range does not greatly
exceed the value at 20° C.

There is apparently revealed for the first time by the authors’ experiments a
very rapid increase in the specific heat as the freezing point is approached. The
point at 4° C. on the curve CB represents the mean specific heat over the range
0° to 8°. The rapid increase of the curvature as this point is reached is probably
due to an exceptionally high value in the immediate neighbourhood of 0° C. The
probability of this result was foreseen by Rowland on theoretical grounds, but
his original curve, which is accurately a straight line from 5° to 20°, does not
show the effect. The authors propose to investigate this point more closely by
taking smaller ranges of temperature, such as 0°-2°, and 0°-4° C., from which the
actual form of the curve may be deduced.

With reference to the possibility of obtaining an independent verification of
the accuracy of the electrical units, and, in particular, of the absolute value of the
E.M.F. of the Clark cell, it is interesting to compare the absolute values of the
specific heat deduced by the electrical methods with that of Rowland by the
mechanical method. For this purpose the authors’ results, and those of Griffiths
(G.), and of Schuster and Gannon (S.), have been reduced to joules on the assump-
tion that the absolute value of the E.M.F. of the Clark cell at 15° C. is
1:4342 volts, as found by Glazebrook and Skinner, assuming Lord Rayleigh’s
value of the electrochemical equivalent of silver, and taking the international
ohm as correct. It has been pointed out that the results of Griffiths would be
brought into harmony with those of Rowland by supposing that the true E.M.F.
of the Clark cells employed was about 2 millivolts lower, or one part in 700, The
authors’ results, however, lie about midway between those of Rowland and
Griffiths, and would require a correction of only 1 millivolt if the whole of the
difference were to be debited to the Clark cell. It is not at all likely that the
E.M.F. of the cells employed by the authors can have exceeded the B.O.T.
standard by so much as 1 millivolt, or that their resistance standards can have
been incorrect by so much as one part in 700. It is most likely that both the
Clark cells and the resistance standards employed by the authors agreed with
those employed by Griffiths to within one or two parts in 10,000, and that the
difference of the results is mainly to be attributed to the radical difference in the
methods of calorimetry.

These and similar questions relating to the absolute values of the standards
employed do not affect the accuracy of the relative results as regards the variation
of the specific heat of water with temperature. The relative results are regarde4
by the authors as being probably as accurate as their present apparatus is capable
of affording. By far the most important consideration affecting the form of the
curve in this respect is the particular thermometric scale to which the results are
reduced. If, for instance, the results were expressed, as originally obtained, in
terms of the platinum scale of temperature, which differs from the absolute scale
by only 0°38 C. at 50° C., where the divergence is a maximum, the curve would
be that represented by the dotted line PPP in the figure, The curve CB is

————L <<<

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 629

deduced from this by the usual parabolic difference formula, which gives results in
practical agreement with the Paris scale.

Since the discussion of the thermal unit introduced by Griffiths! at the British
Association Meeting of 1895, and partly in consequence of the general interest
excited by that discussion, so many new facts have been brought to light, and so
much experience has been gained of the practical effect of the proposals then
made, that it appears desirable to discuss more fully the bearing of the present
work on the general question of the relation between the various thermal units.

Dieterici (‘ Wied. Ann.’ 33, p. 417, 1888) made a determination of the mean
specific heat in terms of the electrical units by means of a Bunsen ice-calorimeter.
His result (when reduced on the assumption that the electrochemical equivalent of
silver is 00011180 grm. per amp. sec., and that the ohm is the resistance at 0° C.
of a column of mercury 1 sq. mm. in section and 106-30 em. in length) gives
4238 joules as the value of the mean specific heat of water in absolute measure
between the limits 0° and 100° C.?

Winkelmann (‘ Handbook of Physics,’ vol. ii. part ii. p. 838) endeavoured to
connect this result with those of Rowland at low temperatures by assuming a
parabolic formula for the mode of variation, and taking the mmimum value
at 30°6° C. to be 0:9898 of the value at 0° C. These assumptions give for the
specific heat s, at any temperature ¢° C., the formula—

s,= 1 —0:0006684 ¢ + 0:00001092 ¢? ‘ . é . (W)
and for the mean specific heat between 0° and 2°, which may be written s ‘,,
s', =1—0-0003342 ¢ + 0:00000364 2?.

According to this formula, the ratio of the mean specific heat between 0° and
100° to the specific heat at 20° C, would be 1:0120. According to the formula of
Regnault, the same ratio would be 1:0038. If we take Rowland’s corrected
value at 20° C. as 4181 joules, the mean value between 0° and 100° would be
4-197 joules according to Regnault, but 4°233 joules according to Winkelmann.
The latter gives a remarkable coincidence with Dieterici, in consequence of which
the formula (W) has been frequently quoted and employed in physical investiga-
tions. It must be remarked, however, that Rowland’s curve is not even approxi-
mately parabolic, and that the range covered by his observations is hardly
sufficient to justify this method of treatment. It must also be observed that the
values given by Winkelmann’s formula for the specific heat in the neighbourhood
of 100°, and still more at higher temperatures, are so large that they cannot
conceivably be reconciled with the experiments of Regnault and other good
observers.

Griffiths (‘ Phil. Trans.’ vii. 1895, pp. 318-323) came to the conclusion from
a comparison of his experiments on the latent heat of evaporation of water at 30°
and 40° C. with those of Dieterici at 0° C. expressed in terms of the mean specific
heat, and with those of Regnault on the total heat of steam at 100° C., that the
mean specific heat must be very nearly identical with the specific heat at 15° C.,
although Regnault’s direct experiments made the ratio from 0:5 per cent. to
1 per cent. larger. At his suggestion Professor Joly performed the inverse experi-
ment of determining the mean specific heat between 12° and 100° with his steam
calorimeter in terms of the latent heat of steam at 100° taken as 536°63 times the
thermal unit at 15°C. The result of this experiment was to make the mean
specific heat appear nearly 0°5 per cent. smaller than the specific heat at 15° C.
If we suppose that the inversion of the experiment would tend to reverse the
error of the original determination of the latent heat, the result would appear to
be strorgly in support of Griffiths’s contention.

! Griffiths’s ‘The Thermal Unit.’ Phil. Mag. Nov. 1895.

2 Assuming that the mean caloric melts a quantity of ice sufficient to cause
15°44 milligrams of mercury to enter the calorimeter. Bunsen gives 15-41 mgm.,
and Velten 15°47 mgm. See also Dieterici, Wied. Ann, 1896, lvil. p. 883, where a
curve somewhat similar to Winkelmann’s is given,

630 REPORT—1899.

Peabody, in the preface to his well-known ‘Tables of the Properties of
Saturated Steam’ (1896), as the result of a careful discussion of Rowland’s and
Regnault’s experiments, adopts Rowland’s values from 0° to 40°, and expresses
his results in terms of the mean specific heat between 15° and 20°. He finds
that Regnault’s experiments may be sufficiently represented in terms of this
unit by assuming the specific heat to be constant and equal to 1:008 between the
limits 45° and 155°, and constant and equal to 1:046 between the limits 155° and
200°C. This assumption would make the mean specific heat between 0° and 100°
have the value 1:0044 in terms of the specific heat at 17°5, or the value 1:0056 in
terms of the specific heat at 20°, assuming Rowland’s coefficient of diminution.
The general effect of these changes is to make the tables agree tairly well
throughout with Regnault’s experiments, but the method can only be justified on
the ground of expediency, and can hardly be regarded as a satisfactory reconcilia-
tion of conflicting evidence on account of the assumed discontinuities in the
specific heat. ;

Shaw (‘B. A. Report, 1896, p. 162) gives a similar reduction of Regnault’s
experiments by means of Rowland’s original table, but tabulates only the total
heat in joules at each point between 100° and 180°C. His reduction shows a
similar flattening of the curve between 100° and 150°, as compared with
Regnault’s formula. This may be a physical fact, but might also be explained by
supposing that the earlier experiments at 108° to 120° were about 0:4 per cent. too
high. Shaw’s reduction, expressed in terms of a thermal unit at 20° C., is given
for comparison in the table on p. 631.

Quite recently a direct determination of the mean specific heat in terms of
mechanical units has been made by Reynolds and Moorby (‘ Phil. Trans,’ A. 1897)
on a large scale with Reynolds's break and a steam-engine, Their result expressed
in absolute units is 4°1832 joules, and is entitled to very great weight on account
of the minute accuracy of the measurements, and the full discussion of possible
sources of error. It exceeds the value found by Rowland at 20°C. by only one
part in two thousand, but is no less than 1:20 per cent. smaller than the mean
value found by Dieterici—a discrepancy far too large to be explained by any
uncertainty in the values of the electrical units.

Unless the mean value found by Reynolds and Moorby is summarily rejected,
it is clear that the minima of specific heat at 20° and 30° indicated by the work
of Bartoli and Stracciati and of Rowland respectively, must be due to some con-
stant source of error inherent in their methods, and that all formule hitherto
proposed for the mode of variation of the specific heat between 0° and 100° must
be abandoned.

It is possible, however, to deduce a more satisfactory comparison of the results
of Rowland with those of Reynolds and Moorby by means of the present series
of experiments, on account of their greater range, and the close agreement of the
individual observations. Neglecting for the present the rapid change of the
specific heat in the immediate neighbourhood of 0° C., it may be observed that all
tlie authors’ observations between 10° and 60° (with the exception of one at 55°)
are represented within one part in 5,000 (ze. within the limits of agreement of
the observations with different calorimeters at any one point) in terms of the
minimum value s,,40° at C., by the simple formula—

8,= 84 (1+ 0°0000045 (¢-40)7) . . . PEC)
which gives for the mean specific heat between 0° and ¢° the fornula—
8‘) = 84. (1:0072 —0-00018 ¢ + 000000150 #?).

If this formula could be assumed to hold beyond these limits over the whole
range 0° to 100°, the ratio of the mean specific heat between 0° and 100° to the
specific heat at 20° would be 1:0024. Assuming Rowland’s 4181 joules at 20°,
this ratio would give the value 4:191 joules for the mean specific heat, a result
which is still in excess of Reynolds and Moorby’s 4:183 joules, but is not so
hopelessly beyond the range of possible errors of experiment as that given by

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 631
Winkelmann’s formula. It may also be worth remarking that a direct experi-
ment of Rowland’s gave the ratio s19.°/s?3 = 1:0024, for which the ahove formula
would give the value 1:0033.

TABLE OF SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER.

)

| h Rowland
#°C | Joules 8, st | (CB) (reduced)

Range 0° to 60°. Callendar and Barnes.
Formula, s; = 0°9982 + 0:0000045 (¢ —40)?.

0° 4-203 10054 2a ae) HOR) at

5° 4/196 1:0037 10045 | 5-023 5-023
10° 4-190 1-0022 10037. | 10-037 10-044
15° 4°185 1:0010 10030. |. 15-045 15-054
20° 4-181 1:0000 10024 | 20038 | 20-057
25° 4:178 0.9992 10018 | 25-045 25:053
30° 4-176 0:9987 1:0013 | 30-039 30-043
35° 4-174 0:9983 10009 35-032 35-039
40° 4-174 09982 1:0006 | 40:024 Peabody
45° | 4174 0:9983 10003 | 45-016 45-000
50° 4176 0:9987 10001 | 50-008 50-040
55° 4178 0-9992 1:0000 53-002 55-080
60° 4-181 1:0000 1:0000 | 60-000 60-120

Range 60° to 220°C. Regnault (corrected).
Formula, s, = 0'9944 + 0:00004 ¢ + 0:0000009 @?.

| !

60° 4181 | 1:0000 / 4:0000 | 60-000 60°12
65° 4184 | 1:0008 1:0000 65:002 | 65:16
70° 4-188 1:0016 10001 70008 70:20
(ie 4191 1:0024 1:0002 75018 75°24
80° 4195 1:00383 1-0004 80°032 80°28
85° 4-199 1:0043 1:0006 85051 85°32
90° 4:203 1:0053 1:0008 90°075 90°36
95° 4-207 1:0063 10011 95°105 95:40
100° 4-212 10074 10014 1007138 100744
| Shaw
110° 4:222 1:0097 1:0020 110°22 110°67
120° 4-232 1:0121 1:0028 120°33 120°73
130° 4°243 10148 1:0036 130°47 130°80
140° 4255 J:0176 1:0045 140°63 140°88
150° 4:267 1:0206 1:0055 150°82 15101
160° 4-281 1:0238 1:0066 161°05 161°20
170° 4:295 1:0272 1:0077 171-31 171°61
180° 4310 1:0308 1:0089 1381°60 182714
190° 4326 1:0345 1:0102 191-94 oe
200° 4-342 1:0384 10115 202°31 =
210° 4°359 10425 ee wheOLSO 212°72 —
220° 4:377 1:0467 1:0145 223°18 —

It would appear, however, from the authors’ preliminary observations at higher
points, that the curve of variation of specific heat is not quite symmetrical, but
somewhat flatter between 60° and 100°. ‘he rate of change of the specific
heat at 100° as given by the formula (CB), if extrapolated, is more than twice as
great as that given by Regnault, and at 200° about four times as great. The
experiments of Regnault apply particularly to this portion of the range, for which
they remain the standard, and have been universally adopted. Until more
accurate experiments are forthcoming, it would be extremely desirable to retain

632 REPORT—1899.

his formula for the higher points, with such modification only as is necessary to
make it fit with the observations at lower temperatures. It happens that the
rate of variation of the specific heat given by Regnault’s formula agrees with that
given by the formula (CB) between 55° and 60°. The two formule can therefore
be very accurately fitted at this point by the simple expedient of subtracting a
constant quantity from the values given by Regnault’s formula at temperatures
above 60°C. ‘This apparently arbitrary method would not be suggested if it
were not that it leads to results which are intrinsically most probable, and which
require the simplest modification of existing tables.

If the formula (CB) is adopted for the range 0° to 60°, over which it has been
accurately verified, and the formula of Regnault (corrected as above explained)
from 60° to 100°, the ratio of the meau specific heat between 0° and 100° to the
specific heat at 20° is 1:0014. Taking Rowland’s value as 4:181 joules at 20°,
this ratio would give 4:1868 for the mean specific heat, which exceeds the value
found by Reynolds and Moorby by less than one part in a thousand—a discrepancy
so small as to be within the limits of possible error even in the case of these two
extremely accurate determinations. Since it is a work of great labour and difficulty
to redetermine the specific heat at temperatures above 100°, and since it is
extremely unlikely that more accurate results over this part of the range will be
forthcoming in the near future, it has appeared desirable to adopt this basis for the
construction of the annexed table of the variation of the specific heat of water
over the whole range 0° to 220°C. The general effect of the table is to diminish
the extent of the variation hitherto assumed, but it is believed that the results here
tabulated are within the limits of possible error of all the best experiments. The
order of agreement may be inferred from a comparison of the values of A, the total heat
of the liquid, given in the lasttwocolumns. The agreement with Rowland is within
1 in 3,000 between 10° and 40°, and with Regnault within 1 in 1,000 at 160°C.
The variations of Regnault’s individual observations exceed 5 parts in 1,000.

The values of the total heat 4 are found by integrating the specific heat from
0 to ¢, according to the formula. The formula does not represent the rapid change
of s near the freezing-point, but accurate account may be taken of this, when
desired, at any point above 10°, by adding the constant quantity 0:020 to the
value of 4 as givenin the table by the formula. This correction, however, is seldom
of importance.

3. On the Expansion of Porcelain with Rise of Temperature.
By T, G. Beprorp.—See Reports, p. 245.

4, Interim Report on Methods of Determining Magnetic Force at Sea.
See Reports, p. 64.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report on Electrolysis and Hlectro-Chemistry. —See Reports, p. 160.

2. On the Energy per Cubic Centimetre in a Turbulent Liquid when
Transmitting Laminar Waves. By Professor G. F. FrtzGEratp,
F.RS., Trinity College, Dublin.

In the ‘Phil. Mag.’ vol. xxiv. p. 342, October 1887, Lord Kelvin has given
equations for the transmission of laminar waves through a turbulent liquid. He
expresses doubt as to the possibility of any turbulency being possible to which

aoe

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 633

his investigation would apply, owing to the rapid diffusion of the motion, and he
illustrates his paper by reference to a liquid m which separate vortex rings are
arranged in a regular cubical order which would, as he says, be almost certainly
subject to the diffusion of motion which would vitiate his investigation. A few

‘years afterwards, however, Lord Kelvin published in the ‘Proc. of the R. I.

Academy,’ 1889, vol. i. p. 340, a paper in which he described an arrangement of
long, thin, empty, vortex filaments, which he considered would be stable, and not
subject to the diffusion and mixing which would vitiate the application of his wave
theorem to the first turbulent medium he suggested. I have this year, in the
‘R. D. 8. Proceedings’ (p. 51), published a paper calling attention to the way in |
which laminar waves might be propagated by this latter medium, and have sug-
gested a way in which electrons might exist therein. The paperis only suggestive,
and cannot claim to prove much. I now desire to call attention to the expressions
that Lord Kelvin has given for the structure changes that take place when the
waves he describes are being propagated through the medium, and to show how
to calculate a quantity which must be proportional to the energy per c.c. of this
wave-motion. I must refer to the paper itself for an explanation of the notation,
as it would make this note very long to give it here.

The equations from which Lord Kelvin deduces the possibility of the propa-
gation of laminar motion through a turbulent liquid are two:

(1) WD — axan —

d aaa es
2) 2Aav = —_ R= Fj

In this, R? is the mean square of the velocity of the original turbulency of the
liquid.

The comparison of this with Maxwell’s equations is obvious, and f(y, t) may
be either magnetic or electric action, and xzav(uv) will then be either electric or

5)
magnetic, It shortens matters to call 5 R=V*, f(y, =P, and rzav(ur)=y;

so that the equations are

aeney
dt dy’
dy 2 dP
heen ee
and o a
If now we take the quantity
P? + a = 25

and integrate it throughout space, and then determine its variations with time,

we find a lee ne dP ady\ 107 70
az ||) 22aayde= ||P + 7IV AG end

= {fj Bee ny oy vada

Integrating the second term under the integral by parts, and omitting the super-
ficial terms which may be at infinity, or wherever energy enters the space under

_ consideration, we get

© || [2zacdyde= {\{P es + a andy =0.

Hence we see that =, which is of the right dimensions, must be proportional

634. REPORT—1899.

to the energy per c.c. of the medium. This is the same as in Maxwell’s theory,
so that there seems very little more besides interpretation of symbols to make a
turbulent liquid a satisfactory explanation of the structure of the ether

I am myself satisfied, though I think Lord Kelvin is not, that the turbulency
of a sufficiently fine-grained purely and irregularly turbulent liquid would ulti-
mately become so slow in its diffusion from place to place that Lord Kelvin’s
investigation would apply to it.

3. On the Permanence of certain Gases in the Atmospheres of Planets.
By G. H. Bryan, Se.D., PRS.

In a paper read before the Nottingham Meeting of the Association, the author
discussed the application of the kinetic theory of gases to explain the absence of
an atmosphere from the moon’s surface. In the present investigation similar
methods are applied to the atmospheres of planets, account being taken of the axial
rotations of the planets. A test of the permanence or otherwise of different gases
in the atmospheres of different celestial bodies at different temperatures has been
obtained, and a superior limit has been found for the rate at which any planet
would lose any gas by the molecules flying off from its atmosphere. To interpret
this limit in the simplest possible form, the author has calculated the number of
years which would have to elapse in various cases before the quantity of gas lost
would be equivalent to that contained in a layer one centimetre thick, covering the
surface of the earth. For simplicity absolute temperatures of 200°, 300°, 400°,
500°, and 600° have been chosen—z.e. Centigrade temperatures of — 78°, 27°, 127°,
and so forth.

In the case of terrestrial hydrogen the loss in question would occupy
84,000,000,000 years at temperature — 73°, 600,000 years at — 25°, and 222 years
at 27°C.

For helium on the earth’s surface, the corresponding numbers are 3'5 x 10°°

years at — 73°, 3x 10", or 30 trillion years at 27°, 84,000,000,000 years at 127°
600,000 years at 227°, and 222 years at 827°. This assumes the molecular weight
of helium to be 2.

For vapour of water on Mars, the figures are 1-2 x 10°° years at —78°, 1:9 x 10",
or 19 thousand billion years at 27°, 2,400,000,000 years at 127°, 43,000 years
at 227°, and 106 years at 327°.

The removal of a layer of air 1 centimetre in thickness from the surface of the
earth would only mean a lowering in the average barometric pressure of 73495 ofa
millimetre, roughly. Suppose then that the afore-mentioned gases were present in
the respective atmospheres in sufficient quantity to produce pressures comparable
with one atmosphere, and assume that a fall of one millimetre in the average
height of the barometer is the least secular change that could be detected; the
above-mentioned intervals of time would have to be multiplied by 18,600 roughly,
in order to give the numbers of years in which the escape of the respective gases
could be detected by a barometer.

The only possible conclusions from these results are—

(1) That helium could exist practically permanently in our atmosphere at ordi-
nary temperatures.

(2) That watery vapour could exist practically permanently in the atmosphere
of Mars at ordinary temperatures.

(8) That if helium once existed in appreciable quantities in the earth’s atmo-
sphere, it must have escaped when the earth was far hotter than at present.

(4) That a similar conclusion holds good on the supposition that Mars once
possessed, but has now lost, vapour of water as a constituent of its atmosphere,
the temperature-limit at which the loss ceased to be appreciable being, however,
lower than for terrestrial helium.

(5) That hydrogen, on the other hand, may escape from the earth’s atmosphere,
even at ordinary temperatures, to such an extent as may perhaps appreciably
affect its permanence,

i

—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 635

It should be observed that Dr. Johnstone Stoney’s investigations on the present
subject are based on the assumption that helium cannot remain in our atmosphere,
and he has assumed a temperature of — 66° in his calculations. The present results
throw doubt on one or both of these two assumptions,

4. On some Novel Thermo-Electric Phenomena.
By W. F. Barrert, F.R.S.

For some time past the author, in conjunction with Mr. W. Erown, B.Sc., has
been investigating the physical properties of various new alloys of iron, which had
been prepared by Mr. Rh. A. Hadfield of Sheffield. In the course of this investiga-
tion a particular nickel steel, to which five per cent. of manganese had been added,
was found to possess some remarkable physical properties. The analysis of this
alloy, kindly made by Mr. Hadfield, was as foliows:—

Iron . . 68:8 per cent. Manganese . - 5:0 per cent,
Nickel . . 25:0 i Carbon " Fons lg? 2s

The specific electrical resistance of this alloy was found to be 97°5 microhms
per c.c. at 15° C., and its temperature coefficient comparatively small, viz. 0-08 per
cent. per degree C. The thermo-electric behaviour of this nickel-manganese steel,
when coupled with iron, the author discovered to be most anomalous. Upon heat-
ing the couple a rapid rise of E.M.F. took place till a certain temperature was
reached, and then the E.M.F. appeared to remain practically constant in spite of
increasing temperature up to a white heat, the cooler junctions of the couple being
kept at 0° C. Careful pyrometric measurements were made as the couple was
gradually heated, with the result that between 300° and 1100°C. the E.M.F. only
varied 4 per cent. above or below that at 300°C. The mean E.M.F. in this wide
range of temperature from a low black to a white heat was 4,000 microvolts, and
the thermo-electric curve, representing the relation between the temperature and
E.M.F. of the couple, was therefore nearly a straight line after 320°. Not quite a
straight line, as the mean E.M.F. was intersected at four points, viz. at 310°, 540°,
810°, and 1030°C. Had the cooler junction been kept at 310°, instead of at 0°,
there would have been three successive small inversions of E.M.F. at the points
named above, that is to say three neutral points.

The effect of low temperatures (— 80° C.) was tried, and also coupling this alloy
with some other metals, but no anomalous behaviour was observed.

When the neutral points of a copper-iron couple were carefully determined, the
author noticed that the temperature of the neutral point was not the same during
heating as in cooling. This was specially noticeable in a copper-steel couple, and,
moreover, in each successive heating the temperature of the neutral point fell until
it became nearly constant. Here are the neutral points of a particular copper-
steel couple examined :—

First heating , 328° Second heating . 283° Third heating. 268°C.
» cooling , 258° » cooling . 241° » cooling . 241°C.

Hence the curve representing the relation between the temperature and E.M.F.
of a copper-steel couple is not the same for a rising as a falling temperature, a con-
siderable area being enclosed by the two curves. This thermo-electric hysteresis,
as it may be called, the author also found to exist in many other couples, one
element of which was iron or an alloy of iron. The explanation is probably to be
found in the phenomenon of recalescence, and is intimately connected with the dis-
covery made by Dr. Trouton, F.R.S.,! of a thermo-current produced in a closed
circuit of iron wire by moving a flame steadily along the wire.

' See British Association Report, 1889, p. 517.

6386 REPORT—1899,

5, Report on the Heat of Combination of Metals in the Formation
of Alloys.—See Reports, p. 246,

6. Report on Radiation from a Source of Light in a
Magnetic Field,—See Reports, p. 63.

7. On the Production, in rarefied Gases, of Luminous Rings in rotation
about Lines of Magnetic Force. By C. E. 8, Putiuirs.

The apparatus used in this investigation consisted of an approximately spherical
glass bulb, the ends of which were left open for the purpose of inserting two soft
iron electrodes, half an inch in diameter, through air-tight flanges which them-
selves were cemented to the glass. The bulb was about 23 in. in diameter, and
the electrodes were chosen of a sufficient length to enable them, while almost
meeting at the centre of the bulb, to project outwards slightly beyond the rims of the
flanges. A side tube was attached for the purpose of connecting the apparatus to
a Sprengel air-pump and McLeod vacuum gauge. Two powerful electro-magnets
were then adjusted, so as to strongly magnetise the electrodes when necessary.

A low pressure having been produced in the bulb by the action of the air-
pump, leading wires were attached to the iron electrodes to enable the discharge
from the secondary of an induction coil to be passed through the rarefied gas.
Under these conditions the effects produced in the usual glow-discharges by the
magnetisation of the electrodes could be conveniently examined. It was seen that
at @ pressure represented by ‘008 mm. of mercury, and with the discharge just
able to pass in the bulb (the magnets meanwhile remaining unexcited), on shutting
off the current from the induction coil and completing the magnet circuit, a
luminous ring appeared within the bulb in a plane at right angles to the lines of
force and in rotation about the magnetic axis. The number of such rings can be
varied by special devices, and their brightness largely depends upon the electro-
static condition of the outer surface of the glass bulb. The circumferential speed
of the ring or rings rapidly dies down, and the sense of the rotation reverses when
the magnetic polarity of the electrodes is reversed. The rings, when once formed,
usually last for many seconds, sometimes for a minute; and they momentarily
brighten before disappearing, when the electrodes cease to be magnetised. The
appearance of the rings is greatly affected by bringing charged bodies up to the
outside of the bulb.

The effect also depends upon the manner of stimulation of the rarefied gas
within the bulb, It is necessary to obtain a particular distribution of charged
particles in order to get the best results when the magnet is excited. The shape
of the magnetic field is also of importance. A single magnetic electrode projecting
into the electrified gas shows the effect fairly well. Experiments with external
magnetic electrodes have not given reliable results, the glow produced in such
cases being generally irregular, An attempt will be made later on, when the
experiments are more complete, to show that the formation of these luminous
rings is associated with actions observed by the writer in connection with a
separate research, the results of which were embodied in a note communicated to
the Royal Society last June under the heading ‘Diselectrification produced by
Magnetism.’

8. Note on Deep-Sea Waves,
By VauGuan Cornisu, M.Sc., 2.CS., FR.GS.

The following questions are raised or discussed:—(1) What is the amplitude
H and the wave-length L for different distances A from the windward shore, the
wind being supposed to blow with velocity V of say 30 knots until the sea has
reached a steady state? (2) Can wind create waves of considerable amplitude,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 637

having a speed greater than that of the wind? (5) Different periods of residual
swell being, apparently, characteristic of different localities, will selective absorp-
tion cause waves of this period to be developed at a specially rapid rate when a
wind blows in this or neighbouring areas? (4) What is the relation between
growth of wave-length and diminution in curvature of wave-front ?

Further, an examination is made of the numerical relations among the quan-
tities recorded in Lieut. Paris’ paper on deep-sea waves,! and in Antoine’s collec-
tion of results,? and in Coupvent Desbois’ summary of the observations of
amplitude made on the Astrolabe. I find relations among Paris’ numbers which are
useful for the interpretation of his observations. I doubt if Antoine is justified in
applying Desbois’ formula H o V# to later observations than those of the Astro-
labe. Paris’ observations seem, however, to be pretty nearly comparable with
Antoine’s collected observations, of which, indeed, Paris’ form part. Antoine,
assuming from Desbois that H o V3, finds L o V#, and therefore that the
‘modulus’ HL oc V"", for what he records as fully developed waves. He thinks
that this ‘modulus’ HL may ultimately be found proportional to V, with H
remaining, I suppose, proportional to V? and L becoming proportional to V3.
He finds Desbois’ empiric relation H cc Vi ‘ readily justified’ on theoretic grounds.
I think this supposed theoretic justification is illusory, and that it has hindered
Antoine from obtaining the best numerical relations from the data at his disposal.
I consider that his numbers are better represented by taking H proportional to
V? and L proportional to V+, which gives the relation between L and H suspected
by Antoine. These formule are statistical, not dynamic. Their value depends on
the number of observations. H can only be regarded as varying with V! when we
average H and V over a large area. Desbois’ table of amplitudes in ‘Comptes
Rendus,’ xii. pp. 82-87, seems to indicate that a large fraction of the total turbu-
lence of many parts of the ocean is due to their invasion by swells from a distance.

From an examination of Paris’ numbers I find that—(1) The average steepness
of the waves increases with excess of V (velocity of wind) over U (velocity of
wave) ; (2) The law that persistence of amplitude (in time) is proportional to L?
is recognisable ; (8) That, even far from coasts, geographical position modifies the
law in this way, that, for the same average wind velocity, the average amplitude is
greatest in the Southern Ocean, z.e. south of the Cape of Good Hope and Cape
Horn, where the wind blows always from the north-westward and the wave-
pulses are free to chase one another round and round the globe. Perhaps there is
also some increase, due to focussing. Further, the specific roughness in the
regions of Indian Trades, Atlantic Trades, and Western Pacific is in the order of
their exposure to the Southern Ocean, which is the order in which they have been
here named. They may be regarded as branches of the Southern Ocean. The
Western Pacific is greatly sheltered from the Southern Ocean by a screen of
islands. Paris’ observations do not extend to the Eastern Pacific, as do those of
Desbois. The latter show that the specific roughness is much greater in the
Eastern than in the Western Pacific. In the semi-closed Seas of China and Japan
the specific roughness is less than in the above oceans.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

1. On the Existence of Masses Smaller than the Atoms.4
By Professor J. J. Tuomson, 2.2.8.

! Revue maritime, ¥xxi,

2 Sur les Lames de Haute Mer.

8 See p. 8 of Les Lames de Haute Mer.

* Published in the Phil, Mag. Dec. 1899, pp. 547-67.

638 REPORT—1899.

2. On the Controversy concerning the Seat of Volta’s Contact Force.'
By Professor Ortver Lopcs, 7.2.8.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

The Section was divided into two Departments.

The following Reports and Papers were read:

DrparTMeNT I.—MATHEMATICS.
1. Report on Tables of certain Integrals. See Reports, p. 65.

2. Report on Tables of certain Mathematical Functions.
See Reports, p. 160.

3. The Median Estimate. By Francis Gauron, D.C.L., F.R.S.

The usual method is very unsatisfactory by which the collective opinion of
Councils, Senates, and other Assemblies is ascertained, in respect to the most suit-
able amount of money to be granted for any particular purpose. The opinions of
individual members are sure to differ as to rewards for past services, as to com- -
pensation for damage, or as to the cost of carrying out some desirable object for
which provision has to be made. How is that medium amount to be ascertained
which is the fairest compromise between many different opinions? The method
usually adopted is for some person in authority to consult his colleagues and then
to lay a definite proposal before the meeting, to which another person may move an
amendment; the amendment and the original motion are then put severally to the
vote, and are carried or rejected by a simple majority. Jurymen are said to adopt
a different way of assessing damages; each writes his own estimate on a separate
paper, the estimates are added together, and the average of them all is occasionally
accepted by the whole body of the jury and returned as their verdict. Averages
are, however, objectionable to large assemblages on account of the tedious arithmetic
that would then be needed. Moreover, an average value may greatly mislead,
unless each several estimate has been made in good faith, because a single voter is
able to produce an effect far beyond his due share by writing down an unreasonably
large or unreasonably small sum. The middlemost value, or the median of all the
estimates, is free from this danger, inasmuch as the influence of each voter has
exactly equal weight in its determination. Again, few persons know what they
want with sufficient clearness to enable them to express it in numerical terms,
from which alone an average may be derived. Much deeper searching of the
thought is needed to enable a man to make such precise affirmation as that ‘in
my opinion the bonus to be given should be 80V.,’ than to enable him to say, ‘I do
not think the bonus should be so much as 100/., certainly it should not be more
than 1002.’

The plan that I would suggest for discovering the median of the various sums
desired by the several voters is to specify any two reasonable amounts, A and B,
A being the smaller, making it understood that A and B are intended to serve as
divisions, and therefore no votes are to be given for either of those two precise

This paper will be published in the Proceedings of the Physical Society of
London.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 639

sums. Next, three shows and counts of hands are to be made: (1) for less than
A; (2) for more than A, but less than B; (3) for more than B, The results are

a per cent. vote for less than A ; 100—a@ vote for more than A,
6 per cent. vote for less than B; 100-0 vote for more than B.

Numerous analogies amply justify the assumption that the estimates will be
distributed on either side of their (unknown) median, m, with an (unknown)
quartile, g, in approximate accordance with the normal Jaw of frequency of error.
The following table of centiles (a better word than ‘ Per-centiles,’ which I originally
used), having a quartile = 1, is founded upon that law. It is extracted from my
‘Natural Inheritance’ (Macmillan, 1889, p. 205) to serve the present purpose.

Centiles to the Grades 0°—100°.

| Grades | 0° BEEN iFPers he eh Syhl VeAPOO Ne wBPL ath gexOPne fo MP oP APL da
| |

10° |—1:90 —182 |—1:74|—1:67 |—1:60 —1:54 —1:47|—1:42 |—1°36 |—1-°30

0° = | —inf: | 3-48 |— 3-05 | 2:79 | 2-60 2-44 | - 2-31 |—2-19 |—2-c8 |—1-99
20° aoa -- 1:20 |—1-15 |—1-10 —1-05 |—1-00 |—0-95 | —0-91 |--0-86 | —0:82

| 30° —0'78 —0-74 —0°69 | —0°65 —0°61 —0°57 |—0°53 |—0-49 |—0-45 |—0-41
40° | 0:38 |—0-34 |— 0:30 | — 0°26 | — 0-22 |—0-19 |— 0-15 |—0-11,| 0-07 |—004 |
50° 0:00 | + 0-04 | +007} +011 +015 +019 +022 +0:26 +030) +0°34
60° /+0°38 |+ 0-41 +0°45 | +049 | +0°53 +057 | +0°61 |+0°65|+0°69'+0°74
a cO* '+0°78 +0-82 + 0°86 | + 0-91 | + 0°95 +1:00 +1:05 |} +1:10|+1:15 +1:20)
| g0° | +1:25 |+1:30 | +1:36 | +1-42 |+1:47 4+1:54/4+1:60/4+1°67/+1-74 +182 |
Ie 902 | +190 | + 1-99 | +208 |4+2:19/+2:31 +2:44|+2°60!+42-79 |+3-05 | +3:45 |
| | ! I | | |

Let a be the tabular number znelustve of its sign, that corresponds to the
grade a°, and let 8 be that which corresponds to 6°, then

m+qa=A; m+q3=Bb,
whence
ss
m=-A~—a es =B-B LS ees
B-a | B-a J
Example :—A =100, B=500; a=40°, 6=80°, whence a= —0'38, B= +1:25 and
m=193. The truth of the determination of 7 may now, if so desired, be tested
by putting two new values A’ B’ to the vote, in the same way as A and B, but
A’ and B’ should not differ much from m, and it should be an honourable under-
standing that no member should deviate from his first opinion in giving his
second vote.

When about to utilise this method, A and B ought to be so selected that A
shall secure not less than 5 per cent. of the votes, and B not more than 95,
because the curve of error ceases to be trustworthy near to its extremities, but a
dependence upon it within the limits of 5° and 95° will seem pedantic only to
those who are unfamiliar with its nature and with its numerous and successful
applications.

It will be easily understood that this method is a particular case of the more
general problem, that in any system of normal variables which has been arrayed
between the grades of 0° and 100°, if the values be given that correspond to any two
specified grades, those that correspond to each and every other grade can be found.

I heartily wish that when occasion offers, some Assembly may be disposed to
experiment on the above method. The calculators should, of course, rehearse the
as beforehand, and be well prepared to carry it through both rapidly and
surely.

It is worth mentioning that when the above table is not at hand, a graphical
substitute for it, that ranges between 5° and 95° and is true to the first place of
decimals, may be quickly made by those who can recollect three simple factors.
Thus, draw between two vertical limits, 0° and 100°, a straight line on squarely
ruled paper, having a quartile equal to 1. Accept this line in lieu of the curve
between 30° and 70°, add one-twentieth to the lengths of the centiles at 20° and 80°,

640 REPORT—1899.

one-fifth to those at 10? and 90°, and one-third to those at 50° and 95°, Then
unite the tops of these centiles with a free-hand curve,

4, A System of Invariants for Parallel Configurations in Space,
By Professor A. R. Forsyru, Se.D., L.R.S,

There is one class of invariants appertaining to parallel configurations which I
have not seen noticed; they arise in spaces of tivo, three, and any number of
dimensions.

It is known that, for a plane curve parallel to a given plane curve, the normals
at corresponding points are the same in direction, and therefore the angle
between corresponding consecutive normals is the same, so that this infinitesimal
angle is an invariantive element. Moreover, the centres of curvature are the same,
so that the difference between the radii of curvature is the diameter of the rolling
circle, the two enveloping curves of which are the given curve and its parallel.

Similarly, in the case of parallel surfaces, it is convenient to consider the
principal directions of curvature at each point. They are respectively parallel to
one another at corresponding points; the corresponding normals are coincident in
direction ; and the centres of principal curvatures for the two surfaces are the
same. Hence the difference between a principal radius of curvature and the
corresponding principal radius of curvature of the parallel surface is equal to the
diameter of the rolling sphere, the other envelope of which is the parallel surface ;
and this holds for each of the two principal radu.

Likewise, in space of x dimensions. To render the explanations clearer, we
consider a configuration

1 Gai egy cay OF

which, as for two and for three dimensions, will be consid»red devoid of special
singularities. Let

= Pea, een
where
2 ne 6F 9
ae se) °

Tf, then, a distance p be measured inwards along the direction indicated by

Z,+++%, (say along the normal to the surface =0), the coordinates of the
extremities are given by

&,=2,—ply
If this point be a point of intersection with a consecutive normal at Uy POL. sce
Uy + dy, then ' F
€,=a,+dx —p(l,+dl),

aay, Cer
Q=(eS 5 pe 5
(ae) ear Casta

the term in dz; being omitted from the summation on the vight-hand side, and

the equation holding fors=1,.... The possible values of p are given by the
equation

fows=— 1)", 0.75 thatiis,

ae ol, ol, al, | O
gna” On. eer ihe
OES 101, Ol,
One p On,” OF, ia |
Oy Be 1_ 8,
Ox, Our,’ i Ox, i |

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 641

which nominally is of degree ” in ss One root, however, is zero, because the term
P
independent of : vanishes, on account of the relation
p

Ietlpr...+472%=1;

there are therefore »—1 values of p thus determined, which may be denoted by
Py +++) Pn-1 Further, the 2—1 directions from 2,, . . ., 2% along the surface F=0,
in which the normal is met by the normal at a consecutive point, are given by taking
any x —1 of the equations

1_0b\7, _S Oba,
°= (Fan) & aa

t=1

and substituting, in the ratios determining the directions, the —1 values of p in
succession. Denoting by do, the arc along any one of these directions, which can
be regarded as directions of principal curvature, by dy the angle between the
two consecutive normals, and by p, the corresponding distance (say the correspond-
‘ing radius of curvature), we have

do,= pray,

‘so that dyy,, for each value of 7, is unchanged for the parallel surface.

In order to build integral invariants upon the invariantive differential element
represented by the infinitesimal angle between consecutive normals, we proceed
from the two simplest cases, viz. parallel curves in plane space, and parallel
‘surfaces in three dimensions.

I. Parallel Curves in plano.

For a given oval plane curve without singularities, two characteristic magni-
tudes are its perimeter and its area. We shall compare their values with the values
of the corresponding magnitudes of the parallel curve, which is the outer envelope
of a circle of diameter a rolling on the outside of the given curve. Denoting the
perimeter of the given curve by L, and its area by A, and the corresponding mag-
nitudes for the parallel curve by L’ and A’ respectively, we have

A’-A=3/{(p +4)?—p°}ay,
L’=|(p+a)ay, L=[pdy,

where p is the radius of curvature at the given point; each of the integrals is to
be extended through a range 27, Thus

A’—-A=alL+7na’,
L’-L=2ra;

and therefore

1

Ss Ree

A’- =
4 Ar

for all values of a; that is, the quantity

lie
A-7L

7

is invariantive for parallel curves, where A is the area enclosed by any one of
them and L is its perimeter,

1899. : TT

642 REPORT—1899.

Il. Parallel Surfaces in Three Dimensions.

For a given closed oval surface without singularities, three characteristic
magnitudes are its volume, its superficial area, and the surface-aggregate of the
mean! of the curvatures at any point. We shall compare their values with the
values of the corresponding magnitudes of the parallel surface, which is the outer
envelope of a sphere of diameter a rolling on the outside of the given surface.
Denoting the volume by V, the superficial area by S, and (twice the) surface-
ageregate of the mean of the curvatures by L, and the corresponding magnitudes
for the parallel surface by V’, S’, L’ respectively, we have

V-V= Ke +2)(p,+2)2dy,dy,,

S'= (fot Qraaya, S=[lopdhays;

Prults 3
ee

(~ saath = {Je +p )dy,dy.,

= [Jt +a+p,+a)dy,dyy,

all the integrals extending over the whole of the original surface. Thus

, ies 4
av —~V=aS+50°L + gm

S’-S=alL+4ra?,

L’—-L=8na ;
and therefore
r_ lye 1 L2= ling 1 ys
nid y Speekichi peat a em mm pat ar
ne a! 5 “pel ae
= B =§=—2L?
: 16x l6r ’
for all values of a: that is, the quantities
i
Sau 3
lér ’
1 1a
4 8 Toa 4

are invariantive for parallel surfaces, where (for any one of such surfaces) V is.

the volume it contains, S is its superficial area, and L is twice the surface area of
the mean of the curvatures.*

1 The surface-aggregate of the Gaussian measure of curvature is a pure
constant, for

[faveye = | { ap inta= Am,

1P2

and is therefore an invariant.
2 In evaluating integrals such as V’, 8’, L’, care must be exercised in regard to
the range of y, and y,. As amatter of fact, the range of p, is affected by that of

eed

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 643

It may be noted in passing that if, in the single invariant of parallel curves,
we write
A=43.278, L=2na,

a(B— a’),

that is, the invariant effectively is 8—a?. Also if, in the two invariants of parallel
surfaces, we write

it becomes

V=44ry, S=4r8, L=2.4ra,
the invariants become

4n(B—a*), 44n(y—3a8 + 2a'),
that is, the invariants effectively are
B—a*, y—s8aR+ 2a°,
The similarity in form to the leading coefficients of the simplest covariants of a
binary quantic is obvious.

Ill, Parallel Surfaces in n Dimensions,

The geometry has been introduced solely to simplify the description of the
analytical results, which may be regarded as invariantive relations among certain
definite multiple integrals. Denoting by V the volume enclosed by the surface F = 0,
and by V’ the volume enclosed by the parallel surface, which is the envelope of a
sphere of diameter a, say

(X,—2,)? +... + (Xn—2,)? =,
rolling on the outer side of F=0, we have

Vv v=| ay, \\- Gee hei. Kinin ealeaby i. dyes
Let o= |... (aby... dyn

= {aa,

w,, a8 can easily be seen from the consideration of the surface of a sphere; and
really dy, dy, is the elementary solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere of
radius unity by the two perpendicular arcs dy,, dW, on the surface; so that

| | dy, dy,=the whole solid angle
= 4.
Similarly, in the case of m dimensions, the quantity @ (with the [notation adopted

below) is the hypersolid angle subtended by the surface of a hypersphere at its
centre. With the notation indicated, we have

oe: az Sr hae's

= 2a,

ain

tine 1)!

which is

when 7 is even, and is
Q} (+1) gp} 2-1)
1.3.5......2%—2
when 7 is odd.
TT2

644: REPORT—1899.

say, symbolically, so that dQ represents the element dy,....dW,1; thus
© is an absolute invariant for the system of parallel surfaces. Also, let
1,= {p,do,

where p,= 2p; ... ps, the summation being for all the combinations of s of the
n—1 quantities p; and the integral extends over the whole of the original surface.
Then if I’, denote the same magnitude for the parallel surface, we have

V'.-Ie=[[3{(, +4) pH pe) pi ans PIG:

Late (a1 9)

Welly | eG 128)1 (0 -ye"

where only the first term occurs when s=1; in particular,
l’",-],=(n—1)ae,

Aine
es om es +(n—2)al,,
1’, -1,- G2 De=2)(a=3) —— Opry esta ee) oy = 8) 221, +(n—8)aly

and so on. Now let

ue (n—-1)!
I, =0J« Tere ih
then
Se Pes! i? Ss,
that is,

J’,=(J,, Ip) es Jy, 1) ql, a).
Further, we have

WIA ling + pnt, teeet 1 Plat aly—13
n n—1 2

and, therefore, writing

V=20J,
we have
n-1 n!
Teenie SS aad,
1 n—s!s!
that is,

Send apes are eda ea Lei

The quantity J, is of dimension s; so that these expressions conform to the condi-
tions of homogeneity.

Moreover, they conform to the expressions obtained as by linear transformation
of binary quantics. To verify this statement, we note that if, in

Jn = (Jn, In-1) ++ J,,1) Gd, @",
a be replaced by a + c, we have (say)
J”, = (In, In.» J,, 1) (1, @ + ©)
=(J"n, J'n-1,...9',, 1) A, ©):

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 645

and
I’m = (Tm; Im—1, +» + Sy, 1) (1, @ + €)™

=a CS ay J mays ss Sm Ly ye)";

for all values of m. There, accordingly, are combinations of the quantities J which,
by the theory of binary forms, are invariantive for these linear transformations; as
the transformations are characteristic of the parallel surfaces, it follows that these
combinations of the quantities J are invariants of the system in question. The
simplest are

J Dar J v,

J, — 33,3, + 23,5,

J, — 43,3, + 3J,*,

and so on ; in fact, every principal seminvariant gives an invariant of the system
of parallel surfaces.

By way of verification, we take x = 3; then © = 47, L = 20J,,8 = oJ,
V = 40J, in our former notation ; and then

3 1 1
si aS) ig Ren Ot ee
J, — 83,5, + 23,5 = 5 (Vv SES + ah )

It may be pointed out that the single invariant, for a system of parallel plane

curves, vanishes for a circle; and that both the invariants, for a system of parallel
surfaces in space of three dimensions, vanish for a sphere.

5. On the Notation of the Calculus of Differences.'
By Professor J. D. Everert, £.2.S.

In conjunction with the ordinary symbol A defined by
AYn = Yn+1— Yny
the author empioys another symbol 6 defined by
8 Yn = Yn — Yn-1.

This gives the relation
Ad=A-5,

leading to a number of developments, such as

(GY = G+ ay =14na +2@—) ars be;
eet 8y = yi lA ea) ee
(5) = (1-8) =1-nd+"¥ 8 - &e,;
[SS Se oe (MAD) icgn
(4) =a-38) =1+nd4+ 2707084 &,;

(yor

of which some express well-known properties, and others are believed to be new.
By performing the operation Am" on any one of the entries in a table of

1-nait@t) we _ ge;

1} The Paper will be published in the Messenger of Mathematics.

646 REPORT—1899.

differences (m and being arbitrary integers, positive, negative, or zero), we are
carried to any other. A"S~" carries us ” steps down a column, 6"A —” carries us
n steps up it, and A”6" carries us 2n columns to the right. A” carries us steps
obliquely down, and 6” the same number obliquely up, both to the right. Reversal
of the sign of m reverses the direction.

In the old notation, the fundamental property «

Ad=A-—5d
would be written
A°’Yn-1 = AYn i: AYn-1 35

which does not afford the same facility for manipulation.

6. On the Partial Differential Equation of the Second Order.
By Prof. A. C. Dixon.

Taking the equation
F(@; Yy %y P; q r, 8; t) =0,
I suppose it solved by using two more relations,
u=a, v=b,

among the quantities 2, y, 2, p, 9,7, 8, t, to give values‘of r, s, t, which, substituted
in

dz=pdx + qgdy, dp=rdx + sdy, dq =sdx + tdy,

render these three equations integrable. This will not be possible, of course,
unless the expressions w, v fulfil certain conditions. I consider the case in which
u can be so determined that v is only subjected to one condition, and I find that
then du is a linear combination of the expressions

dx + pdy, dz—pdx —qdy, dp —rdx—sdy, dq—sdx —tdy,

Of 7, OF 4. Of OF Ok gihOF S , OF’ a.
Pa at te am +p Oe +7 ap +5 4 Jan

where p is a root of the quadratic

of 24 Of Of _o,

ott * as" Or

These are the expressions used by Hamburger in his method of solution. :

If such a function w can be found, the system f=0, w=a will have a series
of solutions depending on an arbitrary function of one variable, and involving two
further arbitrary constants.

7. On the Fundamental Differential Equations of Geometry.
By Dr. Irvine StRincHAM.

Capitaine Feye Sainte-Marie, in his work ‘ Ktudes Analytiques sur la Théorie
des Paralléles,’ after showing that the propositions of the Euclidean Geometry are
true within an infinitesimal domain, achieves, through the processes of integration,
a series of analytical formule for non-Euclidian geometry. ; ;

The foundation for this analytical theory is a group of differential equations.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 647

I adopt the form given them by Professor Killing in his well-known work on
‘Nicht-Euclidische Raumformen.’
The fundamental equations are

OL a ene
da ain y’ Ee cos y; ¢ f(b) da’

where a, 6, ¢ are the sides of a triangle, a, 8, y their angles, a opposite a, 8 opposite
6, &c. The solution of these equations is

(a) £% TAO Ki .

sna sin8 siny

from which, by appropriate partial differentiations and eliminations, we obtain
[Aap _ CAMP __ [feP___e
T-(f@P 1-(7OFP I-LhOF
where «? is a constant. A final integration now determines the form of the
function f(a) ; it is

F(a) =i ltt is aes :

where C is the constant of integration.
By defining

sin a= ane —e~a*)

(read sine of a with respect to the modulus x) the equation for f (a) is more con
cisely written

J(@) =sin,, (@+C).
It is easy to show that /(0)=0, so that C isa period, that is, a multiple of

«r/ —1, and therefore
SJ(a@) =sin, (@ + nikr) = + sin, a.

We choose the positive sign in this last equation, assigning arbitrarily, for the
proper relative directions of the sides of our triangle, and equation (a) now
becomes

sin,@_sin,d_ sin,¢

sna sinB siny
These are the fundamental equations of trigonometry. Out of these the entire
theory of measurement proceeds in the usual way.

The theory of measurement thus constituted is purely ideal. There is no real
universe that can be measured by it without the arbitrary assumption of a definite
value for x, and there are only three kinds of value for x possible. These are
kK’ =00, «*=a positive real number, x?=a negative real number. What has
appeared very startling to the modern world is that there is as yet no theory of
knowledge that can tell us which of these three diverging paths we must take.
This is an old story told in a new way.

8. Report on Recent Progress in the Problem of Three Bodies.
By EK. T. Wuirraker, Jf.A.
See Reports, p. 121.

9. On Singular Solutions of Ordinary Differential Equations.
By Professor A. R. Forsytu, Sc.D., LBS.

648 REPORT—1899.

10. An Application and Interpretation of Infinitesimal Transformations.
By Professor E. O. Lovett.

1. An infinitesimal transformation is the linear operator represented by the
symbol

VPS RIE(ey ery Zn) su . . . e (1),

if x, . . . %, be regarded as the co-ordinates of a point in space of m dimensions, the
point (7,,..., %%) is displaced by the transformation (1) to the position (7, + 62, . « »,

x +62), where
0%, = £08; ... », O&n,=E,0t, - : : : » (2)

t being an arbitrary differential. The corresponding increment assigned by (1) to
any function (2, .-.+, Up) is Vor.

A function is said to be invariant under (1), when its increment due to (1) is
zero. An equation of any sort whatever w=O is invariant under (1), or said to
admit of (1) when the increment dw assigned by (1) is zero in virtue of the given
equation,

The trajectories of the group of transformations generated by (1) are given by
the integration of the simultaneous system

— = =) SREP . . . . 3
figs fn .
2. The total differential equation
, MEP (Gy 00 cp Page, 62 U0, kgs. dagn=0, Str=m,. 9 ai (D

nm

homogeneous in the differentials dx, .. . ,, is called a Monge equation ; when the
Monge equation is linear in dr, ... dx,, that is, of the form

SIP, «-n.iy Be)Ft= 0,0, sneered Seen
1

it is called a Pfaff equation.
Pfaff equations and Monge equations are integrable or non-integrable, according.
as certain equations of condition are satisfied or not by the functions P.
Thus, for example, the Pfaff equation
Pa, y, z)dv+Q(2, y, z)dyt+R(a,y,2)dz=0 . ; . (6)
is integrable or non-integrable according as the functions P, Q, R do or do not
satisfy the well-known relation
PQ,-R,)+Q(R.—P.)+R@,-G)-0

By precisely the same method by which (7) is reached as a criterion we find
the conditions for the integrability! of the Monge equation to be

PiU. 7

w 4g S20 ee ee
0 Ee B eee Sal
pet A SPE | 84/7 |

where the Monge equation is
M,=Pda* + Qdy? + Rdz* + 2Sdydz+2Tdzdx+2Udrdy=0 . . (9)

1 See Guldberg, ‘Sur la Théorie des Solutions Singuliéres,’ Videnskabsselshabets-
Skrifter, I. Math.-naturv. Kasse, 1899, No. 4, Christiania.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 649

An integrable Monge equation may have three kinds of integrals, just as an
ordinary differential equation of the first order, for example ; and the terms general
integral, particular integral, singular integral have the same signification when
applied to integrable Monge equations as when used with reference to an ordinary
ditferential equation; a singular integral is one which is neither general nor
particular.

A non-integrable Monge equation may have singular solutions; by the latter
we mean relations in the variables 2,,...., %», which satisfy the equation.

3. The criteria for the invariance of the Pfaffian equation (5) under the infini-
tesimal point transformation may be found by a simple reckoning. Thus confining
attention for convenience to the equation (6) in three variables we have

Om = dxbP + Pdda + dy8Q + Qddy + d2bR + Rédz,
= dxdP + Pddx + dyiQ + Qddy + dzdR + Rddz,

by the commutative property of the operations d and 6. Substituting the values
(2) of d2, dy, dz assigned by the given infinitesimal transformation (1), and neglect-
ing the factor d¢, we have
om = dxbP + Pdé + dy8Q + Qdy + dzdR + Rd
= da(P, 6x + P,dy + P.dz) + P(E,du + Edy + E.dz)+...

=du(P2§ + Py t+ P:) + P(Ecda + Edy + E.dz)+.... « (10)
Then the invariance demands that
or =0 F ; ; : . (11)
as a consequence of
7=0;
hence the criteria are
Ly Ras Seed . 2
P-O°R’ ; : : 3 . (12)

where
w=P,€+ Py + P.f+ PE, + Qn.+ RE,»
Kk=Qzr€ + Quy + Q2€4+ PE, + Qn + RG, U
p=Ri€ + Ryn + R.6+ PE. + Qn. + RE.

Similarly for the equation (5) in z variables to admit of the infinitesimal point
transformation (1) we find it necessary and suflicient that the quantities

(18)

‘S$ (-0P. pOki\p aL
x big,) + Pig )IRs fei a. songeneat char Re (14)

shall all be equal.

__Sometimes the calculations are facilitated by making use of the system of partial
differential equations :

Hie BL bn py AE hyn hes oxrmcsynt 685 <x! 1B}

equivalent to equation (6), and of Sophus Lie’s criterium for the invariance of a
system of linear partial differential equations (complete or incomplete)

5" eee
ViFSX Xp i(ey sey In) = 0, JH=1, 2,4. 47, : - (16)

under the infinitesimal point transformation (1), namely
(U, V )=2p (2... an) Vif, (17)

where
(U, V,=UVif- V;Uf.

650 REPORT—1899.

_4. Seeking now the variation of the Monge equation (9) due to the infinitesimal
point transformation in three variables

Of , of , OF
é kr ane, . . . . . (18)
as was done for the Pfaffian (6) in the preceding paragraph, we find

5M, = Pddz* + dx*8P+ ... +Sd(dydz)+dydzdS+...,
= 2Pdrdéx + dx*(P,ba + Pydy + P.dz) +... + S(dyddz + diddy) + dydz(Sz2x +
S,dy+8.82) ....3

observing as before that (18) gives to 2, y, = the respective increments
dz = £58, dy = dt, dz = (dt,

substituting and neglecting the factor 8¢, we have, after an easy reduction,
6M, =a? + dy? + pdz? + 2Qadydz + 2rdzdx + Qudxdy, . - (19)
where

n= 2(P£,+ Un. + TC) + EP, + nP, + CP.,

K=2(UE, + Qn, + SG) + EQ. + nQy+ (Quy .

p=2(TE, + Sy. + RE) + ER, +R, + CR.,

o =TE, + UE, + Syy + Qn. + RG, +86 + £8, +78, + 6S.
Tr PE, as TE, at Un. at Snz = NG + RG + ETT, + Gi
v=UE, + P&, + Qnz + Uny + SG + Tg, + £U,+qU, + (U.;

(20)

hence the Monge equation (9) admits of the transformation (18) if the following
conditions

hold.

By the same method the invariance criteria for a Monge equation of the second
degree in x variables may be found. If the equation is

$=2M,,(2,,..., tn )dridx =0, t,j7=1,...,2, M,;=M,,> - (22)

the variation of ¢, due to the infinitesimal point transformation (1), is found
to be

mj; dxjdxj, . 3 : s ; » (28)

where
t=n, j=n, k=n

= (Mage, + Mixés, ). . » (24)
j=1, k=1 i oj

h=n
Mi — = &.Mi,; ar
h=1 i=1,j

Then the necessary and sufficient conditions that the equation (22) shall admit
of the infinitesimal point transformation (1) are expressed by the equality of the
quantities

Mi 5
M.
uJ
where both 7 and j take all values from 1 to m, and both may take the same value.

It may be remarked, in passing, that these forms show that not every Monge
equation admits of an infinitesimal point transformation; they indicate at the same
time how complicated the invariance criteria become for equations of higher degrees
and higher orders.

5. The geometrical expression of the invariance of a differential equation under
an infinitesimal point transformation is that the latter leaves invariant the family

a

50h ase

——
Pe ainty

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 651

of integral configurations of the equation, 7.e. integral curve or surface is trans-
formed into an integral curve or surface by the transformation.

When we know, then, an infinitesimal transformation of which a given dif-
ferential equation admits, at least one family of configurations, which (family) is
invariant under the transformation, is of interest to us, namely, the family of
integral configurations of the given equation. But it may happen that other in-
tegral invariants under the transformation may satisfy the equation. That there
are other invariant configurations is clear from the fact that a given infinitesimal
point transformations may leave invariant a great variety of equations ; conversely
also a given equation may admit of none, one, or several infinitesimal trans-
formations.

The direction (dv,, dx,,..., dx,) on the envelope of the integral configura-
tions, since this envelope is a trajectory of the transformation, is given by the
continued proportion

ary a2, axn (25)

ey aiay te

if the infinitesimal transformation be written in the form (1); further, if this
enyelope is to be an integral configuration of the Monge equation

SPrareg. eg@U AX. « AXyn=0, Ze;= mM, ° « tee te(26)
the equation which is assumed to admit of the infinitesimal transformation (1),
then the same system of differentials (dz,,..., dz,) must satisfy (26), that is, we
have

BPs REE We buen Os ol ant is QA)

It is clear then that the equation (27) may give a singular solution of the
equation (26), if it have one; it is also clear that no part, or only a part, of the
locus represented by (27) need be a singular solution of (26). In case the trans-
formation leaves every single integral configuration invariant the relation (27) is
satisfied identically and yields nothing new.

We have here then a method, which consists of a simple extension of Lie’s
method for the integration of ordinary differential equations of the first order, for
discovering singular solutions of a Monge equation without resorting to inte-
gration.

Furthermore, it should be remarked that not only is the method applicable to
integrable and non-integrable Monge equations, but that nothing forbids the
analytical application of the theorem to forms no longer homogeneous in the dif-
ferentials, should such forms be possessed of interest or show themselves capable of
interpretation, since it is easy to construct consistent criteria for the invariance of
such forms under infinitesimal point transformations.

6. Since the Monge equation of the mth degree

SyP(tiye « y2n)esege « eg ITAL, « dann =0, Se, =m : - (28)

is homogeneous of the mth degree in the differentials, it is equivalent to m Pfaff
equations of the form ,

t=n

ZW». . +0) AX; =(1)- I= Vie . aye . . e (29)

A solution of any one of these Pfaff equations is a solution also of the Monge
equation, and the problem of finding an infinitesimal transformation of which a
Pfaff equation admits is obviously simpler than the resolution of the same problem
relative to the Monge equation; in fact, there are cases in which the finding of m
different infinitesimal transformations of which the m Pfaff equations (29) admit
would be simpler than that of constructing one of which the Monge equation admits.
It should be remarked that the invariance of the Monge equations under a given

652 REPORT—1899.

transformation by no means carries with it the invariance of a factor equation, nor
reciprocally. The invariance is reciprocal only in the case where the Monge equa-
tion can be broken up into m equal linear factors.

These observations bring into light the double usefulness of the method as
applied to finding singular solutions of Pfaff equations.

In the latter particular form it is, again, applicable both to integrable Pfaff
equations and to non-integrable ones, and thus generalises! a theorem of Guld-
berg’s inserted in the ‘Oomptes Rendus’ of December 26, 1898, to the effect that
linear integrable total differential equations can admit of singular solutions whose
determination can be effected without integration. Guldberg’s theorem makes no
reference to Lie’s theories in its statement or demonstration. The corresponding
theorem for ordinary differential equations of the first order was given by Page.”

In Guldberg’s later memoir already referred to the classic theory relative to
singular solutions of ordinary equations is extended directly to total equations of
the first order, and first and second degrees, without use of Lie’s methods.

7. Before appending a few concrete examples we shall find a new interpretation
of the (_) operation of Lagrange and Poisson which plays so capital a rdéle in the
theory of continuous groups; it came to light in constructing a new proof of
Guldberg’s theorem above referred to.

Consider again the non-integrable linear total differential equation in three
variables.

P(ayy,z)dx + Q(a,y,2)dy + R(a,y,2)dz=0. : : . (80)
An integral of this equation satisfies the linear partial differential equations
uf= F_ PY _o,

ox Rodz
(31)

—dy Roz
in order that the system (31) have a solution it is sufficient that the relation
(U,V) = UVf — VUf =0 : 5 ; . (82)

wea of WW _o,

shall be satisfied.
Developing this relation (32) we find

(U,V) = - et P(Q:—R,) + Q(Re— P:) + R(Py — an of = 0;.. -(88)

the hypotheses
R =co,f, =0

exclude themselves, then we have

PQ, —R,) + QR. —P,)+R(P-Q)=-0 . .

The solutions s = f(2,y) of this algebraic equation which satisfy the non-
integrable equation (30) are singular integrals of the latter.

If the equation (30) is integrable the relation (34) becomes an identity, and (33)
furnishes the interpretation of the ‘ Klammerausdruck’ of the infinitesimal trans-
formations Uf and V/ above, namely, that its vanishing expresses the condition,
necessary and sufficient, that the linear total differential equation (30) shall be
integrable.

8. Examples.

1 Comptes Rendus, 31 juillet 1899.
2 American Journal of Mathematics, 1896.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 653

1st. Consider the non-integrable linear total differential equation
(2 — ay — y)dx + (x? —aryz — x)dy + ds = 031
the equation
P(Q, — R,) + Q(R, — P.) + RP, — Q,) = 0
gives
(2 — zy) (@ - zy — y) = 0,

and
s—ay =0

is a singular solution of the given equation.
2nd. The Pfaff equations
(y + xy? — yz)dx + (x + a’y — 2x)dy — dz
(y — vy? + yz)dx + (xv + v?y — zx)dy — da

ll
=

both admit of the infinitesimal point transformation

0
@— api
as is readily verified ; both admit of the singular integral
S= xy.
The first of the two equations is integrable, hence the construction of the
aes example is not applicable here ; but by Lie’s general theory the function

z — zy) ‘is an integrating factor of the equation, by which we find the general
integral to be

ay + log (xy — 2).
ord. The non-integrable Monge equation

Qx(2 — «x — y) 22—-x-y) (2 +1)@-w-y)
e du* + e dy? — dz* + 2e dudy = 0
admits of the infinitesimal point transformation —
Of _ of.
oz oy”

the equation (27) becomes

Q2(e — a — y) 2(e-—- x —y) (2 + 1)\(2-2-y)
e +

e — Qe = 0,

which gives the singular solution

Z=U+ Y.

11. On Fermat's Numbers. By Lieut.-Col. Antawn Cunnineuan, R.£.,
Fellow of King’s College, London.

These are numbers of form N, =2°"+1. Until about 1729 they were sup-
posed to be all prime, although only the first five (N,, N,, N,, Nj, N,) had been
proved prime. But, about December, 1729, N, was completely factorised by Euler:
and between 1876-86 four more were determined composite by various mathemati-
cians, viz., N, completely factorised; and N,,, N,,, Ny) one factor of each found.

1 This form is taken from Guldberg’s note in the Comptes Rendus, to which refer-
ence has been made. ;

654 REPORT—1899.

The author now finds that N,, is composite, containing the factors 319,489 and
974,489; also that (most probably) there are no more prime factors < cne
million of any Fermat’s Number (other than those now known to be contained in
the above-named eleven numbers); this last result requires confirmation by an
independent computer.

DEPARTMENT II.—METEOROLOGY.

1. Interim Report on Solar Radiation. See Reports, p. 159.

2. On a Connection between Sunspots and Meteorological Phenomena.
By Dr. Van RisCKEVORSEL.

If from a sufficiently large number of years the mean temperature for each day
is computed, and if these means are—generally after more or less smoothing—
plotted down in a curve, this will be found to be no smooth curve. It will show
a great number of secondary maxima and minima. Now, on the one hand, these
seem to be sensibly the same all over our globe. On the other hand, if we treat in
the same way the barometer readings, the wind pressure, the rainfall, the magnetic
phenomena, we always find the same result ; a curve, very different from others
often in a general sense, but showing maxima and minima about the same
dates.

The phenomenon is not in each single case very striking ; in some cases there is
very slender evidence of it indeed. But few of our series of observations as yet.
are long enough and good enough, and there is in each case evidence enough to
hope that as soon as this will be the case the phenomena will be apparent enough
throughout.

This renders it probable that the cause of these irregularities is not terrestrial.
It was natural to look in the first place to the sun-spots for an explanation. The
relative numbers of sun-spot frequency for the fifty years 1849-1898 were plotted
down in a curve, and the temperature of each day of the year for the same period
as observed at the Helder in another curve. The resemblance between both
curves is striking. With the exception of two or three out of some twenty-five, all
the notches of one curve correspond to similar features in the other. Moreover
nearly without an exception each maximum or minimum of the temperature
occurs a couple of days later than the corresponding sun-spot one. These facts
seem to point towards a decided relation between the two phenomena.

Next the sun-spot numbers as well as the mean temperatures were plotted
down, arranged in Mercury years. The two curves thus obtained also show a
decided relation.

The next step will be an investigation as to a possible influence of the revolu-
tion of Venus. As to Mars, it is not probable that the series of yearsis long enough
to give more than an indication of such an influence—if even that.

3. Report on Seismology. See Reports, p. 161.

4, Seismology at Mauritius. By T. F. Cuaxton, F.R2.A.8.

A Milne’s seismograph for recording unfelt earth movements has been at work
at the Royal Alfred Observatory, Mauritius, since September 1898.

All the seismograms have been tabulated and subjected to analysis, and the
results will be published as soon as possible.

——————e

TRANSACTIONS OF. SECTION A. 65

or

They may conveniently be discussed under five heads:

(a) Diurnal waves,

(6) Rapid changes in the vertical.
(c) Gradual changes in the vertical.
(d) Air tremors,

(e) Earthquake shocks.

At Mauritius, the diurnal waves are of greater amplitude than at any other
observing station, with a well marked bi-diurnal effect, as shown by Bessel’s inter-
polation formula, which, for the months of October 1898 to March 1899, is

2°61 sin (9 + 295°-47’) + 0-73 + sin (20 + 3317-57’) + 0-30 sin (30+ 272°°57'),

indicating a possible connection with the barometric pressure, the formula for the
diurnal variation of which is

0in-0108 ‘sin (9 + 49°32”) + 0in‘0285: sin (26 + 163° 2’) + 0in:0020° sin (3 + 26° 4’).

In connection with the diurnal waves and gradual changes in the vertical it is
very desirable that observations should be made with the boom lying east and
west as well as north and south, and also with instruments in different localities
and under varying conditions,
Rapid changes in the vertical have occasionally occurred on a large scale,
notably on December 5, 6, and 7, 1898, and J anuary 7, February 10 and 11, 1899.
On December 5 the boom went out of range at 12h. 17m., after an easterly move-

ment of 7’°5 in 10 minutes, due to very heavy rain at and to the west of the

Observatory. On the other days the movements were nearly as large.

A gradual change in the vertical has been going on since September last, the
top of the boom pillar moving systematically towards the west. The gradual
change in the sensibility of the instrument also indicates a north and south change
in the vertical.

Air tremors occur every night in spite of every precaution to insure copious
ventilation, and to guard against convection currents. They begin at sunset with

- small movements which rapidly become larger, but, though of varying amplitude

during the night, do not showa marked maximum. They finally die away at
sunrise.

As a general rule the tremors are greatest when the fall of temperature during
the night is greatest, but this is not always the case.

The earthquake effects have, on the whole, been disappointing, the amplitude
of motion keing small in every case. This gives rise to the question whether it is
possible for the ocean to act as a damper to earthquake shocks. Records from the
proposed observatory at Honolulu may throw more light on this subject.

5. Progress in Exploring the Air with Kites. By A. LAWRENCE Rortcu,

S.B., A.M, Director of Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A.

Since the report presented at Bristol no radical changes in the kites or
apparatus at Blue Hill have been made, nor have the heights been increased
greatly. Thus, while the average of the highest points attained by the meteoro-
graph in each of the thirty-five flights during 1898 was 7,350 feet above the sea,
the average of the ten flights during the first four months of 1899 was 7,680 feet,
and that of the five flights between February 23 and 28 was 10,280 feet. The
maximum height in 1898, viz. 12,070 feet above sea-level on August 26, was ex-
ceeded by 370 feet on February 28, 1899, The smaller increase of altitude than
in previous years indicates that the extreme heights to which our kites can rise is
being approached. The features of the Blue Hill practice that enable great heights
to be reached are the use of cellular kites having curved surfaces, giving greater
lift, with self-regulating bridles, limiting the wind-pressure on each kite, and the
attachment of the kites at different points on the wire, whereby their pull is dis-

656 REPORT—1899.

tributed. The meteorological results obtained during the past year have been
important ; some records in cyclones and anti-cyclones are discussed by my
assistant, Mr. Clayton, in the Observatory ‘ Bulletin,’ No. 1, 1899, and his deduc-
tions from this investigation support the convectional theory of the formation of
cyclones. The writer has given a general account of the use of kites at Blue Hill
in a paper published in ‘ Quart. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc.,’ October 1898.

The value of kites for meteorological observations, which was demonstrated at
Blue Hill, has led to their trial in the United States and in Europe. The attempt
of the United States Weather Bureau to secure each day records with kites a mile
above sixteen stations was unsuccessful for forecasting, on account of light winds,
which prevented daily flights at all the stations. The German and Russian
meteorological bureaux will employ kites at Hamburg, Berlin, and St. Petersburg ;
and at Trappes, near Paris, M. L. Teisserenc de Bort has already got records at
great heights. It appears, therefore, that henceforth the equipment of a meteoro-
logical observatory should include the kite (and perhaps the captive balloon for
use when wind is lacking), so that automatic records may be obtained at the height
of a mile or two in the free air at the same time that observations are made at the

ground.

6. Remarks concerning the First Crossing of the Channel by a Balloon.
By A. Lawrence Rotcu.

The author gave a brief account of the balloon voyage of M. Blanchard and Dr.
Jeffries from Dover on January 7, 1785.

7. The Hydro-Aérograph. By F. Navier Denison, Victoria, B.C.

In 1897 I had the honour of presenting an illustrated paper before the Toronto
Meeting of this Association, entitled ‘The Great Lakes as a Sensitive Barometer.’
It was then mentioned that the writer, in order to prove the direct action of atmo-
spheric waves upon the lake’s surface, had devised an automatic instrument to
synchronously record both phenomena upon the same time sheet, and suggested
for it the above name. The records from this instrument have not only demon-
strated the direct action of atmospheric undulations upon the water, but have
graphically shown that various types of undulations occur before the approach of
important storms.

In order to more thoroughly prove the practical value of this instrument, Mr.
Stupart, Director of the Canadian Meteorological Service, permitted me to instal
another upon the harbour at Victoria, British Columbia, the records to be
studied in conjunction with the synoptic weather charts recently instituted here
for the issuing of British Columbian forecasts.!_ The instrument, which was set up
on the Government Wharf last May, consists of a recording cylinder three feet in
Tength by two in circumference, which, actuated by clockwork, completes one
revolution every twenty-four hours. Upon this cylinder rest two automatic
inking pens; the one on the left records the tidal action, the other the barometric
changes. The movement of the float in the tidal shaft is transmitted to the
instrument by means of a special non-oxidisable and flexible wire, which passes up
to and is coiled several times round the large grooved circumference of the re-
duction pulley on the floor to the left. From the small grooved circumference
of this pulley is attached another flexible wire, which passes up to and over a finely
centred pulley on the left of the instrument, then through a clamp upon the under-
side of the pen carriage, and finally over another small pulley to a counterweight
below.

The ‘ aérographic’ portion of this instrument is decidedly unique, for the huge
air chamber used is nothing less than an illicit copper whisky still, which was con-

1 A photograph representing the instrument temporarily mounted was exhibited
to the Section.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 657

fiscated years ago by the Canadian Government, and by their permission I have
converted it into an ‘air barometer.’ To effect this it was only necessary to place
within its centre a four-inch tube extending from top to bottom, and to seal her-
metically the large chamber with the exception of two small holes at the bottom of
the central pipe. ‘Io complete this device water is poured into the central pipe until
the confined air in the large chamber is sufficiently compressed to sustain a column
of water in the central tube. Upon the water in the latter a float is placed and con~
nected to the recording pen on the right of the instrument in a similar manner to
' the other as already described. Both carriages bearing the recording pens are
mounted on small rollers which move on two horizontal and parallel brass rods.
The effect of changes of atmospheric pressure upon this air barometer when increas-
ing is to depress the column of water and float in the central tube, which causes
an upward movement of the pen upon the paper; when the external pressure is
reduced, a contrary movement occurs. In order to keep the temperature in the
air chamber as constant as possible, the latter is deeply imbedded in sawdust.

The recording sheet is 36 inches by 24; it is ruled one way for hours, half, and
quarter hours, each being ‘25 of an inch apart. The tidal range of 10 feet occupies
the lower portion, and is ruled for feet and every two tenths of a foot, the ratio
of movement between the float and pen being 10 to 1. The remainder of the sheet
is graduated into barometric tenths and every two hundredths of an inch, each tenth
corresponding to 1:2 of an inch upon the paper.

The object of this instrument is not so much to furnish a very accurate
measurement of barometric changes as are now obtained from standard ones, as to
magnify the movements to enable one to study the characteristic forms and amplitude
of the ripples, waves, and billows which are now known to exist in our atmo-
sphere during all conditions of weather. Although this instrument has only been
in operation during the summer type of fine settled weather, numerous interesting
forms of undulations have been recorded by both tidal and barometric pens. The
former are Imown as ‘Secondary tidal undulations,’ and though the writer thinks
these are due at all stations to atmospheric waves or billows travelling over the
surface of the ocean, he is inclined to believe their relative amplitude and time
interval vary according to the configuration, area, and depth of the semi-enclosed
basins where they usually occur.'

As previously observed upon the Great Lakes,? and along our Atlantic Coast,
so also here, that when the water unduiations are most pronounced, so are the
barometric ones, and as the latter become less disturbed so do those on the water.

In order to increase the value of these records I made them up into monthly
rolls, which form lengths of either 60 or 62 feet. Upon these are entered the hourly
direction and velocity of the wind for Victoria, the hourly height of the Esquimalt
tides as taken from its gauge, also the same from the Sand Heads which are situ-
ated in the Gulf of Georgia near the mouth of the Fraser River. The curves for
these are then drawn in, in red and blue pencil, as will be seen upon the accom-
panying sheet, which not only graphically shows various primary tidal phenomena,
but the marked secondary undulations upon the Victoria trace, and how these
diminish as the barometric trace becomes less disturbed.

It is the writer’s intention to continue this work for the following reasons:

That, whereas the great winter storms that sweep over this Province approach
from the Pacific, it is thought that their advent may be preceded by certain types-
of barometric wayes and tidal secondaries, also by abnormal tidal elevations or
depressions which are known to occur when great barometric differences prevail
over the adjacent ocean though the local barometer may still be high. The tabu-
lating of the exact times of high and low water will assist in checking the present
American tidal predictions for our coast, which being based upon limited data are
not invariably correct. As one of Professor Milne’s seismographs is now in most
successful operation here, and frequently recording tremors and quakes, it is

1 ¢ The Origin of Ocean Tidal Secondary Undulation,’ by F. Napier Denison, Can.
Institute Proc. Read April 23, 1898.

* «The Great Lakes as a Sensitive Barometer,’ by F, Napier Denison, Brit. Assoc.
Report, 1897.

1899. UU

658 REPORT—1899.

thought this instrument may assist in this work by recording not only any seismic
sea waves that may cross the Pacific, but atmospheric ones that in great volcanic
eruptions are set up, as in the case of Krakatoa.

It is hoped these observations, and data obtained during the coming winter,
may not merely assist our local weather predictions, but lead to a similar investiga-
tion upon the important seaboard of Great Britain.

8. Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis. See
Reports, p. 250.

9. Report on Meteorological Photography. See Reports, p. 238.

10. Report on the Meteorological Observatory, Montreal. See Reports, p. 65.

1l. The Rainfall of the South-Eastern Counties of England.
By Joun Hopkinson, FR. Met.Soc., Assoc.Inst.C.L.

The rainfall of the south-eastern counties is here treated in the same manner as
was that of the south-western counties at the Bristol Meeting of the Association
last year. The counties considered as south-eastern are Oxford, Bucks, Berks,
Herts, Middlesex, Essex, Hants, Surrey, Sussex,and Kent. They cover an area of
9,901 square miles, which is nearly one-fifth that of England, and one-twelfth that
of the British Isles. The mean monthly rainfall for the ten years 1881 to 1890
at seventy stations in these counties has been computed, and the mean annual
rainfall at ninety-nine stations, being one to the nearest 100 square miles in each
county. Thus, for example, the mean annual rainfall of the smallest county,
Middlesex (282 square miles), is deduced from the records of three stations, and
that of the largest, Hampshire (1,625 square miles), from the records of sixteen
stations.

The monthly and annual means for each county and for the whole area at the
seventy stations are as follows :—

Mean Rainfall in the South-Eastern Counties of England, 1881-1890.

|

n n n wan n n q = a | a a

oe = ae a6 ~8 rms ae 5 8 we ret 3

Sa Oa Heo | Bo EtablberSucy al (EIS fe asisSs Se

aa a

ins ins ins. | ins ins. ins ins ins. | ins. | ins ins
Jan 2:00 | 2:00} 1°93 | 1:90 | 1:58 | 2°33 | 2:57 | 1:95} 2:51} 2°03 | 2°14
Feb. 1:89] 1:88 | 1°79 | 1°83) 1°55 | 2:07.) 2°07 | 1°77 ).2-23) 1°82) 1:91
Mar 1:73 | 1°68 | 1:76 | 1:80 | 1:60 | 1°80 | 1:94 | 1°67} 2:°16| 1°81} 1°84
April 1:78 | 1:86 | 1:80 | 1:72 | 1:55 | 1°89 | 1:80 | 1°73} 1°88{ 1°73) 1:77
May 1:96} 2:14 | 2°14 | 2-10 | 1°80 | 2-05 | 211°) 1°98) 1:98) 1°76) 1-97
June 2:07 | 1°82) 1:95 | 1:98 | 1:71 | 207 | 1°93 | 1°79| 1°83] 1°76] 1°86
July .| 2:59 |°2°93 | 2:55 | 2-47 | 2:39 | 2-67 | 2 36 | 2°43] 2°70) 2°41] 2°50
Aug, .| 1:97 | 2°05 | 1:96 | 2-16 | 2-10 2:04 | 2:05 | 1°93] 2°33) 1:97] 2:07
Sept. .| 2°17 | 2°37] 2°20 | 2°21 | 2-20 2:24 | 2:39 | 2:20} 2°68) 2:59) 2°37
Oct 9:54 | 2°66 | 285 | 2:57 | 2-53 | 2°60 | 3-04 | 2°58) 3°60) 3:25) 2°97
Nov 2-75 | 2°88 | 2°85 | 2:80 | 2:57 | 2:99 | 3:34 | 2°73] 3°64) 3:03] 3:06
Dec 2:00 | 2:19 | 2:09 | 1:92} 1:79 | 2°18 | 2°55 | 1°86} 2°65) 2°31] 2°24
Year .| 25:45 |26:46 | 25°87 | 25:46 | 23°37 | 26:93 |28°15 |24-62 130:19 26°47 |26:72

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 659

~The annual means at the ninety-nine stations- are: Oxford, eight stations,
26:18 inches: Bucks, seven stations, 25:28 inches ; Herts, six stations, 25:87 inches ;
Middlesex, three stations, 25:46 inches; Essex, thirteen stations, 23:68 inches;
Berlis, eight stations, 27:28 inches; Hants, sixteen stations, 28:80 inches;
Surrey, eight stations, 24:90 inches; Sussex, fifteen stations, 30:22 inches; and
Kent, fifteen stations, 2641 inches; the mean for the whole area being
26:80 inches. This differs very slightly from the mean at the seventy stations for
which the monthly means are given.

During the ten years, 1881 to 1890, the rainfall in this part of England was
rather less than that for the twenty-five years ending 1890, and that for the
thirty years ending 1895. Twenty stations give a mean for the ten years, 1881-90,
of 26-22 inches, for the twenty-five years, 1866-90, of 27-74. inches, and for the
thirty years, 1866-95, of 27:55 inches, the excess in this period thus being
1:33 inches, or nearly 5 per cent. (4'8), over the mean fall at the same stations
for the ten years 1881-90. The true mean for the larger number of stations for
the thirty years would therefore probably be about 28 inches.

The mean fall for the thirty years at the twenty stations in five-yearly periods
was as follows: For the first lustrum, 18G6-70, 27:09 inches; for the second,
1871-75, 27°76 inches; for the third, 1876-80, 31:41 inches; for the fourth,
1881-85, 27:08 inches; for the fifth, 1886-90, 25°36 inches; and for the sixth,
1891-95, 26°63 inches.

The rainfall in these counties does not throughout follow the general rule of
increase from east to west. It does so only from Essex, through Middlesex and
Tlerts, to Bucks, north of the Thames, and from Kent to Sussex, south of the
Thames. Dividing the counties into three groups, north, south-west, and south-
east, thirty-seven stations for the northern group, Oxford, Bucks, Herts, Middle-
sex, and Hssex, give an annual mean of 25:02 inches; thirty-two stations for the
south-western group, Berks, Hants, and Surrey, give an annual mean of
27-43 inches; and 30 stations for the south-eastern group, Sussex and Kent, give
an annual mean of 28*32 inches. In the first group the driest months are March
and April, each with a mean fall of 1:69 inch; in the second the driest month is
April, with a mean fall of 1:80 inch; and in the third the driest month is J une,
with the same mean fall. In the first group the wettest month is November, with
a mean fall of 258 inches; in the second, the same month, with a mean fall of
310 inches; and in the third, the wettest is October, with a mean fall of
3°43 inches.: From October to April, and in June, Essex is the driest county ; in
May, Kent; in July, Hants; in August, Surrey; and in September, Oxford. In
February, and from July to December, Sussex is the wettest county; in January
and March, Hants; in April, Berks; in May, Bucks; and in June, the wettest
are Oxford and Berks.

The complete paper contains the details from which the above summary has
been compiled, and is accompanied by a map showing the position of the rainfall
stations and their height above mean sea-level.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19,
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Ona Gravity Balance. By Professor R. TureLratt, F.RAS., and
Professor J. A. Potiock.!

2. Report on Llectrical Standards. See Reports, p. 240.

} This paper will be published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society. ; es

vUuU2

660 : REPORT—1899.

3. A discussion on platinum thermometry was opened by the reading
of papers by Professor H. L. Catnenpar, F.R.S8., and by Dr. P. Cuappuis
and Dr. J. A. Harker, which are appended to the Report on Electrical
Standards, p. 242.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 20.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Recent Magnetic Work in North America. By L. A. Bausn, Chief of
Division of Terrestrial Magnetism of U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

1. An account of the recent magnetic work carried out by the United States
Coast and Geodetic Survey in various parts of the United States and Alaska, and a
general outline of the proposed more detailed work were given. The General
Government, through the Coast and Geodetic Survey, has recently made prepara—
tions for having a detailed magnetic survey made of its possessions, the general
scheme of which is to be completed in 10 to 15 years. Observations on ocean areas are
likewise tobemade. In thegeneral scheme the stations are to be about 30to35 miles
apart. After the completion of the general survey, stations will be added in:
regionally disturbed areas. The desirability that Canada and Mexico will likewise:
undertake at the same time similar surveys was set forth.

2. The general results of the recent magnetic survey of Maryland, made by the:
author, under the auspices of the Maryland Geological Survey and the Coast and
Geodetic Survey, were briefly laid before the Association and charts exhibited,
showing the isogonic, the isoclinic, and the isodynamic lines over Maryland for the-
epoch January 1, 1900. Areas of marked regional disturbances were mapped out
on a special chart. The secondary residual field of the earth’s magnetism, 7.e. the:
portion remaining after deducting the uniform magnetisation, was represented
graphically for the year 1900,

2. The Spectral Sensitiveness of Mercury Vapour in an Atmosphere of
Hydrogen, and its Influence on the Spectrum of the latter. By
E. Percrvat Lewis, PA.D.!

An account was given of some experiments carried on in the University of
Berlin. The spectrum of hydrogen at different pressures, contained in vacuum
tubes with external electrodes, first pure and then containing varying quantities
of mercury vapour, was examined photometrically with the following results :—

1. A quantity of mercury vapour corresponding to the saturation density
of —5° produced a spectrum of measurable intensity, but did not appreciably affect
the intensity of the hydrogen spectrum.

2. A quantity of mercury vapour corresponding to the saturation density at
21° produced a diminution of one-half or more in the intensity of the entire
visible hydrogen spectrum.

3. The intensity of the mercury spectrum seemed proportional to the amount
of its vapour present.

4, The visible radiant energy of the hydrogen and the mercury seemed to be
divided between them in the proportion of their relative quantities in the
mixture,

The weakening of the hydrogen spectrum by the presence of mercury cap

1 See Wied. Ann. 1899, vol. 69, p. 398.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 661

scarcely be attributed to the greater proportionate share of the current conducted
by the latter, but is possibly due to some characteristic difference between the
radiation of metals and non-metals, as also illustrated in flame spectra.

3. On the Theory of the Electrolytic Solution Presswre. By R. A. LEHFELDT.

According to Nernst’s theory, when a metal is immersed in an electrolyte a
minute amount of it goes into solution in the ionic form, giving a positive charge
to the liquid as compared with the metal, or ions from the solution are deposited in
metallic form, giving the metal a positive charge according as the osmotic pressure
of the ions in solution falls short of or exceeds an amount known as the electrolytic
‘solution pressure. This view has been generally adopted by physical chemists, it
being supposed that the amount of metal to be deposited or dissolved is too small
to measure. By combining the calculated value of the solution pressures with the
known theorems of electrostatics on the tension exerted by electric charges, it may
be shown, in the case of zinc at least, that the amount dissolved would be some
centigrammes per square centimetre immersed, and could easily be weighed.
Hence the theory seems to break down.

4. Temperature and the Dispersion in Quartz and Calcite.
By J. W. Girrorp.

A prism of 30° quartz and prisms of 30° and 60° calcite were used. Measure-
ments of the deviations of the ordinary ray for W.L. 5892, and of the angle of the
prism, were made at temperatures from 66° F, to 77°5°. With quartz both
‘deviations and angles decrease with rise of temperature; with calcite they
increase.

If the deviation at any given temperature and the angle observed at that same

ve _ Daf. 4 Pea
‘temperature be taken for 7 in the formula sin Dat sin 5, we have a series of

refractive indices decreasing with rise of temperature for both quartz and calcite,
of which the following are average instances :—

Temp. F. \Quartz prism 30°} Temp. F. (Calcite prism 30°} Temp. F. | Calcite prism 60°|

° ° ° '
68:5 15441530 67°75 16584402 65°5 1 6584320
75:5 154413387 75°25 1°6584029 72:5 | 16584190

But, if all the angles at all temperatures are added together and the mean
taken for 7, the following series of indices result :—

| Temp. F. |Quartz prism 30°} Temp. F. Calcite prism 30°} Temp. F'. | Calcite prism 60°
° °o ie)

66 15441638 65°25 16583344 63:5 16583259

67 15441632 70 16583891 65 16583443

68 15441616 705 16583983 | 67°5 16583528

69 1-5441560 74 1:6584305 67-75 16583564
74:5 15441512 15:25 16584603 69°5 1°6585842

75 15441307 76 16584929 765 16585075
755 15441117

175 15441013 |

If, omitting the two last of quartz, we deduce the coefficients for unit
temperature, we have ‘00000868, 0000147, and -0000140 for the three columns

662 REPORT—1899.

respectively. And if from these coefficients indices be calculated for a temperature
of 59° F, (equals 15 C. nearly) we have the following :—

Quartz prism 30°. Calcite prism 30°, Calcite prism 60°.
1:5441896 see 1-6582423 ces 1:6582624
For Quartz at 15°C. Rudberg and Mascart give... 1:54418

a » Sarasin gives act) .» 1°54419
For Calcite 5 a A ats ses §61:65839
¥ on fi s 2nd prism 1°65825

The above indices are uncorrected for air.

5, A Workshop Form of Resistance Balance. Jy Professor
J. A. Furmine, 72S.

6. A Method of Making a Half-shadow Field in a Polarimeter by two
inclined Glass Plates. By J. H. Poynrine, Sc.D., PRS.

When a beam of light polarised in a plane neither parallel nor perpendicular to
the plane of incidence falls on a plate of glass with parallel sides, Fresnel’s formula
shows that it emerges still plane polarised, but with the plane of polarisation
rotated away from the plane of incidence. Regarding the incident beam as resolved
into two polarised respectively in and perpendicular to the plane of incidence, the
former suffers most loss by reflection at the two faces, so that in emergence it bears
a less proportion to the latter, and the resultant plane is therefore turned round
from the plane of incidence.

To make use of this rotation to obtain a half-shadow field—z.e. a field divided ~

into two halves in which the planes of polarisation are slightly inclined to each
other—two glass plates are bevelled each at one edge and fitted with the bevels
together to forma V. This V is fixed in a frame and put in the usual position of
the half wave plate, with the sharp edge down the middle of the field and turned
towards the polariser. The frame can be rotated about a horizontal axis—the
‘ tilt-axis’—through the middle of the edge and perpendicular to the axis of the
instrument.

Let us suppose the plane of polarisation of the light incident on the V plates
to be vertical. If the edge of the V is also vertical, the light passes through
the two plates unchanged in plane, and the two halves will suffer extinction at the
same time when the analyser is crossed. But ifthe V is turned through any angle
about the tilt-axis the planes of polarisation of the two halves on emergence
from the V are rotated each slightly from the vertical in opposite directions by
equal amounts, and now when the analyser is crossed the two halves have equal
brightness, and extinction occurs for the two in different positions of the analyser.
The V therefore serves to give a half-shadow field. ‘The sensitiveness ot the
instrument can be increased or diminished by lessening or increasing the tilt of
the V.

In general, when light comes through a parallel plate, that which comes straight
through is mixed with that which has suffered two or more internal’ reflections,
and if the incident beam is polarised the components of the emergent ‘beam have
suffered different rotations. But looking towards the VY from the concayve—2.e.
the analyser-side—it can easily be shown that there is a strip on each side of the
junction of the plates in which the light has no admixture of internally reflected
beams, and is therefore in each strip all in one plane of polarisation, The thicker
the plates the wider are these strips, and they must. be so thick that the strips
wholly fill the aperture of a diaphragm placed just in front of the V.—

Like all other half-shadow instruments, this instrument gives the best results
with monochromatic light, but the same V of course serves equally well for any
single wave length.

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 663

If the angle between the plates is twice the complement of the polarising angle,
say 67°, no light is reflected when the edge of the V is vertical, and therefore this
angle gives the best illumination. If the angle is about 80°, the strips mentioned
above have the greatest width. Probably any angle between these values will serve
almost equally well, and I do not find in practice much difference inefficiency with
different angles.

The device acts well for projection with a lantern if very thick plates are used.

664 REPORT—1899.

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Horacz T. Brown, LL.D., F.RS.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER lA.
The President delivered the following Address :—

THE subject which I have chosen for my Address is the fixation of carbon by
plants, one which is the common meeting-ground of Chemistry, Physics, and
Biology. I must, however, confine myself only to certain aspects of the question,
since it is manifestly impossible to fully discuss the whole of a subject of such
magnitude and importance within the time at my disposal.

We have become so accustomed to the idea that the higher plants derive the
whole of their carbon from atmospheric sources that we are apt to forget how very
indirect is the nature of much of the experimental evidence on which this belief is
founded. There can, of course, be no doubt that the primary source of the organic
carbon of the soil, and of the plants growing on it, is the atmosphere; but of late
years there has been such an accumulation of evidence tending to show that the
higher plants are capable of being nourished by the direct application of a great.
variety of ready-formed organic compounds, that we are justified in demanding
further proof that the stores of organic substances in the soil must necessarily be
oxidised down to the lowest possible point before their carbon is once more in @
fit state to be assimilated.

It was the hope of gaining more direct evidence on this important question
which led me some time ago to attack the problem experimentally in conjunction
with Mr. F. Escombe, the resources of the Jodrell Laboratory at Kew having
been kindly put at our disposal by Sir W. Thiselton-Dyer and Dr. D. H. Scott.
Up to the present time our experiments have not been carried far enough to enable
us to give a positive answer to the main question, but they have already suggested
a new method of attack which will enable usin the future to determine, with a
fair amount of certainty, whether any particular plant, growing under perfectly
natural conditions, derives any appreciable portion of its carbon from any other
source than the gaseous carbon dioxide of the atmosphere.

During the course of the inquiry, many interesting side issues have been raised
which we believe to be of some importance in their bearing on the processes of
plant nutrition, and it is to a consideration of these that I intend to devote the
greater part of my Address,

I must, however, in the first place indulge in a little historical retrospect, and
am the more tempted to do this, as far as the early pioneers in this branch of
Imowledge are concerned, since a critical study of their writings has shown me
very clearly that the relative merits of some of these older workers, and the re-
spective parts which they took in founding the true theory of assimilation, have in
our own time been much misrepresented by more than one historian of science
whose name carries great weight.

———_

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 665

There is no chapter in the history of scientific discovery of greater abiding
interest than that which was opened by Priestley in 1771, when he commenced
his work on the influence of plants on the composition of the air around them. It
has often been assumed that these experiments of Priestley, which were unquestion-
ably the starting-point for all succeeding workers, were the result of some hap-
hazard method of working, and of one of those happy chances to which he is in
the habit of attributing some of his most important discoveries. However much the
element of chance entered into some of his work, and in this respect I think Priestley
often does himself injustice, the discovery of the amelioration of vitiated air by plants
was certainly not a case of this kind. Of all his contemporaries belonging to the
old school of Chemistry Priestley had the clearest conception of the processes of
animal respiration and of their identity with the process of combustion. ‘This is
clearly shown by his ‘Observations on Respiration and the Use of the Blood,’
which he presented to the Royal Society in 1776. This memoir, written of course
from the phlogistic point of view, only requires translating into the language of
the newer Chemistry to be an accurate statement of the main facts of animal
respiration, We have it on Priestley’s own authority that it was these studies
which produced in his mind a conviction that there must be some provision
in nature for dephlogisticating the air which was constantly being vitiated by. the
processes of respiration, combustion, and putrefaction, and for rendering it once
more fit for maintaining animal life. In his search for this compensating influence,
which he justly regarded as one of the most important problems of natural philo-
sophy, he made many attempts to bring back the vitiated air to its original state
by agitating it with water, and by submitting it to the continued action of light
and heat, and it was in the course of these systematic attempts that he was led to
study the influence of plants in this direction.

It was in the month of August, 1771, that he made the memorable experiments
at Leeds of immersing sprigs of mint in air which had been vitiated by the
burning of a candle or by animal respiration. To quote his own words, this obser-
vation led him ‘ to conclude that plants, instead of affecting the air in the same
manner with animal respiration, reverse the effects of breathing, and tend to keep
the atmosphere sweet and wholesome when it is become noxious in consequence
of animals either living or breathing, or dying and putrefying in it. That he was
fully convinced that these observations, which he repeated and amplified in the
following year, presented the true key to the problem, is sufficiently shown by
another passage in which he says: ‘ These proofs of the partial restoration of air
by plants in a state of vegetation, though in a confined and unnatural situation,
cannot but render it highly probable that the injury which is continually done to
the atmosphere by the respiration of such a number of animals, and the putre-
faction of such masses of both vegetable and animal matter, is, in part at least,
repaired by the vegetable creation ; and notwithstanding the prodigious mass of
air that is corrupted daily by the above causes, yet if we consider the immense
profusion of vegetables upon the face of the earth growing in places suited to
their nature, and consequently at full liberty to exert all their powers, both
inhaling and exhaling, it can hardly be thought but that it may be a sufficient
counterbalance to it, and that the remedy is adequate to the evil.’

Between the time of Priestley temporarily relinquishing his experiments in this
direction in 1772, and his resumption of them in 1778, owing to the adverse criti-
cism of Scheele and others, he had discovered dephlogisticated air or oxygen, and
had elaborated his method for ascertaining the purity of air, or its richness in
oxygen, by determining its diminution in volume after mixing with an excess of
nitric oxide over water.!| This method gave of course a much greater degree of
precision to his results than was attainable in his earlier work, where the purity of
the air at the end of an experiment was only determined by ascertaining if it would
support the combustion of a candle or allow a small animal to live in it.

The results of his later work were published in 1779, and were not altogether

1 Nitric oxide was discovered by Priestley in 1772, and was described by him
ander the name of ‘ nitrous air.’

666 REPORT—1899.

confirmatory of those arrived at six years before. It is true that he generally
found evidence of an evolution of oxygen by the plants, but occasionally the air
was less ‘ pure’ at the end of an experiment than it was at the beginning, and this
occurred in a sufficient number of cases to lead Priestley to doubt to some extent
the accuracy of his previous conclusions. On the whole, however, he still thinks it
probable that the vegetation of healthy plants has a salutary effect on the air in
which they grow.

The reason for this want of complete consistency in these later experiments
was, of course, his failure at that time to recognise the important influence of
light in bringing about the evolution of oxygen, an explanation which was given
shortly afterwards by Ingen-Housz.

Priestley’s attention was now taken up with another observation, which led
him within a very short distance indeed of the discovery that the evolution of
oxygen by plants is conditioned not only by a sufficient degree of illumination, but
also by the pre-existence of carbon dioxide. It is the more necessary to treat of
this point somewhat in detail, since it is a part of his work which has received but
scanty justice at the hands of recent writers, who have apparently failed to see
how much our modern conceptions of plant nutrition really owe to the initiative
of Priestley. In his ‘ History of Botany,’ Sachs deals very unfairly with Priestley
in this respect, owing to a want of intimate knowledge of his writings, and to the
lack of anything like perspective in estimating the relative merits of his contem-
poraries Ingen-Housz and Senebier, whose position can only be completely under-
stood after a careful study of their numerous original memoirs, some of which are
by no means readily accessible.

In the course of his experiments on plants partially immersed in water more or
less fully impregnated with ‘fixed air, Priestley had observed a fact which had
not escaped the notice of Bonnet at an earlier date, that bubbles of gas arose spon-
taneously from the leaves and stems, and it occurred to him that an examination of
the nature of this gas by means of his new eudiometric process ought to settle the
question whether plants really do contribute in any way to the purification of
ordinary air. It was in June, 1778, that he put this to the test, and he found that
the air thus liberated was much richer in oxygen than ordinary air. On removing the
plants he found to his astonishment that the water in which they had been placed,
and which had a considerable amount of ‘ green matter’ adhering to the sides of
the phials, still continued to evolve a gas which increased in amount when the
vessels were placed in sunlight. On testing this gas with his eudiometric process,
he found that it consisted to a great extent of ‘dephlogisticated air’ or oxygen ;
in fact, from the experimental results which he gives it is evident that the gas
contained from 74 to 85 per cent. of oxygen. Having observed that the ‘green
matter’ appeared much more readily in pump water than in rain or river water,
and knowing that pump water contained considerable amounts of ‘fixed air, he
was led to make a series of experiments with water artificially impregnated with
carbon dioxide, which left no doubt in his mind that the production of the ‘ green
matter’ and the evolution of dephlogisticated air were in some way due to the
presence of ‘fixed air’ Up to this point Priestley was following a path which
seemed about to lead him to a complete solution of his previous difficulties. He
had beyond all question succeeded in showing not orly that the evolution of oxy-
gen was dependent on the pre-existence of carbon dioxide, but that light was also
required for the process. It only wanted in fact the recognition of the vegetable
nature of the alga which constituted his ‘ green substance’ to bring these observa-
tions into line with his previous work, and to complete a discovery which would
have eclipsed in importance all the others with which Priestley’s name is asso-
ciated. It was just this one step which he most provokingly failed to take. Itis
true that he examined the ‘ green substance’ under the microscope, but owing to
want of skill in the use of the instrument, and also to his defective eyesight, he
was unable to determine its true nature, and unfortunately adopted the view that
it had merely a mechanical action in separating the oxygen from the water, and,
to use his own words, that ‘it was only a circumstance preceding the spontaneous
emission of the air from water.’ He was in fact now inclined to regard the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 667

process as a purely chemical one, due to the direct action of light on the carbon
dioxide dissolved in the water.

But this was by no means Priestley’s final view, as shown by a further descrip-
tion of his experiments on plants set forth in the new edition of his works published
in 1790, where he clearly recognised the error into which he had been led.!
Meanwhile the subject had been taken up by two other observers, Incen-Housz
and Senebier, and in order to thoroughly understand the respective shares which
these men took in advancing our knowledge of the assimilatory process, it is
necessary to consult not only their books but also the numerous scattered memoirs
which appeared at intervals between the years 1779 and 1800.

To Ingen-Housz must unquestionably be awarded the merit of having experi-
mentally demonstrated that the amelioration of the surrounding air by plants is
not, as Priestley at first believed, due to vegetative action per se, but is dependent
on the access of light of a sufficient degree of intensity, and, moreover, that the
power is confined to the green parts of the plants. At the same time, whilst
recognising, as Priestley had done before him, that the combined action of plants
and light on the air was a dephlogisticating process, he did not know, until after
its demonstration by Senebier, that the particular form of phlogisticated air which
was essential to plants was ‘fixed air’ or carbon dioxide. In fact Ingen-Housz had
but a slender knowledge of the chemistry of his day, so much so indeed that he
constantly confuses ‘ phlogisticated air’ or nitrogen with ‘fixed air,’ and attributes
the source of the evolved oxygen either to air imprisoned within the leaf, or, in
the case of submerged plants, to a metamorphosis of the water itself. I must,
however, recall the fact that Ingen-Housz was the first to show that the green
parts of plants in the dark, and the roots both in the light and in darkness, vitiate
the air in the same way as animals do. On the strength of these experiments he
is generally given credit for having first observed the true respiration of plants, but
I cannot avoid the conclusion that, in the controversy which ensued on this point
between Ingen-Housz and Senebier, the adverse criticisms of the latter were well
founded. Whilst not denying that plants in the dark have some mepbitic influence
on the air around them, Senebicr maintained that the greater part of the observed
effect was due to a fermentative action set up in the large bulk of leaves which
Ingen-Housz employed. Certainly some of the results appear to be largely in
excess of those we should now expect to obtain from respiratory processes only.”

Senebier’s work falls between the years 1782 and 1800. The fact that he was
an early convert to the new ideas and generalisations of Lavoisier gives his views
on plant nutrition far greater precision than those of Priestley and Ingen-Housz.
His experiments, for the most part well devised, proved beyond all doubt that the
oxygen disengaged from submerged and insolated plants could not be derived from
air contained in the leaf parenchyma, but that it depended on the pre-existence of
carbon dioxide, and that its evolution was strictly proportional to the amount of
carbon dioxide which the water contained.

‘ The view which was taken by Priestley’s ccntemporaries of his position with
regard to the discovery of the fundamental facts is well exemplified by the following
remarks taken from a paper published by Ingen-Housz in 1784 (Annales de Physique,
xxiv. 44): ‘C’est 4 M. Priestley seul que nous devons la grande découverte que les
végétaux possédent le pouvoir de corriger l’air mauvais, et d’améliorer l’air commun ;
@est lui qui nous en a ouvertla porte. J’ai été assez constamment attaché a ce bean
systéme, dans le temps que lui-méme, par trop peu de prédilection pour ses propres
opinions, paroissoit chanceler.’

* It is by nomeans uncommon to find Ingen-Honsz put forward as the discoverer
of the fixation of carbon by plants from carbon dioxide. This claim is generally
based on certain statements made in his essay on the ‘Food of Plants and the
Renovation of the Soil,’ published in 1796 as an appendix to the outlines
of the fifteenth chapter of the Proposed General Report from the Board of
Agriculture. All that is good and sound in this essay is taken from Senebier’s papers
without any acknowledgment, but, in appropriating ideas which he evidently under-
stands very imperfectly, he has built up a system of plant economy which is almost.
unintelligible. é,

658 REPORT—1899.

Although positive experimental proof was still wanting that aerial plants also
derive their carbon from carbon dioxide, Senebier regarded this as extremely pro-
bable; but, taking into consideration the small amount of this gas present in the
atmosphere, he concluded that it must reach the plant by the roots and leaves
entirely in a state of solution in water.

The work of Priestley, Senebier, and Ingen-Housz fortunately attracted the
attention of a young chemist of high attainments, who, within a period of less than
ten years, did more for the advancement of vegetable physiology than any single
observer before or since his time. Théodore de Saussure, the second of that
illustrious name, and the son of the famous explorer and natural philosopher,
commenced his researches about the year 1796, and in 1804 published his
‘ Recherches Chimiques sur la Végétation,’ a modest little octavo volume of some
500 pages which must certainly take rank as one of the great classics of scientific
literature, and one of the most remarkable books of the century.

De Saussure was a past master in the art of experiment, and the methods
which he devised for demonstrating the influence of water, air, and soil on vegetation
have been the models on which all such investigations have been conducted ever
since. It is indeed very difficult, when reading this masterly essay, to bear in
mind that it was not written fifty or sixty years later than the date on its title-
page, so essentially modern are its modes of expression and reasoning, and so far is
the author in advance of his contemporaries. It is to this work we must
refer for the first experimental proof that plants derive at any rate the greater
part of their carbon from the surrounding atmosphere. This was shown by De
Saussure by a variety of quantitative experiments of a sufficient degree of accuracy
to bring out the great leading facts. By making known mixtures of carbon
dioxide and air, and submitting them to the action of plants in sunlight, he was
able to show not only that the gaseous carbon dioxide was decomposed and the
carbon assimilated, but also that the volume of oxygen disengaged was approxi-
mately equal to that of the carbon dioxide decomposed.! He also showed that
plants growing in the open in moist sand, or in distilled water, and therefore under
conditions in which they could not derive any carbon from other than atmospheric
sources, not only materially increased in dry weight, but contained much more
carbon at the close of the experiment than at the beginning, and had also fixed an
appreciable amount of water in the process. That atmospheric carbon dioxide is
not only beneficial to plants in sunlight, but is also essential to their very existence,
De Saussure proved by introducing an absorbent of this gas into the vessel
containing a plant or the branch of a tree rooted naturally in the soil. Under
these conditions the portions of the plant enclosed always died. He also ascer-
tained by experiment the increase in dry weight of a sunflower plant during
four months of natural growth; and knowing approximately the amount of
water transpired during that period, and the maximum amount of solids which
this transpired water could possibly introduce into the plant, he calculated that
these solids, and the carbon dioxide in solution in the transpiration water, fell
far short of accounting for the observed increase in the dry weight of the plant.
This increase must, therefore, be mainly due to the fixation of atmospheric carbon
dioxide and water.

It is certainly a remarkable fact that the rigid experimental proofs which De
Saussure brought forward in support of his views did not carry conviction to the
minds of every one. His book, however, suffered the fate of many others which
have appeared in advance of their time. It is true that De Saussure’s doctrines
were always kept alive by the advanced physiologists of the French school, such as
De Candolle and Dutrochet, but when Liebig first turned his attention to the
subject he found the field in possession of the humus theory of Treviranus, a theory

? Although clearly indicating that no change of volume occurred in the mixture
of air and carbon dioxide so treated, his tinal analytical results show a small apparent
evolution of nitrogen. This was due to the eudiometric methods he employed—
methods, it is true, far superior in point of accuracy to those of his predecessors, but
still necessarily imperfect.

——e——

ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 669

which no longer took any account of the decomposition of carbon dioxide by the
leaves, but which derived the whole of the elements of the growing plant from a
solution of the soil extract taken up by the roots. We may well say with Sachs,
‘ Nothing can be conceived more deplorable than this theory of nutrition ; it would
have been bad at the end of the seventeenth century, it is difficult to believe
that it could have been published thirty years after De Saussure’s work.’ It
is well known how by the cogency of his reasoning and the force of his
genius Liebig successfully overthrew this heresy, and once more established
the doctrine of carbon assimilation as taught by De Saussure; and the accurate
work of Boussingault, who, whilst elaborating far more delicate analytical
processes than were possessed by chemists in the early days of the century,
still in the main used De Saussure’s methods, gave the final death-blow to
the humus theory, at any rate in the crude form in which it was presented by its
originators. No one since that time has questioned the fact that green plants owe
the greater part of their carbon to atmospheric sources, and the accumulated
experience of two succeeding generations of workers has added proof on proof of
the correctness of this great generalisation.

But whilst it cannot be doubted that green plants devoid of parasitic or sapro-
phytic habit derive the principal part of their carbon from the air, is the experi-
mental evidence at present so complete as to exclude all other sources of supply ?
De Saussure himself certainly left the door open to such a possibility, and although
Boussingault held a different view, we find Sachs as late as 1865 maintaining that
it is not contrary to the generally accepted theory of assimilation to suppose that
there are chlorophyllous plants which decompose carbon dioxide and at the same
time absorb ready-formed organic substances whose carbon they utilise in the
formation of new organs.

Up to comparatively recently there was little or no experimental evidence to
justify this supposition, for the early experiments of De Saussure on the influence
of solutions of sugar, and of other organic substances, on growing plants, although
yery suggestive, were not of a sufficiently precise nature to lead to any conclusions,
and we must come down to within fifteen years of the present time for anything
like a demonstration that the green organs of plants can, under favourable condi-
tions, build up their tissue from already elaborated carbon compounds just as do
the fungi and the non-chlorophyllous plants generally.

The active centres of the decomposition of carbon-dioxide in green leaves are
the chlorophyll corpuscles or chloroplastids, and the first visible indication of this
decomposition is the formation within these chloroplastids of minute granules of
starch whose presence can be shown by suitable micro-chemical means. I have
elsewhere discussed the question of how far the appearance of this starch is depen-
dent on the pre-existence of other carbohydrates of a simpler constitution, and also-
the probability that the whole of the products of assimilation do not necessarily
pass through the form of starch: this is a subject which need scarcely concern us
at the present moment; it is sufficient to draw attention to the main fact that in
an assimilating cell the chloroplastids, in the vast majority of cases, give rise to
these minute starch granules, which once more disappear when the plant is placed
in darkness, or when the air around it is deprived of carbon dioxide. Now in
1883 Bohm made the interesting discovery that when green leaves are placed in
the dark until the starch of their chloroplastids has completely disappeared, there
is a reappearance of starch when the cut end of the leaf-stalk is immersed in a
solution of cane-sugar and of dextrose, or when the leaf is brought directly in
contact with solutions of these substances. He found, in fact, that the elements
of the cell which, under ordinary circumstances, manufacture their materials for
plant growth by the reduction of carbon dioxide under the influence of sunlight,
can, under other conditions, supply their requirements from suitable ready-formed
organic substances. These observations of Bohm were fully confirmed two years
later by Schimper, and were subsequently much extended by A. Meyer and E.
Laurent, who found that fructose, maltose, mannitol, dulcitol, and glycerol could
also contribute directly to the nutrition of leaves.

Bokorny, working with Spiroyyra immersed in dilute solutions, found that

670 ‘REPORT—1899.

starch production in the chlorophyll bodies could be induced by a large number of
organic substances, including, amongst many others, asparagin, citric, tartaric, and
lactic acids, leucine, tyrosine, and peptone.

Very much more to the point are the experiments of Acton, made in 1889, and
the still more recent work ot J. Laurent and of Mazé.

In his experiments on terrestrial plants Acton, after depleting them of
starch, immersed the cut branches or roots, as the case might be, in culture
fluids containing certain organic substances, and took precautions to prevent any
normal assimilation from taking place by depriving the air around the plant of any
trace of carbon dioxide. He was not able to show the direct nutritive influence
of so large a range of substances as Bokorny had done for Spirogyra, but his results
leave no room for doubt that several of the carbohydrates, and even glycerine, can
be absorbed by the roots, and can contribute to the nutrition of the green parts.
Acton tried, amongst other substances, an ‘extract of natural humus, which was
an aqueous solution of the extractives of a light soil which are soluble in dilute
alcohol. This extract was found to be effective in producing a small quantity of
starch in the leaves, and it evidently contained some substance or substances
directly assimilable by the plant.

Apparently without knowing anything of this work of Acton, J. Laurent has
recently made a series of experiments on the culture of the maize plant in mineral
solutions containing saccharose, glucose, or invert-sugar, and in this way has not only
obtained, as Acton had done before him, evidence of the active formation of starch in
the leaves, but has also found a very notable increase in the dry weight of the plant.
Although assimilation of the carbohydrate may under these circumstances go on in
darlmess, Laurent found that the process was much enhanced when light had
access to the plant. Mazé, within the last few months, has obtained even more
pronounced effects of this kind.

When all these new facts are taken into consideration, I think they justify what

{have already said, that we ought to demand more direct evidence than is at present -

available before we accept the view that the majority of chlorophyllous plants
take in the whole of their carbon from the atmosphere. In the cycle of change
which the organic matter of the soil is constantly undergoing under the influence
of micro-organisms, it seems by no means improbable that intermediate substances
may be formed which in some measure directly contribute to the nutrition of the
higher plants, and we must also by no means lose sight of the possible effect, in
the same direction, of the symbiotic union of certain fungi with the root extremi-
ties of many plants, the Mycorhize, whose functions are still so imperfectly
understood. Then, again, we must remember that we have another possible
extra-atmospheric source of carbon dioxide in the transpiration water of the plant,
which is derived from a soil whose gases may contain 5 per cent. or more of carbon
dioxide. From the amount of water transpired in a given time, and an application
of the law of partial pressures, it may be readily shown that the supply of carbon
dioxide to the aérial organs of a plant from this source is by no means negligible.
Before these problems can be attacked for a particular plant with any hope of
success, it is clear that we must have some means of establishing an accurate
debtor and creditor account as between the plant and the surrounding atmosphere,
and this account must extend over a sufficiently long period, and allow of an

1 By far the most interesting and important result of Bokorny is the proof he
gives that formaldehyde is directly assimilable by Spirogyra. His early attempts to
show this had been rendered abortive by the highly poisonous nature of this sub-
stance. The difficulty was surmounted by using a dilute solution of sodium oxy-
methylsulphonate, which on warming with water splits up into formaldehyde and
acid sodium sulphite, To prevent the unfavourable action of the acid sodium sul-
phite, dipotassium or disodium phosphate was added to the plant cultures. In such
a solution, with rigid exclusion of carbon dioxide, Spirogyra majuscula forms starch
in its chlorophyll bodies, but the access of light appears to be necessary.

- The importance of this experiment is very great in connection with Baeyer's
well-known hypothesis that the first act of assimilation is the reduction of carbon
dioxide and water to the state of formaldehyde. ;

i i a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 671

accurate balance being struck with the amount of carbon found in the plant at the
end of the experiment,

Up to within a few years ago we had no means of even approximately deter-
mining the actual rate at which the assimilatory process goes on in a plant other
than that afforded by its increase in weight in a given time. Such experiments,
necessarily extending over weeks or months, can, at the best, only give us certain
average results, and consequently afford no measure of the activity of assimilation
under fixed conditions of insolation. In the year 1884 Sachs, who had for some
time been at work on the formation of starch in leaves under the action of sunlight,
found that the accumulation of freshly assimilated material in a leaf may, under
favourable conditions, go on.so rapidly as to give rise to a very appreciable increase
of weight in the leaf lamina within the short space of a few hours. By obsery-
ing at different times of the day the varying dry weight of equal areas of large
leaves, Sachs obtained an approximate measure of the rate of the assimilatory
process which he could express in terms of actual number of grams of substance
assimilated by a unit area of leaf in unit of time. In this manner he was able to
show, for instance, that a sunflower leaf, whilst still attached to the plant, increases in
weight when exposed to bright sunshine at the hourly rate of about one gram per
square metre of leaf area. In the case of similar leaves detached from the plant,
and of course under conditions in which the products of assimilation were entirely
accumulated in the leaf, he found an increase in weight of rather more than
1} gram per square metre per hour.

I was able to confirm this work of Sachs in the course of an investigation on
the Chemistry of Leaves which I made with Dr. G. H. Morris in 1892-93, and
there can be no doubt that the variations in the weight of leaves can be used as a
fair index of the activity of a leaf in assimilating, but it is not a method which
admits of much refinement of accuracy, owing, amongst other things, to the want
of perfect symmetry in the leaves as regards thickness and density of the lamin
and to the possible migration of the assimilated material into the larger ribs,
which of course cannot be included in the weighings,

It is evident that a far better plan of measuring the rate of assimilation
under varying conditions would ke the estimation of the actual amount of carbon
dioxide entermg a given area of the leaf ina certain time, and it was to the
perfection of a method of this kind that Mr. Escombe and I first turned our
attention.

In all previous attempts to measure the rate of ingress of carbon dioxide, such
as those of Corenwinder, and more recently still of Mr. F. F. Blackman, it has been
necessary to use air containing comparatively large quantities of carbon dioxide,
amounting to 4 per cent. and upwards. Interesting and useful as such experiments
undoubtedly are from the point of view from which they were undertaken, we
must not lose sight of the fact that such conditions are highly artificial, and very
far removed from those under which a plant finds itself in the natural state, where
its leaves are bathed with air containing not 4 or 5 per cent. but only -03 per cent.
of carbon dioxide. I shall have oceasion later on to show how remarkably the rate
of intake of carbon dioxide into a plant is influenced by extremely small variations
in the tension of that gas, and that on this account no deduction can be drawn as
to the rate of assimilation under natural conditions from any experiments in which
the air contains even so small an amount of carbon dioxide as 1 per cent.

Before proceeding further in this direction, however, it will be well to consider
the amount of carbon dioxide which must enter a leaf in a given time in order to
produce an influence on its weight comparable with that indicated by the Sachs
method of weighing definite areas. For this purpose I will consider a leaf with
which we have made many experiments—that of Catalpa bignonioides. It is a
very symmetrical leaf and a good assimilator, and since the intake of carbon
dioxide takes place only on the under side, the question to which I wish to draw
your attention can be stated in a simple manner. When such a leef is subjected
to a modified form of the half-leaf weighing method of Sachs, into the details of
whici I cannot here enter, it may, under favourable conditions, show an increase in
dry weight equal to about one gram per square metre per hour. Since this

672 REPORT—1899.

increase in weight is due almost entirely to the formation of carbohydrates, we
can calculate with a close approximation to accuracy the corresponding amount of
carbon dioxide. This will of course depend, within certain narrow limits, on the
nature of the carbohydrate formed. The formation of a gram of starch requires
1-628 grams of carbon dioxide, whilst an equal amount of a C,H,,0, or a C,,H,,0,,
sugar requires 1-466 and 1:543 grams respectively. From the knowledge we possess
of the nature of the carbohydrates of the leaf, we are quite sure that the mean
of these values, that is 1°545 grams, must be very near the truth. This amount
corresponds to 784 c.c. of carbon dioxide at normal temperature and pressure,
which must represent the volume abstracted by the square metre of leaf
surface in one hour from air containing only three parts of carbon dioxide in
10,000, supposing the method of leaf weighing to give correct results. We shall
see later on that this intake can be verified by direct estimations; it is equivalent
to the total amount of carbon dioxide in a column of air of a cross section equal
to that of the leaf, and of a height of 26 decimetres.

The extraordinary power which an assimilating leaf possesses of abstracting
carbon dioxide from the air is hest shown by comparing it with an equal area of a
freely exposed solution of caustic alkali. We have made a very large number of
experiments on the rate at which atmospheric carbon dioxide can be taken up by a
solution of caustic soda under varying conditions, and have been surprised to find how
constant the absorption is. In a moderately still air a square metre of surface
of such a freely exposed solution will absorb about 1,200 c.c. of carbon dioxide per
hour, and this can only be increased to about 1,500 c.c. even if the dish is exposed
to the full influence of a strong wind out in the open. When the surface of the
liquid is constantly renewed during the experiment by means of a mechanical
stirrer, the rate of absorption is not sensibly affected, providing the agitation does-
not appreciably increase the surface area, and considerable variations in the
strength of the alkaline solution are also without any effect. On the other hand,
slight variations in the tension of the carbon dioxide of the air have a marked
influence on the rate of absorption, and in order to study this point we have
constructed an apparatus which allows us to pass over an absorptive surface of
liquid a current of air in a stratum of known thickness, and with a known average:
velocity.

By trodducing definite amounts of carbon dioxide into this stream of air we
have been able to determine the influence of its tension on the rate of absorption.
At present we have only employed air containing amounts varying from 0°8 to
13 parts per 10,000, that is to say, from about one-quarter to a little more than
four times the amount contained in normal air. Within these limits, and probably
beyond them, the rate of absorption by the alkaline surface is strictly proportional
to the tension of the carbon dioxide in the air current. I shall have occasion to:
show later on that the same rule holds good with regard to an assimilating leaf,
and that in this case also, within certain limits, the intake of the gas is propor-
tional to its tension.

The fact which I wish more particularly to bring out in these comparisons is
that a leaf surface which is assimilating at the rate of one gram of carbohydrate
per square metre per hour is absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide more than half
as fast as the same surface would do of wetted with a constantly renewed film of a
strong solution of caustic alkali.

From what I have just said about the influence of tension on the absorption of
carbon dioxide by an assimilating leaf, it is clear that any attempts to determine
by direct means the natural intake of that gas during assimilation must be made
with ordinary air, and that such experiments can only be carried out on a com-
paratively large scale. We had in the first instance to devise an apparatus which
would rapidly and completely absorb the whole of the carbon dioxide from a
stream of air passing through it at the rate of from 100 to 200 litres per hour,
and at the same time admit of an extremely accurate determination of the
absorbed carbon dioxide.

The absorbing apparatus which we finally adopted is a modification of one
used by Reiset in his estimations of the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere. It

TT.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ‘I, 673

Consists essentially of a glass tube 50 cm. long, fixed vertically in a wide-mouthed
glass vessel furnished with a second aperture and tubulure. The height of the
vertical tube is invariable, but its width is regulated according to the amount of
air required to be drawn through the apparatus in a given time. The bottom of
this tube is closed with a platinum or silver plate pierced with a large number of
very small holes, and two other similar perforated plates are inserted in the tube
at certain intervals. The upper part of the tube is put in connection with an
aspirating water-pump, and the absorbing liquid is placed in the lower glass
yessel, whose second tubulure is connected with the supply of air in which the
carbon dioxide has to be determined. When the aspirator is started the liquid is
first drawn up into the vertical tube, and the air then follows through the perfo-
rated plates which act as ‘scrubbers. Reiset, in his work, used baryta water as
the absorbent, an aliquot part of which was titrated before and after the experi-
ment, the changes in the volume of the liquid being corrected for by certait
devices which I need not describe.

The efficiency of the apparatus as a complete absorber of atmospheric carbon
dioxide leaves nothing to be desired, but in dealing with large quantities of
baryta solution, amounting to 400 c.c. or more, the errors due to inaccurate
titrations, or to over or under estimation of the volume changes, are all thrown
on the final result, of which they may form a considerable part. We have con-
sequently altogether discarded the use of baryta as an absorbent in favour of
caustic soda. The carbonate is estimated by a double titration process, suggested
a few years ago by Hart, and we have succeeded in so far improving this method
that there is no difficulty in determining in 100 c.c. of the alkaline solution an
amount of carbonate corresponding to +4, c.c. of carbon dioxide.

There is practically no limit to the amount of air which can be passed throug¢h
an absorbing apparatus such as I have described, and one of very moderate
dimensions will allow from 100 to 150 litres per hour to pass with perfect safety.
Larger amounts can be dealt with either by increasing the size of the apparatus
or by using several smaller ones arranged in parallel.

With proper precautions, determinations can certainly be made to within
‘02 part of carbon dioxide in 10,000 of air, so that with an apparatus of this
kind it is possible to estimate the intake of carbon dioxide into a leaf or plant
from ordinary atmospheric air, and to keep a sufficiently rapid stream of air
passing over the leaf to maintain the tension of the carbon dioxide only slightly
below the normal amount.

The air is measured by carefully standardised meters, reading to about 20 c.c.;
and since the amounts of air aspirated vary from 100 to 900 litres or more, there
are practically no errors of measurement. The tension at which the air passes
through the absorption apparatus is measured by a manometer, and all the
volumes are reduced to standard temperature and pressure.

All such experiments of course necessitate not only a determination of the
carbon dioxide in the air which has passed over the leaf or plant, but also a
simultaneous determination of the carbon dioxide in the ordinary air used. The
accumulation of these air determinations clearly shows that the ordinary state-
ments of our text-books as to the amount of carbon dioxide and its limits of
variation are altogether misleading.

In our experiments the air was in all cases taken from a height of four feet
six inches from the ground, the amounts aspirated varying from 100 to 500 litres.

In the month of July 1898 the minimum amount of carbon dioxide found was
2-71 parts per 10,000 of air, and the maximum 2°86, During the winter months,
when the ground was almost bare of vegetation, it rose to from 3:00 to 3'23 parts
per 10,000; and on one foggy day, March 16, 1899, after a whole week of similar
weather, we found the very exceptional amount of 3:62. Asa rule we may take
it that the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere during the period of
greatest plant growth rarely falls short of 2:7 parts per 10,000, and rarely exceeds
30 parts, with an average of about 2°85, These numbers come very close to the
determinations of Reiset, and of Miintz and Aubin, and agree also fairly well with
the Montsouris determinations,

1899, seb

674 , REPORT—1899,

If, instead of taking the air from a height of three or four feet from the ground,
we examine the stratum only one or two centimetres above the surface of a soil
free from vegetation, we find, as might be expected, a very large increase in the
amount of carbon dioxide, which may exceed, under these circumstances, 12 or 13
parts-per 10,000 of air. Such a.soil, in fact, gives off by diffusion into the sur-
rounding air an amount of carbon dioxide which is comparable to that evolved
by a respiring leaf, that is to say about 50 c.c. per square metre per hour. This
is probably a factor which has to be taken into account in considering the assimi-
lative power of vegetation of very low growing habit, but in all other cases we
may assume with safety that aérial plants have to take in their carbon dioxide
from air in which its tension does not exceed ;5%5, of an atmosphere.

The actual intake of carbon dioxide is determined by enclosing the entire leaf
in specially constructed air-tight glazed cases, through which a sufficiently rapid
air stream is passed. These cases are so arranged that the leaf can be enclosed
whilst still attached to a plant which is growing out in the open under perfectly
natural conditions, and some of them are sufficiently large to take the entire leaf
of a sunflower.

The carbon dioxide content of the air is determined both before and after its
passage through the apparatus, and since the amount of air passed is known we
have all the data requisite for, determining the actual amount retained by the
leaf.

An experiment generally lasts from five to six hours, and the carbon dioxide
fixed in this time may amount to 150 c.c. or more, the actual error of determina-
tion being very small indeed.

For purposes of comparison the volumes are reduced to the actual number of
cubic centimetres of the gas absorbed by a square metre of leaf in one hour, which
of course necessitates an exact determination of the area of the leaf. This is most
conveniently effected by printing the leaf on sensitised paper, and tracing round
its. outline with a planimeter set to read off square centimetres—a far more
accurate and expeditious plan than that of cutting out a facsimile of the leaf from
paper of a known weight per unit of area.

If it is desired to estimate the assimilative power of a leaf in an atmosphere
artificially enriched with carbon dioxide, the air stream before entering the leaf
case is passed through a small tower containing fragments of marble, over which
there drops a very slow stream of dilute acid, whose rate of flow is so propor-
tioned to the air stream as to give about the desired enrichment with carbon
dioxide. The stream of air is then divided, one part going on directly to the leaf
case, whilst the other passes through a separate absorption apparatus and meter
for the accurate determination of its carbon dioxide content.

In order to show the kind of results obtained in this manner I will give one or
two examples.

A leaf oi the sunflower, having an area of 617°5 sq. c.m., was enclosed in its
case whilst still attached to the plant, and was exposed to the strong diffuse light
of a clouded sky for five and a half hours, air being passed over it at the rate of
nearly 150 litres per hour. The content of the air in carbon dioxide as it entered
the apparatus was 2°80 parts per 10,000, and this was reduced to 1:74 parts per
10,000 during its passage over the leaf. This corresponds to a total absorption of
139°95 c.c. of carbon dioxide, or to an intake of 412 c.c. per square metre per
hour. If we assume that the average composition of the carbohydrates formed is
that of a C,H,,0, sugar, the above amount of carbon dioxide corresponds to the
formation of 0°55 gram of carbohydrate per square metre per hour. But we must
bear in mind that the average tension of the carbon dioxide in the leaf case was
only equal to 1-98 parts per 10,000—that is, only about seven-tenths of its tension
in the normal air. A correction has therefore to be made if we wish to know how
much the leaf would have taken in, under similar conditions of insolation, if it had
been bathed with a current of air of sufficient rapidity to practically keep the
amount of carbon dioxide constant at its normal amount of 2°8 per 10,000. We
shall see later on that, well within the limits of this experiment, the intake is
proportional to the tension, so that applying this correction we may conclude that

—_ Fs

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 675

under identical conditions of insolation and temperature this leaf would have taken
in an amount of carbon dioxide from the free air at a rate sufficient to produce
0°8 gram of carbohydrate per square metre per hour. This is almost exactly equal
to the assimilation rate of the sunflower which I deduced in 1892 from the indirect
process of weighing equal areas of the leaf lamina before and after insolation, and
it also agrees fairly well with some of Sachs’s original experiments of a similar
nature,

In another experiment made with the leaf of Catalpa bignonioides in full sun-
light the amount of carbou dioxide in the air passing over the leaf fell from 2°80
to 1:79 parts per 10,000, the total hourly intake for the square metre being
344'8 c.c. When this is corrected for tension it corresponds to an assimilation in
free air of 0:55 gram of carbohydrate per square metre per hour,

An increase in the intensity of the daylight, as might be expected, influences to
some extent the rate of intake of atmospheric carbon dioxide ; but providing the
illumination has reached a certain minimum amount, a further increase in the
radiant energy incident on the leaf does not result in anything like a proportional
amount of assimilation. We have found, for instance, that the rate of assimilation
of a sunflower leaf, exposed to the clear northern sky on a warm summer’s day,
was about one-half of what it was when the leaf was turned round so as to receive
the direct rays of the sun almost normal to its surface. Now in this latter case
the actual radiant energy received by the leaf was at least twelve times
greater than was received from the northern sky, but the assimilation was only
doubled.

These differences in the effect of great variation of illumination become still
less marked when we use air which has been artificially enriched with carbon
dioxide. In one instance of this kind, for example, we found the assimilation in
the full diffuse light of the northern sky to be 87 per cent. of what it was in
direct sunshine.

This brings me to another interesting point on which I have already touched
slightly—the enormous influence which slight changes in the carbon dioxide con-
tent of the air exert on the rate of its ingress into the assimilating leaf.

With a constant illumination, either in direct sunlight or diffuse light, the
assimilatory process responds to the least variation in the carbon dioxide, and
within certain limits, not yet clearly defined, the intake of that gas into the leaf
follows the same rule as the one which holds good with regard to the absorption
of carbon dioxide by a freely exposed surface of a solution of caustic alkali; that
is to say, from air containing small but variable quantities of carbon dioxide the
intake is directly proportional to the tension of that gas.

A single experiment will be sufficient to illustrate this,

A large sunflower leaf, still attached to the plant, and exposed to a clear
northern sky, gave an assimilation rate equal to 0°331 gram of carbohydrate per
square metre per hour, when air was passed containing an average amount of 2:22
parts of carbon dioxide per 10,006. When the experiment was repeated under
similar conditions of illumination, but with air containing 14:82 parts of CO, per
10,000, the intake corresponded to an hourly formation of 2:409 grams of carbo-
hydrate per square metre. The ratio of the tensions of the carbon dioxide in the
two experiments is 1 to 6-7, and the assimilatory ratio is 1 to 7-2, so that the
increased assimilation is practically proportional to the increase in tension of the
carbon dioxide.

Since an increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere surrounding a leaf is
followed by increased assimilation even in diffuse daylight, it is clear that, under
all ordinary conditions of illumination, the rays of the right degree of refrangibility
for producing decomposition of carbon dioxide are largely in excess of the power
of the leaf to utilise them. Under natural conditions this excess of radiant energy
of the right wave-length must, from the point of view of the assimilatory process,
be wasted, owing to the limitation imposed by the high degree of dilution of
atmospheric carbon dioxide. But although the actual manufacture of new material
within the leaf lamina is so largely infiuenced by small variations in the carbon

dioxide of the air, we are not justified in concluding that the plant as a whole will

xXx2

676 REPoRT—1899,

necessarily respond to such changes in atmospheric environment, sin¢e the complex
physiological changes involved in metabolism and growth may have become go inti-
mately correlated that the perfect working of the mechanism of the entire plant
mny now ouly be possible in an atmosphere containing about three parts of carbon
dioxide in 10,000.

We have commenced a series of experiments which will, I hope, throw con-
siderable light on this point, but the work is not at present in a sufficiently
advanced state for me to make more than a passing allusion to it.

The penetration of the highly diluted carbon dioxide of the atmosphere into
the interior air-spaces of the leaf on its way to the active centres of assimilation
must, in the first instance, be a purely physical process, and no explanation of this
can be accepted which does not conform to the physical properties of the gases
involved.

Since there is no mechanism in the leaf capable of producing an ebb and flow
of gases within the air-spaces of the mesophyll in any way comparable with the
movements of the tidal air in the lungs of animals, and since also the arrangement
of the stomatic openings is such as to effect a rapid equalisation of pressure within
and without the leaf, we must search for the cause of the gaseous exchange, not in
any mass movement, but in some form of diffusion. This may take place in the
form of open diffusion through the minute stomatic apertures, which are in com-
munication both with the outer air and the intercellular spaces, or the gaseous
exchange may take place through the cuticle and epidermis by a process of gaseous
osmosis, similar to that which Graham investigated in connection with certain
colloid septa.

For many years there has been much controversy as to which form of gaseous
diffusion is the more active in producing the natural interchanges of gases in the
leaf. The present occasion is not one in which full justice can be done to the large
amount of experimental work which has from time to time been carried out in this
direction. Up to comparatively recently the theory of cuticular osmosis has been
the one which has been more commonly accepted, free diffusion through the open
stomata being considered quite subsidiary. In 1895, however, Mr. F. F. Black-
man brought forward two remarkable papers which opened up an entirely new
aspect of the subject. After showing the fallacy underlying certain experiments
of Boussingault, which had been generally supposed to prove the osmotic theory
of exchange, Mr. Blackman gave the results of his own experiments with a new
and beautifully constructed apparatus, which enabled him to measure very minute
quantities of carbon dioxide given off from small areas of the upper and under sides
of a respiring leaf, and also to determine the relative intake of carbon dioxide by the
two surfaces during assimilation in air artificially charged with that gas, The
conclusions drawn are that respiratory egress, and assimilatory ingress of carbon
dioxide, do not occur in the upper side of a leaf if this is devoid of stomatic open-
ings, and that when these openings exist on both the upper and under sides the
gaseous exchanges of both physiological processes are directly proportional to the
number of stomata on equal areas; hence in all probability the exchanges take
place only through the stomata."

These observations of Mr. Blackman are of such far-reaching importance, and
lead, as'we shall see presently, to such remarkable conclusions with regard to the
rate of diffusion of atmospheric carbon dioxide, that we felt constrained to inquire
into the matter further, and for this purpose we employed a modified form of the
apparatus which we have used throughout our work on assimilation. This was so

1 There is one important fact to be borne in mind when considering how far these
observations exclude the possibility of cuticular osmosis. In the many leaves we
have examined, Mr. Escombe and I have found that the occurrence of stomata on
the upper surface of the leaf is always correlated with a much less dense palisade
parenchyma. The cuticle and epidermis under these conditions are in a much more
favourable state to allow carbon dioxide to pass into the leaf by osmosis than when
the closely packed palisade cells abut against the epidermis, as they do when this is
imperforate.

i

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. . OFF

arranged that a current of ordinary air could be passed, just as in Mr. Blackman’s
experiments, over the upper and lower surface of a leat separately, the increase or
decrease in the carbon dioxide content of the air being determined by absorption
and titration in the manner [ have already alluded to.

In this way we were able to employ comparatively large leaf areas, and to con-
tinue an experiment for several hours, so that we had relatively large amounts of
carbon dioxide to deal with, and the ratios of gaseous exchange of the two sides
of the leaf could consequently be determined with considerable accuracy.

Our results, on the whole, are decidedly confirmatory of Mr. Blackman’s
observations. The side of a leaf which is devoid of stomatic openings certainly
neither allows any carbon dioxide to escape during respiration, nor does it permit
the ingress of that gas when the conditions are favourable for assimilation. On
the other hand, when stomata exist on both the upper and under sides of a leaf
gaseous exchanges take place through both surfaces, and, as a rule, in some sor
of rough proportion to the distribution of the openings. There is, however, under
strong illumination, a greater intake of carbon dioxide through the upper surface
than would be expected from a mere consideration of the ratio of distribution of
the stomata.! Nevertheless, the general connection between gaseous exchange
and distribution of stomata is so well brought out that we must regard it as highly
probable that these minute openings are the true paths by which the carbon
dioxide enters and leaves the leaf. ;

We must now look at certain physical consequences which proceed from this
assumption, and see how far they can be justified by the known or ascertainable
properties of carbon dioxide at very low tensions.

The leaf of Catalpa brgnonioides is hypostomatic, and therefore takes in carbon
dioxide only by its lower surface. Under favourable conditions it is quite possible,
during assimilation, to obtain an intale of atmospheric carbon dioxide into this leat
at the rate of 700 c.c. per square metre per hour (measured at U° and 76U mm.),
corresponding to an average linear velocity of the carbon dioxide molecules of 3°8
centimetres per minute, supposing the intake to be distributed evenly over the
whole cf the lower leaf surface. This velocity is aimost exactly one-half of that
at which carbon dioxide will enter a freely exposed surface of a solution of caustic
alkali. But if the intake of the gas is confined to the stomatic openings of the
leaf, its velocity of ingress must be very much greater than this.

We have curefully determined the number of stomata occurring on a given
area of this particular leat, and also the dimensions of the openings, and find that
the total area of the openings, supposing them to be dilated to the fullest possible
extent, amounts to just under one per cent. of the leaf surface. It follows from
this that the average velocity of the atmospheric carbon dioxide in passing through
these openings must be 380 centimetres per minute, that is to say, just fifty times
greater than into a freely exposed absorbent surface of alkali. In other words,

1 Granted that the stomata constitute the paths of gaseous exchange, it is clear that
the amount of diffusion through them, other things being equal, must depend very
largely on the extent to which they are opened. The delicate self-regulating appa-
ratus which governs the size of the openings is so readily influenced, amongst other
things, by differences of illumination, that @ priori we should not expect the stomata
on the upper surface of an insolated leaf to be in the same condition as those of the
more shaded lower surface. This may very well account for the stomatic ratio of
the two sides not being in closer correspondence with the assimilatory ratios, as
found in most of our experiments carried out in bright sunlight. In light of lesser
intensity there is always a closer correspondence of the two ratios.

There is also another possible explanation of the fact. Since we have good
reason to believe that the principal part of the assimilatory work is carried on by
the palisade parenchyma, which occurs in the upper side of the leaf, the tension of
the carbon dioxide in the air spaces of that part of the mesophyll is probably less
than it is in the spongy parenchyma. There will, therefore, be a higher ‘diffusion
gradient’ between the carbon dioxide of the outer and inner air in the former case
than in the latter, and this would certainly tend to a more rapid diffusion through
the openings in the upper side of the leaf, ‘

6fa°. REPORT—-1899.

supposing every one of the stomatic openings of this leaf could be filled up with a
solution of caustic alkali, the absorbent power of the leaf as a whole would only
be #4 of what it actually is when assimilating.

These are some of the consequences which flow from an acceptance of the
hypothesis of stomatic exchange, and it appeared to be impossible to accept that
hypothesis unreservedly without some collateral evidence that these comparatively
nigh velocities of diffusion are physically possible when dealing with such low
gradients of tension as must necessarily exist when the highest amount of carbon
dioxide does not exceed ‘03 per cent.

The well-known general law expressing the rate of the spontaneous inter-
mixture of two gases when there is no intervening septum, was, as every one
knows, established by Graham, and the more elaborate investigations of Loschmidt
many years later served to confirm the general accuracy of this law, and to show
that, within very narrow limits, the diffusion constant varies in different gases
inversely as the square roots of their densities.

But a mere knowledge of the diffusion constants of air and carbon dioxide does
not, as far as I can see, materially assist us in the particular case we have under
consideration. In order to gain some idea of what is actually possible in the way
of stomatic diffusion in an assimilating leaf, we must know something of the actual
rate at which atmospheric carbon dioxide can be made to pass into a small chamber
containing air at the outside tension, but in which the carbon dioxide is kept down
almost to the vanishing point by some rapid process of absorption; and we must
also determine the influence of varying the size of the aperture through which the
diffusion takes place.

Our attempts to answer these questions experimentally have led us into a long
investigation, which promises to be of wider interest than we had first imagined.
I only propose to give on this occasion a general account of the results so
far as they affect the physical question of the intake of carbon dioxide into the ~
plant.

When a shallow vessel containing a solution of caustic alkali is completely’
covered, the air above the liquid is very speedily deprived of the whole of its carbon
dioxide. If we now imagine a hole to be made in the cover of the vessel, carbon
dioxide will enter the air-space by free diffusion, and its amount can be very accu-
rately determined by subsequent titration in the manner I have previously referred
to. The time occupied by the experiment and the dimensions of the aperture being
known, we can express the results in actual amounts of carbon dioxide passing
through unit area of aperture in unit of time; or, since the tension of that gas in
the outer air is known, we can express the average rate of the carbon dioxide
molecules across the aperture in terms of actual measurement, say centimetres per
minute,

We have made a very large number of experiments of this kind, using, in the
first instance, dishes of about 9 cm. in diameter, and varying the size of the holes
in the cover, the air-space over the absorbent liquid being always the same.

The accompanying curve, fig. 1, illustrates the effect which a gradually
decreasing orifice has on the rate of diffusion of atmospheric carbon dioxide under
these conditions. The diameters of the orifice in millimetres are given on the
abscissa line, and the rates of diffusion through equal areas of the apertures are
taken as ordinates, the rate of absorption in the open dish under similar conditions
being taken as unity.

lt will be seen that in the first instance a gradual reduction of the diameter of
the opening is accompanied by a very regular increase in the rate of passage of the
carbon dioxide until a diameter of about 50 mm. is reached; that is to say, up to a
point at which about two-thirds of the area of the dish is covered. A further
progressive diminution in the size of the aperture makes comparatively little
difference in the diffusion rate until we reach about 20 mm., beyond which the
om again begins to rise, increasing rapidly in steepness as the apertures become
smaller,

The experiments with open dishes are too crude for a study of the influence of
very small apertures, so for this part of our work we constructed a special form of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Bb, 679

apparatus which has enabled us to determine the relative rates of diffusion through
orifices in thin metal plates ranging down to 1 mm. in diameter.

I have plotted the results of such a series of experiments (see fig. 2), showing
the relative rates of diffusion of atmospheric carbon dioxide through equal areas of
apertures between 20 mm. and 1 mm. in diameter, under constant conditions, and
it will be noticed how very steep the curve becomes after diameters of 5 or 6 mm.
are reached.

The speed at which the diffusion of atmospheric carbon dioxide takes place

Fig. 1.

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 S5 60 G5 70 75 60 85 90 M7).

~

through unit area of an orifice of 1 mm. in diameter is just sixteen times as fast as
it is through unit area of an aperture of 20 mm.; and since we know that the rate
of passage in the latter case is two and a half times greater than the alsorption
rate of an equal area of a freely exposed surface of a solution of caustic alkali, we
arrive at the conclusion that, under the particular conditions of our experiment,
the diffusion rate through an aperture of 1 mm. is forty times greater than the
tate of absorption of a free alkaline surface of equal area,

680 REPORT—1599,

This corresponds to an actual average rate of passage of the molecules of the
atmospheric carbon dioxide of about 266 centimetres per minute.

Now, we have already seen, in the case of a Catalpa leaf, that if the gaseous
exchange during assimilation goes on only through the stomatic openings, we
require a minimum velocity of something like 380 centimetres per minute, a velocity
which we are sensibly approaching in our experiments with apertures of about
1 mm. in diameter. But the effective area of a stomatic opening of the Catalpa
leaf is equal to that of a circle with a diameter of less than ;45 mm., and since our
experiments indicate a very rapid increase in the velocity of diffusion as the aperture
is diminished, it is clear that no difficulty, as regards the physics of the question, can
be raised against the idea that atmospheric carbon dioxide reaches the active
centres of assimilation by a process of free diffusion through the leaf stomata.

One of the most interesting problems connected with plant assimilation relates
to the efficiency of a green leaf as an absorber and transformer of tne radiant
energy incident upon it.

It is already well known that the actual amount of energy stored up in the
products of assimilation bears a very small proportion to the total amount reaching
the leaf: in other words, the leaf, regarded from a thermo-dynamic point of view,
is a machine with a very low ‘economic coefficient.’ We require, however, to
know much more than this, and to ascertain, amongst other things, how the
efficiency of the machine varies under different conditions of insolation, and in
atmospheres containing varying amounts of carbon dioxide.

The measure of the two principal forms of work done within the leaf, the
vaporisation of the transpiration water on the one hand, and the reduction of
carbon dioxide and water to the form of carbohydrates on the other, can be ascer-
tained by modifying our experiments in such a manner as to allow the transpiration
water to be determined, as well as the intake of carbon dioxide.

For the actual measurement of the total energy incident on the leaf under |

various conditions we are now using one of Professor Callendar’s recording
radiometers of specially delicate construction, which will be ultimately calibrated
in calories. This instrument gives promise of excellent results, but up to the
present time the work we have done with it is not sufficiently advanced for me to
describe. We may, however, obtain a very fair idea of the variation in the
efficiency of a leaf from one or two examples in which the amount of incident
energy was deduced from other considerations.

In the case of a sunflower leaf exposed to the strong sunlight of a brilliant day
in August the average amount of radiant energy falling on the leaf during the five
hours occupied by the experiment was estimated at 600,000 calories per square
metre per hour. The average hourly transpiration of water during that time was
at the rate of 275 c.c. per square metre, and the assimilated carbohydrate, estimated
by the intake of carbon dioxide, was at the rate of 0°8 gram per square metre per
hour.

The vaporisation of 275 c.c. of water must have required the expenditure of
166,800 calories, and the endothermic production of 0:8 gram of carbohydrate
(taking the heat of combustion at 4,000 gram calories) corresponds to the absorp-
tion of 3,200 calories. Thus, as the final result under these particular conditions
of experiment, we find that the leaf has absorbed and converted into internal work
about 28 per cent. of the total radiant energy incident on it, 27:5 per cent. being
used up in the vaporisation of water, and only one-half per cent. in the actual
work of assimilation.

In strong diffure light, such as that from a northern sky on a clear summer's
day, the leaf has a higher ‘economic coefficient,’ using that term in rela-~
tion to the permanent storage of energy in the assimilatory products. In one
instance of this kind in which the total energy received by the leaf was approxi-
mately 60,000 calories per square metre per hour, it was found that 96 c.c. of
water were evaporated and 0°41 gram of carbohydrate was formed for the same
area and time. This indicates an absorption and utilisation by the leaf of some-
thing like 95 per cent. of the incident energy, of which 2°7 per cent. has been made

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 681

use of for actual work of assimilation as against 0°5 per cent. in brilliant sun-
shine.!

From what I have said previously about the effect of increased tension of
carbon dioxide on the rate of assimilation, it must follow that the ‘efficiency’ of a
leaf as regards the permanent storage of energy must, ceteris paribus, be increased
when small additions of that gas are made to the surrounding air.

In one such instance, in which the air had been enriched with carbon dioxide
to the extent of about five and a half times the normal amount, it was estimated
that the ‘efficiency’ of the leaf for bright sunshine was raised from 0°5 to 2-0 per
cent.

Up to the present we have been regarding the efficiency of the assimilatory
mechanism of a plant in reference to the total energy of all grades which falls upon
the leaf. It is of course well known that the power of decomposing carbon dioxide
is limited to rays of a certain refrangibility, and the researches of Timiriazeff,
Engelmann, and others leave little room to doubt that the rays of the spectrum
which are instrumental in producing the reaction in the chloroplastids have a dis-
tinct relation to the absorption bands of the leaf-chlorophyll. By far the greater
amount of the assimilatory work, probably more than 90 per cent. of it, is effected
by the rays which correspond to the principal absorption band in the red, lying
between wave lengths 6,500 and 6,975.2 If, therefore, we express the distri-
bution of energy in a normal solar spectrum in the form of a curve, we have
the means of approximately determining the ma.zimum theoretical efficiency of a
green leaf, that is to say, the maximum amount of assimilatory work which could
be produced, supposing the conditions so favourable as to admit of the whole of
the energy corresponding to this absorption band being stored up within the leaf.

It is not without interest to get an approximate idea of this theoretical
maximum.

For this purpose I have here reproduced a curve given by Professor S, P. Langley,
representing the distribution of energy at the sea-level in the normal spectrum
of a vertical sun shining in a clear sky. The total amount of incident energy
represented by the whole area of the curve is 1:7 calories per square centimetre per
minute, or 1,020,000 calories per square metre per hour.

I have drawn a thick black vertical band in the red end of the spectrum corre-
sponding in position and breadth with the principal absorption band of chlorophyll
as seen in a green leaf. By integration it may be shown that the area of this part
of the curve is about 6-5 per cent. of that of the whole curve, so that this value
represents something like the theoretical maximum efficiency of a leaf in bright
vertical sunshine, supposing the conditions could be made so favourable as to

' The principal factor which determines the amount of transpiration in a plant
must be the amount of radiation falling on it. It is essential that the water-bearing
mechanism should be able to keep up a good supply of water to the leaf lamina in
order to prevent the temperature rising to a dangerously high point. This ‘ safety
valve’ function of the transpiration current is not always sufficiently borne in mind,
and we are too apt to think that the plant requires these enormous amounts of water
in order to supply itself with the requisite mineral salts. The absolute necessity for
the supply as a dissipator of energy will become evident by taking one or two facts
into consideration. A square metre of the lamina of the leaf of a sunflower weighs
about 250 grams, and its specific heat is about 0-9. We have seen that the hourly
transpiration in bright sunshine may be as much as 275 c.c. per square metre, re-
quiring the expenditure of 162,800 calories, and it therefore follows that, if the loss
of water were stopped, thetemperature of the leaf would rise at the rate of more than
12° C. per minute. In making our experiments in glazed cases it has sometimes been
very interesting to watch the result of any accidental stoppage of the water-current
in the leaf-stalk, and the almost instantaneous effect this has in destroying the leaf
when the insolation is of high intensity.

2 These limits are those of the band as measured by passing sunlight through the
leaf itself. In an alcoholic solution of chlorophyll the band lies between A 6,400 and
A 6,850. I must here express my thanks to Mr. Charles A. Schunck for having kindly
undertaken to make these measurements for me.

682 REPORT—1899,

result in a complete filtering-out and utilisation of the whole of the rays of the
right period for producing decomposition of carbon dioxide.

Fig, 3,

Ee ate

“3
SUS

i e
LES See

ow os

O—-tore

This maximum efficiency expressed in calories per square metre per hour is
66,300, corresponding to the heat of formation of about 16°5 grams of carbo-
hydrate. Under the most favourable conditions we have employed up to the present
we have not obtained a larger production than about 3-0 grams of carbohydrate per
square metre per hour, or about 18 per cent. of the theoretical maximum ; but this
was in air containing only 16°4 parts of carbon dioxide per 10,000, which must be
very far below the true optimum amount.

The brilliant discoveries of recent years on the constitution and synthesis of
the carbohydrates have not brought us sensibly nearer to an explanation of the
first processes of the reduction of carbon dioxide in the living plant. The hypo-
thesis of Baeyer still occupies the position it did when it was first put forward
nearly thirty years ago, although it has, it is true, received a certain amount of
support from the observations of Bokorny, who found that formaldehyde can,
under certain conditions, contribute to the building up of carbohydrates in the
chloroplasts.

The changes which go on in the living cell are so rapid, and are of such a com-
plex kind, that there seems little or no hope of ascertaining the nature of the first
steps in the process unless we can artificially induce them under much simpler
conditions.

The analogy which exists between the action of chlorophyll in the living plant
and that of a chromatic sensitiser in a photographic plate, was, I believe, first
pointed out by Captain Abney, and was more fully elaborated by Timiriazeff, who
was inclined to regard chlorophyll as the sensitiser par excellence, since it absorbs
and utilises for the assimilatory process the radiations corresponding approxi-
mately to the point of maximum energy in the normal spectrum. The view
which Timiriazeff has put forward, that there is a mere physical transference
of vibrations of the right period from the absorbing chlorophyll to the reacting
carbon dioxide and water, is, I think, far too simple an explanation of the
facts. Chromatic sensitisers have been shown to act by reason of their antece-
dent decomposition and not by direct transference of energy, and the same
probably holds good with regard to chlorophyll, which is also decomposed by the
rays which it absorbs. We must probably seek for the first and simplest stages
of the assimilatory process in the interaction of the reduced constituents of the
chlorophyll and the elements of carbon dioxide and water, the combinations so
formed being again split up in another direction by access of energy from
without.

The failure of all attempts to produce such a reaction under artificial condi-
tions is, I think, to be accounted for by the neglect of one very important factor.
We are dealing with a reaction of a highly endothermic nature, which is
probably also highly reversible, and on this account we cannot expect any sensible

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 685

accumulation of the products of change unless we employ some means for removing
them from the sphere of action as fast as they are formed.

In the plant this removal is provided for by the living elements of the cell, by
the chloroplast, assisted no doubt by the whole of the cytoplasm. We have here,
in fact, the analogue of the ehemical sensitisers of a photographic plate, which act as
halogen absorbers and so permit a sensible accumulation of effect on the silver salts,

When we have succeeded in finding some simple chemical means of fixing the
initial products of the reduction of carbon dioxide, then, and then only, may we
hopefully look forward to reproducing in the laboratory the first stages of the great
synthetic process of Nature on which the continuance of all life depends.

The following Paper and Reports were read :—

1. The Solidification of Hydrogen. By Professor J. Dewar, F.2.S.

2. Report on a New Series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the
Elements. See Reports, p. 257.

3. Interim Report on the Continuation of the Bibliography of Spectroscopy.
See Reports, p. 256.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15,
The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report on the Relation between the Absorption Spectra and Chemical
Constitution of Organic Bodies. See Reports, p. 316,

2. Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives. See Reports, p. 362.

3. A Discussion on the Laws of Substitution, especially in Benzenoid
Compounds. Opened by Professor H. E. Anmstrone, £.2.8.

1. In considering the formation of substitution derivatives from benzene and
allied compounds, it is necessary to account for the very distinct behaviour of
substances containing compound acid radicles (ze. radicles which in combination
with OH form acids), which yield a large proportion of meta- derivative, whilst
compounds containing other radicles yield ortho- and para-, and little if any
meta- derivative. But no absolute distinction can be drawn, as much depends on
the conditions under which the change takes place, a considerable proportion of
meta- derivative being obtained, for example, from aniline by nitrating it in pre-
sence of a large excess of sulphuric acid.

2. In the case of an amino- compound, it is possible to trace the action through
a series of stages. Thus in sulphonating aniline, the sulphate first undergoes
conversion into sulphamic acid, and this is converted into either ortho- or para-
sulphonic acid, according to the conditions under which it is placed.

3. The process involved in the passage of sulphamic into sulphonic acid may
be regarded as one of wsomeric change—t.e. it may be supposed that the SO,H
group wanders from one part of the molecule to another, without leaving the
system and temporarily entering into some other form of combination.

In favour of this view is the fact that sulphonic acids are produced by
the action of a sulphite on nitro- compounds under conditions which render the

684 REPORT—1899.

occurrence of independent sulphonation of the nucleus, to say the least, unlikely ;
it is scarcely possible to doubt that in such cases the sulphamate is an intermediate
product, as phenylhydroxylamine is converted into phenylsulphamie acid by the
action of sulphur dioxide (Bamberger).

4, The possibility of isomeric change occurring in such a case cannot be
denied in view of the fact that secondary nitrosamines, for example, are converted
into paranitrosamines by the action of acids, and of the many similar cases of
change which have been brought to light in recent years by Bamberger, Hautzsch,
and others. '

In many such cases the change is so complete that it is impossible to believe
that the radicle which wanders 1s first displaced from the molecule, and that the
compound which is formed from it then enters into action with the molecule trom
which it was derived: for example, that in the case of the nitrosamines referred
to the nitroso- group is split off in the form of nitrous acid, which then acts so as
to form a para-nitroso- derivative ; or, again, that when pariodo-orthonitrophenetol
is formed on nitrating orthiodophenetol the iodine becomes separated from the
molecule and then attacks it afresh.

Moreover, bearing in mind the extreme readiness with which change takes
place, for example, in the case of the formation of parachloracetanilide from the
compound PhNClAc, or of sulphanilic from phenylsulphamic acid, it is difficult
to believe that the formation of the one compound is not a necessary stage in the
formation of the other: the readine-s with which the substituted benzenoid com-
pound is obtained is so great that it is to be expected that both compounds would
be formed together if they were independent products of the action of a single
agent—just as, in fact, often happens in the case of para- and ortho- compounds.

5. It is very difficult to form any precise conception of the manner in which
such ‘isomeric changes’ are brought about. Something more than a mere inter-
change of position of the radicles is involved in them: some agent intervenes ; but
the operation of the agent is easily overlooked, as only a minute quantity suffices
in many Cases, the action being ‘ fermentative’ in character.

6. Very probably the peculiar structure of benzene and the tendency to pass
from the centric to an ethenoid form and back again is the determining cause of
the change ; maybe the function of the transforming agent is to bring about the
change from the centric to a highly unstable ethenoid form, and the radicles change
places at the moment that the agent is extruded from the compound and the
system relapses into the centric form. A rough parallel is afforded by the well-
known game of chairs, in which chairs are provided for all but one of a number of
players ; at a given signal all rise up and join their seatless companions, and then
at another signal all seek to obtain seats: at this moment players are somewhat
guided in their choice of places by the desire of certain couples to sit together ; even-
tually the seats are again all occupied, but the order of the occupants is different, and
as before one remains out.

7. Only primary and secondary amines can furnish sulphamic acids, and their
formation is necessarily impossible in the case of tertiary amines ; but it can scarcely
be doubted that these are converted in the first instance into a sulphonated
ammonium compound. Theformation of o- and p- dimethylanilinesulphonic acids
from dimethylaniline oxide and sulphur dioxide cannot well be otherwise inter-
preted, and in fact is so formulated by Bamberger:

Me,PhN(OH), + SO, = Me,PhN(OH). SO,H.

8. Bamberger assumes that the formation of para-sulphonic acid from sul-
phamic acid is preceded by that of the ortho- acid, but in view of the stability of
the ortho- acid this is improbable ; it is to be expected that it would in a large
measure persist under the conditions which, as a matter of fact, entail the pro-
duction of only the para- acid. Thus, if acetanilide be carefully sulphamated, the
product poured on to ice, and the solution then boiled, only sulphanilic acid is
obtained ; but if the solution of sulphamic acid in sulphuric acid be allowed to
pia ais ane very gradually at a low temperature, a large proportion of ortho- acid
is formed.

a a i i

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 685

Apparently the ortho- acid is formed from the sulphamic acid if the sulpho-
group be, as it were, let down gently ; otherwise the para- acid is produced.

When the ortho- is converted into the para- acid by heating it with sulphuric
acid, probably it is first hydrolysed, and sulphamie acid is then formed, and this in
turn undergoes conversion into para- acid.

9. Whatever the changes invclved in the production of ortho- and para- com-
pounds, the nitrogen in amino- compounds clearly exercises both an attractive and
a directive influence.

The nature, and more particularly the degree, of its influence depends, in a
remarkable manner, on the nature of its immediate associates ; hydrogen especially
exercises an altogether peculiar influence on the course of substitution.

Nitrogen per se has little attractive or directive power, compounds such as
azobenzene and diazobenzene bromide manifesting a singular inertness in presence
of substituting agents; and it would seem that the more the influence of the
hydrogen in amines is counteracted and the basic properties of the nitrogen
neutralised, the more nearly do aminoid compounds generally approximate in
their behaviour to simple azo- derivatives.

10. But not only does nitrogen cease to be attractive and directive when
deprived of hydrogen and neutralised; it apparently even acquires inhibiting powers.

Thus dimethylanilinepara-sulphonic acid exchanges only a single atom of
hydrogen for bromine, and the SO,H group is displaced with difficulty by the
further action of bromine. This behaviour is in striking contrast with that of sul-
phanilic acid, which is very readily converted into tribromaniline by the mere
addition of bromine to its aqueous solution. |

The effect of acid radicles is even more striking, and somewhat different in
character from that exercised by alkyls: thus when a single molecular propurtion
of bromine is added to a solution of acetylsulphanilic acid, less than half the acid is
converted into the monobrominated acid; a major proportion simply exchanges the
sulphonic group for bromine. Benzoylsulphanilic acid in like manner yields a
mixture of monobrominated acid and parabromobenzanilid.

The stability of the brominated acid from dimethylanilinesulphonic acid is
perhaps accounted for—on the assumption that the attack proceeds from the
nitrogen atom—by the fact that it forms a relatively stable dibromide. In the case
of the mon-acetylated acid, on the other hand, it may be supposed that the hydro-
gen in the amino- group is initially displaced, and that the bromine ‘ wanders out’
from this position partly into the ortho- and partly into the para- position.

11. When the conditions under which meta- derivatives are formed from amines
are considered, it is clear that they are such as to favour the neutralisation of the
basic properties of the amines, and to prevent the displacement of aminoid
hydrogen.

The nitration of aniline in presence of excess of sulphuric acid may be taken as
an example. A major proportion of the molecules being present as sulphate, the
access of nitric acid to the azo-radicle, and therefore to the system, is prevented :
consequently no nitramine is formed, and a necessary stage in the formation of both
o- and p-nitro- derivative is eliminated and their production prevented. On the
other hand, as the action takes place at a low temperature, and nitric acid is
present in its most concentrated form—perhaps, to some extent, as anhydride—
the conditions are such as to favour the attack of the benzenoid portion of the
molecule, but only in the meta- position, the ortho- and para- positions being in a
measure protected, owing to the inhibitive influence exercised by the fully saturated
azo-radicle,

Although the basic properties of aniline are much reduced by the introduction
of acetyl, acetanilid is still sufficiently basic to be attractive of nitric acid, and
it therefore undergoes conversion into nitramine, and subsequently into ortho- and
para-nitro- derivative.

Benzanilid, being far less basic, is only very partially acted upon in this
manner; the benzenoid portion of the molecule is therefore preferred for attack,
and consequently a considerable number of molecules become meta-nitrated.

Dimethylaniline is converted entirely into para- acid when sulphonated by

686 REPORT—1899.,

ordinary sulphuric acid at about 180°, or by chlorosulphonic acid; but when
carefully sulphonated by fuming acid it yields a large proportion of meta- acid.
Doubtless, in this latter case, the conditions correspond to those pictured in the
case of benzanilid undergoing nitration. That the formation of meta~ acid is a
consequence of the sulphate undergoing sulphonation, and is not merely due to the
use of the more powerful agent 5O,, clearly follows from the fact that so powerful
an agent as SO,HCl converts dimethylaniline only into para- acid.

The behaviour of acetanilid and benzanilid towards fuming sulphuric acid is
precisely similar to their behaviour towards nitric acid—the former gives only o-
and p-acid ; the latter a considerable proportion of meta- acid. Probably both are
initially converted into sulphamic acid, but the acid formed from the latter being
less prone to undergo isomeric change it becomes in part meta-sulphonated.

12. In the case of compounds other than amines which afford meta- derivatives,
it may be supposed that the radicle is both unattractive and ‘ ortho-para inhibitive,’
and that consequently opportunity is given for the attack to become concentrated
upon the benzenoid portion of the molecule in the meta- position.

As in such cases some proportion of o- and p- compound is usually obtained, it
is necessary to assume—if the radicle be regarded as altogether unattractive—that
the benzenoid portion of the molecule is open to attack at several points—indeed,
this may be more or less true of all compounds. Thus it may be supposed that
when nitrobenzene is brominated two compounds are initially formed, thus:

NO, Be NO, Br
VA
) (\ (\*
Ke ag \F
Br

The 1:2 compound being a very minor product, but little ortho- compound is
eventually obtained, and owing to the unattractive and inhibitive influence exer-
cised by the NO, group, bromine is chiefly separated from the para- position of the
8:4 compound; consequently but little para- derivative is formed.

13. The phenols in many ways closely resemble the amines in their behaviour
towards substituting agents. The hydrogen in association with the oxygen clearly
plays an important part; in fact, the extreme activity of phenols is probably, in
large measure, due to the presence of hydrogen in the extra-benzenoid radicle, as in
the case of the amines, but the part which the hydrogen plays cannot at present
be at all clearly made out.

By displacing the hydroxylic hydrogen by allcyls, effects are produced very
similar to those observed in the case of amines. Thus phenol-parasulphonic acid,
like sulphanilic acid, at once exchanges two atoms of hydrogen for bromine, and
then quite readily exchanges the SO,H group for bromine. But the acids obtained
by introducing methyl, ethyl, or benzyl in place of the hydroxylic hydrogen yield
only monobrominated acids, which on further treatment exchange the SO,H group
for bromine; and this action takes place only partially, as a large proportion of the
acia directly exchanges the SO,H group for bromine,a monobrominated compound
being formed, just as in the case of acetyl- and benzoyl-sulphanilic acid.

Benzoyl appears to exercise a very remarkable inhibitive effect, as preliminary
experiments show that benzoylated phenolparasulphonic acid remains unattacked
by bromine under conditions which involve the conversion of the unbenzoylated
acid into tribromo-phenol.

It may therefore be supposed that oxygen in phenols, being possessed of residual
affinity, exercises an influence on substitution similar to that which nitrogen
exercises in amines ; and as it has no basic qualities, it is difficult, if not impossible,
to deprive it of its activity, and consequently of its para-ortho-orienting power:
hence it is that phenols do not yield meta- derivatives. Should conditions be dis-
covered which will make it possible to hold the activity of oxygen in check, it will
probably be found possible to direct!y prepare meta-phenolic derivatives.

14, Sulphur, whilst resembling oxygen, apparently has a still stronger inhibitive

TRANSACTIONS. OF SECTION B. 687

influence. Thus phenyl ethyl thio-ether may be para-sulphonated without diffi-
culty, but para-bromopheny! ethyl! thio-ether is not sulphonated either by sulphuric
or by chlorosulphonic acid, although the corresponding oxygen compound is very
readily acted on.

15. The behaviour of halogen derivatives may be correlated with that of
phenols, or rather with that of their ethers, especially in view of the existence of
compounds such as phenyl iodosochloride PhICl,, On the assumption that the
residual affinity of iodine was satisfied in this compound, it appeared not improbable
that it might furnish a meta-sulphonic acid. It is sulphonated without difficulty,
but the product is highly chlorinated, and its nature has yet to be ascertained.

The hydrocarbons homologous with benzene are the most difficult group to
discuss. The paraflinyl radicle certainly exercises a directive effect ; whether it
is in any way attractive is open to question. Bearing in mind the inactivity of the
paraftins, it is difficult to believe that the radicles derived from them are possessed
of sufficient activity to account for the striking readiness with which the homologues
of benzene are acted upon in comparison with benzene. The introduction of
hydrogen radicles seems, in fact, to produce a fundamental modification in the
centric complex, the behaviour of hydrocarbons such as mesitylene being ethenoid
rather than benzenoid; and from this point of view it seems probable that the
derivatives of benzenoid hydrocarbons are formed more in accordance with the
process formulated in paragraph 12.

16. The fact that when the paraffiny! radicle undergoes chlorination or oxidation,
for example, the attack, as a rule, takes place at the point of attachment, is proof
that, if not itself attractive, it immediately adjoins the centre of attraction ; and it
is possible that initially some change takes place in which both radicles are
involved.

4, The Relative Orienting Effect of Chlorine and Bromine.
By Henry E. Armstrone, L.2.S.

The object of this note was to correct a statement made by Armstrong and
Briggs! that when parachlorobromobenzene is sulphonated only a single acid, viz.
1:4 chlorobromobenzene- 2 sulphonic acid, is produced, not, as was to be expected,
a mixture of this with the isomeric, 1 : 4 chlorobromobenzene-, 3 sulphonicacid.

Further investigation has shown that the product is actually a mixture of the
two acids. The mistake arose from the fact that corresponding derivatives of the
two acids are isomorphous.

Experiments made by Dr. E. C. Jee show that metachlorobromobenzene is, in
like manner, converted into a mixture of isomeric acids on sulphonation.

5. Isomorphism in Benzenesulphonic Derivatives.
By Henry E. Arustrone, /.L2.S.

In the course of the work referred to in the previous note, it became necessary
to study the crystallography of the isomeric parachlorobromobenzene su!phonic
acids, and ultimately it was determined to compare with these the anajogous acids
derived from dichloro- and dibromo-benzene.

The sulphonic chlorides and bromides were chosen for examination. Four acids
are obtainable, viz. :

Cl Cl Cl Br
S80,H SO0,H «i é a
S0,H. S0,H
Cl Br Br Br
I, IL. Til. IY.

' Chem. Soc. Proceedings, 1892, p. 40.

688 REPORT—1899,

As each of these yields a chloride and a bromide, a series of eight closély allied
compounds can be obtained. The chloride of 1. and both chloride and bromide of
III. have not been prepared in a form fit for measurement, but the remaining five
members of the series have been fully measured by Mr. W. T. Gidden, and proved
to be isomorphous.

The 1 : 3 diderivatives of benzene containing halogens should yield three similar
sets of allied sulphonic derivatives, viz.al:3:4,a1:5:5,andal:3:2 set;
and the 1:2 diderivatives should yield two such sets,al:2:4andal:2:3
series. It is proposed to prepare all these in order to determine their morphological
relationship. ‘

The 1:3: 4 series has already been measured by Dr. E. C. Jee, who has dis-
covered that they form a remarkable isotrimorphous group. No relationship is
apparent between this meta- series and the para- series.

6. Oxidation in the Presence of Iron.
By Henry J. Horstman Fenton, J.A., F.F.S.

The remarkable influence which iron exerts upon the oxidation of certain
organic substances was first pointed out by the author in 1876 in the instance of
tartaric acid. This observation has since been fully investigated, and has led to
an extensive study of the behaviour of various other substances under similar con-
ditions of oxidation and of the resulting products.' ‘

The peculiar advantage of the method consists in the fact that the extent of
oxidation may be regulated, and consequently that it is often possible to obtain
products of limited oxidation which cannot be prepared in any other way.

Hydrogen peroxide is the most efficient oxidising agent for the purpose,
although others may sometimes be substituted. The iron, which is essential to
the process, must in almost all cases be present in the ferrous condition; its
proportion, however, bears little if any relation to the yield.

With regard to the general nature of the oxidation products, it may be’ ob-
served that in the case of tartaric acid the change may be represented as a removal
of the two non-hydroxylic hydrogen atoms; in the polyhydric alcohols, the
(primary) CH,OH groups are attacked in preference to the (secondary) CHOH
groups, whilst in certain carbohydrates the CHOH group adjacent to an aldehyde
group appears to be oxidised; the aldehyde group itself is remarkably resistant.
In the benzenoid compounds H is usually replaced by OH, and a similar behaviour
would appear to obtain in the furfurane derivatives. In all cases it might be
assumed that the initial result is the replacement of H by OH, tartaric acid, for
example, being supposed to give, in the first instance, trioxysuccinic acid.

The part played by the iron in these changes is still a matter for discussion.
In a previous note * a provisional theory was proposed, in which it was suggested
that the ferrous iron first replaces non-hydroxylic hydrogen and is subsequently
oxidised ; and it is certainly remarkable that in the case of every substance found
to be sensitive to this reaction, non-hydroxylic hydrogen is present, associated
in almost every case with alcoholic hydroxyl. :

With a view of throwing further light upon the general nature of this oxida-
tion process, the author is at present studying a variety of substances of typical
constitution; and the following is a brief account of results which have recently
been obtained with certain acids :—

Tartronic acid gives a large yield of mesoxalic acid. The hydrazone of the
latter acid separates at once on the addition of phenylhydrazine hydrochloride, and
it is probable that the process may be found advantageous for the preparation of

1 Fenton, Chem. News, 1876, xxxiii. 190; 1881, xliii. 110: Yrans. Chem. Soc,
1894, 899; 1895, 48 and 774; 1896, 546; 1897, 375; 1898, 71 and 472, &c. Fenton
and Jackson, 1899, 1 and 575: Cross and Bevan, 1898, 463; 1899, 747: Morrell and
Crofts, 1899,'786: Martinon, Bull, Soc. Chim. 1885, ii. 23, 196: Ruff, Ber. 1898,
1573; 1899, 550.

2 Proc. Chem. Soc. 1898.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 689

the free acid, especially as the production of tartronic acid has been much simpli-
fied.1 This transformation has not hitherto been effected, although the converse
operation—the reduction of mesoxalic to tartronie acid—is well known.

Lactic acid, in a similar manner, yields pyruvic acid, but the operation requires
especial care.

Glyceric acid, when oxidised in the same way, produces a substance having
strong reducing properties, and which gives an intense violet colour with ferric
salts in the presence of alkalis. On treatment with phenylhydrazine acetate an
osazone is produced which crystallises in golden needles, melts at 203°, and gives
a beautifully crystalline sodium salt and pyrazolon. It appears to coincide in every
way with the osazone of oxypyruvic acid C,,H,,N,O,, which was obtained by
Nastvogel from dibrompyruvic acid,’ and by W. Will from the product of the
action of soda on collodion wool.? The substance produced in the present case
may therefore be (1) oxypyruvic acid, (2) the semi-aldehyde of tartronic acid or
(8) the semi-aldehyde of mesoxalic acid.

Malic acid—Judging from previous results, it was to be expected that this
substance would yield oxal-acetic acid, and it is possible that such may be the
result in the first instance, since, on treatment of the product with sulphuric acid,
a certain amount of pyruvic acid is obtained. If, on the other hand, the product
be treated with phenylhydrazine acetate, a substance is obtained which crystallises
= golden prisms, melts at. 216°-218°, and gives crystalline sodium and potassium

ts.

The above-mentioned products are being fully investigated, and the results will
shortly be published. 4

The author wishes to express his thanks to Mr. H. O. Jones, B.Sc., for the
valuable assistance which he is giving in this portion of the work.

7. Condensation of Glycollic Aldehyde. By Henry J. Horstman FENTON,
M.A., F.R.S., and Henry Jackson, B.A., B.Sc.

It has been pointed out by one of the authors in previous communications that
tartaric acid, when oxidised in presence of a small quantity of ferrous iron, gives
rise to dioxymaleic acid, C,H,O,; and that this acid readily decomposes in
aqueous solution, giving glycollic aldehyde, C,H,O,. This aldehyde has recently
been isolated by the present authors in a crystalline state. It was further shown *
that glycollic aldehyde, when heated to 100°-105° under reduced pressure, under-
goes polymerisation, giving rise to a true hexose, C,H,,O,. The condensation
effected in this way is not complete, and the resulting product has to be purified
from the unaltered glycollic aldehyde by treatment with absolute alcohol; the
yield of the sugar is consequently small, so that further study of its nature was
extremely difficult.

_ The-authors have therefore sought to modify the method of production with a
view to increasing the yield, and have studied the results of effecting the conden-
sation (1) at higher temperatures; (2) under the influence of alkalis.

If the aldehyde be heated to about 130°-140° for a short time, a substance is
- obtained which dissolves easily in water, but is precipitated as a brownish-white
powder on addition of alcohol; whereas at a temperature of about 160°-170° a
brown spongy substance is formed, which is nearly insoluble in boiling water, and
on analysis its composition is found to be approximately C,H,,0..

When an aqueous solution of the aldehyde is mixed with a dilute (1 per cent.)
solution of caustic soda, it begins to turn brown almost immediately. After
_ standing for about twenty-four hours at the ordinary temperature (about 15°), the
mixture no longer reduces Fehling’s solution in the cold, nor answers Schiffs
aldehyde reaction with magenta, The solution now gives with phenylhydrazine a
precipitate consisting of clusters of bright yellow needles, which melt at 158° and

1 Trams. Chem. Soe. 1898, 72. 2 Annalen, 248, 85. 8 Ber. 1891, 400.
4 J. C. 8. Trans. 1899, p. 575. 5 Fenton, ibid. 1897, p. 375.

1899, vy

690 REPORT—1899,

have the composition of a hexosazone C,,H,,N,O,. The pure osazone is very
soluble in ethylacetate, sparingly soluble in ether, benzene, and boiling water.
The crystalline form, melting point, and behaviour towards solvents appear defi-
nitely to establish its identity with 8 acrosazone, which was obtained by Fischer
and Tafel from the condensation product of ‘ glycerose’ by alkalis.

When calcium hydroxide is employed in place of caustic soda, an exactly
similar result is obtained. After removing the calcium from the solution by exact
precipitation with oxalic acid and evaporating to small bulk at 40° under dimi-
nished pressure, it was dissolved in alcohol, filtered, and then precipitated with
ether. The sugar was thus obtained in the form of white flocks which aggregate
to a pasty solid on standing in a vacuum.

The properties and configuration of @ acrose have not hitherto been studied,
owing to the fact that it could not be obtained in quantity unaccompanied by
other sugars; the authors hope, however, by the present method of preparation to
obtain the sugar in quantity sufficient for a more complete study.

The formation of a true hexose, and a substance resembling starch and cellu-
lose, from glycollic aldehyde, is of especial interest from its bearing on carbo-
hydrate formation in plants. The remarkable part which a small quantity of ferrous
iron plays as a carrier of atmospheric oxygen in presence of direct sunlight has already
been pointed out:! in the absence of any of these three conditions, the oxidation does
not’ take place. In plant metabolism these conditions coexist; this reaction may
not only throw light upon the function of small quantities of iron existing in chlo-
rophyll, but may explain the conversion of tartaric acid, which is so common in
unripe fruits, to the sugars of the mature fruit.

8. Some New Silicon Compounds.
By Professor J. Emerson Reynotps, £2.85.

Some years ago the author communicated to the Section an account of a new
silicon compound of the amidic class having the formula :

Si(NHPh),

obtained by complete interaction of silicon haloids with excess of aniline.

This well-defined crystalline substance when cautiously heated changes in two
stages. Inthe first stage 1 mol. of aniline is evolved, and crystalline silico-
phenyl-guanidine results.

NHPh
Si(NHPh), = NH,Ph + Si = NPh
\NHPh

On further heating another aniline molecule is lost, and a di-imide is obtained
which may also be regarded as diphenyl-silico-cyanimide; or the latter can be at
once produced from the parent compound :
Si(NHPh), = Si(NPh), + 2NH,Ph.

In the production of the di-imide, which is somewhat soluble in benzene, prolonged
heating leads to molecular rearrangement, and a porcelain-like form of the di-imide
results which is insoluble in benzene. Two modifications of silico-phenyl-di-imide
exist, just as in the case of the analogous carbon compounds.

The readiness with which the tetra-amidic compound loses aniline by heat
suggested the further experiments which were described to the Section, as it
appeared that the following interaction with a mustard oil should take place:

NHPh
Si(NHPh), + 2EtNCS = Si(NPh), + 208
\NHEt
1 Fenton, Brit. Assoc. Report, 1895; Fenton and Jackson, Trans. Chem. Soc. 1899, 1.

’

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 691

On mixing in the above proportions in benzene solution no apparent change took
place even on prolonged heating, but the graduated addition of ligroin to the solu-
tion led to the separation of fine long crystals, which are very friable, of the
compound Si(NHPh),,2EtNCS, and later of another addition compound in
small plates which consisted of Si(NHPh),,EtNCS, but no trace of the ethyl-
phenyl-urea. , ‘

The solvent benzene was then discarded and the requisite materials were heated
in pressure tubes.

Up to 140° ©. the addition compounds only were produced, but at 160° further
change was obtained, and a yellowish fluid mass was produced, which remains a very
viscid liquid at ordinary temperatures, and can be kept in this state for many
months.

Benzene dissolves the viscid mass, which is reprecipitated in oily droplets, but
no trace of the urea separated. On redissolving in benzene and adding a small
proportion of alcohol to the liquid, decomposition was obtained, and crystals of the
ethyl-phenyl-urea separated.

It is evident, then, that the primary interaction anticipated occurs at 160°, but
that the urea formed at once unites with the silico-phenyl-di-imide to form:

NHPh
Si(NPh),,208
\ NHEt

This tendency of the silicon amide to unite with urea is similar to that which I
found the Si haloids to possess many years ago, and the very viscid liquid in the
above instance is not unlike the compound SiBr,,8CSNH,,NHC,H., which flows
so slowly that nearlyamonth is required at ordinary temperatures for the liquid to
descend from one end of a vertical tube to another.

9. Report on recording the Results of the Chemica! and Bacterial Exami- —
nation of Water and Sewage. See Reports, p. 255.

10. Intermittent Bacterial Treatment of Raw Sewage in Coke-beds.
By Professor Frank Ciowss, D.Sc. ;

The above process as originally experimentally carried out by the London County
Council was applied to the effluent from chemical treatment only. The process has
now been applied to raw sewage, screened through coarse gratings. More recent
experience of over twelve months’ treatment in beds of varying depth has proved
that when coke fragments of about the size of walnuts are used, the suspended
feecal matter wholly disappears, together with an average of about 50 per cent. of
the dissolved organic matter. A further treatment in asecond similar bed removes
an additional 20 per cent. of the dissolved organic matter. It has been found
sufficient to leave the sewage in contact with the coke for about three hours, and
then to give the coke an exposure to the air in its interstices of about seven hours’
duration.

The depth of the experimental coke-beds has varied from 4 to 13 feet in different
pee ents and this variation has in no way affected the degree of purification
ellected.

On no occasion has either the coke or the effluent been foul, nor does the
effluent become foul when it is allowed to stand in either open or closed vessels,
provided that it is not sterilised after it has left the coke-bed.

The amount of sewage which can be treated by the coke-bed 13 feet in depth,
and with two fillings per day, amounts to three and a half million gallonsper acre.
This amount, however, undergoes gradual reduction, owing to the accumulation in
the filter of matter from the sewage which appears to consist almost wholly of
cellulose. This matter is mainly the chaff derived from the horsedung of the

Yr2

692 REPORT—1899.

roadways, and from the wear of the wooden paving-blocks of the streets. If the
sandy detritus brought down by the sewage in storm weather is allowed to settle:

before the sewage flows upon the coke-beds, a second process of sedimentation
removes the larger amount of cellulose matter, and of this latter sediment about
70 per cent. is combustible when the matter has been dried.

Hence it appears possible to carry on the solid feecal matter to the coke-bed,
and to deal with the sand and cellulose matters by sedimentation, the latter being
subsequently disposed of by combustion.

The comparative bacteriological study of the raw sewage and of the effluent by
Dr. Houston shows that practically no bacterial improvement is brought about by
the treatment of the sewage in the coke-bed. The presence of bacteria in the
effluent is, however, advantageous in securing its final purification.

The effluent has supported the life of fish, which were immersed in it, for
several months. Their health suffered no appreciable deterioration; apparently
they could live in it indefinitely.

That the coke-beds become fully aérated by the intermittent treatment is
evident from the fact that after 70 hours’ rest in an empty condition the air at the
bottom of the 15-foot bed contained 14:7 per cent. of oxygen and only 0'8 per cent..
of carbon dioxide.

1l. On the Place of Nitrates in the Biolysis of Sewage.
By W. Scorr-Moncrierr.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
Joint Meeting with Section K.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Excretory Products of Plants. By Professor Hanrior:.

2. A Discussion on Symbiotic Fermentation, opened by the reading
of the following papers :—

Symbiosis. By Professor Marsuatt Warp, /.2.S.

Synopsis.

Origin of the idea and of the term. Differences between parasitism and’
symbiosis.

Lichens, previously regarded as autonomous plants, are shown to be dual
organisms, a symbiosis of alga and fungus. Controversy regarding the lichen
theory, and establishment of the latter by means of synthetic cultures.

Other cases of symbiosis known previous to 1880. Algz in the stems of
Gunnera and the roots of Cycas, in the thallus or fronds of Anthoceras and
Blasia, Azolla, Lemna, &e.

Extension of the idea of symbiosis : insect fertilisation, epiphytes, &c.

Galls not necessarily due to insects, but may be due to the irritating action of
fungi or bacteria. Phytocecidia of the Aleppo pine, &c.

Symbiosis in animals, Green infusoria, hydra, sponges, &c.

Mycorhiza, the roots of many humus plants curiously swollen and modified
owing to the presence of fungi, which do not injure the plant, but link its roots to:
the decomposing leaves around. Explanation as an instance of symbiosis. Evidence
partly anatomical and partly experimental.

| A

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 693

‘Budding’ and ‘grafting’ are processes involving the establishment of a
*ymbiosis.

The nodules on the roots of leguminous plants. Discovery and controversy as
to their nature. They contain living bacteroids, which penetrate the root hairs
and flourish in the living cells. Universality of these nodules on healthy roots,
Hellriegel and Willfarth’s cultures, and evidence as to the fixation of nitrogen.
Laurent and Schloesing’s proof that nitrogen is fixed from the air.

The leguminous nodules a case of symbiosis, comparable to galls.

Other instances not yet explained. Nodules on the roots of Juncus, Myrica,
and other plants.

Symbiotic fermentations. All natural fermentations mixed. Pure cultures
.and the importance of synthetic cultures.

Kephir, the ginger-beer plant, and other instances of symbiotic ferments.
Decomposition of cellulose. Nitrifying and denitrifying organisms. The direct
alcoholic fermentation of starch by the simultaneous action of two fungi.

Return to the idea of symbiosis. Necessity of limiting the term. Antibiosis
(antagonism). Metabiosis. Difficulty of distinguishing in given cases. Hypo-
thetical considerations, and importance of further investigations.

Particular Cases.

The above may be accepted as affording general headings under which the

‘subject of symbiosis might be treated.

For the purposes of this discussion, I proceed to consider some special cases,
and limit myself—as requested to do—to certain aspects of symbiotic fermen-

tations.

Several cases of symbiosis among bacteria are now known. Apart from
numerous instances of temporary association between pathogenic micro-organisms
and animals such as earth-worms, rats, flies, ticks, and mosquitoes, and which
disseminate their germs and infect cattle, sheep, horses, and men, reminding us of
the transference of the spores ot Botrytis by bees, which carry this parasite with
the pollen and infect the stigmas of bilberries with the parasite ; or which act the
part of intermediate hosts to the disease germs, much as certain pond snails do
to the liver-fluke of sheep, we now know several cases of symbiosis between
two species of bacteria or of fungi, or between a bacterium and a fungus, each
symbiont being incapable of carrying on alone the work which the symbiotic
association is able to perform—a point which is essential to the definition of
symbiosis in the narrower sense, z.e. the co-operation of two associated organs to
their mutual advantage.

A striking example is afforded by certain bacteria concerned in the destruction
of cellulose in ponds, bogs, rivers, &c. Van Senus found that a certain anaérobic
bacterium, resembling, if not identical with, Van Tieghem’s b. Amylobacter,
though incapable of dissolving cellulose by itself, can do so if associated with
another bacterium, also incapable of itself attacking cellulose. 2B. Amylobacter
can ferment pectose compounds, and is thus capable of isolating cells one from
another, but cellulose is not attacked by it.

Van Senus believed that the one bacillus destroys certain products of fermen-
tation excreted by B. Amylobacter, which inhibit its cellulose-fermenting powers.

I may remark here, that if a sound potato, rhizome, or other underground
organ is placed in water and the air exhausted as completely as possible, I almost
invariably find its cellulose walls destroyed in a few days by a mixture cf bacteria,
and with the symptoms found in many kinds of ‘wet rot.’ There is no reason to
believe that these organs would rot if merely wet and not deprived of air, since
they lie in ordinary soil—even moist soil—for weeks or months, with plenty of
water in their tissues, and respire oxygen, as is well known. The presumption
is that the anaérobic conditions set up in the experiment described favour certain
forms of soil bacteria, such as Van Senus worked with, and enable them to co-
operate in the destruction of the cell walls.

An even more remarkable example is given by Winogradsky, who found that
the anaérobic bacterium known as Clostridium Pasteurianum is able, if supplied

694, REPORT—1899.

with abundance of dextrose and protected from the access of oxygen, to fix atmo-
spheric nitrogen. In the cultures, and presumably in the soil, the Clostridium
was found to work when protected by a mantle of aérobic bacteria. In fact, the
nitrogen-fixing Clostridium was working in the meshes of the oxygen-consuming:
species, and forming gelatinous flocks like the well-known grains of kephir, or of
ginger-beer plant.

Yet another striking instance of symbiotic association has recently been given
by Omeliansky. In experiments on nitrification at Bonn, the assertion had been
made that the nitrifying organisms, 7.e. the bacteria known to oxidise ammonia.
to nitrous acid, and nitrous acid to nitric acid, could be grown and made to do
their specific work in media containing proteids or other organic nitrogenous.
bodies, Now this was directly contradictory of the experience of Warington,
Winogradsky, and other workers, who had found that one great peculiarity of
these nitrifying organisms is that they refuse to grow on such media; they are in-
capable of using organic nitrogen. Several workers then showed that the Bonn
observers had inadvertently employed mixtures of two or more species, and
Omeliansky undertook a critical investigation of the whole subject, and has put
forward the following explanation of the tangle.

If Nitrosomonas—the bacterium which oxidises ammonia to nitrous acid—and
Mitrobacter—the bacterium which further oxidises nitrous to nitric acid—be sown
together or separately on a medium containing organic nitrogen, no growth or
change occurs.

But if a bacterium capable of decomposing the organic nitrogenous medium,
e.g. Bacillus ramosus, is added to the above-mentioned Nitrosomonas and Mitro-
bacter, the associated three organisms are able to carry out all the processes and
complete the cycle of nitrification. That is to say, B. ramosus breaks down the
gelatine and ammonia is formed, this is then oxidised to nitrous acid by Nitroso-
monas, and the nitrous acid is further oxidised to nitric acid by the Nitrobacter.

If B. ramosus and Nitrosomonas only are sown together, then only nitrous acid
is formed, because the latter organism is only capable of carrying the oxidation
the one stage.

If B. ramosus and Mitrobacter only are used, then only ammonia is formed,
because the latter organism cannot oxidise ammonia.

If we try to imagine the working of this association of organisms in the soil,
and bear in mind the frequent co-existence and action of the de-nitrifying bacteria
which Gayon and Dupetit, Giltay and Aberson, Warington and others have
familiarised us with, a glimpse is obtained of the very complex symbioses
which may be concerned in the circulation of nitrogen in Nature. Moreover,
some of these de-nitrifying bacilli appear to be anaérobic, and can only work in
the surface soil if protected from the access of oxygen; say, by an associated
aérobic bacterium.

Another interesting case is the following. Perdix a few years ago isolated
from water an anaérobic bacterium which converts starches into sugars, which
with the aid of a yeast can be fermented, the whole process going on in association.

Other cases of symbiotic associations of bacteria exist among the forms con-
cerned in the reductions of sulphates and the oxidation of sulphuretted hydrogen,
the iron bacteria, &c. ; but I propose to mention only one or two further examples,
taken from the true fungi,

Symbiotic associations of fungi are probably common, but only a few cases are
as yet established, and these principally among the ferment-fungi.

Van Laer has called attention to the symbiotic co-existence of two yeasts in
many beers, explaining certain peculiar after-fermentations as due to the action of
one yeast acting on the medium improved for it by the other.

The Japanese have long been in the habit of brewing a peculiar fermented
liquor known as rice-wine, or saké. Rice grains are steamed, and when cool are
infected with a mould fungus now known as Aspergillus Oryze. When the rice
is quite mouldy, at which time it emits a peculiar odour like that of pineapples,
the starch is found to be rapidly turning to sugar, under the action of a diastatic
enzyme secreted by the fungus.

ee ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 695

This decomposing rice is then placed in water and exposed to the action of a
yeast, which rapidly ferments the sugar, and the alcoholic saké results.

So closely is the yeast associated with the Aspergillus, that, in practice, the
alcoholic fermentation commences soon after the enzyme of the Aspergillus begins
to hydrolyse the starch of the rice, and for some time a controversy existed as to
whether the yeast was not really part of the life-history of the Aspergillus. Several
observers have now shown, however, that we have here a striking case of symbiosis.

On reviewing these examples, we shall find that very different degrees of associa-
tion of the organisms are to be met with.

At the one end of the series we find two organisms merely associated for a
short time, e.g. bacilli and worms, bees and botrytis-spores, and, so far as we may
speak of symbiosis at all in these cases, it is merely temporary or disjunctive.

At the other end of the series we have a close permanent combination of the
two organisms working in unison, e.g. the lichens and Winogradsky’s Closterium
with its protective mantle of aérobic bacteria; also the ginger-beer plant and
kephir.

Put between these extremes it is possible to find all stages, the halfway house
being met with in cases such as the saké ferment, where the Aspergillus evidently
prepares the way for the Yeast.

It has been proposed to apply the term Metadiosis to such cases,

It must not be forgotten that there are extremes in the other direction,
where one of the two associated organisms is injuring the other, as exemplified by
many parasites, but these cases I leave out of account here. This state of affairs
has been termed Antidiosis.

It seems not impossible that the biological relationships of these cases one to
another could be shown thus :—

Antibiosis, Symbiosis,
‘
Facultative parasitism. Meta-biosis.

r A
Ny /

Disjunctive—association.

The Physiology of Symbiosis.

It will be an interesting exercise to see if we can get any further glimpses into
the physiology of the phenomenon of Symbiosis.

When we come to enquire as to the processes which lead to enhancement of
the functional activity of one organism by another living symbiotically with
it, the matter presents many difficulties ; for it is at the outset quite obvious that
many things are possible, and soon becomes evident that a tangle of complexities
lies before us, as always in the inter-relations between associated biological units,
We need go no further than the examination of the possibilities in the inter-
relations between a weed anda cultivated plant, or between two trees in a forest,
for illustrations of this truth.

Confining attention for the moment to closely associated symbionts, such as
those composing a lichen, the ginger-beer plant, or a clump of symbiotic bacteria
or fungi, researches have made it practically certain that the provision of definite
food-materials by the one symbiont for the other may be an important factor;
e.g. an alga supplies a fungus with carbohydrates, or a fungus converts starch
into the fermentable sugars which the associated yeast needs. In other cases the
advantage derived is one of protection from some injurious agent—e.g. the aérobie
bacterium prevents the access of oxygen to the anaérobic one. But there is evi-
dence which suggests that mere nutrition or protection is not the only or even the
principal factor involved. It is well known that the products of fermentative

696 ig REPORT—1899,

actions are frequently poisons, and we all know of cases where such poisonous
excreta of living cells act as stimuli to other living cells, if supplied to them in
minimal doses and very gradually: I need only instance the effects of tobacco or
alcohol on man, in illustration of this.

Several observers have shown that in presence of a particular food-substance
the living cell is stimulated to produce and excrete a particular enzyme, while the
substitution of another food stimulates the organism to excrete a totally different
enzyme.

Now let us see if there is any evidence to support the hypothesis that some
such stimulative action is exerted by one symbiont on another. To a certain
extent we find such in the remarkable vigour and large size of the algal cells in a
lichen as compared with the same cells living an independent life, and in the
persistent zone of brilliant green and often hypertrophied cells of leaves in which
certain fungi are living, the gigantic cells of the nodules on leguminous roots in
which the bacteroids are living, and many other cases; but since it is impossible
to say how far these are cases of merely enhanced nutrition, we will pass them by
and seek for other instances.

One of the earliest I can find is Hugo Schulz’s demonstration in 1888 that
minute quantities of poisons such as corrosive sublimate, iodine, iodide of potas-
sium, bromine, arsenious acid, chromic acid, sodium salicylate, or formic acid,
when added to yeast in 10 per cent. grape-sugar solution, immediately raise the
fermentative activity of the organism—as measured by the amount of carbon-
dioxide evolved, Effront, in 1894, showed that hydrofluoric acid acts similarly on
yeasts, butyric ferments, and mycoderma, and, later, that the same is true of
formaldehyde, salicylic acid, picric acid, &e.

What looks like another case in point is Johannsen’s results of experiments
with seeds, buds, &c., treated with ether or chloroform: respiration is increased,
and the whole course of metabolism so altered that in some cases buds of flowers
can be stimulated to open long before their normal period.

The results obtained by Farmer and Waller with carbon-dioxide, which was
found to induce an initial acceleration of the movement of the protoplasm in
Elodea, may be a further instance.

Pfetler has recently called attention to a still more remarkable instance—that
it is possible by etherising the living cells of Spirogyra to alter the type of nuclear
division from mitotic (indirect) to a-mitotie (direct). Massart had shown that
callus, the hypertrophied tissue developed under stimulation by mites, fungi,
exposure to air, &c., is formed of cells which divide with @-mitotic nuclear division ;
and other cases occur. But it is even more to the point for my purpose that
Gerassimoff, in Pfeffer’s laboratory, found Spirogyra driven to a-mitotie division
by associated bacteria and other organisms, which he regards as a case of
symbiosis.

Now it may be regarded as certain that if a cell can be thus stimulated to
alter the details of so fundamental and complex a morphological process as its
cell-division by the action of associated organisms, the metabolic activities of its
protoplasm are being driven into very different channels from the normal, and
many physiological processes must be affected.

Of course I am here raising questions which concern the border-line between
health and disease, and much investigation is still required as to the meaning of
these matters; but I ought to add that according to Pfeffer the etherised cells can
be again restored to their normal state if the traces of anesthetic are washed out,
and those familiar with Kleb’s experiments on other alge will appreciate the
significance of this one with Spirogyra. (

However feeble the evidence may be, we can at least say, then, that there is
some evidence in support of the hypothesis that one symbiont may stimulate
another by excreting some body which acts as an exciting drug to the latter—just
as truly as certain drugs act as stimulants to some cell or organ of a higher
animal, and no doubt in a fundamentally similar manner. It will be noted that
such drugs are frequently excreta from vegetable cells. ,

But there is another, perhaps more indirect way in which one symbiont may

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 697

enhance the activity of another. It has long been known that the accumulation
of the products of metabolism of a cell tend to inhibit the activity of that cell,
and that if by any means we can destroy or remove the metabolite as it is formed,
the cell concerned can go on working. Similarly with ferments, and even with
enzymes, the accumulation of the products gradually inhibits the action as
Tammann showed in the case of amygdalin and emulsin, and Brown and Morris
and Lea in the case of starch and diastase, to mention two illustrations only.

Now suppose we have two organisms A and B living in symbiosis, and
suppose that A is capable of hydrolysing starch by the excretion of diastase, while
B removes the product of hydrolysis, by fermenting the sugar as fast as it is
formed; in this case there is every reason to expect that A will complete its
hydrolysing action to the utmost, not only because it is of advantage to A to be
relieved of the inhibiting sugar, but because the diminution of the sugar reacts as
a stimulus to the secretion of more enzyme.

There is yet another point to be considered. Katz, in 1898, published some
results confirming in many points the discoveries of Wortmann, Brown and
Morris, and others, that fungi, bacteria, embryos, and other enzyme secreting
organisms not only vary the extent and kind of enzyme secreted, but can be
stimulated to vary the enzyme according to the quantity or quality of food materials
at hand,

I think this line of enquiry may lead to results in the present connection, as it
is obvious that the products of fermentation of an organism A must be favourable,
or without effect, or deleterious to the action of another, B, in its immediate neigh-
bourhood. Moreover, it is shown that a product which is, per se, devoid of either
favourable or deleterious action, may acquire one or the other if the concentration
increases.

Katz regards the action of sugars as not a purely chemical one, but as a
physiological stimulus; and without pretending to understand the distinction in
detail, we may admit the importance of the experimental facts, and not only seek
for, but also hope for, more light.

Here, then, is a brief sketch of some of the salient features of symbiosis, and of
some of the physiological factors concerned in the processes ; and though it is far
from exhaustive, it may serve our purpose to-day of starting a discussion, and of
showing some lines along which further investigation is desirable.

Note sur les Fermentations Symbiotiques Industrielles. Par Monsieur le
Docteur A. Catmerte, Directeur de Institut Pasteur de Lille.

On sait que beaucoup de champignons inférieurs s’accommodent trés bien de la
vie en symbiose soit avec des bactéries, soit avec d’autres champignons ou avec des
algues, soit avec des végétaux ou des animaux supérieurs. On a étudié dans ces
derniers temps un trés grand nombre d’espéces cryptogamiques parasites. Ces
espéces parasites ne nous occuperont pas ici. Nous n’envisagerons que l’étude de
quelques phycomycétes et mycomycétes qui vivent ordinairement en saprophytes sur
les substances organiques les plus diverses et font subir & celles-ci des transforma-
tions que homme a pu utiliser pour les besoins de ses industries.

Les champignons qui nous intéressent surtout sont ceux qui fermentent les
matiéres hydrocarbonées, telles que la cellulose, l’amidon, les dextrines, les sucres,
les tannins, ou les matiéres azotées, telles que la caséine du lait.

Ces champignons agissent sur ces substances au moyen des diastases qu/ils
sécrétent et qui présentent des propriétés trés voisines de celles que possédent les
végétaux supérieurs et les animaux, pour l’assimilation des aliments que ceux-ci
puisent dans le monde extérieur. é;

Chose trés remarquable, plusieurs de ces étres ont la faculté de produire
les diastases les plus diverses, suivant la nature des substances qui doivent leur servir
@aliments. C’est ainsi qu’une des mucédinées les plus vulgaires, le Penicillium
glaucum, est capable de sécréter tantét de l’amylase, tantét de la sucrase, si on la

698 REPORT—1899.

fait croitre sur des milieux renfermant de l’amidon ou du saccharose, tantdt de le
présure et de la caséase, si elle se développe sur du lait.

Dans beaucoup de cas, la croissance de ces végétaux inférieurs et la sécrétion de
leurs diastases s’arrétent dans les milieux nutritifs ou ils ont vécu un certain temps,
alors méme que ces milieux sont loin d’étre épuisés, parce que les produits de trans-
formation de la matiére organique auxquels ils ont donné naissance deviennent
toxiques pour eux-mémes. On sait par exemple que les Saccharomyces cessent de
fermenter le sucre lorsqu’ils se trouvent en présence d’une certaine proportion
@alcool. De méme, certains mucors et certains aspergillus qui hydrolisent énergi-
quement l’amidon, cessent de saccharifier celui-ci, dés que le milieu dans lequel ils
se développent renferme une certaine quantité des produits qu’ils ont fabriqués,
sucres, acides ou alcools.

Lorsque ces étres se développent spontanément dans les milieux organiques
fermentescibles—par exemple sur un fragment de pomme de terre placé dans des
conditions favorables d’humidité et de température—il arrive souvent que d’autres
étres, bactéries ou moisissures, dont les fonctions sont différentes, ne tardent pas &
sétablir 4 cété d’eux et collaborent aussitét a l’ceuvre de dégradation moléculaire
commencée par le premier occupant. Nous verrons, par exemple, la Sclerotinia
libertiana sinstaller tout d’abord et attaquer, grace a la cytase et a l’acide
oxalique qu’elle secréte, la mince enveloppe de cellulose qui entoure les grains
d’amidon.

Bientét, ceux-ci, mis 4 nu, deviendront une proie facile pour les nombreuses
mucédinées saccharifiantes, mucor ou aspergillus, et au fur et & mesure que
Yamylase de ces derniéres transforme l’amidon en sucre, ce dernier trouve immédi-
atement d’autres étres qui s’en emparent, soit pour le briler, soit pour en faire de
Valcool et de Vacidecarbonique. L’alcool lui-méme ne tardera pas & rencontrer des
cellules de mycodermes ou de myco-levures qui se chargeront de l’oxyder, d’en
faire de l’acide acétique, ou tout simplement de I’acide carbonique et de l'eau.
Et par cette série de dégradations successives produites par nos champignons
inférieurs, le fragment de pomme de terre initial aura complétement disparu.

L’étude scientifique de ces faits devait naturellement suggérer aux biologistes
Vidée d’utiliser, en les associant, les propriétés que possédent certains champignons
inférieurs ou certaines bactéries de fermenter les substances hydro-carbonées ou
azotées.

Nous n’avions qu’a prendre exemple sur les pratiques de certains peuples de
lExtréme Orient qui utilisent depuis un temps immémorial des moisissures pour
fabriquer de l’alcool avec le riz. Les Japonais fabriquent leur Saké avec un
aspergillus décrit depuis 1879 par Ahlburg sous le nom d’Eurotium orizoe; les
Chinois et les Javanais préparent leurs eaux-de-vie et leurs vins de riz au moyen
dun mucor, dont les propriétés saccharifiantes trés 6nergiques ont été mises en
évidence par moi-méme, & Saigon en 1892, puis par Prinsen Geerligs, 4 Java en
1894.

Ces diverses mucédinées saccharifiantes, aspergillus ou mucor, dont il existe un
trés grand nombre de variétés, possédent, pour la plupart, la propriété de fermenter
les sucres, lorsqu’elles sont placées dans certaines conditions de vie anaérobie.
Toutefois, leurs propriétés fermentatives sont presque toujours beaucoup moins
développées que leurs propriétés saccharifiantes, et, lorsqu’elles agissent surl’amidon
pour transformer celui-ci en alcool, elles s’associent toujours spontanément a des
levures alcooliques, c’est-a-dire 4 des saccharomyces vrais.

Ces moisissures s’accommodent parfaitement de la vie symbiotique avec les
levures, et si on a soin de les éduquer, de les employer en cultures pures et de ne
les mettre en présence de cultures pures de levures que lorsque les mucédinées ont
déj& pris possession du milieu et ont commencé leur travail de saccharification, on
les utilise dans des conditions beaucoup plus parfaites que ne le font les peuples
orientaux qui les emploient. On peut faire en sorte, par exemple, que les
saccharomyces s’emparent au fur et 4 mesure du glucose élaboré par les moisissures,
et celles-ci effectuent alors plus activement leur travail parce qu’elles ne sont pas
génées dans leur développement par leurs produits de secrétion. Elles ne cessent
de saccharifier l’amidon que lorsque la quantité d’alcool résultant de la fermenta-

——————————e rrr

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 699

tion du sucre dans le moat est suffisante pour contrarier leurs sécrétions
diastasiques.

La symbiose des mucédinéés saccharifiantes et des levures permet d’effectuer
industriellement la fermentation directe de l’amidon des grains ou des pommes de
terre et de supprimer 4 peu prés totalement l’emploi du malt ou des acides pour la
saccharification en distillerie.

Ce principe de la symbiose s’é6tendra probablement dans l’avenir a la fabrica-
tion de beaucoup d'autres substances que l'industrie prépare aujourd’hui pour ses
besoins,

Symbiotic Fermentation : its Chemical Aspects.
By Professor H. E. Armstrone, /.2.S.

1. It is open to question whether the establishment of symbiotic relationships
inyolves more than a subdivision of labour—whether the associated organisms
combine in carrying the chemical change through any one phase.

2. There is an absence of positive evidence tending to show that the one member
of a pair of symbiotic organisms or agents does more than prepare the way for the
other by effecting a change which the second is incapable of inducing, leaving it to
the second to carry on changes in which the initiating organism plays no part. A
rough parallel to the case here contemplated would be that afforded by the
occurrence of lactic followed by butyric fermentation under the influence of
distinct organisms. These are strictly independent and sequent phenomena, the
one change apparently setting in only when the other is complete.

3. In symbiotic fermentation, however, the two sets of changes seem at least to
run parallel.

4, It may be a function of the one organism to remove from the sphere of
action, as it arises, a product which would tend either to inhibit the change by
which it is formed or to promote its reversal.

5. Or the one organism may produce a change which, although minute, is
sufficient to place the companion organism under the most favourable conditions.
For example, a minute proportion of acid favours the hydrolysis of cane sugar by
invertase. Hence it may be supposed that in a neutral or faintly alkaline solution
yeast would ferment sugar only slowly, if at all, whilst if associated with an
organism capable of producing, say, a minute proportion of lactic acid, it would act
rapidly. A case apparently of symbiosis, which possibly comes within this
definition, is that referred to by Marshall Ward as studied by Van Senus.

6. Or, again, the one organism may become associated with the hydrolyte, and
thus shield or mask a particular ‘centre’ in it, thereby making it possible for the
second organism to actively affect the molecules at other centres. This case
corresponds to the removal of a ward from a lock, and.the consequent possibility
of using a simpler key. What is in some cases a more nearly exact parallel is
afforded by the production of glycuronic acid by the oxidation of the compound of
glucose with chloral: in glucose, the COH centre is super-attractive to most
oxidising agents, but when this centre is masked the attack is transferred to the
opposite CH,(OH) group.

7. Another case is considered subsequently (§ ii.).

8. Fermentation is certainly at bottom a process of hydrocatalysis, and it can
scarcely be doubted that the function of the enzyme is to introduce water into the
circuit of change—in fact, to establish a circuit in which hydrolytic changes can
occur, although not of the ordinary kind, but reductive on the cne hand and oxida-
tive on the other.

9. Hence we may speak of the substance fermented as the hydrolyte, of the
ferment as the hydrolyst, and of the products of hydrolysis as the hydroschists.

10. It is more than probable that the products ordinarily obtained are but end
products of a series of changes, and that only some of these are enzymic, whilst
others occur, as it were, naturally, and are partly analytic and partly synthetic in
character. Thus, in the formation of the inactive amyl alcohol in fusel oil, it may

700 | REPORT—1899.

be supposed that glucose is resolved by fermentation into a mixture of glyceraldose
and glyceroketose, which spontaneously interact forming a new hexose,

HO.H,C CH,.0H
eg

C.0OH

CH.OH

CH.OH

COH,
-and that this in turn becomes fermented to isobutylearbinol, &c. It is not even
known whether fusel oil is a product of fermentation by pureyeast; stillless, therefore,
can it be decided whether the two successive fermentations here contemplated are
the acts of one organism, or of organisms which are in any sense symbiotic. But
it seems almost certain that one and the same organism can produce a variety of
changes.

11. Itis conceivable that two symbiotic, organisms may so act that the one pro-
duces a substance A, the other a substance B, and that these products interact,
forming a third substance; and that the two organisms attack either one and the
same substance, or different substances. In such a case the fermentation would be
different from that produced by either organism singly. Such would be a case of
truest symbiosis.

12. The conversion of lactic into butyric acid, of glycerol into butanol, and the
formation of fat are certainly cases of fermentations in which synthetic changes
eccur, and it may well be apart from enzymic action.

13. There is little doubt that the importance of the part played by synthetic
changes in fermentations, especially in the case of nitrogenous compounds, is at
present far from being appreciated.

14, But however many steps may be involved in some fermentations, at least
the attack on several centres must be simultaneous, and must occur in one and the
same circuit, as the change involves expenditure of energy at some centres, and this
vaust be supplied from those others at which energy is developed. A complex
carbohydrate molecule undergoing fermentation may, in fact, be compared with a
series of voltaic cells of unequal electromotive force in series. It is difficult in
any other way to account for the resolution of a single molecule into so many
others, such as occurs, for example, in ordinary alcoholic fermentation.

15. Such simultaneous attack is possible, probably because the enzyme is so con-
stituted that it can attach itself at several points along the chain; the hydrolyte,
in fact, is comparable with a complex lock, the hydrolyst with a complex key.
It is possible thus to picture contact as being established between several more or
less distant centres in a complex molecule, and a ‘ripple of change’ as pervading
the system in consequence. Enzymes with restricted powers, such as invertase
and diastase, probably can attach themselves only to a single centre, and their
action is directly and simply hydrolytic.

16. In some cases, such as the formation of fat, it would seem necessary to sup-
pose that several molecules may become associated together through the agency of
the hydrolyst, so that reductive processes may go on almost entirely in the one set ;
whilst in another corresponding oxidative processes take place, which furnish the
energy required to effect the reductions, On the other hand, it is conceivable that
exygen directly intervenes in the formation of fat, and that the process is not
merely one of hydrocatalysis.

17. That no very complex mechanism is needed to produce effects such as are
believed to be involved in fermentations follows from the fact that dextrose, for
example, may be resolved into lactic acid by digestion with alkali and levulose
into levulinic acid, CH,.CO.CH,.CH,.COOH, by heating it with an acid, the
latter being an especially remarkable case.

18. If the phenomena are as suggested, it does not seem probable that true
symbiotic fermentation is likely to occur as a consequence of the simultaneous
attack of a single molecule by several organisms; rather is it probable that
associated molecules undergo change under the influence of a single organism or

|
}

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 70t

agent which determines their association. And hitherto apparently no case has
been met with in which a substance has been observed to give way to a pair of
organisms, neither of which can attack it singly.

19. The assimilation of nitrogen by plants, which is believed to take place in the
symbiotic growths found on the roots of the Leguminose, is a phenomenon of which
at present no explanation can be given, as this element cannot enter into combina-
tion with either hydrogen or oxygen unassisted ; its absorption must take place in
a circuit in which changes occur from which the necessary energy may be derived.
As hydrogen is liberated in many fermentations, it appears not improbable that
nitrogen may be brought into circuit by acting as a hydrogen depolariser ; one
function of the nodule may be to supply carbohydrate, which is fermented by the
bacteroid in circuit with the nitrogen.

20. Symbiosis, as distinguished from parasitism, involves the conception not
only of the concurrent existence of organisms, but of their useful concurrency ;
indeed, any other form of symbiosis is difficult to imagine, and antzbiosts is a con~
tradiction in terms. It is desirable that we should remain satisfied with the term
until our knowledge of the actual character of the changes involved in ordinary
as well as in symbiotic fermentations is far greater than is now the case: at
present it is impossible to draw valid distinctions.

Note.—The explanation of fermentation adopted in this note is given in my
address to the Chemical Society in 1895.!_ Green, in his recent: work on Enzymes,
speaks of Baeyer having put forward, in 1870, the hypothesis that fermentation
is due to electric hydrolysis. This is incorrect. Baeyer’s paper is entitled ‘ Ueber
die Wasserentziehung und ihre Bedeutung fiir das Pflanzenleben,’ &c. He makes:
no reference whatever to the manner in which water might be withdrawn, but
merely shows that the withdrawal of water and the subsequent addition of its:
elements in a different order would produce effects such as are observed in
fermentations.

Discussion.

Dr. H. Van Laer (Brussels).—Revient sur les communications faites par M. le
professeur Marshall Ward et le Dr. Armstrong. Il fait remarquer que l’exemple
de vie en commun d’une moisissure et d’une levure, telle qu'on la retrouve dans.
Vintéressant procédé de fermentation de M. Calmette, ne rentre nullement dans les
cas de symbiose, métabiose ou antibiose signalés par M. Marshall Ward.

Il est incontestable que dans cette association de moisissure et de Ievure.
celle-ci y trouve tout avantage, puisqu’elle se borne a utiliser le sucre produit par
les diastases de la mucédinée. Mais cette derniére ne trouve guére d’avantages.
dans cette société. Il y a plutét ici un cas de parasitisme analogue a celui qui se
présente lorsque le Mycoderma cerevisie se trouve en méme temps qu'une levure
dans un milieu nutritif contenant un sucre (la saccharose ou la maltose, par
exemple) que le mycoderme ne peut utiliser.

Il a remarqué que lorsque cet organisme vit en concurrence avec la levure il
sempare d'une portion des monosaccharides qui se forment par l’action des
diastases levuriennes sur la maltose ou la saccharose.

Professor R. Warington.—AlN joint life is based on division of labour. The
bricklayer cannot do his work unless the brickmaker supplies bricks, and the brick-
maker will cease to work if his bricks are not consumed. We must not argue that
there is no combined work because all the agents do not simultaneously attack the
same material. There is an evident need, however, of defining the sense in which
the term Symbiosis is used: at present it is applied to a number of distinct
cases. It will be well to follow Professor Marshall Ward’s proposal, and to limit.
the use of the term to those cases in which each living organism is essentially
benefited by the work of its companion, so that joint life is needed for the welfare
of both. Cases in which B prepares material for A, but derives no essential benefit.
from A, should be termed, as Professor Ward suggests, not Symbiosis, but.
Metabiosis.

1 Trans. p. 11236.

702 REPORT—1899.

Mr. Francis Darwin spoke on stimulus as a factor in the problem, and, without
dissenting from Professor Ward’s view, called attention to a possible difficulty.

Dr. G. Harris Morris said that he was interested in the subject under dis-
cussion from the point of view of the so-called symbiotic fermentations, in which
moulds and yeasts were concerned. Personally he considered the view of Pro-
fessor Armstrong, that the first-named organism prepared the way for the second,
to be the correct one, and he thought that the results of certain experiments which
he hoped to lay before the Section at a later meeting (see p. 710) would support
that view. In the fermentations referred to, the function of the mould appeared
to be entirely that of secreting diastase, which degraded the starch products and
rendered them fermentable by the yeast. The diastase thus secreted could be
replaced by malt extract or precipitated diastase with precisely the same result,
and although the diastase so secreted or added was undoubtedly stimulated by the
fermentative action of the yeast, yet the phenomenon could not be regarded as an
instance of true symbiosis. A further proof that the one organism prepared the
way for the other was to be found in the fact that in the commercial process
which had been mentioned it was found that the best results were obtained when
the mould, or diastase secretor, was added twenty-four hours before the yeast or
fermentative agent. :

The results of the experiments to which he had previously referred showed the
supposition that the function of one organism was to remove from the field of
action products which inhibited the action of the other to be untenable.

He should also like to correct the view, which appeared to be shared by some
who had taken part in the discussion, that because the moulds were only able to
produce a comparatively small amount of alcohol, therefore their saccharifying
action ceased when the formation of alcohol came to an end. This was by no
means the case, as experiment showed that the extent to which degradation of the
starch-products had proceeded was by no means indicated by the amount of
alcohol formed.

He also could not agree with Professor van Laer in regarding the action of the
yeast as that of a parasite, and he did not think that any analogy could be drawn
with the action in question and that of Mycoderma vini.

[The President of the Section.—It is a matter of great difficulty to determine
all the actions and reactions of an organism with its environment even when we
have to deal with a pure culture living in a medium of the simplest possible
composition, but the difficulty is enormously increased when it is a question of two
or more organisms, either of which can influence the other in a variety of ways.

If we consider the process of Dr. Calmette for the preparation of alcohol from
starch by the metabiotie agencies of a saccharifying Amylomycete or Aspergillus,
and a true yeast, we find that the actual amount of hydrolytic action exerted by
the first organism when working alone is extremely small, but that the mere
presence of a second organism, the yeast, which has the power of fermenting the pro-
ducts of starch-hydrolysis as fast as they are formed, enormously intensifies the
initial saccharification. The fact is generally explained by biologists by assuming
that the yeast in some mysterious manner stimulates the saccharifying organism to
secrete a larger amount of diastase. This explanation is a pure assumption which
cannot be proved or disproved by direct experiment. We may, however, as
Dr. Morris has shown, produce the same effect under conditions where the
saccharifying organism is replaced by a small but definite amount of diastase
which remains constant throughout the experiment. Now it is impossible to
avoid the conclusion that the chemical processes involved are the same in the two
cases, and that it is perfectly unnecessary to introduce the explanation of an
increased secretion of diastase by stimulation when we are considering the case in
which the two metabiotic organisms are concerned.

An extension of similar work, especially on the simultaneous action of mixed
enzymes, each one of which is capable of carrying out its own stage of hydrolysis,
will, no doubt, ultimately throw considerable light on the metabiotic effect of living
organisms. ‘Take, for instance, the case of diastase and glucase. The former can
hydrolyse starch down to maltose but no further, whilst the latter, unable in itself

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Be 703

to act on starch, can readily convert maltose into glucose. It is highly probable, if
these enzymes were set to work side by side on starch, that the joint hydrolytic
effect, measured by the amount of starch which disappears in a given time,
would be greater than it would be if the diastase were working alone.

Two possible explanations of the increased effect of the presence of yeast on a
trace of diastase naturally suggest themselves. The first is that the hydrolytic
process is a reversible one, and is promoted by the rapid removal of the products
from the sphere of action, the other being that the small amount of acid produced
during the alcoholic fermentation increases the action of the diastase. Dr. Morris
has apparently eliminated both these possibilities, in the one case by artificially
adding maltose to the solutions, and in the other by the addition of a fermented
malt-extract deprived of its living yeast cells.

If, however, it is remembered that maltose, when first formed by diastatic
action, unquestionably differs from the optically stable form which has been in
solution for some time, and, moreover, that evidence is still wanting as to the
relative fermentability of these two forms of maltose, the door is not altogether
closed to the possibilities of the phenomena being after all in some way
dependent on the prevention of reversal by the rapid removal of the fermentable
products of change. |?

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on the Teaching of Natural Science in Elementary Schools.
See Reports, p. 359.

2. A Discussion on Atomic Weights was opened by the reading of
the following communications :—

Proposed International Committee on Atomic Weights.
By Professor F. W. CuarKE.

(Letter to Professor W. A. TILDEN.)

Washington, D.C., July 19, 1899.

Dear Sir,—In response to your letter of June 8, I take pleasure in sending you
a statement of my views relative to the proposed International Committee upon
Atomic Weights. The suggestions which I have to offer are, however, only my
own individual opinions, and are not to be regarded as representing any organisa-
tion, or as based upon any definite programme. Still, they may serve as a basis
for discussion, and so help to clear a way for progress.

Every chemist who has studied, with any closeness, the determination of atomic
weights, has noticed the discordance which exists among the published tables. In
many text-books and works of reference tables are given which seem to have been
edited with a pair of scissors and a paste-pot, and which show about as much
critical acumen in their making up as those useful implements could furnish. Not
only are obsolete values found persisting, but values are given which are inconsis-
tent among themselves; and occasionally there is evidence of the most pitiable
confusion as to the fundamental standards of reference. One table is based upon
the standard of oxygen as 16; another upon oxygen as 15:88, and still others upon
the wholly erroneous ratio of 15:96, In one and the same table these several

1 Owing to want of time the Conference of the two Sections was closed before
the termination of the Discussion. The remarks in square brackets embody the
views expressed by the President of Section B at a subsequent date, when Dr. G. H.
Morris read his Paper on the ‘Combined Action of Diastase and Yeast on Starch-
granules.’ See p. 710. «

704 REPORT—1899.

standards may simultaneously appear, one atomic weight being referred to one, and’
another to another; the compiler being quite unconscious of the discrepancy.
Tables of atomic weights which were good ten years ago reappear frequently in
books of to-day, with no hint that any changes have occurred in any of the data.

In order to remedy, at least in part, this unnecessary confusion in our funda-
mental constants, the American Chemical Society in 1892 requested me to prepare
an annual report upon atomic weights. Each year since I have submitted to the
Society such a report (six in all), giving a summary of the determinations made,
and a table of values brought down to the date of publication. So far as it went,
the work seems to have been useful; but it did not go far enough, and it carried
only the authority which might attach to the opinions of a single individual. More-
criticism, more comparison of views among chemists, was evidently desirable ; and
the movement in favour of international action seems to be a movement in the
proper direction.

In 1898 the subject was taken up independently by the German Chemical
Society, which appointed a committee consisting of Landolt, Ostwald, and Seubert.
This committee in due time reported a table of atomic weights, recommended the
adoption of O= 16 as the standard of reference, and suggested that like committees
might well be appointed by other societies for purposes of co-operation. Acting
upon that suggestion, the American Chemical Society, at its last general meeting,
appointed a committee consisting of F. W. Clarke, J. W. Mallet, E. W. Morley,
T. W. Richards, and Edgar F. Smith; and that committee has already begun
correspondence with the English and German organisations. A number of local
societies in various parts of Europe have recommended the use of the table put forth
by the German committee; but a full conference of all the parties at interest is yet
to be held. Probably an effort will be made to discuss the atomic weight question:
at the Congress of Chemists in Paris next year; but this proposition is so far only
a matter under consideration. At all events, a general international committee
might then be most readily brought together; and its recommendations would
certainly carry much weight.

What, now, could such a committee accomplish? In what directions should
its influence be exerted? These are questions to be answered beforehand, for upon
the answers the expediency of definite action must depend. Unless we have a
reasonable expectation that something useful can be done, it is not worth while to:
go any farther.

Two lines of discussion for the proposed committee are self-evident: first, a
_ discussion of the ultimate standard of reference, whether it shall beO=16 or H=1,
and upon this question there are legitimate differences of opinion; secondly, a
discussion of the existing data, in order to determine the most probable values for
the atomic weights, and to get some insight into their relative accuracy. This
involves the preparation of a table of atomic weights for practical use, in which
some indication shall be given as to the trustworthiness of the individual values.
Which figures have been well determined, and which need correction, should be
clearly shown, and in that way future investigation would be stimulated. Such a
table would call for revision from time to time, perhaps annually, and for this
reason the committee should be made a permanent body, to act either by meeting”
or by correspondence, according to circumstances. Only an international com-
mittee could expect to have its findings generally accepted.

Up to this point the work proposed for the committee has already been done,
with more or less thoroughness, by the German committee, by Professor Richards,
and by myself; so that the ground is pretty well cleared, and the field of action
can be seen. But still more is desirable ; and just here, I believe, the task of the
proposed committee may become most important. Having ascertained the wealx
points in our system of atomic weights, the next thing to do is to have them
strengthened; and to this end the combined influence of a body of trained experts
might well be exerted. At present all research in this field of investigation is
individual, and consequently the more obvious problems are simultaneously attacked
by sometimes several independent workers, while other equally important questions
are entirely neglected. A division of the field of labour, and co-operation in

we

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 705

research, might easily be brought about; not by any exercise of authority on the
part of the committee, but by mutual consent of the investigators, working in con-
Aerence, and aided by the suggestions which the international body might develop.
In short, the committee could not order, but it might persuade; and in this direc-
‘tion its influence ought to be decidedly beneficial. Even if it did no more than to
point out the essential problems to be solved, it would fully justify its existence.

There is one more general problem which the proposed committee should
consider: that of methods. What are the best experimental methods for the
determination of atomic weight ratios, and how shall the data be handled mathe-
matically? On each division of this question there is something to be said. The
existing methods, the methods which are commonly employed, are somewhat
conventional in their character, and need exhaustive scrutiny. They are not
sufficiently varied in their details to eliminate all danger of constant or cumula-
tive errors, and new lines of attack, new points of view, ought to be considered
-and developed. L : 4

At present, the data relative to atomic weights are treated like successive
Jinks in a series of chains, each link to be considered separately ; while in reality
they form an interlacing network of interdependent quantities which should be
“liseussed in some broadly general way.

To illustrate my meaning, let us consider a specific ratio,

CaF, : CaSO,,

which has been repeatedly measured in order to determine the atomic weight of

fluorine. In this case a series of measurements is made, involving of necessity

some error which may be great or small. From these data the atomic weight in
‘question is computed, with the assumption that the atomic weights of calcium
and sulphur are known. But these antecedent values are themselves in error by
small but unknown amounts, and these errors are superimposed upon the experi-
mental error of the ratio itself, so that all three appear in the final result of the
calculation. The errors may be compensatory in part, or they may be cumula-
tive; and which is the case we cannot certainly know. In a proper reduction
-of the data the ratio should contribute to our knowledge of all three of the atomic
weights represented, and its error should be distributed among them instead of
being piled, with others, upon one. That is, the ratio should not be discussed by
‘itself, but should be combined with other ratios in such a manner that several
related atomic weights might be determined simultaneously. This, I believe, will
be the method of the future; and ultimately all trustworthy evidence, concerning
all atomic weights, will be put into one set of normal equations with simultaneous
solution for all. First, the experimental errors will be made as small as possible ;
after that they will be so uniformly distributed as to become inappreciable. For
this procedure the mathematical method is well known, but the existing data
are too incomplete for its present application. ‘The final reductions will not be
possible for many years to come. Work, comparable with that of Stas and
Morley, needs to be done for all the chemical elements, and done with a broad
purpose in view; after that the mathematician can contribute his share to the
solution of the general problem.

It is greatly to be hoped that at some future time some of the great labora-
tories may undertake systematic work of the kind I have indicated. The
fundamental constants of chemistry are surely of equal importance with the value
of the ohm, the form of the earth, or the solar parallax ; and institutions like the
Reichsanstalt in Berlin, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at
Paris, or the Davy-Faraday laboratory of the Royal Institution, might well con-
tribute to their determination. In this direction an international committee
conld exert an influence far beyond that of any individual], or even of any one
‘society, but the problems at issue must first be clearly understood and formulated.

To clear the ground, to arouse interest, and to stimulate systematic research, are
importart functions of the proposed body.
Yours very truly,
F. W. CLarke.

1899. Zi

706 REPORT—1899.

Atomic Weights. By Professor W. A. TiLpEn, 7.2.8,

The question of atomic weights has two aspects, the theoretical and the prac-
tical. or the purposes of theory we require to know the relative values of the
atomic weights of all the elements with the utmost possible accuracy, with the
object chiefly of explaining observed relations and discovering new ones. The true
significance of the periodic scheme of arrangement will never be discovered till the
atomic weights of a much larger number of elements are known more correctly than
at present. And the employment of numbers which only roughly approximate to
the true values for the atomic weights has led in the past to a large amount of
speculation and discussion, of which nearly the whole is fruitless, because of
necessity successive hypotheses have had to be put aside as knowledge of the sub-
ject has advanced, and numbers less inaccurate have been gradually substituted.
This is true not only of such crude hypotheses as that of Prout, but of ideas pro-
posed in more recent times concerning the relations of the several series in
Mendeléef’s table,

Other questions have arisen, such as the possibility of the variation of the
atomic weights within certain limits, but they only serve to illustrate the extreme
difficulty of the subject in its present position; for while the facts are about
equally well known to all chemists who have studied it, they have led some to
consider variation possible, while others upon the same evidence are convinced
that it is impossible. Unfortunately the settlement of such questions is still far
off, for the complete series of determinations of all the elements made with a
degree of accuracy comparable with that which has made the work of Stas
famous is not to be expected in the present generation.

Another subject which has been reopened by the action of the distinguished
Committee of the German Chemical Society relates to the unit to be adopted.
The practice which has prevailed universally since the time of Berzelius, that is,
for nearly three-quarters of a century, of expressing the atomic weights in terms
of hydrogen (H =1) is now abandoned by the Committee in favour of the new
scale, in which oxygen is the standard and O=16. The considerations which
have influenced the several members of the Committee are chiefly three, namely,
first, the uncertainty still supposed to attach to the ratio H:0O, though this is
now as accurately known as it is likely to be ; secondly, the fact that the atomic
weights of many elements may be deduced directly from the composition of their
compounds with oxygen, but less frequently from compounds with hydrogen ;
thirdly and chiefly, because the oxygen scale brings many atomic weights very
near to whole numbers, It is evident that this consideration is one which con-
cerns alike the analyst, the student, and the investigator in every analytical
operation, and in all circumstances which do not involve the discussion of the
numerical interrelations of the atomic weights. For that purpose the H=1 scale
will always be preferable, until an element is discovered having a smaller atomic
weight than hydrogen, and of that there is at present no indication so far as
terrestrial chemistry is concerned.

On the whole the proposal of the German Chemical Society is probably the
best solution of the difficulty. The scale in which O=16, however, implies the
value 1:01, approximately, for hydrogen; and though it is true that for common
analytical use the neglect to recognise this value will not lead to very serious con-
sequences, it must be remembered that an appreciable error will be involved in
expressing the composition of compounds which are comparatively rich in hydro-
gen, such as the chief hydrocarbons and their derivatives. For C,H,,, for
example, the percentage of hydrogen is 16°66 or 16°80, according to the value
assigned to the atomic weight of hydrogen.

But supposing the O=16 scale to be generally adopted, it is still highly
desirable that there should be an understanding among the several Chemical
Societies, and if possible among the members of these societies, as to the numbers
to be chosen for ordinary use. Are we to use 27:1 for Al, 137-4 for Ba, 208°5 for
Bi, 79:96 for Br, 35:45 for Cl, 52:1 for Or, 126°85 for I, 2069 for Ph, 24°36 for Mg,
200'3 for Hg, 14:04 for N, 1948 for Pt, 39°15 for K, 23:05 for Na, 32:06 for S &c.,

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 707

instead of the nearest whole numbers as has beencustomary in all these cases, with
one exception, namely, chlorine? The temptation will be great, especially when
we become aware that in the majority of cases the error introduced will be less
than the ordinary experimental error. The example of platinum at once presents
itself, without concerning ourselves about the special value for this element used
by the potash makers for reasons of their own. But comparing the result of
employing the old rounded-off numbers with that of using the more exact values
calculated on the O=16 scale, it is interesting to see how little is the effect on the
percentage composition of potassium platino-chloride deduced from the formula.

Percentages calculated from |

— Difference
K=39'15, Pt=194'8, Cl=35°45| K=39, Pt=195, Cl=35'5
Potassium : 16118 16°049 069
Platinum : 40°099 40°123 024 |
Chlorine : : 43°783 43°827 “044 |

100-000 99°999

There are some chemists to whom anything short of scientific accuracy is
distasteful. It would be interesting to know whether in their daily work they
use, for example, the number 14-04 instead of 14 for nitrogen, and what is the
extent of experimental error they admit in analyses of nitrates or ammonia salts,
of nitro compounds, or of organic matters by Kjeldahl, or any other recognised
process. The composition of nitro-benzene may be used as an illustration. The
percentage of N derived from the formula when C =12, H=1, N=14, O=16, is
11:38; while if C=12, H=1:01, N=14:04, and O=16, the result is 11-40, a
difference of ‘02 per cent.

It is also usually forgotten that the values arrived at in all the best determina-
tions of atomic weights are obtained under conditions which cannot be observed
in daily laboratory practice, the weights, for example, being usually reduced to a
vacuum standard. Hence the adoption of the numbers regarded as the most exact
does not necessarily contribute to the exactness of ordinary analytical operations,
however carefully performed.

A little common sense is required in all such matters, but it should be the
common sense of the chemical world, and not the diverse fancies of individuals,
and uniformity of practice would tend greatly to the general convenience. The
only chance of arriving at such uniformity is to submit the question to discussion
first at such meetings as those of the British Association and the Chemical Society,
and subsequently at an international gathering such as it is proposed to hold in
Paris next year, On such grounds I support cordially the chief proposals brought
forward in the communication from Professor F. W. Clarke.

3. Development of Chemistry in the last Fifteen Years.
By Professor Geheimrath Dr. A. LADENBURG.

4, The Chemical Effect on Agricultwral Soils of the Salt-water Flood of
November 29, 1897, on the East Coast. By T. S. Dymonp, £.2.C.,
and F, HuGues, County Technical Laboratories, Chelmsford.'

The fact that on the coast of Essex alone some 30,000 acres of land were flooded
during the high tide of November 29, 1897, shows the serious nature of this
inundation of salt water. The injurious effect of the salt water on crops is

1 The original paper, containing the analytical results and particulars of crops,
will be published from the County Technical Laboratories, Chelmsford.

ZZ2

708 REPORT—1899.

variously stated to last from five to twenty years, and this inquiry was undertaken
with a view to advising as to the best means of cultivating the land, and also
to determine the amount of salt deposited, the time required for its removal by
drainage, and its chemical and physical effects upon the soil constituents, a
knowledge of which must be of value in the event of future inundations,

By analysis made after the water had run off, but before an appreciable quan-
tity of rain had fallen, the soil was found to contain 0:2 per cent of salt, or about
twenty times the normal quantity. This was insufficient to produce plasmolysis
of the root-hairs, and it therefore was not directly injurious to growing crops. Nor
was the condition of the soil then impaired; indeed, the addition of salt to soil
tends at first to granulate the clay and render it more workable. The immediate
injury appeared to be chiefly due to the entire destruction of earth-worms. In the
following season (1898) very few crops were worth harvesting.

The soils were re-examined this spring (1899). It was found that nine-tenths
of the salt had been washed down by rain and removed by drainage, and that
young worms had again made their appearance. The condition of the soil was,
however, very unsatisfactory, and while on some farms there was promise of fair
crops, on others the crops had failed. When shaken with water the soil is no
longer quickly deposited, but remains partially suspended for several weeks,
evidence that the clay has become gelatinous. This is also shown by the higher
percentage of water of hydration in the air-dried clay from the flooded soil. The
retentivity of the soil for water had not become greatly altered, but percolation of
water through the flooded soil was just half as rapid as through the unflooded.

These effects appear to be due to the chemical action of the chlorides of the
sea-water upon the double silicates of the soil. Analysis of the soil shows that
the percentage of lime, magnesia, potash, and soda had been reduced very mate~
rially, and this points to the decomposition of the double silicates, the silicate of
alumina being left behind in a gelatinous condition.

It is obvious that for the amelioration of the soil attention must be directed to
rendering the soil more workable and open, and thus counteracting the effect of
the gelatinous clay. Ploughing in green crops or the straw of cereal crops and
long manure, and, above all, thorough fallowing, have already proved to be useful.
Also, the soil having become impoverished by the action of the salt, dressings of
lime and potash manures may be required, lime being especially valuable because
of its known effect in granulating clay.

5. The Influence of Solvents upon the Optical Activity of Organic Com-
pounds. By Wi.L1aAmM JACKSON Pope.

The author traces the variations in the specific rotation of an optically active
substance dissolved in various solvents to the degree of association of the active
compound; it is shown that the specific rotation of levotetrahydroquinaldine, a
highly associated substance, varies from [a]p = — 46° to —118° in different solvents
owing to the varying degree to which the association factor is changed. On the
other hand, a substance like levopinene, which is practically nonassociated in the
pure state, alters its specific rotation very slightly when dissolved in different
solvents.

Since the specific rotation is so largely dependent upon the association factor,
a method can be devised for determining whether a particular optically active
substance forms a liquid racemic compound with its optical antipodes. Thus pure
levotetrahydroquinaldine has the specific rotation [a]) = —58:12°, and when
dissolved in externally compensated tetrahydroquinaldine as solvent its specific
rotation becomes [a]p = — 58'02°; this practical identity between the two specific
rotations indicates that externally compensated tetrahydroquinaldine is merely a
mixture of the two antipodes, each of which retains in the mixture the association
factor which it possesses in the pure liquid state. Externally compensated tetra-
hydroquinaldine is, therefore, not a racemic compound,

CC OO EE -
4

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 709

6. A Method for Resolving Racemic Oximes into their Optically Active
Components. By WiLLiAM Jackson Pope.

The author gives a method for resolving very feebly basic racemic substances,
such as oximes, into their optically active components. The method consists in
forming salts of the feeble base with dextrocamphorsulphonic acid and separating
the salt of the dextro-base from that of the levo-base by fractional crystallisa-
tion. In order to demonstrate the efficacy of the method, racemic camphoroxime
was resolved into its active components by fractional crystallisation with the
equivalent quantity of camphorsulphonic acid ; dextrocamphoroxime dextrocamphor-
sulphonate, C,,H,,NOH, C,,H,,OSO,H, H,O, separates first from the acetone or
ethereal solution, and when treated with dilute ammonia yields pure dextro-
camphoroxime. The more soluble levocamphoroxime dextrocamphorsulphonate,
C,,H,,NOH, C,,H,,0SO,H, H,O, remains in the mother liquids, and after
appropriate purification yields levocamphoroxime when treated with ammonia.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Phenomena connected with the Drying of Colloids, Mineral and
Organic. By J. H. Guapstons, /.R.S.. and Warrer Hisserr.

The object of this paper was to draw attention to some peculiarities observed
in the drying of colloids—namely, the hydrates of tin, titanium, silica, iron, and
alumina, together with gelatine, gum, and albumen.

The mineral colloids when dried from solution approximate very closely to
definite hydrates. Through the shrinking caused by the evaporation of the water
they crack into non-crystalline blocks, which exhibit a variety of phenomena,
such as serrated edges, fringes, contour lines, and internal fissures of a crescent or
spiral form,

When the soft material gives off water the surface becomes hard, though the
water still continues to find its way through. When the dried surface is tough, as
in the case of gelatine, no internal structure is reyealed, but where it is hard and
brittle, as in the case of titanic hydrate, crescent-shaped cavities and contour lines
make their appearance round the region of final attachment.

In the case of the tin hydrate, where the crust is sufficiently strong to resist
distortion, cavities make their appearance, generally in the form of regular spirals,
often consisting of many conyolutions, ' These spirals, with modifications, are also
shown in titanium hydrate, iron oxide, and albumen.

Of the above-mentioned elements, tin, titanium, silicon, and carbon are
members of Mendeléeff’s fourth group, while iron and alumina form sesquioxides.
While there is a close analogy among these organic and mineral colloids, there are
enone which must be ascribed to the chemical nature of the particular

ydrate.

2. The Influence of Acids and of some Salts on the Saccharification of
Starch by Malt-Diastase. By Dr. A. Frrnpacu.

In a series of papers on ‘Inyertase,’ published in 1889 in the ‘Annales de
l'Institut Pasteur,’ I proved that the slightest variations of acidity or alkalinity
have a very great influence on the action of the enzyme. Its action is greatly
favoured by the presence of free acid, and for each acid as well as for each sample
of invertase there is a definite quantity of acid which appears most favourable to
the action.

It was natural to apply these observations to diastatic action, as it has been

710 . REPORT—1899.

maintained by different authors that acids favour the saccharification of starch by
diastase.

My experiments have led me to a different conclusion. The slightest trace of
Free acid distinctly retards the action of diastase on gelatinised as well as on soluble
starch; this applies to all acids. The action is, however, apparent only if both the
starch employed and the solution of diastase are absolutely free from salts on which
the added acid may act.

If the solution contains such salts, among which the most important are
secondary phosphates, which are distinctly unfavourable to diastatic action, the
addition of acid is favourable as long as there is no excess over the quantity neces-
sary to transform these salts into primary phosphates. In that case the acidity of
the liquid increases by addition of acid, but there is no free acid present as long as
the whole of the secondary salt is not decomposed. The unfavourable action of
acid appears as soon as the quantity added is greater than that required for this
decomposition.

A distinction must therefore be made between acidity and free acid, as is
proved by the influence of primary phosphates or diastatic action, which salts,
although having an acid reaction, are distinctly favourable. This influence of
phosphates seems to be specific for salts of this kind.

The same influence of phosphates may be noticed with enzymes other than
diastase, and I am at present engaged in investigating this subject farther in con-
junction with L. Hubert.

3. Note on the Combined Action of Diastase and Yeast on Starch-granules.
By G. Harris Morris, PA.D., FDC.

It has long been known that when yeast is allowed to act on a solution of

atarch-transformation products in the presence of active diastase, the quantity of ©

matter fermented is far in excess of that which can be fermented by the yeast
alone; and, furthermore, that when active diastase and yeast are allowed to con-
jointly act on the so-called stable dextrin, which, under ordinary conditions, is
neither degradable by diastase nor fermentable by yeast, it is entirely fermented.
The action is apparently analogous to that of symbiosis, only, in place of two living
organisms being concerned, we have a conjunction of an unorganised enzyme,
diastase, and the yeast organism.

Some experiments I was led to make a few years ago showed that a similar
action takes place when ungelatinised intact starch granules are submitted to the
joint action of diastase and yeast. The experiments were made with barley
starch, and were briefly as follows :—

A quantity of the dry starch was shaken continuously with a mixture of cold-
water malt extract and water for seventy-two hours.

A similar mixture was made with the addition of a small quantity of yeast,
and allowed to stand side by side with the above for the same length of time.

An examination of the two then showed that in the first experiment 22:2 per
cent. of the starch had gone into solution, whilst in the second 51°8 per cent. had
disappeared. In the former the starch had been converted into maltose, and was
found in the solution ; in the latter, the maltose first formed had been to a very
large extent fermented, and existed as alcohol.

It appeared possible that the increased action, when yeast was present, was due
to the removal of the soluble product—maltose—from the field of action, thus
allowing the diastase to exert a greater activity. In order to determine this,
another experiment was made, and two bottles, one containing a mixture of starch,
malt extract, and water, the other a mixture of starch, malt extract, and solution
of starch transformation-products, were shaken side by side for the same length of
time. In each case the amount of starch dissolved was practically identical, thus
showing that the soluble products had no retarding action on the diastatic action.
Another experiment in which the product of the action of the diastase was
removed by dialysis, instead of by fermentation, gave a similar result—the sum of

or

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 711

the matter which diffused, and that remaining in the dialyser was the same as that
in the mixture where no dialysis was possible.

Other experiments showed that no increased diastatic action took place in the
presence of yeast, if the fermentative power of the latter was checked by chloro-
form, neither was any increase of action observed when the malt extract was
fermented and the yeast removed before the starch-granules were added. It
appears, therefore, that it is necessary to have both the diastase and the yeast
present together in a condition capable of exercising their respective functions, in
order to obtain the increased action.

Precipitated diastase acts in the same way as cold-water malt extract.

The combined action of diastase and yeast on starch-granules differs from that
of the two on the so-called stable dextrin, since it only takes place on those
starches which are attacked in the ungelatinised form by diastase, such as barley
or malt starch. The granules of potato starch are not acted on by diastase, even
in the presence of yeast.

4. The Action of Acids on Starch. By G. Harris Morris, Ph.D., LLC.

Some months ago, H. Johnson! published a paper in which he maintains that
when starch is hydrolysed by acids only dextrose and dextrin are produced, and
that under no conditions is maltose formed in the reaction. He also adopts the
view that glucoamylins are formed in the reaction; these substances he regards
as molecular aggregates of dextrose and dextrin, similar to amyloins or malto-
dextrins, but containing the dextrose in place of the maltose group.

This view of the acid hydrolysis of starch is opposed to that previously held by
the majority of observers, and is completely at variance with the results obtained
by Rolfe and Defren, and the author’s.

Johnson states that the properties of the substances intermediate between starch
and dextrose can be expressed in terms of dextrin and dextrose, and that when
this is done the specific rotatory power calculated for such a mixture agrees with
the observed angle for the conversion. He supports this view by giving results
obtained with acid starch conversions and with fractions of such conversions ob-
tained by precipitation with alcohol.

Johnson also states that the action of diastase on the products of the acid
hydrolysis of starch is very slight, thus further proving the different nature of the
products intermediate between dextrin and dextrose from those of conversions with
diastase.

The author’s experience is, however, directly opposed to that of Johnson. A
large number of acid starch conversions, analysed and calculated in the manner
described by the latter, gave differences between the observed and calculated specific
rotatory powers corresponding to the presence of from 5 to 45 per cent. of maltose.
The examination of alcoholic fractions gave similar results, and from the fractions,
the analysis of which indicated the presence of considerable percentages of maltose,
erystals of undoubted maltosazone were obtained.

The results of the action of malt extract were also entirely different from those
obtained by Johnson, the fall in angle on degradation amounting on an average
to more than 20° [a]p,

The author’s results were obtained from conversions made with different
starches and acids, and under varying conditions of temperature and pressure, and
in nearly all cases the analytical data, when calculated in the manner indicated
above, showed a difference of angles, indicating the presence of maltose.

Several of Rolfe and Defren’s results were also calculated in the manner adopted
by Johnson, and it was found that they fully confirmed those of the author.

The author also criticised the law regarding the products of acid hydrolysis of
starch at which Rolfe and Defren had arrived, and he considered that owing to
the method of calculation accepted, further investigation was required before it
could be employed.

» Trans. Chem. Soc. 1898, pp. 490-502.

712 REPORT—1899.

From the experience of the author, he is of opinion that the relative amounte-
of dextrin, dextrose, and maltose present in any given acid conversion of starch
depend on the conditions under which the conversion is made, as regards strength
of acid, temperature, and pressure, and that it is not possible to predict the relative
proportions of the three carbohydrates from the specific rotatory power as is stated:
by Rolfe and Defren.

5. The Action of Hydrogen Peroxide on Carbohydrates in the Presence:
ot Ferrous Salts. By R.S. Morrert and J. M. Crorts.

At the Bristol meeting of the British Association we communicated the results
of the oxidation of glucose and levulose by hydrogen peroxide in the presence of
ferrous sulphate. The glucose and levulose were oxidised to the same osone, which
was identified by the formation of phenyl glucosazone at the ordinary temperature..
During the past year we have oxidised in the same way arabinose and galactose.’
The former sugar yields arabinosone, but galactose has, as yet, furnished no definite
results.

We now wish to state some of the results obtained from the oxidation of the
_glucosone produced when levulose is treated with hydrogen peroxide. The method.
adopted is to oxidise the glucosone by bromine-water after having first removed as
much of the unattacked levulose as possible by fermentation. We obtained the
calcium salt of a dibasic acid, which is very soluble in water, reduces Fehling’s

solution easily, and the analyses point to the calcium sait of a dibasic acid ot

formula C,H,O,. The free acid we have not as yet obtained crystalline. Levulose,
by the action of oxidising agents, gives acids containing less than six carbon atoms,
but from our results it would seem that the glucosone can be oxidised without
destruction of the six-carbon chain.

We have alco tried the action of bromine on a solution of glucosone obtained
from glucose, after having removed as much of the unaltered glucose as possible,
by fermentation with yeast. Unfortunately we have been unable to obtain a
pure calcium salt—the analyses indicating the presence of some calcium gluconate.

Besides the oxidation of the glucosone by bromine-water, we have oxidised
some of the saccharoses by hydrogen peroxide, namely cane sugar, lactose, and
maltose. In the case of cane sugar, the product is merely glucosone, and the yield

of osazone is about 30 per cent. of the weight of cane sugar taken—two atoms of

oxygen being used in the oxidation. This yield is nearly that obtained when
glucose and levulose alone are oxidised. Lactose and maltose both yielded
substances which react with phenyl hydrazine acetate in the cold; the yield of
osazone, however, was small, and the substance sometimes oily.

6. Influence of Substitution on Specific Rotation in the Bornylamine Series-
By M. O. Forster, Ph.D., D.Sc.

On replacing an atom of hydrogen belonging to a group attached to asymmetric
carbon in an optically active substance, the numerical value of the rotatory power’
undergoes achange. Hitherto the hydroxylic and carboxylic groups have received
most attention, but these radicles contain only one hydrogen atom, and the author
has therefore studied the effect produced on the specific rotation of bornylamine-
by replacing the hydrogen atoms of the amino-group. The following observations
have been made :—

1. The specific rotation of bornylamine is largely increased by replacement off
a single hydrogen atom in the amino-group by an alkyl radicle, but the increase
diminishes in ascending the series of monalkyl bases, of which methylbornylamine-
has the greatest specific rotatory power.

2. The specific rotation of bornylamine is only slightly increased on replacing:

10. S. J. 1899, p. 786.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 7S

both hydrogen atoms in the amino-group by the same radicle. The specific rota-
tions of the condensation products of bornylamine with aromatic aldehydes, however,
do not exhibit marked approximation to that of the original base, although the
compounds in question are represented by the typical formula, C,)H,,"N:X.

8. The specific rotatory power of paranitrobenzylbornylamine approximates
more closely to that of benzylbornylamine than does that of the ortho-derivative.
Similarly, the specific rotations of paranitro- and parahydroxybenzylideneborny|-
amines are less divergent from that of benzylidenebornylamine than the correspond-
ing ortho-compounds.

4, Bornylamine and its alkyl derivatives, although strongly dextrorotatory,
give rise to benzoyl derivatives which are strongly levorotatory.

5, The ethyl group increases the dextrorotation of the base in alcohol by 29:2°,
whilst the formyl radicle, although of equal mass, converts it into a levorotation
of 42°1°.

6. When an alkyl group replaces a hydrogen atom of the ammonium radicle in
the series of alkylbornylammonium iodides, the specific rotatory power of bornyl~
amine hydriodide, instead of undergoing increase in the positive direction, becomes
reduced to feeble laevorotation.

A convenient method of preparing methylbornylamine, which may perhaps find
application in other groups ot primary amines, consists in heating benzylidene-
bornylamine with methylic iodide, and hydrolysing the resulting methiodide, which
is resolved into benzaldehyde and methylbornylamine hydriodide. The remaining
derivatives employed in this investigation were prepared by known methods,

7. New Derivatives from Camphoroxime.

By M. O. Forster, Ph.D., D.Sc.

With the object of preparing brominated derivatives of camphoroxime the author
has studied the behaviour of this substance towards alkaline hypobromite.

The compound, C,,H,,NO,Br, is obtained by the action of a concentrated
ice-cold solution of potassium hypobromite on camphoroxime, dissolved, and in part
suspended, in aqueous potash ; it crystallises from alcohol in snow-white fern-like
ageregates, and melts at 220° to a colourless liquid which immediately decomposes.
It is volatile in steam, and sublimes at the temperature of the water-bath, the
vapour having an intensely irritating odour; benzene, ether, and petroleum dis-
solve it with great readiness. ‘he substance is optically active, and gives Lieber-
mann’s reaction for nitroso-derivatives; reduction with zine dust and acetic acid
regenerates camphoroxime.

The compound, C,,H,,NOBr, produced when the foregoing substance is dis-
solved in concentrated sulphuric acid, crystallises from alcohol in lustrous
transparent prisms, and sublimes in minute needles at the temperature of the
water-bath ; it shrinks and darkens at about 210°, becoming completely charred at
220°. This derivative is optically inactive, and does not give Liebermann’s reaction.
Treatment with hot concentrated hydrochloric acid converts it into the zsomeride,
which separates from alcohol in large transparent six-sided crystals, and melts at
240°; the compound does not give Liebermann’s reaction, but yields a benzoyl
derivative, crystallising from alcohol in lustrous scales which melt at 174-176°.

The nitrile, C,H,,CN, obtained when either of the compounds, C,,H,,NOBr,
is heated with an aqueous 20 per cent. solution of caustic soda, forms a limpid
fragrant oil, which boils at 198-199° under 760 mm. pressure ; it is feebly dextro-
rotatory, and a solution in chloroform instantly decolorises bromine. The amide,
C,H,,,CONH,, occurs as a by-product in the formation of the nitrile, and arises
from that substance under the influence of alcoholic potash ; it crystallises from
light petroleum in white highly lustrous needles, and melts at 90°. The acid,
C,H,,'COOH, prepared by heating the amide with concentrated hydrochloric acid,
is volatile in steam, and readily sublimes in long lustrous needles, melting at 133° ;
the cold solution in sodium carbonate instantly reduces potassium permanganate,

714 REPORT—1899.

but bromine is not decolorised by a solution of the acid in chloroform. Its
behaviour, therefore, resembles that of isolauronolic acid, C,H,,0,, which melts at
135°;1 the amide of isolauronolic acid, however, is described by Blanc” as melting
at 129-130°, and the nitrile boils at 205° under 760 mm.

The investigation of the amide and its behaviour on oxidation is being
continued.

8. The Action of Caustic Soda on Benzaldehyde.
By Dr. C. A. Koun and Dr. W. Trantom.

9. On the Action of Light upon Metallic Silver.
By Colonel J. WarERHOUSE.

Following on the lines of Moser’s thermographic observations, it may be asserted
that pure silver is sensitive to light. If cut-out masks be laid upon the surface of
silver leaf or foil, or on a daguerreotype plate, and exposed to the sun’s rays, a
visible image uitimately becomes apparent on the metallic surface. The ettect,
however, may be got in a very much shorter space of time if the exposed metal be
subjected to mercury vapour or developed by immersion in an acid solution of a
ferrous salt mixed with nitrate of silver. Clear images, hardly as yet to be called
pictures, can thus be obtained of a permanent character, so that it may be possible
to work the daguerreotype process without iodising the plate. In fact all photo-
graphic phenomena, the invisible developable image, the visible image, reversal,
and the effect of pressure marks, can be illustrated on the plain silver surface ;
this, at least, is a new discovery. Copper also seems to be sensitive in the same
way, and doubtless other metals.

10. Some Experiments to obtain Definite Alloys, if possible, of Cad-
mium, Zinc, and Magnesium with Platinum and Palladium. By
Professor W. R. E. Hopexinson, Captain Warinc, £.A., and Captain
Desporouen, £.A., Ordnance College, Woolwich.

That platinum alloys with zinc has been noticed by several experimenters—
Gmelin-Krant (8), 1193; Gehlen, Fox, Murray, &c., Deville and Debray, ‘ Ann.
Chem. and Phys,’ (3), 56,430; Boussingault, ‘ Ann. Chem. and Phys.’ (3), 53, 429.

Zine and Platinum.—it is generally stated that the metals unite with energy,
and that when the combination is heated until infusible the compound is repre-
sentable by Pt,Zn,.

Deville and Debray, after treating the alloy of Pt and Zn with dilute sulphuric
acid, obtained a black powder containing 31 per cent. zinc and a little free
platinum. :

The method employed has been to submit a weighed amount of platinum to
the vapour of the volatile metal, maintaining the platinum or compound formed
all the time at a temperature above the boiling-point of the particular volatile
metal.

Two plans have been tried: one carrying the vapour with hydrogen; another
heating ina vacuum. A very infusible Jena glass tube was employed.

In each case a weighed quantity of platinum ® (or palladium) was contained in
a porcelain boat. Almost touching this was another boat containing the volatile
metal in very considerable excess. The region about the two boats was heated
very strongly in a powerful combustion furnace, and in the case where hydrogen
was used the current of gas passed over the zinc (or other metal) towards the

1 Koenigs and Hoerlin, Ber. 1893, xxvi. 811; W.H. Perkin, jun., Zrans. Chem. Soc.
1898, lxxiii. 831.

2 Compt. Rend. 1896, cxxili. 749.

3 Very thin foil.

ll baie

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 715

platinum. When heated in vacuum the Sprengel pump was attached at the end
nearest the platinum so that the vapour could be drawn over the platinum.

The heating was in each case continued for some hours. After careful cooling
the boat with platinum alloy was weighed.

Cadmium.—V apour carried by hydrogen.

In one experiment *6832 of platinum absorbed ‘6872 of cadmium.

This alloy corresponds almost exactly to the formula PtCd,. It is white and
crystalline and very brittle when heated to fullredness in a vacuum tube. Scarcely
any cadmium sublimed from it. The loss in weight was inappreciable. Its relative
weight was found to be 18:53 (at 15°), and the calculated weight for an alloy of
this composition is 13:59.

In nitric acid some of the platinum is dissolved along with the cadmium. The
same product was given by heating the metals together in a vacuum tube.

Zine in Hydrogen.—The action was slower than with cadmium.

In one experiment 45°57 per cent. zinc was taken up. PtZn, requires
40 per cent. Zn. On heating this 45°57 per cent. alloy for two hours in a vacuum
tube some zine distilled off, leaving a residue containing 44 per cent. Zn.

It was now heated until the glass tube began to give way, the pump keeping
upavacuum. The residue after about four hours contained 24-45 per cent. Zn.
‘This is nearly PtZn, which requires 25 per cent. Zn, It seemed hopeless to get
more zinc driven off in glass tubes.

The alloy is crystalline and extremely brittle. It dissolves in acids pretty
much like the cadmium alloy.

Heated side by side in the vacuum the alloy of PtZn seemed to be formed, but
the process was very slow, the zinc vapour not travelling very far.

Magnesium.—This was the most difficult, as at the temperature employed the
magnesium vapour is almost entirely absorbed by the glass of the tube and by the
porcelain boat.

Some magnesium was distilled in vacuum. This was placed in a porcelain
boat lined with MgO. The platinum was placed as close as possible and the
whole heated until the magnesium was melted. A gentle current of very dry
hydrogen was then kept up for some hours, An extremely friable crystalline alloy
was produced, From the amount absorbed it corresponds very nearly to the formula
PtMg,.

Palladium.—The experiments with this metal and cadmium and zinc have so
far failed to give any result. Very little cadmium seems to be taken up by
palladium either when heated in vacuo or in a current of hydrogen. What little
is taken up distils away very easily. It is possible to keep a piece of palladium
foil for two hours in cadmium vapour without change. There is a little more
tendency for zinc to alloy, or be absorbed.

Nickel behaves very like palladium in this respect. Some electro-deposited
nickel foil was heated for several hours in cadmium vapour without appreciable
change in weight.

These experiments are being repeated.

1l. Action of Acetylic and Benzoylic Chlorides on dried Copper Sulphate.
Sy Professor W. R. E. Hopaxinson and Caprain Leauy, &.A4.,
Ordnance College, Woolwich.

These experiments were undertaken to ascertain whether there would be any
ground for considering copper sulphate monohydrate as an acid body. The ratio
of magnesium dissolved to copper deposited from a solution of copper sulphate
(Clowes) suggested such a nature.

Pure copper sulphate in fine powder was dried for a week at 98° C. An
analysis showed that it contained exactly 1 molecule water. ‘ :

Weighed quantities of this salt were submitted to the action of acetylic
chloride, firstly by dissolving the chloride in metaxylene, and agitating this with

716 REPORT—1899.

the fine powder of the copper salt and heating up to about 100°C. As this method
was found to produce acet-metaxylene, it was abandoned. i

Weighed quantities of the salt were then exposed in shallow platinum trays to
the vapour of the chloride. After trying several temperatures with varying
results it was found that an evident definite reaction took place when the vapour
of the chloride was simply carried over the copper salt by a stream of well-dried
CO, at the temperature 12°-16° C. Under these circumstances the copper sulphate
changed colour from almost white to deep chocolate brown, and hydrogen chloride
was evolved. Analyses indicate this product to be a copper sulphate mono-acetate.

On heating the tube containing the tray with salt to about 110° C. the com-
pound evidently decomposed. It became quite white, acetic anhydride was given
off, and the residue in the tray was pure CuSO,,.

There was distinct evidence that at about 60°-70° C. an intermediate com-
pound was formed from the action of the excess of chloride on the acetate first
formed. This appeared to be a compound of the anhydride with the CuSQ,.
Searcely a trace of chlorine was retained by the copper salt.

Benzoylic chloride appeared to behave in a perfectly similar manner. The
figures obtained are not very close to theory, but scarcely leave any doubt about
the composition of the products and the analogy with the acetylic compound.

In one experiment the copper salt absorbed 20°16 per cent. of acetyl. If the
reaction proceeded according to CuSO,H,O + CH,COC! = HCl + CuSO,CH,COOH,
the gain in weight should be 23°72 per cent. In another experiment 48°28 per
cent. of acetic anhydride was contained. On the assumption that the reaction
CuSO,CH,COOH + CH,COCI = HCl + CuSO,CH,COOOC CH, took place the gain
in weight should be 47°45 per cent. Some similar results were obtained with
benzoylic chloride.

The experiments are being continued.

12. The Reaction between Potassium Cyanide and 1:3 Dinitro-benzene.
By Professor W. R. E. Hopexrnson and Lieutenant W. H. WEBLEY-
Horr, #.A.

In the ‘ Berichte ’ for 1884 is an abstract 1 of a communication by Lobry de
Bruyn on the action of alkaline cyanide on 1:3-dinitro-benzene. The result of
this action is stated to be an oxyethyl-nitro-benzonitrile, 1:2:6. Beilstein refers
to this abstract in the ‘ Handbuch.’

The reaction has been tried with a slight modification. In the abstract above
cited an alcoholic solution of the dinitro-benzene was treated with the potassium
cyanide dissolved in some water. We have employed the purest potassium
cyanide obtainable, and as nearly absolute alcohol as ordinarily possible.

On digesting for a little time (forty to sixty minutes) on a water-bath the
purple-red coloration (loc. cit.) was observed, and the final change to a dirty
brown. On cooling a considerable crystallisation took place. The solid was sepa-
rated from the excess of alcohol, and was found to dissolve for the most part in
hot water. A small amount of black amorphous substance remained insoluble.
On acidifying the solution a brown substance precipitated. It was washed with
very dilute acid (H,SO,) and then dissolved in hot alcohol, from which crystals
deposited on cooling and also on evaporation.

On analysis (nitrogen) figures have been obtained, pointing distinctly to a
compound C,H,NO,CN. Considerably more than 80 per cent. of the dinitro-
benzene employed seems to have been thus converted.

The same body has been obtained with dry methylic alcohol and also with
normal propylic alcohol as solvents for the dinitro-benzene.

With acetone and paraldehyde as solvents, beyond the formation of a smalt
amount of very intense colouring matter, very little action seems to have taken

1 Rec. Trav. Chim. ii. 205-235.

f

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. TLZ

place, for over 90 per cent. of the dinitro-benzene was recovered, and very little
cyanide was acted upon.

With an appreciable amount of water present, and ordinary very alkaline
cyanide, the reaction probably runs quite differently.

Under our conditions of working we have failed to obtain any sign of an
oxyethyl or oxymethyl derivative.

The nitrocyanide or nitrile forms brown needle-shaped crystals from alcohol.
It decomposes at about 200°, feebly deflagrating.

It does not seem to hydrolise when boiled with potassium hydrate, or with
strong hydrogen chloride.

The work was commenced with a view of employing the oxyethyl]-nitro-nitrile
as a starting point for another research. It now seems advisable to examine this
reaction under several conditions, such as the effect of water and free alkali in the
cyanide,

13. The Presence of Potassium Nitrite in Brown Powder Residue when
the Powder is burnt in Air under Ordinary Pressure. By Mr. Seton,
R.A., and Mr. Stevenson, #.A., Ordnance College, Woolwich.

Ordinary black powders when burnt in air under ordinary pressure leave a
small quantity of residue in which carbonate, sulphate, and sulphide of potassium
predominate. Traces only of nitrate and nitrite and other compounds can usually
be found. When examined quantitatively, however, the three salts above men-
tioned together make up some 98 per cent. of the whole. Brown powders burn
much more slowly, and in consequence the residue is larger. It is generally white
or greyish-white, hygroscopic, and for the most part soluble in water.

Some analyses were made of these brown-powder residues to determine the
relation of sulphate to carbonate; no sulphide is, as a rule, present. It was first
noticed on acidifying that red fumes were produced. This of course indicated
presence of nitrites in more than mere traces.

Several determinations of the amount of nitrite, by permanganate and by the
nitrometer, gave about 6 per cent. calculated as KNO,.

The figures of one complete analysis of residue from SBC are:

Potassium carbonate . 3 é : ‘ : i , . 61:96
Pr, sulphate . : z : - : - . . 2618
Fr nitrite . 3 ; ‘ : : ‘ ; : 6:17
Silica and other insoluble substances (water) . 3 ; 4 5'80

100°11

718 REPORT—1899.

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.—SiR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, D.C.L., D.Sc., F.R.S.

The President delivered the following Address on Saturday, September 16 :—

Amone the many questions of great theoretical importance which have engaged
the attention of geologists, none has in late years awakened more interest or
aroused livelier controversy than that which deals with Time as an element in
geological history. The various schools which have successively arisen—Cata-
clysmal, Uniformitarian, and Evolutionist—have had each its own views as to the
duration of their chronology, as well as to the operations of terrestrial energy.
But though holding different opinions, they did not make these differences matter
of special controversy among themselves. About thirty years ago, however, they
were startled by a bold irruption into their camp from the side of physics. They
were then called on to reform their ways, which were declared to be flatly opposed
to the teachings of natural philosophy. Since that period tke discussion then
started regarding the age of the Earth and the value of geological time has con-
tinued with varying animation. Evidence of the most multifarious kind has been
brought forward, and arguments of widely different degrees of validity have been
pressed into service both by geologists and palzontologists on one side, and by
physicists on the other. For the last year or two there has been a pause in
the controversy, though no general agreement has been arrived at in regard to the
matters in dispute. The present interval of comparative quietude seems favourable
for a dispassionate review of the debate. I propose, therefore, to take, as perhaps
a not inappropriate subject on which to address geologists upon a somewhat
international occasion like this present meeting of the British Association at Dover,
the question of Geological Time. In offering a brief history of the discussion, I
gladly avail myself of the opportunity of enforcing one of the lessons which the
discussion has impressed upon my own mind, and to point a moral which, as it seems
to me, we geologists may take home to ourselves from a consideration of the
whole question. There is, I think, a practical outcome which may be made to
issue from the controversy in a combination of sympathy and co-operation among
geologists all over the world. A lasting service will be rendered to our science if
by well-concerted effort we can place geological dynamics and geological chrono-
logy on a broader and firmer basis of actual experiment and measurement than
has yet been laid.

To understand aright the origin and progress of the dispute regarding the
value of time in geological speculation. we must take note of the attitude main-
tained towards this subject by some of the early fathers of the science. Among
these pioneers none has left his mark more deeply graven on the foundations of

ON

* _ lee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 719

modern geology than James Hutton. To him, more than to any other writer of
his day, do we owe the doctrine of the high antiquity of our globe. No one
before him had ever seen so clearly the abundant and impressive proofs of this
remote antiquity recorded in the rocks of the earth’s crust. In these rocks he
traced the operation of the same slow and quiet processes which he observed to
be at work at present in gradually transforming the face of the existing conti-
nents. When he stood face to face with the proofs of decay among the moun-
tains, there seems to have arisen uppermost in his mind the thought of the
immense succession of ages which these proofs revealed to him. His observant
eye enabled him to see ‘the operations of the surface wasting the solid body of
the globe, and to read the unmeasurable course of time that must have flowed
during those amazing operations, which the vulgar do not see, and which the
learned seem to see without wonder.’! In contemplating the stupendous results
achieved by such apparently feeble forces, Hutton felt that one great objection he
had to contend with in the reception of his theory, even by the scientific men of
his day, lay in the inability or unwillingness of the human mind to admit such
large demands as he made on the past. ‘ What more can we require?’ he asks
in summing up his conclusions; and he answers the question in these memorable
words: ‘ What more can we require? Nothing but time. It is not any part of
the process that will be disputed ; but after allowing all the parts, the whole will
be denied ; and for what ?—only because we are not disposed to allow that quan-
tity of time which the ablution of so much wasted mountain might require.’ ”

Far as Hutton could follow the succession of events registered in the rocky
crust of the globe, he found himself baffled by the closing in around him of that
dark abysm of time into which neither eye nor imagination seemed able to pene-
trate. He well knew that, behind and beyond the ages recorded in the oldest of
the primitive rocks, there must have stretched a vast earlier time, of which no
record met his view. He did not attempt to speculate beyond the limits of his
evidence. ‘I donot pretend, he said, ‘to describe the beginning of things ; I
take things such as I find them at present, and from these I reason with regard to
that which must have been.’* In vain could he look, even among the oldest
formations, for any sign of the infancy of the planet. He could only detect a
repeated series of similar revolutions, the oldest of which was assuredly not the
first in the terrestrial history, and he concluded, as ‘the result of this physical
inquiry, that we find no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end.’

This conclusion from strictly geological evidence has been impugned from the
side of physics, and, as further developed by Playfair, has been declared to be
contradicted by the principles of natural philosophy. But if it be considered on
the basis of the evidence on which it was originally propounded, it was absolutely
true in Hutton’s time and remains true to-day. That able reasoner never claimed
that the earth has existed from all eternity, or that it will go on existing for ever.
He admitted that it must have had a beginning, but he had been unable to find
any vestige of that beginning in the structure of the planet itself. And notwith-
standing all the multiplied researches of the century that has passed since the
immortal ‘Theory of the Earth’ was published, no relic of the first condition of
our earth has been found. We have speculated much, indeed, on the subject, and
our friends the physicists have speculated still more. Some of the speculations do
not seem to me more philosophical than many of those of the older cosmogonists.
As far as reliable evidence can be drawn from the rocks of the globe itself, we do
not seem to be nearer the discovery of the beginning than Hutton was. The most
ancient rocks that can be reached are demonstrably not the first-formed of all.
They were preceded by others which we know must have existed, though no
vestige of them may remain.

It may be further asserted that, while it was Hutton who first impressed on
modern geology the conviction that for the adequate comprehension of the past

1 Theory of the Earth, vol. i. p. 108, 3 Op. cit. vol. i. p. 173, note.
© Op. cit. vol. ii. p. 329. 4 Op. cit. vol. i. p. 200.

720 REPORT—1 899.

history of the earth vast periods of time must be admitted to have elapsed, our
debt of obligation to him is increased by the genius with which he linked the
passage of these vast periods with the present economy of nature. He first
realised the influence of time as a factor in geological dynamics, and first taught the
efficacy of the quiet and unobtrusive forces of nature. His predecessors and con-
temporaries were never tired of invoking the more vigorous manifestations of
terrestrial energy. They saw in the composition of the land and in the structure
of mountains and valleys memorials of numberless convulsions and cataclysms.
In Hutton’s philosophy, however, ‘it is the little causes, long continued, which
are considered as bringing about the greatest changes of the earth.’?

And yet, unlike many of those who derived their inspiration from his teaching,
but pushed his tenets to extremes which he doubtless never anticipated, he did not
look upon time as a kind of scientific fetich, the invocation of which would endow
with efficacy even the most trifling phenomena. Asif he had foreseen the use
that might be made of his doctrine, he uttered this remarkable warning: ‘ With
regard to the effect of time, though the continuance of time may do much in those
operations which are extremely slow, where no change, to our observation, had
appeared to take place, yet, where it is not in the nature of things to produce the
change in question, the unlimited course of time would be no more effectual than
the moment by which we measure events in our observations.’ *

We thus see that in the philosophy of Hutton, out of which so much of
modern geology has been developed, the vastness of the antiquity of the globe was
deduced from the structure of the terrestrial crust and the slow rate of action of
the forces by which the surface of the crust is observed to be modified. But no
attempt was made by him to measure that antiquity by any of the chronological
_ standards of human contrivance. He was content to realise for himself and to
impress upon others that the history of the earth could not be understood, save by
the admission that it occupied prolonged though indeterminate ages in its accom-
plishment. And assuredly no part of his teaching has been more amply sustained
by the subsequent progress of research.

Playfair, from whose admirable ‘ Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory’ most
geologists have derived all that they know directly of that theory, went a little
further than his friend and master in dealing with the age of the earth. Not
restricting himself, as Hutton did, to the testimony of the rocks, which showed
neither vestige of a beginning nor prospect of an end, he called in the evidence of
the cosmos outside the limits of our planet, and declared that in the firmament
also no mark could be discovered of the commencement or termination of the
present order, no symptom of infancy or old age, nor any sign by which the future
or past duration of the universe might be estimated.’ He thus advanced beyond
the strictly geological basis of reasoning, and committed himself to statements
which, like some made also by Hutton, seem to have been suggested by certain
deductions of the French mathematicians of his day regarding the stability of the
planetary motions. His statements have been disproved by modern physics; dis-
tinct evidence, both from the earth and the cosmos, has been brought forward of
progress from a beginning which can be conceived, through successive stages to an
end which can be foreseen. But the disproof leaves Hutton’s doctrine about the
vastness of geological time exactly where it was. Surely it was no abuse of
language to speak of periods as being vast, which can only be expressed in
millions of years.

It is easy to understand how the Uniformitarian school, which sprang from the
teaching of Hutton and Playfair, came to believe that the whole of eternity was at
the disposal of geologists. In popular estimation, as the ancient science of astro-
nomy was that of infinite distance, so the modern study of geology was the science
of infinite time. It must be frankly conceded that geologists, believing themselves
unfettered by any limits to their chronology, made ample use of their imagined
liberty. Many of them, following the lead of Lyell, to whose writings in other

1 Theory of the Earth, vol. ii. p. 205. 2 Op. cit. vol. i, p. 44.
3 Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory, § 118,

CO VlVO6OX—_—— <<< —

{TRANSACTIONS Of SEOTION C. 721

respects modern geology owes so deep a debt of gratitude, became utterly reckless
in their demands for time, demands which even the requirements of their own
science, if they had adequately realised them, did not warrant. The older geolo:
pists had not attempted to express their vast periods in terms of years. The
indefiniteness of their language fitly denoted the absence of any ascertainable
limits to the successive ages with which they had to deal. And until some
evidence should be discovered whereby these limits might be fixed and measured
by human standards, no reproach could justly be brought against the geological
terminology. It was far more philosophical to be content, in the meanwhile, with
indeterminate expressions, than from data of the weakest or most speculative kind
to attempt to measure geological periods by a chronology of years or centuries.

In the year 1862 a wholly new light was thrown on the question of the age of
our globe and the duration of geological time by the remarkable paper on the
Secular Cooling of the Earth communicated by Lord Kelvin (then Sir William
Thomson) to the Royal Society of Edinburgh.t In this memoir he first developed
his now well-known argument from the observed rate of increase of temperature
downwards from the surface of the land. He astonished geologists by announcing
to them that some definite limits to the age of our planet might be ascertained,
and by declaring his belief that this age must be more than 20 millions, but less
than 400 millions of years.

Nearly four years later he emphasised his dissent from what he considered to
be the current geological opinions of the day by repeating the same argument in a
more pointedly antagonistic form in a paper of only a few sentences, entitled
‘ The Doctrine of Uniformity in Geology briefly refuted.’ *

Again, after a further lapse of about two years, when, as President of the
Geological Society of Glasgow, it became his duty to give an address, he returned
to the same topic and arraigned more boldly and explicitly than ever the geology
of the time. He then declared that ‘a great reformin geological speculation seems
now to have become necessary,’ and he went so far as to affirm that ‘it is quite
certain that a great mistake has been made—that British popular geology at the
present time is in direct opposition to the principles of natural philosophy.’* In
pressing once more the original argument derived from the downward increase of
terrestrial temperature, he now reinforced it by two further arguments, the one
based on the retardation of the earth’s angular velocity by tidal friction, the other
on the limitation of the age of the sun.

These three lines of attack remain still those along which the assault from
physics is delivered against the strongholds of geology. Lord Kelvin has repeatedly
returned to the charge since 1868, his latest contribution to the controversy having
been pronounced two years ago.t While his physical arguments remain the same,
the limits of time which he deduces from them have been successively diminished.
The original maximum of 400 millions of years has now been restricted by him to
not much more than 20 millions, while Professor Tait grudgingly allows something
less than 10 millions.°

Soon after the appearance of Lord Kelyin’s indictment of modern geology in
1868, the defence of the science was taken up by Huxley, who happened at the
time to be President of the Geological Society of London. In his own inimitably
brilliant way, half seriously, half playfully, this doughty combatant, with evident
relish, tossed the physical arguments to and fro in the eyes of his geological
brethren, as a barrister may flourish his brief before a sympathetic jury. He was
willing to admit that ‘the rapidity of rotation of the earth may be diminishing,
that the sun may be waxing dim, or that the earth itself may be cooling.’ But he
went on to add his suspicion that ‘ most of us are Gallios, “who care for none of

1 Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. vol. xxiii. (1862).

2 Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. vol. v. p. 512 (Dec. 18, 1865).

% Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. iii. (February 1868), pp. 1, 16.

4 ‘The Age of the Earth,’ being the Annual Address to the Victoria Institute
June 2,1897. Phil. Mag. January 1899, p. 66.

5 Recent Advances in Physical Science, p. 174.

1899. 3A

722 REPORT—1899.

these things,” being of opinion that, true or fictitious, they have made fio practical
difference to the earth, during the period of which a record is preserved in stratified
deposits.’ 4

ior the indifference which their advocate thus professed on their behalf most
geologists believed that they had ample justification. The limits within which the
physicist would circumscribe the earth’s history were so vague, yet so vast, that
whether the time allowed were 400 millions or 100 millions of years did not seem
to them greatly to matter. After all, it was not the time that chiefly interested
them, but the grand succession of events which the time had witnessed. That
succession had been established on observations so abundant and so precise that it
could withstand attack from any quarter, and it had taken as firm and lasting a
place among the solid achievements of science as could be claimed for any physical
speculations whatsoever. Whether the time required for the transaction of this
marvellous earth-history was some millions of years more or some millions of years
less did not seem to the geologists to be a question on which their science stood in
antagonism with the principles of natural philosophy, but one which the natural
philosophers might be left to settle at their own good pleasure.

For myself, I may be permitted here to say that I have never shared this feel-
ing of indifference and unconcern. As far back as the year 1868, only a month
after Lord Kelvin’s first presentation of his threefold argument in favour of limit-
ing the age of the earth, I gave in my adhesion to the propriety of restricting the
geological demands for time. I then showed that even the phenomena of denuda-
tion, which, from the time of Hutton downwards, had been most constantly and
confidently appealed to in support of the inconceivably vast antiquity of our globe,
might be accounted for, at the present rate of action, within such a period as
100 millions of years.? To my mind it has always seemed that whatever tends to
give more precision to the chronology of the geologist, and helps him to a clearer
conception of the antiquity with which he has to deal, ought to be welcomed by
him as a valuable assistance in his inquiries. AndI feel sure that this view of -
the matter has now become general among those engaged in geological research.
Frank recognition is made of the influence which Lord Kelvin’s persistent attacks
have had upon our science. Geologists have been led by his criticisms to revise
their chronology. They gratefully acknowledge that to him they owe the intro-
duction of important new lines of investigation, which link the solution of the
problems of geology with those of physics. They realise how much he has done
to dissipate the former vague conceptions as to the duration of geological history,
and even when they emphatically dissent from the greatly restricted bounds within
which he would now limit that history, and when they declare their inability to
perceive that any reform of their speculations in this subject is needful, or that
their science has placed herself in opposition to the principles of physics, they none
the less pay their sincere homage to one who has thrown over geology, as over so
many other departments of natural knowledge, the clear light of a penetrating and
original genius.

When Lord Kelvin first developed his strictures on modern geology he expressed
his opposition in the most uncompromising language. In the short paper to which
reference has already been made he announced, without hesitation or palliation,
that he ‘ briefly refuted’ the doctrine of Uniformitarianism which had been espoused
and illustrated by Lyell and a long list of the ablest geologists of the day. The
severity of his judgment of British geology was not more marked than was his
unqualified reliance on his own methods and results. This confident assurance of
a distinguished physicist, together with a formidable array of mathematical
formule, produced its effect on some geologists and paleontologists who were not
Gallios. Thus, even after Huxley’s brilliant defence, Darwin could not conceal
the deep impression which Lord Kelvin’s arguments had made on his mind. In
one letter he wrote that the proposed limitation of geological time was one of his

1 Presidential Address. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1869.
2 Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. iii. (March 26, 1868), p.189. Sir W. Thomson
acknowledged my adhesion in his reply to Huxley’s criticism. Op. cit. p. 221.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 798

‘sorest troubles.’ In another, he pronounced the physicist himself to be ‘ an odious
spectre.’

The same self-confidence of assertion on the part of some, at least, of the dispu-
tants on the physical side has continued all through the controversy. Yet when we
examine the three great physical arguments in themselves, we find them to rest on
assumptions which, though certified as‘ probable’ or ‘very sure,’ are nevertheless
admittedly assumptions. The conclusions to which these assumptions lead must
depend for their validity on the degree of approximation to the truth in the
premisses which are postulated.

Now it is interesting to observe that neither the assumptions nor the conclusions
drawn from them have commanded universal assent even among physicists them-
selves. If they were as self-evident as they have been claimed to be, they should
at least receive the loyal support of all those whose function it is to pursue and
extend the applications of physics. It will be remembered, however, that thirteen
years ago Professor George Darwin, who has so often shown his inherited sympathy
in geological investigation, devoted his presidential address before the Mathe-
matical Section of this Association to a review of the three famous physical
arguments respecting the age of the earth. He summed up his judgment of them
in the following words: ‘In considering these three arguments I have adduced
some reasons against the validity of the first [tidal friction] ; and have endeavoured
to show that there are elements of uncertainty surrounding the second [secular
cooling of the earth]; nevertheless they undoubtedly constitute a contribution of
the first importance to physical geolory. Whilst, then, we may protest against
the precision with which Professor Tait seeks to deduce results from them, we are
fully justified in following Sir William Thomson, who says that “the existing
state of things on the earth, life on the earth—all geological history showing con-
tinuity of life, must be limited within some such period of past time as 100,000,000
years.” ’?

More recently Professor Perry has entered the lists, from the physical side, to
challenge the validity of the conclusions so confidently put forward in limitation
of the age of the earth. He has boldly impugned each of the three physical argu-
ments. That which is based on tidal retardation, following Mr. Maxwell Close
and Professor Darwin, he dismisses as fallacious. In regard to the argument from
the secular cooling of the earth, he contends that it is perfectly allowable to assume
a much higher conductivity for the interior of the globe, and that this assumption
would vastly increase our estimate of the age of the planet, As to the conclusions
drawn from the history of the sun, he maintains that, on the one hand, the sun
may have been repeatedly fed by infalling meteorites, and that on the other the
earth, during former ages, may have had its heat retained by a dense atmospheric
enyelope. He thinks that ‘almost anything is possible as to the present internal
state of the earth,’ and he concludes in these words: ‘To sum up, we can find no
published record of any lower maximum age of life on the earth, as calculated by

hysicists, than 400 millions of years. From the three physical arguments, Lord

elvin’s higher limits are 1,000, 400, and 500 million years. I have shown that
we have reasons for believing that the age, from all these, may be very considerably
underestimated. It is to be observed that if we exclude everything but the argu-
ments from mere physics, the probable age of life on the earth is much less than
any of the above estimates; but if the paleontologists have good reasons for
demanding much greater times, I see nothing from the physicist’s point of view
which denies them four times the greatest of these estimates.’ ®

This remarkable admission from a recognised authority on the physical side
re-echoes and emphasises the warning pronounced by Professor Darwin in the
address already quoted: ‘ At present our knowledge of a definite limit to geolo-
gical time has so little precision that we should do wrong to summarily reject any

1 Darwin's Life and Letters, vol. iii. pp. 115, 146.
® Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1886, p. 517.
% Nature, vol. li. p. 585, April 18, 1895.

724 REPORT—1899.

theories which appear to demand longer periods of time than those which now
appear allowable.’ ?

This ‘ wrong,’ which Professor Darwin so seriously deprecated, has been com-
mitted not once, but again and again, in the history of this discussion. Lord
Kelvin has never taken any notice of the strong body of evidence adduced by
geologists and paleontologists in favour of a much longer antiquity than he is
now disposed to allow for the age of the earth. His own three physical arguments
have been successively re-stated, with such corrections and modifications as he has
found to be necessary, and no doubt further alterations are in store for them. He
has cut off slice after slice from the allowance of time which at first he was pre-
pared to grant for the evolution of geological history, his latest pronouncement
being that ‘it was more than twenty and less than forty million years, and
probably much nearer twenty than forty.’* But in none of his papers is there an
admission that geology and paleontology, though they have again and again raised
their voices in protest, have anything to say in the matter that is worthy of
consideration.

It is difficult satisfactorily to carry on a discussion in which ycur opponent
entirely ignores your arguments, while you have given the fullest attention to his.
In the present instance, geologists have most carefully listened to all that has been
brought forward from the physical side. Impressed by the force of the physical
reasoning, they no longer believe that they can male any demands they may please
on past time. They have been willing to accept Lord Kelvin’s original estimate
of 100 millions of years as the period within which the history of life upon the
planet must be comprised ; while some of them have even sought in various ways
to reduce that sum nearer to his lower limit, Yet there is undoubtedly a preva-
lent misgiving, whether in thus seeking to reconcile their requirements with the
demands of the physicist they are not tying themselves down within limits of
time which on any theory of evolution would have been insufficient for the
development of the animal and vegetable kingdoms.

It is unnecessary to recapitulate before this Section of the British Association,
even in briefest outline, the reasoning of geologists and paleontologists which
leads them to conclude that the history recorded in the crust of the earth must
have required for its transaction a much vaster period of time than that to which
the physicists would now restrict it.* Let me merely remark that the reasoning
is essentially based on observations of the present rate of geological and biological
changes upon the earth’s surface. It is not, of course, maintained that this rate
has never varied in the past. But it is the only rate with which we are familiar,
which we can watch and in some degree measure, and which, therefore, we can
take as a guide towards the comprehension and interpretation of the past history
of our planet.

It may be, and has often been, said that the present scale of geological and
biological processes cannot be accepted as a reliable measure for the past. Start-
ing from the postulate, which no one will dispute, that the total sum of terrestrial
energy was once greater than it is now and has been steadily declining, the
physicists have boldly asserted that all kinds of geological action must have been
more vigorous and rapid during bygone ages than they are to-day ; that volcanoes
were more gigantic, earthquakes more frequent and destructive, mountain-upthrows
more stupendous, tides and waves more powerful, and commotions of the atmo-
sphere more violent, with more ruinous tempests and heavier rainfall. Assertions
of this kind are temptingly plausible and are easily made. But it is not enough
that they should be made; they ought to be supported by some kind of evidence

1 Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1886, p. 518.

2 «The Age of the Earth,’ Presidential Address to the Victoria Institute for 1897,
p. 10; alsoin Phil. Mag. January 1899.

3 The geological arguments are briefly given in my Presidential Address to the
British Association at the Edinburgh Meeting of 1892. The biological arguments
were well stated, and in some detail, by Professor Poulton in his Address to the
Zoological Section of the Association at the Liverpool Meeting of 1896.

— rw

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 725

to show that they are founded on actual fact and not on mere theoretical possibility,

‘Such evidence, if it existed, could surely be produced. The chronicle of the earth’s

history, from avery early period down to the present time, has been legibly
written within the sedimentary formations of the terrestrial crust. Let the appeal
be made to that register. Does it lend any support to the affirmation that the
geological processes are now feebler and slower than they used to be? If it does,
the physicists, we might suppose, would gladly bring forward its evidence as irre-
fragable confirmation of the soundness of their contention. But the geologists
have found no such confirmation. On the contrary, they have been unable to dis-
cover any indication that the rate of geological causation has ever, on the whole,
greatly varied during the time which has elapsed since the deposition of the oldest
stratified rocks. They do not assert that there has been no variation, that there
have been no periods of greater activity, both hypogene and epigene. But they
maintain that the demonstration of the existence of such periods has yet to be
made, They most confidently affirm that whatever may have happened in the
earliest ages, in the whole vast succession of sedimentary strata nothing has yet
been detected which necessarily demands that more violent and rapid action which
the physicists suppose to have been the order of nature during the past.

So far as the potent effects of prolonged denudation permit us to judge, the
latest mountain-upheavals were at least as stupendous as any of older date whereof
the basal relics can yet be detected. They seem, indeed, to have been still more
gigantic than those. It may be doubted, for example, whether among the vestiges
that remain of Mesozoic or Palzozoic mountain-chains any instance can be found
so colossal as those of Tertiary times, such as the Alps. No volcanic eruptions of
the older geological periods cau compare in extent or volume with those of Tertiary
and recent date. The plication and dislocation of the terrestrial crust are propor-
tionately as conspicuously displayed among the younger as among the older forma-
tions, though the latter, from their greater antiquity, have suffered during a longer
time from the renewed disturbances of successive periods.

As regards evidence of greater violence in the surrounding envelopes of atmo-
sphere and ocean, we seek for it in vain among the stratified rocks. Among the
very oldest formations of these islands, the Torridon sandstone of North-West
Scotland presents us with a picture of long-continued sedimentation, such as may
be seen in progress now round the shores of many a mountain-girdled lake. In
that venerable deposit, the enclosed pebbles are not mere angular blocks and chips,
swept by a sudden flood or destructive tide from off the surface of the land, and
huddled together in confused heaps over the floor of the sea. They have been
rounded and polished by the quiet operation of running water, as stones are
rounded aud polished now in the channels of brooks or on the shores of lake and
sea. They have been laid gently down above each other, layer over layer, with fine
sand sifted in between them, and this deposition has taken place along shores which,
though the waters that washed them have long since disappeared, can still be followed
for mile after mile across the mountains and glens of the North-West Highlands.
So tranquil were these waters that their gentle currents and oscillations sufficed to
ripple the sandy floor, to arrange the sediment in lamin of current-bedding, and to
separate the grains of sand according to their relative densities. "We may even now
trace the results of these operations in thin darker layers and streaks of magnetic
iron, zircon, and other heavy minerals, which have been sorted out from the lighter
quartz-grains, as layers of iron-sand may be seen sifted together by the tide along
the upper margins of many of our sandy beaches at the present day.

In the same ancient formation there occur also various intercalations of fine
muddy sediment, so regular in their thin alternations, and so like those of younger
formations, that we cannot but hope and expect that they may eventually yield
remains of organisms which, if found, would be the earliest traces of life in
Europe.

It is thus abundantly manifest that even in the most ancient of the sedimentary
registers of the earth’s history, not only is there no evidence of colossal floods, tides
and denudation, but there is incontrovertible proof of continuous orderly deposi-
tion, such as may be witnessed to-day in any quarter of the globe. The same tale,

726 REPORT—1899.

with endless additional details, is told all through the stratified formations down
to those which are in the course of accumulation at the present day.

Not less important than the stratigraphical is the paleontological evidence in
favour of the general quietude of the geological processes in the past. The con-
clusions drawn from the nature and arrangement of the sediments are corroborated
and much extended by the structure and manner of entombment of the enclosed
organic remains. From the time of the very earliest fossiliferous formations there
is nothing to show that either plants or animals have had to contend with physical
conditions of environment different, on the whole, from those in which their suc-
cessors now live. The oldest trees, so far as regards their outer form and internal
structure, betoken an atmosphere neither more tempestuous nor obviously more
impure than that of to-day. The earliest corals, sponges, crustaceans, mollusks, and
arachnids were not more stoutly constructed than those of later times, and are
found grouped together among the rocks as they lived and died, with no apparent
indication that any violent commotion of the elements tried their strength when
living or swept away their remains when dead.

But, undoubtedly, most impressive of al] the palzontological data is the testi-
mony borne by the grand succession of organic remains among the stratified rocks
as to the vast duration of time required for their evolution. Professor Poulton
has treated this branch of the subject with great fulness and ability. We do not
know the present average rates of organic variation, but all the available evidence
goes to indicate their extreme slowness. They may conceivably have been more
rapid in the past, or they may have been liable to fluctuations according to vicissi-
tudes of environment.! But those who assert that the rate of biological evolution
ever differed materially from what it may now be inferred to be, ought surely to bring
forward something more than mere assertion in their support. In the meantime,
the most philosophical course is undoubtedly followed by those biologists who in
this matter rest their belief on their own experience among recent and fossil
organisms.

So cogent do these geological and palzeontological arguments appear, to those at
least who have taken the trouble to master them, that they are worthy of being
employed, not in defence merely, but in attack. It seems to me that they may be
used with effect in assailing the stronghold of speculation and assumption in which
our physical friends have ensconced themselves and from which, with their feet, as
they believe, planted well within the interior of the globe and their heads in the
heart of the sun, they view with complete unconcern the efforts made by those who
endeavour to gather the truth from the surface and crust of the earth. That por-
tion of the records of terrestrial history which lies open to our investigation has
been diligently studied in all parts of the world. A vast body of facts has been
gathered together from this extended and combined research. The chronicle regis-
tered in the earth’s crust, though not complete, is legible and consistent. From
the latest to the earliest of its chapters the story is capable of clear and harmonious
interpretation by a comparison of its pages with the present condition of things.
We know infinitely more of the history of this earth than we do of the history of
the sun. Are we then to be told that this knowledge, so patiently accumulated
from innumerable observations and so laboriously co-ordinated and classified, is to
be held of none account in comparison with the conclusions of physical science in
regard to the history of the central luminary of our system? These conclusions
are founded on assumptions which may or may not correspond with the truth.
They have already undergone revision, and they may be still further modified as
our slender knowledge of the sun, and of the details of its history, is increased by
future investigation. In the meantime, we decline to accept them as a final pro-
nouncement of science on the subject. We place over against them the evidence

1 See an interesting and suggestive paper by Professor Le Conte on ‘Critical Periods
in the History of the Earth,’ Bull. Dept. Geology, University of California, vol. i.
(1895), p. 313; also one by Professor Chamberlin on ‘The Ulterior Basis of Time-
divisions and the Classification of Geological History,’ Journal of Geology, vol. vi.
(1898), p. 449. d

es On

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 727

of geology and paleontology, and affirm that unless the deductions we draw from
that evidence can be disproved, we are entitled to maintain them as entirely borne
out by the testimony of the rocks.

Until, therefore, it can be shown that geologists and paleontologists have mis-
interpreted their records, they are surely well within their logical rights in claiming
as much time for the history of this earth as the vast body of evidence accumulated
by them demands. So far as I have been able to form an opinion, one hundred
millions of years would suffice for that portion of the history which is registered in
the stratified rocks of the crust. But if the palzeontologists find such a period too
narrow for their requirements, I can see no reason on the geological side why they
should not be at liberty to enlarge it as far as they may find to be needful for the
evolution of organised existence on the globe. As I have already remarked, it is
not the length of time which interests us so much as the determination of the
relative chronology of the events which were transacted within that time. As to
the general succession of these events, there can be no dispute. We have traced
its stages from the bottom of the oldest rocks up to the surface of the present con-
tinents and the floor of the present seas. We know that these stages have followed
each other in orderly advance, and that geological time, whatever limits may be
assigned to it, has sufficed for the passage of the long stately procession.

‘We may, therefore, well leave the dispute about the age of the earth to the
decision of the future. In so doing, however, I should be glad if we could carry
away from it something of greater service to science than the consciousness of
having striven our best in a barren controversy, wherein concession has all to be on
one side and the selection of arguments entirely on the other. During these years
of prolonged debate I have often been painfully conscious that in this subject, as in
so many others throughout the geological domain, the want of accurate numerical
data is a serious hindrance to the progress of our science. Heartily do I acknow-
ledge that much has been done in the way of measurements and experiments for
the purpose of providing a foundation for estimates and deductions. But infinitely
more remains to be accomplished. The field of investigation is almost boundless,
for there is hardly a department of geological dynamics over which it does not
extend. The range of experimental geology must be widely enlarged, until every
process susceptible of illustration or measurement by artificial means has been
investigated. Field-observation needs to be supplemented where possible by
instrumental determinations, so as to be made more precise and accurate, and more
capable of furnishing reliable numerical statistics for practical as well as theoretical
deductions.

The subject is too vast for adequate treatment here. But let me illustrate my
meaning by selecting a few instances where the adoption of these more rigid
methods of inquiry might powerfully assist us in dealing with the rates of geo-
logical processes and the value of geological time. Take, for example, the wide
range of lines of investigation embraced under the head of Denudation. So
voluminous a series of observations has been made in this subject, and so ample is
the literature devoted to it, that no department of geology, it might be thought,
has been more abundantly and successfully explored. Yet if we look through the
pile of memoirs, articles, and books, we cannot but be struck with the predominant
vagueness of their statements, and with the general absence of such numerical
data determined by accurate, systematic, and prolonged measurement as would
alone furnish a satisfactory basis for computations of the rate at which denudation
takes place. Some instrumental observations of the greatest value have indeed
been made, but, for the most part, observations of this kind have been too meagre
and desultory.

A little consideration will show that in all branches of the investigation of
denudation opportunities present themselves on every side of testing, by accurate
instrumental observation and measurement, the rate at which some of the most
universal processes in the geologival régime of our globe are carried on.

It has long been a commonplace of geology that the amount of the material
removed in suspension and solution by rivers furnishes a clue to the rate of denu-
dation of the regions drained by the rivers, But how unequal in value, and

728 REPORT—1899.

generally how insuflicient in precision, are the observations on this topic! A few
rivers have been more or less systematically examined, some widely varying
results have been obtained from the observations, and while enough has been
obtained to show the interest and importance of the method of research, no ade-
quate supply of materials has been gathered for the purposes of accurate deduction
and generalisation. What we need is a carefully organised series of observations
carried out on a uniform plan, over a sufficient number of years, not for one river
only, but for all the important rivers of a country, and indeed for all the greater
rivers of each continent. We ought to know as accurately as possible the extent
of the drainage-area of each river, the relations of river-discharge to rainfall and
to other meteorological as well as topographical conditions; the variation in the
proportions of mechanical and chemical impurities in the river-water according to
geological formations, form of the ground, season of the year and climate. ‘The
whole geological 7égzme of each river should be thorougbly studied. The admi-
rable report of Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot on the ‘ Physics and Hydraulics of
the Mississippi,’ published in 1861, might well serve as a model for imitation,
though these cbservers necessarily occupied themselves with some questions which
are not specially geological and did not enter into others on which, as geologists,
we should now gladly have further information.

Again, the action of Glaciers has still less been subjected to prolonged and
systematic observation. The few data already obtained are so vague that we
may be said to be still entirely ignorant of the rate at which glaciers are wearing
down their channels and contributing to the denudation of the land.

The whole of this inquiry is eminently suitable for combined research. Each
stream or glacier, or each well-marked section of one, might become the special
inquiry of a single observer, who would soon develop a paternal interest in his
valley and vie with his colleagues of other valleys in the fulness and accuracy of
his records.

Nor is our information respecting the operations of the Sea much more precise.
Even in an island like Great Britain, where the waves and tides effect so much
change within the space of a human lifetime, the estimates of the rate of advance
or retreat of the shore-line are based for the most part on no accurate determina-
tions. It is satisfactory to be able to announce that the Council of this Association
has formed a Committee for the purpose of obtaining full and accurate information
regarding alterations of our coasts, and that with the sanction of the Lords of the
Admiralty the co-operation of the Coast-guard throughout the three kingdoms has
been secured. We may therefore hope to be eventually in possession ot trust-
worthy statistics on this interesting subject.

The disintegration of the surface of the land by the combined agency of the
Subaérial forces of decay is a problem which has been much studied, but in regard
to whose varying rates of advance not much has been definitely ascertained. The
meteorological conditions under which it takes place differ materially according to
latitude and climate, and doubtless its progress is equally variable. An obvious
and useful source of information in regard to atmospheric denudations is to be
found in the decay of the material of buildings of which the time of erection is
known, and in dated tombstones. ‘Twenty years ago I called attention to the rate
at which marble gives way in such a moist climate as ours, and cited the effects of
subaérial waste as these can be measured on the monuments of our graveyards and
cemeteries.1 I would urge upon town-geologists, and those in the country who
have no opportunities of venturing far afield, that they may do good service by
careful scrutiny of ancient buildings and monuments. In the churchyards they
will find much to occupy and interest them, not, however, like Old Mortality, in
repairing the tombstones, but in tracing the ravages of the weather upon them,
and in obtaining definite measures of the rate of their decay.

The conditions under which subaérial disintegration is effected in arid climates,
and the rate of its advance, are still less known, seeing that most of our informa-
tion is derived from the chance observations of passing travellers. Yet this branch

' Proc, Roy. See, Edin, vol. x. (1879-80), p. 518,

OT — — ———— ————

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 729

of the subject is not without importance in relation to the denudation not only of
the existing terrestrial surface but of the lands of former periods, for there is
evidence of more than one arid epoch in geological history. Here, again, a dili-
gent examination of ancient buildings and monuments might afford some, at least,
of the required data. Insucha couniry as Egypt, for instance, it might eventually
be possible to determine from a large series of observations what has been the
average rate of surface-disintegration of the various kinds of stone employed in
human constructions that have been freely exposed to the air for several thousand
ears.

f Closely linked with the question of denudation is that of the Deposition of the
material worn away from the surface of the land. The total amount of sediment
laid down must equal the amount of material abstracted, save in so far as the
soluble portions of that material are retained in solution in the sea. But we have
still much to learn as to the conditions, and especially as to the rate, of sedimenta-
tion. Nor does there appear to be much hope of any considerable increase to our
knowledge until the subject is taken up in earnest as one demanding and justifying
a prolonged series of well-planned and carefully executed observations. We have
yet to discover the different rates of deposit, under the varying conditions in which
it is carried on in lakes, estuaries, and the sea, What, for instance, would be a
fair average for the rate at which the lakes of each country of Europe are now
being silted up? If this rate were ascertained, and if the amount of material
already deposited in these basins were determined, we should be in possession of
data for estimating not only the probable time when the lakes will disappear, but
also the approximate date at which they came into existence.

But it is not merely in regard to epigene changes that further more extended
and concerted observation is needed. Even among Subterranean movements there
are some which might be watched and recorded with far more care and continuity
than have ever been attempted. The researches of Professor George Darwin and
others have shown how constant are the tremors, minute but measurable, to which
the crust of the earth is subject.1_ Do these phenomena indicate displacements of
the crust, and, if so, what in the lapse of a century is their cumulative effect on
the surface of the land ?

More momentous in their consequences are the disturbances which traverse
Mountain-chains and find their most violent expression in shocks of Earthquake.
‘The effects of such shocks have been studied and recorded in many parts of the
world, but their cause is still little understood. Are the disturbances due to a
continuation of the same operation which at first gave birth to the mountains?
Should they be regarded as symptoms of growth or of collapse? Are they accom-
panied with even the slightest amount of elevation or depression? We cannot
tell. But these questions are probably susceptible of some more or less definite
answer. It might be possible, for instance, to determine with extreme precision
the heights above a given datum of various fixed points along such a chain as the
Alps, and by a series of minutely accurate measurements to detect any upward or
downward deviation from these heights. It is quite conceivable that throughout
the whole historical period some deviation of this kind has been going on, though
so slowly, or by such slight increments at each period of renewal, as to escape
ordinary observation. We might thus learn whether, after an Alpine earthquake,
an appreciable difference of level is anywhere discoverable, whether the Alps as
a great mountain-chain are still growing or are now subsiding, and we might be
able to ascertain the rate of the movement. Although changes of this nature may
have been too slight during human experience to be ordinarily appreciable, their
very insignificance seems to me to supply a strong reason why they should be
sought for and carefully measured. ‘hey would not tell us, indeed, whether a
mountain-chain was called into being in one gigantic convulsion, or was raised at
wide intervals by successive uplifts, or was slowly elevated by one prolonged and
continuous movement. But they might furnish us with suggestive information as
to the rate at which upheaval or depression of the terrestrial crust is now
going on,

* Report Brit. Assoc, 1882, p. 95.

730 REPORT—1899.

The vexed questions of the origin of Raised Beaches and Sunk Forests might in
like manner be elucidated by well-devised measurements. It is astonishing upon
what loose and unreliable evidence the elevation or depression of coast-lines has
often been asserted. On shores where proofs of a recent change of level are
observable it would not be difficult to establish by accurate observation whether
any such movements are taking place now, and, if they are, to determine their rate,
The old attempts of this kind along the coasts of Scandinavia might be resumed
with far more precision and on a much more extended scale. Methods of instru-
mental research have been vastly improved since the days of Celsius and Linnzeus.
Mere eye-observations would not supply sufficiently accurate results. When the
datum-line has been determined with rigorous accuracy, the minutest changes of
level, such as would be wholly inappreciable to the senses, might be detected and
recorded. If such a system of watch were maintained along coasts where there is
reason to believe that some rise or fall of land is taking place, it would be possible
to follow the progress of the movement and to determine its rate.

But I must not dwell longer on examples of the advantages which geology
would gain from a far more general and systematic adoption of methods of experi-
ment and measurement in elucidation of the problems of the science. I have
referred to a few of those which have a more special bearing on the question of
geological time, but it is obvious that the same methods might be extended into
almost every branch of geological dynamics. While we gladly and gratefully
recognise the large amount of admirable work that has already been done by the
adoption of these practical methods, from the time of Hall, the founder of experi-
mental geology, down to our own day, we cannot but feel that our very apprecia-
tion of the gain which the science has thus derived increases the desire to see the
practice still further multiplied and extended. I am confident that it is in this
direction more than in any other that the next great advances of geology are to be
anticipated.

While much may be done by individual students, it is less to their single
efforts than to the combined investigations of many fellow-workers that I look
most hopefully for the accumulation of data towards the determination of the
present rate of geological changes. I would, therefore, commend this subject to
the geologists of this and other countries as one in which individual, national, and
international co-operation might well be enlisted. We already possess an institu-
tion which seems well adapted to undertake and control an enterprise of the kind
suggested. The International Geological Congress, which brings together our
associates from all parts of the globe, would confer a lasting benefit on the science
if it could organise a system of combined observation in any single one of the
departments of inquiry which I have indicated or in any other which might be
selected. We need not at first be too ambitious. The simplest, easiest, and least
costly series of observations might be chosen for a beginning. The work might be
distributed among tie different countries represented in the Congress. Hach
nation would be entirely free in its selection of subjects for investigation, and
would have the stimulus of co-operation with other nations in its work. The
Congress will hold its triennial gathering next year in Paris, and if such an
organisation of research as I have suggested could then be inaugurated a great
impetus would thereby he given to geological research, and France, again become
the birthplace of another scientific movement, would acquire a fresh claim to the
admiration and gratitude of geologists in every part of the globe.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. On the Relation between the Dover and Franco-Belgian Coal Basins.
By Rosert Erueripce, F.L.S.

That the history of the stratified rocks of the south-east of England, and South-
eastern Kent in particular, isin a fair way of being determined there is little doubt,

—_

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 731

this being mainly accomplished through the numerous trials by boring at sites
selected where the probability of the continuity of the Coal Measures may be
determined, westward, or beyond Dover, towards the South Somerset coalfield
or southern end of the Bristol coal basin.

The physical identity of the coal-bearing district of Southern Somerset on the
west with the coalfields of Northern France and Belgium to the east was recognised
as far back as 1826, as well as the fact that the Coal Measures and their associated.
or accompanying coals lie deeply buried under a variable thickness of Cretaceous
and Tertiary rocks.

It now remains to practically trace and extend the Belgian and French coal-
fields further west from Dover, which it is believed will ultimately prove to
constitute a continuous chain of isolated coal basins extending to the northern
side of the Mendip Hiils to join the exposed coalfield of Nettlebridge and Vobster
south of the Radstock and Farrington basins.

The Dover boring, carried down to the depth of 2,225 feet, has shown that the
deeper coals are of the same character as the rich bituminous coals of Mons and
Bruay, but thicker ; the four lower seams at Dover unitedly measure 12 feet. The
extent of the unexplored area between Dover and the Great Western coal track,
originally included in the South Wales, Somerset and Gloucester, or Bristol coal-
field, is about 160 miles.

The upper series or the Radstock and Farrington basins, which lie above or
rest upon the thick Pennant sandstones, contain the thin but finest bituminous
coals, which appear upon analysis to correspond chemically with the coals at Dover
and those of the French and Belgian basins, especially those of Mons and
Valenciennes.

The lower coals proved at Dover appeared to be of as high a class as the
Radstock, and also will compare with the thirty-seven samples of Welsh coals
which were analysed by Sir H. De la Beche and Dr. Lyon Playfair in 1850,

37 Samples of South Wales Coal
required for the Navy

The 4 lower seams
of the Dover Coal

Carbon 83°80 83'78
Hydrogen . : 4:65 4:79
Nitrogen . . 97 98
Oxygen C . 3°23 4:15
Heating power 14°858 units 14°858 units

Comparison with 53 samples of the midland and north country coals suited for
the Royal Navy, and analysed by the same two gentlemen in 1850, is even closer
and more favourable :—

Gbal toni the Newcastle Derby and Yorkshire | Lancashire
ie, Dover boring

18 Samples 7 Samples 28 Samples
Carbon . 83°80 82°12 79°68 77:90
Hydrogen 4°65 5:31 4:94 5°32
Nitrogen oF 4:94 1:41 1:30
Oxygen. 3:23 5°69 10:28 9°53
Heating power 14867 14°820 13°860 13:19

The coal at Dover is uniformly good, pure, and clean throughout the twelve

seams which were penetrated in a thickness of 1,054 feet, the four-foot seam
being at present the thickest. The borehole was carried down 105 feet below
the four-foot to test the continuity of the Coal Measures still remaining to be proved.
The most easterly of the eight coal basins, that of the Ruhr, gives names to the
second largest and most productive coalfield in Germany, ranging 60 miles from
west to east, with a breadth of 25 miles or 1,500 square miles,

732 PEPORT—1899.

This area is partly Westphalian and east of the Rhine, followed west by the
coalfields of Aix-la-Chapelle and Liége; the great east and west fields of Hainaut,
comprising Namur, Charleroi, and Mons; then succeeded west by the prolific
coalfield of Valenciennes, in the Pas-de-Calais,

That these coal basins were originally connected, and extended from the
Rhine and Eastern Belgium to Somersetshire immediately north of the Mendip
Hills, is now admitted.

Their mean thickness, where taken in their most complete series, shows similar
results, as given in the following table :—

Mean Thickness of the Five Great Coalfields.

Bristol | Hainaut, cfs :
South Wales | oomerset (South) | Chaslerol, and Liege Westphalia
10,000 ft. 8,400 ft. | 9,400 ft. 7,600 ft. 7,218 ft,

It is important to notice also in tabular form the number of coal-seams and
the workable thickness of the same.

South Bristol Hainaut, |
= W Flee Somerset Charleroi, | Liege Westphalia |
(South) and Mons |

Number of seams of 75 55 110 85 117

coal |
Total thickness of 120 ft. 98 ft. 230 ft. 212, 294 ft.

workable coal |

One probable cause of the greater amount of coal in these Continental coalfields
as compared with the two British areas where the Pennent is only developed, as in
the South Wales and the Bristol coal-basins, arises from the fact that the so-called
Pennant Rock, which is from 2,000 feet to 3,000 feet thick in the Bristol and
South Wales coalfields, and containing but little coal, is replaced by the more
productive Coal Measures, with workable coal, in Belgium and North France.

Again. the general characters of the groups of ccal seams have often a distinc-
tive element amongst themselves, such similarity being maintained in all essential
points throughout Belgium, North France, and Britain; this persistence of the
eame physical character both in South Wales, Somerset, and Gloucestershire is a
condition most important to note; and although the South Wales coalfield is
separated from the Bristol basin by 80 miles, yet in the mass and general structure
they show strongly marked and definite physical features and relations.

Table of Comparison between the Two Basins.

Coal Measures of South Wales Coal Measures of the Bristol Coal basin |
5 ( Sandstones and shales 3,400ft. | #
&J with 26 seams of thick af Sandstone teed ae
5 | coal St wi seams of coa thic
3 (penne Sandstone 8,260ft. | < ( Pennant Rock Sandstone 3,000 ft.
AS Rock with 15 coal thick Ss with 4 or 5 seamS of thick
= | seams Ss | coal
# ( Shales and sandstones 400-1,400ft. | 4 (Shales and _ sandstones 2,800 ft.
5 and ironstone with thick z with ironstone and 28 thick
8 34 seams 8 seams of coal

8,060 ft. 8,400 ft.

Ss a ae

TRANSAOTIONS Of SECTION C. 733

The coal basins of Belgium and France owe their origin or geological and
geographical position to the one great line or axis of disturbance which can be
traced from the south of Ireland to Frome (Somersetshire) through the Pembroke,
South Wales, and southern end of the Somersetshire coalfield, and parallel to the
disturbed axis of the Mendip Hills, to Mells, Elm, Nunney, and Frome, then lost
under the unconformable overlap of the Jurassic and Cretaceous strata of Wilts,
Hants, Sussex, and South-east Kent, until again revealed and determined through
the two, if not three, deep and remarkable borings, that of West Brabourne,
5 miles east of Ashford, to the depth of 2,003 feet. The partly completed and
important boring at Ropersole, south of Barham, 1,773 feet 6 inches, and the
pioneer borehole by Mr. fF’, Brady at Great Fall, west of Dover, in 1892, to the
depth of 2,225 feet, and now the site of the two deep coalpits, immediately west of
the Shakespeare Tunnel. Mr. Brady’s trial proved the thickness of the overlying
Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks to be 1,112 feet, touching the true Coal Measures at
1,118 feet, terminating with the four-foot seam of coal at 2,225 feet, but the floor
of the Dover Coal Measures is yet unknown,

In Belgium and North France the Carboniferous rocks have been persistently
and practically followed along a given line, but in England the Coal Measures of
Gloucestershire and Somersetshire have not been traced eastwards, or beyond the
well-defined eastern escarpment of the Bristol and Somerset coalfield, ranging
from north to south from Tortworth to Frome, or from the eastern end of the
Mendip range beyond Frome.

We now know without doubt the range and thicknesss of the Jurassic rocks
below the overlying Cretaceous series in South-east Kent at Brabourne, Ropersole,
and Dover, where the most complete succession hag been determined, and a
complete series of the cores preserved, from the top of the Gault to the base of the
Lower Lias inclusive, from the Brabourne borehole, and a ‘I'riassic conglomerate
new to this area, and also the French and Belgian line of coal basins. 7

Comparative Thickness between the Brabourne Boring and that of Dover.

Brabourne 1 Ft. in. Dover (Mr. F’. Brady, C.E.)
ae Gault . ; : 72.6 Grey Chalk and Chalk
£ 2% } Neocomian . | 231 0} 182 ft. Marl - 2
# 2S | Weald Clay ~ | 198) 0 Chloritic Marl $s
“© | Hastings beds .| 206 6/| 121ft. Gault. ae
2 Portland Oolite . 14 0 Lower Greensand, | ® 3
-- |KimmeridgeClay | 242 0/| 241 ft. Wealden and Hast-| 0
ss |Corallian . .| 305 0 ings Beds
2 .; 4Oxfordian . . |) 243-0 Upper, Middle, and) .2
Big |Bathonian. .| 189 1| gisg Lower Oolites with | 44
© | Middle Lias : 74 8 ; Lias at the bot-{ #®
i \Lower Lias : 98 1 tom 5°
Triassic Triassic Conglo- | 48 4 Coal Measures with) o a»
48 ft. 4 in. merates eight workable |S _ %
1157 ft.; seams containing [ § $ a
1936 2 16 feet of bright|3°°
Paleozoic { Paleozoic Rock $8. 5 bituminous coal Aa)
88°5 ft. | unknown
2024 7

There canbe little doubt as to the value of the Dover or South-eastern Kent coal

basin, with its present known or determined resources; when we consider the great
' capacity of the French, Belgian, and Westphalian coalfields, with their numerous
and successful workings, and the determined and scientific way in which their
wealth has been, and is now being developed, at times under great difficulties, we

! Five miles east of Ashford,

ra REPORT—1899.

cannot doubt the westerly continuity of these Continental coalfields with their vast
wealth of fuel. ‘ :

It is, however, by trial only that this important problem or question of value can
be solved, and we are now obtaining much insight into the intimate geological
structure of the coal-bearing rocks of the south-east of England, and Kent in par-
ticular; neither can we doubt the Continental relationship established between
Eastern France and Belgium with ourselves, with regard to the solution of so large
a problem as the westerly extension of their coalfields, and coals under the Straits
of Dover to meet the new enterprise at Dover, established upon and through the
practical knowledge obtained from the great works in the Borinage and the wealthy
coalfields of Hainaut.

_ This naturally gives rise to the significant question, Are the coals at Dover, as
compared with the great and prolific coalfields of France and Belgium, within the
depth and capacity at which coal-mining can be carried on at a profit P

The eight workable seams at Dover commence at 1,113 feet from the surface,
the Coal Measures being proved to be 782 feet thick with 16 feet of workable coal,
the lowest or four-foot seam being reached at 2,225 feet Ginches ; this is well within
the limit of practical working—many of the important coal pits in this country
are worked at much greater depths, ranging from 2,800 feet to over 3,000 feet.

The Royal Commission of 1871, under the presidency of the Duke of Argyll,
appointed ‘to look into the question of several matters relating to our coal in
the United Kingdom,’ fixed the limit of safe working at 4,000 feet, on account of
the underground temperature at that depth being 98° or blood heat, hence the legal
limit of practical working to that depth.

Connection through the paleozoic rocks of France and Belgium with those
of the same age in South-east Kent has now been well determined ; the 22 miles
of what is now sea has been, and probably will again be, dry and continuous land.
We may now regard this, for want of under-water testing, as probably one of the
north and south trough-like or transverse fractures occurring along or between the
severed coal basins between Calais and Westphalia and the valley of the Rhine,
notably those of Liége, Mons, Bristol and South Wales, &c.

The interest and value attached to the discovery of coal at Dover is both
national and scientific; it is as much Continental as British—North France, Belgium,

and Western Germany have each and all been closely and physically united to us’

by a series of now disunited yet connected and rich coal basins, occupying the
extended line between Dover and the Rhine valley marked and distinguished by
the great works at Valenciennes, Mons, Charleroi, Liege, and the Prussian province
of Westphalia.

We must now bridge the Dover Straits and include the 22 miles of water, as
covering an additional and buried coalfield, the westerly termination of which is
now being practically tested, by the great undertaking beneath the far-famed cliffs
west of Dover, and I doubt not of its westerly development and continuity to the
northern side of the Mendip Hills, or to the exposed coalfield of Nettlebridge,
Holcombe, and Vobster, and this with ultimate success under our four great
masters—Patience, Perseverance, Money, and Time.

2. On the South-Eastern Coalfield.
By Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, JLA., 2.8.

The discovery of a coalfield in 1890 at Dover, in a boring at the foot of
the Shakespeare Cliff, has been already brought before the British Association
by the author at Cardiff in 1892, and is so well known that it is unnecessary
to enter into details other than the following. The carboniferous shales and
sandstones contain twelve seams of coal, amounting to a total thickness of 23 feet
5 inches, These occur at a depth of 1,100 feet 6 inches below Ordnance datum,
and have been penetrated to a depth of 1,064 feet 6 inches, or 2,177 feet
6 inches from the surface. They are identical, as I have shown elsewhere,’ with

1 Proc. Royal Inst., June 6, 1890; Zrans. Manchester Geol. Soc., xxii., Feb. 2,
1894; xxv., Feb. 9, 1897.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, " =73e

the rich and valuable coalfields of Somersetshire on the west, and of Fratice and
Belgium on the east. This discovery is of great practical value, as it will probably
result in the same development in Kent of industries and manufactures which has
taken place where the coal has been worked, under the same conditions, under the
Cretaceous and Jurassic rocks in France and Belgium. It is of equally great
theoretical value, as it proves up to the hilt the truth of Godwin-Austen’s view,

ublished in 1858, that the coal measures lie buried underneath the newer rocks in
South-eastern England.

After the boring was completed in 1898 the discovery lay dormant until in
1897 the Kent Collieries Corporation began to sink shafts on the site of the boring,
and to put down boreholes at Brabourne and Pluckley, in the Weald of Kent, to
verify the range of the coal measures in the property which they held under lease.

The Mid-Kent Coal Syndicate also put down a boring at Penshurst, and the
Kent Coal Exploration Company began work in various parts of eastern Kent.
The borings of the two latter undertakings have been carried on under my super-
vision, and none of them, as yet, is completed. They, nevertheless, throw
important light on the range of the coal measures in South-eastern England, and
are not unworthy of being brought before this meeting of the British Association,

The first boring to be noticed is at Ropersole, a spot near the highway between
Dover and Canterbury—eight miles from Dover, at 400 feet above O.D.—the
surface being composed of Upper Chalk, witha thin stratum of Clay-with-Flints. It
was begun at the close of 1897, and has at the present time pierced the strata to
a depth of 1,773 feet 7 inches.

It is being carried out under the able superinténdence of Mr. James Newton,
resident engineer, with the calyx drill, with the occasional use of a diamond
crown for the lower and harder rocks. The result in both cases is a solid core.
The section is as follows:

Ropersole, 400 O.D.

— Thickness Below Orang
feet in feet in
Upper Cretaceous : : : , 4 953 0 553 (OO
Upper Chalk, ; : A : ; 480 0 80 0O
Middle Chalk . : i ; : : See O 198 0
Lower Grey Chalk . : : P . 220 0 418 0
Glauconitic Marl . : ; F : 16 0 434 0
Gault - ‘ “ 6 5 ; 5 1190 OO 553 OO
Neocomian 5 A bj : 3 72 O 625 O
LowerGreensand . 5 é ‘ 5 bly 0 604 0
Atherfield Clay 5 5 s : ; 21 O 625 0
Purbeck-Wealden Beds . : é ; 55) 10 680 0
Oolitie é : ‘ ‘ ‘ A ; 472 0 1,152 Oo
Kimmeridge Clay (?) : : : : 10 O 690 0
Corallian . - 2 : 5 : : 1 847 =O
Oxfordian, Callovian ‘ = B 4 142 O 989 0
Bathonian - 5 : : 5 : 164 O iiss - 0
Liassic ; A ; : : A 5 27° 9 1,180 9
Upper Lias (?) - A . : S ; Sy ll, SG 0)
Middle Lias é ( ¢ : : 24 9 LL8O,. 9
Coal Measures. . < Z F e 192 10 aang
Shales and Underclays . . - ; 69 3 | 1,250 0
First Coal . : ‘ 5 F F F (0). BRS) L250 /8e9
Shales and Underclays . : : . 50 6 1,301 3
Second Coal . é E : z Rial 0 6 1,301 9
Shales and Underclays . : : : 22 3 1,324 . 0
Micaceous Sandstones . 3 ' 3 ZG alee 13h tnt .
Re SE eek ee

736 REPORT—1899.

The coal measures contain the usual carboniferous plants—Sigillaria, Lepido-
dendron, and ferns, and the usual Stigmarian roots and rootlets, and, like those
which we struck in the borehole at Dover, are probably horizontal. The coal is
bright and blazing, and breaks up into little cubes, but slightly deformed by
pressure into the lozenge-shape. In this respect it agrees with the coals of Dover,
and like them shows no sign of crushing. The horizontality of the beds in both these
cases may be accounted for by the boreholes happening to strike the bottom of a
carboniferous synclinal fold. This conclusion, viewed in the light of the coalfields
of France and Belgium on the one hand, and of Somerset on the other, is more
probable than the view that they extend horizontally over a very large area.

It is strengthened by the fact that the rocks, probably Devonian, struck at the
bottom of the borehole at Brabourne, some few miles to the west, are inclined at
a high angle. They here are a portion of an anticline which is probably related
to the coal measures above them, as the Devonian axis of the Mendip Hills is
related to the syncline of the Somerset coalfield.

In my opinion the coal measures of Ropersole are a portion of the same series
as those at Dover. Here, as at Dover, the question of seams of coal resolves
itself probably into a question of sinking deeper. Here only two unimportant
seams have been met with in a thickness of 197 feet. There twelve seams were
penetrated in a thickness of 1,054 feet 6 inches, the thickest 4-feet seam being at
the bottom.

The Ropersole boring establishes the fact that the Dover coal measures extend
northwards for a distance of eight miles and beyond in the direction of Canterbury.

It remains now to see how far the range of the South-eastern coalfield has been
proved by other borings. None of the three others which are now being carried
on by the Kent Coal Exploration Company at Ottinge, Hothfield, and Old Soar
to the north of Tonbridge has been carried deep enough to give any evidence.
We are, however, indebted to Mr. Etheridge! for conclusive proof that its
south-western boundary does not extend as far to the south-west as Brabourne.
Here a fine-grained grey argillaceous sandstone, in my opinion Devonian, was
struck in a boring at a depth of 1,921 feet 5 inches from the surface, the strata
being inclined at a high angle, and being covered by a red dolomitic conglomerate
of Triassic age, just as similar rocks occur in the central axis of the Mendip Hills.
‘This boring has verified the exact position of the Pembroke-Mendip anticlinal fold,
which I mapped in 1894.2. It ranges in a north-west and south-easterly direction
close under the line of the Chalk downs from Folkestone to Wye, a few miles to
the north of the theoretical line of my map, and forms the southern boundary of
the South-eastern coalfield. In Somersetshire it emerges from beneath the
Triassic and Jurassic strata in the Mendip Hills, and in Northern France along the
low hills sweeping from Hardinghen past Ferques in the direction of Cape Gris
Nez, where, as in the Mendip range, it is traversed by many faults.

The coal measures set in in Kent at a sufficient distance to the north-east of
Brabourne to allow of the presence of the Carboniferous Limestone and Millstone Grit.
These probably dip at the same high angle as the Devonian below. Their south-
western boundary can only be accurately defined by further borings such as that
which we are now carrying on at Ottinge, about two and a half miles to the north-
east of the scarp of the Downs, and six miles to the south-west of Ropersole. Their
range to the north and the east still remains to be proved. They are, however,
continued under the Channel, and have been proved by the boring at Calais in
1850 as well as those carried out in 1898 at Strouannes near Wissant. In this
district they are clearly shown by other borings to be faulted into the Devonian
and other pre-coal-measure rocks.

The thickness and value of this South-eastern coalfield can only be estimated
by the exposed coalfields of Northern Frence and Belgium, and of Somerset.
That of Liége is 7,600 feet thick and contains eighty-five seams, presenting an

1 Brit. Assoc. Bristol Meetinz, 1898.
2 The Probable Range of the Coal Measures in Southern England. Zrans. Federated
Institution of Mining Engineers, vol, vi. Map.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 730

aggregate thickness of 212 feet of workable coal. That of Mons is 9,400 feet with
110 seams yielding 250 feet of coal. In Somersetshire the coalfield is 8,400 feet
thick, the seams are fifty-five in number, and yield 120 feet of available coal. It is
obvious from these figures that the possibilities of the South-eastern coalfield are very
great, although it still remains to be proved how far these great thicknesses of rock
haye been denuded in Kent before the deposition of the Triassic and Jurassic rocks.

The upper denuded surface of the South-eastern field was struck at Ropersole
at a depth of 1,373 feet 7 inches below Ordnance datum, and at Dover at
1,100 feet 6 inches. If the rocks which have to be traversed above O.D. be
added, the resulting figures of about 1,600 feet necessary to sink from the surface
are well within the depth to which coal is now being worked at a profit in
England and in France and Belgium. The coal is well within the 4,000-feet limit
laid down by the Coal Commission of 1872.

The strata overlying the coal measures at Ropersole and Dover present points
of great geological interest bearing on the geographical conditions under which
they were formed, as may be seen from the following table :—

Table of Comparative Thicknesses of Neocomian and Jurassic Rocks
at Dover and Ropersole.

— Dover Ropersole

| ft. in, ft, in,

Neocomian - . d : ; ci | 124 8 72 O
Purbeck-Wealden . P F ; c ‘ 94 6 55 0
Oolitic . ; ; : : : ; 51) “ S 472 0
SG AS ee a ees aoe i Be 27 9

All these rocks are thinning off to the northwards against the carboniferous and
pre-carboniferous rocks, which form the ‘ axis of Artois’ of Godwin-Austen, as he
foresaw in 1858 that they must thin off in South-eastern England. South and
west of the meridian of Dover they thicken very rapidly, the Neocomians being
244 feet, the Purbeck-Wealden of Kent and Sussex being not much less than
2,000 feet thick, and the Jurassic rocks of considerable though unknown thickness.
In the Netherfield boring, near Battle in the Hastings district, the Upper and
Middle Oolites are proved to be more than 1,700 feet thick.

The evidence of the other boreholes under my supervision proves that the
thickening of the Neocomian, Purbeck-Wealden, and Upper Jurassic strata to the
south of the downs between Folkestone and Tonbridge is very considerable.
It is summed up in the following table :—

— | Ottinge | Hothfield | Old Soar | Penshurst

Neocomian . : , A ; - 246 180+ | 250
Purbeck-Wealden - 3 146 593 | 650 1,511
Portlandia a peice. «i 2 i — | : —

| Kimmeridge Clay. : : ; — — | — 356 + |

The Purbeck-Wealden beds also show a considerable thickening to the west,
if the boring at Ottinge be compared with that of Penshurst, near Tonbridge,
where the boring began low down in the Ashdown Sand, the lowest member but
one of the group. yh :

Tt remains for us to sum up the results of these borings, which are likely to
effect the same economic revolution in Kent as was brought about in France
by the extension of the coalfield of Valenciennes and Mons, about ninety-five
miles to the west of its original outcrop at the surface, and to within some thirty
miles of Calais. The coalfield has been proved at Dover. Its range for eight miles
to the north has been also proved at Ropersole. Its southern boundary, as yet ill-
defined, is marked by the Pembroke-Mendip anticline, ranging under the southern

1899, 3B

738 REPORT—1899.

scarp of the chalk downs. Its range in other directions is unknown, and awaits
further investigation. To the south of this anticline the palzozoic floor is
probably composed of pre-coal-measure rocks. If, however, the coal measures do
occur, they are buried under such great thicknesses of superincumbent rock—
largely sands and loams full of water—that it will be difficult to work them.
We know now by experiment not only where to seek, but also where it is
advisable not to seek for the coal measures. The difficult problem of the buried
coal measures in South-eastern England, now being worked out by private enter-
prise, is likely to add greatly to the resources of this country, as it has already
added to the wealth of geological Inowledge.

“a

Pe

— 3, Note ona Boring through the Chalk and Gault near Dieppe.
By A. J. JuKes-Browne, L.A., F.GS.

The following particulars of a boring for water made at Puys, near Dieppe, in
1898, have been communicated to me by Messrs. Le Grand & Sutcliff, the site of
the boring being about 45 feet above the sea, and not more than 50 yards from
high-water mark.

— | Metres Feet

Chalk without flints . a . . : : : 156 5113

Greensand and sandy clay . : é : : : 2 64

Gault clay . 3 ; 5 : ° : : 42 1372
Black sand and pyrites passing down into clean

quartzose sand : ° Shp : ° : 114 | 372

ee | (a
Total : . " ‘ : : 2113 6934

The ‘chalk without flints’ will correspond to our Lower and Middle Chalk,
and must include chalk which, on the English side, generally contains a few flints.
The two metres of greensand and sandy clay at the base of this is probably what
is generally known in England as Chloritic Marl, the zone of Stawronema Cartert,
which is 15 feet thick at Folkestone, but less beneath Dover.

No sandy beds referable to ‘Upper Greensand’ are recorded, and the Gault
seems to be entirely represented by clay, as at Folkestone and Dover. The black
sand with pyrites should doubtless be regarded as the basement bed of the Gault,
but the clean quartzose sand below is probably the equivalent of the highest part
of the Vectian or Lower Greensand.

A good supply of water was found in these sands, rising to 12 feet above the
surface of the ground.

From this boring it would appear that the Folkestone and Wissant facies of
the Gault extends southward as far as Dieppe, a distance of about 52 miles.

4, Some Recent Work among the Upper Carboniferous Rocks of North
Staffordshire, and its bearing on concealed Coal-fields. By Watcot
Gipson, /.G.S.

[Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey.]

There is every reason to believe that in the near future the supplies of coal
lying beneath the Red Rocks of the Midland counties will have to be relied upon
to meet the increasing demand.

Workable seams of coal have been met with at reasonable depths beneath the
Red Rocks surrounding the South Staffordshire coalfield, but there remain large
areas lying between the known coalfields of Shropshire, North Staffordshire, and
Nottinghamshire, which have not at present been explored. Within this region,

ae> i

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 739

as shown on the published maps of the Geological Survey, there are considerable
areas of so-called Permian rocks, which recent investigations have proved to be
conformable to the upper coal-measures, and to contain a coal-measure flora.
Thus Mr. T. C, Cantrill has shown that in the forest of Wyre the so-called Permian
rocks contain thin coal-seams and bands of Spirorbis limestone.!

Exceptional facilities afforded by numerous marl- and brick-pits and other
artificial and natural exposures in North Staffordshire have enabled Mr. C. B.
Wedd and myself to make out the following definite stratigraphical sequence in the
Upper Carboniferous Rocks :—

(4) Keele Sandstone Series——Red sandstones and marls, calcareous breccias,
fossiliferous (Entomostracan) limestones; thickness, 700 feet, summit nowhere
seen. (= Permian of older observers.)

(8) Newcastle-under-Lyme Series——Grey sandstones, marls, and shales, with
four thin coals. Two bands of fossiliferous limestone (Entomostracan) form the
base. Thickness, 250 to 300 feet.

(2) Etruria Marl Series—Red and mottled marls, with thin bands of coarse
green grits near the summit and base. Thickness, 700 to 800 feet.

(1) Black Band Series.—Grey and mottled marls, the grey marl predominat-
ing; bands of ironstone with Entomostraca, Anthracomya, Fish-remains; occa-
sional bands of grit sometimes 30 feet thick; several thin coals; numerous zones
of limestone and shales with Entomostraca. A band of limestone, constant in

osition (86 to 40 feet) above the Bassey Mine ironstone, forms the base.
hickness, about 250 feet.

Variability in the character of the deposits of the coal-measures is universal,
so that it is hardly to be expected that this sequence will be recognisable in its
entirety over the whole Midland area; but there can be no doubt that it is an
important point to find out which of these divisions occurs at the surface in the
areas at present regarded as Permian or as upper coal-measures on the published
maps.

Ei teaady the determination of the successive divisions above noted has had
important industrial bearings. The fact that the Newcastle limestone lies at the
base of grey measures intercalated between an upper group of red strata (the
Keele series) and a lower group of red strata (the Etruria marls) has enabled me
to detect true upper coal-measures in Keele Park, Shutlanehead, and to the west
of Leycett. Moreover, there seems to be little doubt that the coal-measures of the
Pottery Coalfield lie not far from the surface under Little Madeley and Craddocks
Moss. Evidence has been obtained that the strata on the north-west side of the
North Staffordshire anticline do not uninterruptedly descend beneath red rocks
so-called Permian) to the west of Leycett, but rise locally westward under Hayes.

he effect of this change of inclination is to bring to the surface strata which lie
considerably below the unproductive red series, and to bring the principal coals
and ironstones within reach further west than might have been expected.”

It follows that a thorough and complete examination of the exposed coalfields
of the Midland counties and of the bordering New Red Rocks will be of the highest
importance in determining at what depth the productive measures lie beneath the
great central tracts of the Midland counties.

“6B, Report on the Drift Sections at Moel Tryfaen. See Reports, p. 414,

1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. li., 1895, p. 528.
2 See Summary af Progress of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom for
1898, p. 123. _
.3B2

740 REPORT—1899.

6. Note on Barium Sulphate in the Bunter Sandstone of North Staffordshire.
By C. B. Wenvp, B.A., LG.

[Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey.]

Special attention has been directed by Professor F. Clowes to the deposition
of barium sulphate as a cementing material of Triassic sandstone near Nottingham,
and he has mentioned numerous places, on the authority of Mr. J. Lomas, where
the same mineral has been observed in Triassic rocks,1

It may be interesting to record another locality. In a cutting of the North
Staffordshire Railway (Audley Branch), three quarters of a mile south of Alsager
Road (Talke) Station, a section of Bunter sandstone in Merelake Hill shows the
cross-like marks common in the Keuper sandstone of Cheshire and Staffordshire,
and due to barium sulphate crystals. A partial analysis, made by my friend Mr.
R. Hornby, of the Red Bunter sandstone of Merelake Hill, showed a considerable
quantity of barium sulphate. Occasional veins filling joints consist of baryto-
celestite, which may also be seen in other sections of the Bunter of Merelake Hill,

7. Report on Seismological Investigations. See Reports, p, 161,
8. Interim Report on the Structure of Crystals,

9. Report on Life-Zones in British Carboniferous Rocks.
See Reports, p. 371.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. The Photo-micrography of Opaque Objects as applied to the Delineation
of the Minute Structure of Fossils. By Dr. ArTHuR Rows, F.G.S.

The object of the paper is not to enter into minute technical details of the
process, but rather to demonstrate upon the screen the scope and limitations of the
photo-micrography of opaque objects. A contrast was drawn between the
technique employed in the case of transparent and opaque objects, and it was
pointed out that, simple as are the broad principles of the latter, the application of
these principles is a very difficult and tedious matter. Allusion was made to the
methods used by the author, and the advantages of various lenses and illuminants
were discussed. '

The author stated that incandescent gas had proved quite satisfactory in his
hands, and that it had been used throughout all his experiments. It was pointed
out that rapid exposure was no object, and that it was useful to havea light which,
while sufficiently white and powerful for all purposes, gave one ample margin
wherewith to vary exposures, and that the real difficulty lay not so much in the
choice of an illuminant as in the way in which it was managed. The lighting of
an object would always be a somewhat tedious process, and each specimen had to
be treated on its merits.

The limitations to the power of a lens were mentioned, and it was stated that
it was impossible to expect any lens to focus details lying on separate horizontal
planes. An instance of this difficulty was furnished by the ambulacral grooves of

' Proc. Roy. Svc., vol. \xiv. p. 374. References to previous papers are given in
this article.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. TAL

Micraster, and the author demonstrated the methods employed to retain the
accuracy of detail, and yet to convey the impression of the depth of the
ambulacra.

Allusion was made to the weariness of eye and brain caused by the fre-
quent use of a hand-lens, and a contrast noted between this course and the use of
photo-micrographic prints for obtaining broad and detailed observations of small
objects. It was pointed out that with the aid of photographic prints the paleon-
tologist and the artist could meet on level terms, and that the draughtsman would
by this means be enabled to see the value of minute detail as plainly as the trained
observer. Further, such was the excellence of the results obtained, that the assist-
ance of an artist could in most instances be dispensed with altogether, and the
photographs rendered in collotype and autotype. A proof of the latter assertion
was afforded by showing numerous silver-prints of Bryozoa and sea-urchins, and by
the set of collotype plates which illustrated the author’s recent paper on the genus
Micraster.1

The question of expense is an important one, for in the paper mentioned six
hundred negatives were taken to illustrate the details of the test, and it is obvious
that the cost of employing an artist to make drawings of even a portion of these
details would be prohibitive.

The demonstration was illustrated by fifty lantern-slides of sea-urchins, Bryozoa,
Brachiopoda, and Foraminifera, and care was taken to show examples which would
bring out the shortcomings as well as the advantages of the process.

2. Water-zones: Their Influence on the Situation and Growth of Concretions.
By G. Assott, M.R.CS,

Many hold the theory that concretions are due to the presence of organic
remains, and apparently claim that some centre is necessary for their formation.
The author thinks that many may be otherwise explained, and calls attention to
the effects produced by the rain-water which passes into and saturates a rock-
structure. He has noticed on surfaces of sections and of walls of buildings that
as soon as percolation has come to an end in beds which are horizontal, or nearly
so, the water breaks up into horizontal lines or water-zones, and subsequently these
lines are broken up into moist patches of unequal length, extending across a
section in definite lines, as illustrated by the photographs which he exhibits.

Hence the soluble substances of the rock, especially lime, iron, and silica,
will be brought by the saturation water into positions favourable for the growth
of crystalline and amorphous masses, and these substances as evaporation goes on
must be redeposited in new situations, which may or may not coincide with the
position of fossils. The space through which the dissolved substances may travel
before being deposited has not been determined, but in many cases one or two feet
seem to be sufficient.

The author has observed these zones of moisture both on sandstone and lime-
stone, and thinks it possible that the selective work may go on in the same way
in clay. Many disconnected facts relating to concretionary growth appear to be
explicable in this manner, but further inquiry will be necessary to decide what
are the special influences at work regulating the growth and deciding the form,
and whether the concretion shall be amorphous or crystailine.

3. Tubular and Concentric Concretions. By Gruorce Aszort, ILR.C.S.

After excluding stalactites and pseudomorphs from the list of tubular concre-
tionary bodies there yet remain a remarkable series of rings and cylinders which
afford no obyious explanation of their existence. They consist chiefly of lime,
silica, and iron, and no other substances appear to possess this peculiar property.

1 OJ.GS. Aug. 1899, vol. ly.

742 REPORT—1899,

It seems also to be a rule for these bodies to occasionally exhibit concentric
arrangement. A recent instance of this re-deposit of material is very frequent in
weathered mortar, whether used as a cement for sandstone, limestone, or igneous
rocks. So far, I have never failed to discover examples of this in whatever town
or village I have searched. Both in dolomite and oolite beds, at Fulwell, Cress-
well Crags, and Isle of Portland, tubes and channels, often concentrically arranged,
are to be met with quite distinct from ordinary drainage channels. These are
probably due to the same influence, a hydrostatic or mechanical one, which
causes the segregation in the mixture of sand and lime used as mortar. The cone-
in-cone rings seen in coal from Merthyr Tydvil may be due to the same selective
power or growth, for, from an analysis made for me by Mr. E. T. Andrews, they
contain lime and alumina in about equal parts.

Both flint paramoudra and the flint circles near Cromer should, in my opinion,
come under this division of concretionary bodies and no longer be supposed to he
fossil sponges.

Beekite, the geodes from Uruguay, and the variety of agate with ‘ eyes,’ afford
innumerable examples of annular formation, differing in arrangement from the
mortar only by the smaller size of the circles. Both chalcedony and opal must be
recognised as possessing this power to produce circles and ‘ fortifications’ on flat
surfaces quite irrespective of the contour lines of the cavities in which the agates
are formed.

Tron cylinders in the Folkestone beds of the Lower Greensand exist in large
numbers as single tubes, clusters, and concentric tubes. As yet, I believe, no one
has found any sign of organic remains in association with them. In all proba-
bility they are due, like the other instances mentioned, to some special arrange-
ment or concentration of solutions in the beds. They are met with to a smaller
extent in the Trias, near Exeter, the Wealden of the south-east of England and
other rock beds. They give little, perhaps no evidence of pressure, and are gene-
rally found in horizontal positions, so cannot be supposed to be stalactitic.

The actual cause or origin of these formations is not very clear. We may call
it segregation, but this does not carry us far. Whilst further study may add to
our knowledge of the influences which favour their growth, we may be just as
ignorant as to why they grow as the crystallographers are of the similar pro-
cesses in crystals. I surmise, however, that we shall ultimately find that some
hydrostatic influence will explain much that is at present both mysterious and
perplexing.

4. On Photographs of Sandstone Pipes in the Carboniferous Limestone at
Dwibau Point, Hast Anglesey. By Epwarp GREENLY.

At Dwlbau Point, Red Wharf Bay, certain beds in the Carboniferous Lime-
stone are traversed by remarkable funnel-shaped pipes filled with fine hard sand-
stone. The sandstone filling the pipes can be seen to be continuous with that of
overlying sandstone beds, from the lower side of which the pipes pass down into
an underlying limestone. Most of the pipes are about six feet wide at the top,
and have been followed to a depth of some six or seven feet. There are, however;
smaller ones; and one much larger is seen in section to a depth of twelve or
fifteen feet. The sandstone of the pipes is bedded, and there appears also to be a
concentric structure. It is obvious that they are due to contemporaneous erosion,
though of an exceptional kind.

The photographs show pipes in various stages of denudation, some standing up
four or five feet from the surface of the foreshore.

5, Glaciation of Dwlbaw Point, East Anglesey. By EpwarpD GREENLY.

The surface of the limestone at Dwlbau Point is magnificently ice-worn, the
general direction of the strie being N.N.E.-S.S8.W., and the moutonnée surface
facing N.N.E, On the sides, however, of the funnel-shaped pit surrounding one of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 743

the sandstone pipes the strie are deflected, and sweep round, till on its landward
or 8.S.W. side they are running as much as 20°N. of W. This is on a convex
surface of limestone, forming the side of a moat-like depression, about a foot wide
at the top and the same deep, running round the mass of sandstone filling the pipe.
A short distance away, a low face of limestone is not merely furrowed, but under-
cut. It is smoothed and striated in the usual manner, and is undercut some two
or three inches, the overhanging surface being as much as 15°, and in parts even
30° from the vertical. It would seem that these effects must have been produced
by an agent which moulded itself like a plastic body to the face of the rock. The
ice-worn surfaces are overlaid by about ten feet of reddish boulder clay, poor in

stones,

6. On the Glacial Drainage of Yorkshire, By Percy F. Krunpatt, L£.G.S,

The author referred to the effects produced when the edge of a glacier or ice-
sheet obstructed the rivers of the adjacent country, ponding up the water to pro-
duce a lake, whose overflow was carried over into some neighbouring valley as a
river. Sometimes the overflow would cross the main watershed, while at other times
it would pass into some minor valley of the same slope. In this way single lakes or
chains of lakes are formed, discharging by valleys cutting across spurs and ridges.
Where lakes of this description existed during the Glacial Period their traces may
be left after the withdrawal of the ice in the form of beach lines, silt deposits,
deltas of inflowing streams, and abandoned overflow channels. In the famous
Glenroy lakes the beaches and deltas are the noticeable features, but in Yorkshire
the author has relied chiefly upon the streamless river valleys marking the overflow,
though other indications often exist. These valleys present marked features. They
are deep, sharply cut, and the character of their windings shows that they were
occupied by large rivers. Moreover they often trench flat plateaux, from which
they received no commensurable tributaries, and cut completely through main
watersheds or projecting spurs.

The author describes the distribution of the ancient glaciers of Yorkshire,
showing that while the Pennine Valleys were occupied by separate ice streams the
Vale of York was covered by a great glacier. The edge of the Scandinavian ice-
sheet abutted upon the whole coast line, and pressed against the northern face of
the Cleveland Hills. The whole drainage of the district was obstructed, and Mr.
Strangways long ago recognised that the Vale of Pickering was converted into a
lake which drained backward across the natural watershed, which became trenched
by the beautiful gorge of the Derwent at Castle Howard. The authov’s investiga-
tions showed that Newtondale was the overflow of another great lake in Eskdale,
but a lobe of the Scandinavian ice-sheet crossed the Cleveland watershed near
Egton, and stood against the hills above Grosmont, which was severed by two
streamless gorges forming a connection between the main lake and a lesser one at
Goathland. Lalkelets fringed the edge of the ice along the outer face of the Cleve-
land Hills from Swainby to Stonegate, and for the most part drained one into
another until some overflow into Eskdale was encountered. As the ice shrank by
the series of stages new channels were cut at lower level across the spurs, and in
some cases water flowed round the end of a lobe of ice as it stood against the slope
of the hills, and thus curious ‘in and out’ valleys were cut, as near Freeborough.
Robin Hood’s Bay was drained by four successive outlets which cut through the
amphitheatre of hills, and which are splendidly shown on the road from Scar-
borough to Whitby. The beaches of the old lakes were seldom visible, for the
outlets, being cut through very soft rocks, were lowered too rapidly for well-defined
beaches to be formed, but gravel deltas, where the overflow of one lake entered the
quiet waters of another, were of frequent occurrence, the largest being that on which
the town of Pickering is built. The floor deposits of the lakes are also well seen,
On the western side of the Vale of York, near Ripon, the features are somewhat
different. The lateral moraine of a great glacier is clearly traceable extending
from Kirkby Malzeard to Nidd Hall. As the glacier advanced the eastward-flowing
streams were successively ponded up into lakes, which overflowed each into its

744A REPORT—1899,

neighbour on the south, and finally out into the Vale of York. On the retreat of
the ice some of the streams fell back through gapsin the moraine into the old
valleys, leaving the extramorainic channels as practically dry gorges. One of
these, Cayton Gill, was three miles long, and its excayation involved the removal
by stream action of nearly three million tons of rock.

7. On the Origin of Lateral Moraines and Rock Trains.
By J. Lomas, A.2.0.8., F.GS,

In dealing with the accumulations of fraymentary materials associated with
glaciers it is necessary to distinguish between deposits which are stationary and
the débris riding on, or moving with the ice.

The latter, reviving a term used by Rendu, will be referred to as ‘ rock trains,’
and the meaning of ‘moraines’ will be restricted to stationary deposits, either
lateral or terminal.

Lateral moraines are not necessary adjuncts to glaciers. Their distribution,
which appears capricious, really conforms to a well-defined law. In glaciers with
a straight course, they are feebly, if at all, developed, whereas those moving
through winding channels have lateral moraines developed in their concave bends.
The débris carried by a glacier either in the ice or on the surface gradually works
towards the side in such places where motion is retarded and carrying power
reduced. In this respect they conform exactly to the action of rivers which
deposit material in their inner bends.

Rock trains may appear suddenly in the middle of a glacier or at the junction
of two streams. The first are undoubtedly caused by the erosion of sub-glacial
spurs or crags. Those formed at the point of union of two glaciers are usually
regarded as being formed by the joining together of two lateral rock trains.

There are cases, however, where rock trains are formed at the junctions of
glaciers, and no lateral rock trains fringe the tributary glaciers. In front of the
rocky islands or spurs which separate the glaciers at the point of confluence, a
hollow is always seen in which a lakelet often exists. This is the counterpart of
the hollow on the down-stream side of a river after passing under a bridge
supported by piers.

Objects carried by rivers tend to accumulate in this hollow, and may linger
there a long time before they join the main current and get carried away.

Thus rock trains may be formed by débris being thrust out of glaciers at
similar places where motion is small, In these instances the fragments are
probably torn off under the ice from the flanks of the dividing spurs, and they
may be compared with those originating in the middle of a glacier.

8. Note on the Origin of Flint. By Proressor W. J. Sotzas, F.R.S.

The first stage was the conversion of the calcareous remains of the organisms
of the chalk into silica. The siliceous foraminifera and coccolithes so produced
were cemented by a deposition of silica into white flint, and this by a further
deposit of silica became converted into black flint, just as snow might be trans-
formed into compact ice. This had beenshown by the authorin 1880. The source
of the silica might be looked for in the remains of siliceous organisms such as
sponge spicules, and Professor Sollas said he was now able to bring positive proof
of the original existence of abundant spicules in the chalk which were now repre-
sented by hollow casts to the extent sometimes of 8 per cent. of the rock.

9. Calcareous Confetti and Oolitic Structure. By H. J. Jounston-Lavis,
M.D., D.Ch., F.G4.S.
The older geologists, unaided by the microscope, considered oolitic granules as

concretionary bodies, as they did also pisolites and other spherical bodies found in
sedimentary deposits.

*RANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 745

Recently an author has attempted to overthrow the physico-chemical origin
and replace it by a vital one.

Some granules in certain so-called oolitic rocks have been shown to be of
undoubted organic origin. As et,

The present paper is an attempt to compare these granules with identical con-
cretions the origin of which is known, and the formation of which can be observed
in progress.

The microscopic sections shown are a series from specimens kindly collected
from the vicinity of Cheltenham by Mr. Gray, and for comparison are several sec-
tions of somewhat similar structures, found at the present day, unquestionably
inorganic,

The true oolites and pisolites are seen to be concentric grains and masses of very
variable dimensions in which three grades of crystallisation can be seen.

In one, fragments of rock, shell, or other organic remains have been enveloped
in crystalline calcite minutely saccharoidal in structure.

In another similar nuclei have been enveloped in very distinctly marked con-
centric bands of radiating needle-like or fibrous calcite.

In a third, the enveloping material is finely granular, dirty, with the concentric
bands very imperfectly marked.

All these gradate into each other, and, what is more, alternate with each other
in the same grain or pisolite. We have here nothing more than the varying con-
ditions of slowness, turbidity, and movement of the water or other solution in which
they were formed.

Instudying oolites, the first question which arises is whether these structures were
formed coincident with the deposit or as a secondary structure set up subsequently.
The author thinks that the former is the true state of things.

Accepting as granted that oolitic and pisolitic structures were coincident with
the formation of the deposit in which we find them, the conditions necessary are
nuclei, a solution of bicarbonate of lime, and gentle motion.

In the first specimens shown was a section of a calcareous granule from the
galleries of La Gardette mine near Bourg d’Oisans. The galleries have been
abandoned for some years, and the calcareous water dropping from the roof has
formed small pools in which granules of rock are churned up as each drop falls, and
receives an infinitesimal coating of carbonate of lime, This process is a fairly rapid
one, as the mine has not been abandoned for many years, and yet very thick crusts
may often be found. Another specimen is from a gallery of quite modern date,
cut into the side of Monte-Somma to catch the Olivella spring, and here we find
the same rapid deposition of the concentric crystalline layers identical and often
more perfect than in ordinary oolitic grains. The third and most striking examples
are similar confetti from the mines of Laurium (Greece), where in small pools in
the ancient galleries the most beautiful highly polished examples have been found.

So far all of these are formed in very shallow pools of calcareous water, or
have not even been immersed but only moistened by the liquid. The process is
identical with the method adopted for depositing sugar from its solution in water
in the manufacture of sugared almonds, ‘cannon balls,’ and other varieties of
confetti, the only difference being the separation in the former case of the lime
1 a of CO,; in the second, the evaporation in the rolling pans of the water

ry heat,

The formation of confetti when completely immersed occurs in the mineral
water springs at the mud volcanoes of Paterno in Sicily. There, traversing
fissures in a basalt, are springs of water supersaturated with OO, and a large
quantity of bicarbonate of lime. These gush out with considerable violence, and
keep in constant movement the grains of basalt or other solid loose fragments, as
we frequently see in any spring. This supersaturated water reaches the surface
under decreased pressure, much of the CO, escapes, and a deposit of CaCO, takes
place on the walls of the fissure and on the grains that are being constantly
churned up in the unstable solution. The specimens exhibited show examples of
the great perfection of this concretionary structure, which is identical with that

746 REPORT—1899,

of stalactites and stalagmites, and being on a microscopic scale the author sug
gests the term ‘ micro-stalagmitic’ to indicate this structure.

Such structures are not limited to those formed from carbonate of lime.
Urinary concretions of uric acid, urates, oxalate of lime, often show this structure
to perfection.

Sea-water as a solvent of carbonate of lime and a retainer of OO, is still much
of a problem, notwithstanding many researches. As a general statement, deep-
sea water may be said to contain more of these materials than surface-water,
because it is under greater pressure and cooler. With currents setting from great
depths to more shallow regions, the water will rise in temperature and diminish
in pressure, and so lose its bicarbonate of lime. Now we know that oolitic rocks
were chiefly shallow water and shore deposits, and here we have all the elements
favourable to the formation of oolites—namely, supersaturation of water by lime
bicarbonate and constant rolling movement. Another and perhaps equally import-
ant source must be the innumerable calcareous springs from land drainage issuing
all over the sea-bottom for miles from the shore, churning up sand and depositing
their burden of calcite at the same time.

10. Report on the Tyn Newydd Caves. See Reports, p. 406,

11. Report on Fossil Phyllopoda. See Reports, p. 403.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

The President's Address was delivered. See p. 718.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Homotaxy and Contemporaneity. By Professor W. J. Soutas, F.K.S.

On the occasion of the centenary of William Smith’s great discovery of the
identification of strata by fossil remains, which formed the basis of historical
geology, attention might fitly be called to the triumphs of the last two decades
which had been achieved by its means, The study of the distribution of zonal
fossils had unexpectedly vindicated the old-fashioned notion of the contem-
poraneous formation of similar stratified systems over great parts of the world,
and no one could any longer assert that the Silurian system in Europe might
possibly be contemporaneous with the Devonian in America. The distribution of
Ammonites in the Cretaceous zones of Europe, America, and Pondicherry could
be shown to prove that the difference in age of the same zone in different localities
was not equal to the whole time required for a species to migrate from one place
to another, but to the difference in the times occupied by Pacific species in passing
to Europe, and Atlantic species in passing to Asia. Further, the lapse of time
during migration or transport was a vanishing quantity in comparison with the
long periods occupied in the evolution of species. ‘The results of recent work had
been to inspire geologists with renewed confidence in the accuracy and logical
basis of their methods.

~J
rN
a |

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

2. Note on the Surface of the Mount Sorrel Granite.
By W. W. Warts, ILA., F.G.S,

It has long been known that, when first exposed in the quarries, the granite of
Mount Sorrel exhibits a smoothed, grooved, and slightly terraced aspect. As the
surface, when first discovered, was covered with boulder-clay, it has been concluded
that it was produced by glaciation. The writer has long had doubts with regard
to this interpretation, and recent excavations near Mount Sorrel have thrown anew
light on the phenomenon. At Hawkley Wood and Nunckley Hill similar but
smaller surfaces have recently been exposed which are covered by undisturbed Keuper
Marl, while another surface, exposed at Nunckley Hill, has boulder-clay abutting
on it. Thus the grooving, terracing, and smoothing, like so much of the scenery in
Charnwood Forest, was originated in Triassic times, though locally it may have
been somewhat modified by glaciation. One loose block of granite, apparently
removed in baring the surface of the rock, presents characteristic fluting and
glazing like that due to the action of wind. The writer wishes to thank Mr, R, F,
Martin for calling his attention to these newly exposed surfaces.

3. On the Origin of Chondritic Meteorites.—By Professor A. RENARD.

4. On Coast Erosion. By Captain McDaxin.

The district dealt with is the coast from Deal to Dover, Folkestone and
Sandgate.

The Six-Inch Ordnance Survey, 1877, is taken as the standard. Several
noted falls are mentioned.

The comparatively slow action of the unaided sea, ascertained by boring holes
in the cliffs, has been recorded.

The more rapid effect, where the waves are charged with a small quantity of
shingle, and the absolute barrier thrown up by the sea when it forms large banks
of shingle.

The important part played by the springs is dwelt upon as one of the chief
causes constantly at work.

The disintegratory power of the frosts and the accumulation of water on the
hollow surfaces of the usual pervious chalk, due to the freezing of the otherwise
porous surface.

The moisture-absorbing power of the chalk, which amounts in many instances,
especially in that of the Upper Chalk, to over 20 per cent.

The compression of air in the joints and fissures of the rocks by an incurving,
on-rushing wave, are all factors influencing the coast erosion.

The writer is of opinion that although the falls of the cliffamount to thousands
of tons, the area lost has not been great in historic times, for the Roman light-
house at Dover Castle, and the foundations of a similar structure on the western
heights, show that their position with regard to the coast is very much the same
now that it was nearly two thousand years ago.

The more rapid destruction of the Dover cliffs within the last fifty years is
curiously due to those structures that might be supposed to protect the cvast, the
breakwaters at Dover and Folkestone, which intercept the shingle that would
otherwise form a natural protection to the coast.

5: On Coast Erosion. By G. Dower, F.G.S.

The author has, during the past several years, recorded the coast erosion in
Kent with Captain McDakin, of Dover, and in this paper continues these observa-
tions from Walmer, on the south of Kent, to Whitstable on the north. The fol-
lowing particulars are given:—The progress of the northward drifting of the

748 REPORT—1899, :
beaches from the south along the coast from Deal to Ramsgate, and on the north
of Kent their drifting from Margate to Whitstable.

The changes in the direction of the mouth of ‘the Stour, and the resultant
action of the same in the rapid erosion of the cliffs at Pegwell Bay ; illustrating
these changes with sketches taken at different times during the last forty years,
and with reference to the Ordnance maps. The rate of erosion of the chalk of
Thanet is herein discussed, and also the permanence of certain submarine shoals
and sand and gravel banks in the coast-line near Ramsgata.

The effects of erosion in the jointing and faulting of the Thanet Cliff and fall
of the cliff and its removal by natural and artificial causes.

Especial results of the abnormal high tide of November 29, 1897, with the
north-east gale that accompanied it.

The Whitstable bank, known as the ‘Street,’ is described, and the change in
its character during the last ten years recorded.

Finally, the author discusses the probable oscillations in the level of the land
and the total result, being subsidences since the Roman occupation of Britain.

6. Preliminary Report on Observations of Coast Hrosion by the
Coastguard.

7. On Photographs of Wave Phenomena.
By Vaueuan Cornisu, ISc. (Vict.), F.R.GS., FCS.

Part Il— What is a Wave?

The connotation of the word ‘ wave,’ which is becoming customary from the
special aspects of waves most studied in physics, is that of transmission of energy
in a pulse-like manner, attention being concentrated on a process and diverted
from the thing produced. This is well enough eg. in the physical study of light,
where the structures produced are obliterated almost as soon as formed; but it is
not the right point of view in geology, where the structure frequently outlasts the
process, and the process of production is by no means always a pulse-like trans-
mission of energy. The primary and principal meaning of ‘wave’ (noun) in our
language’ is properly associated with (1) up and down motion, (2) with a
systematically corrugated surface, an onward rushing mound of water; the notion
of pulse transmission comes in but slightly.

The most fruitful source of the waves which constitute geological structures
is the relative motion of two bodies which yield viscously at their common sur-
face. An undulating interface is an almost invariable result of such movements,
whether of a lighter air over a heavier, giving clouds in parallel bars, or sometimes
a mackerel sky ; or of atmosphere and non-rigid parts of the lithosphere, giving
blown-sand ripples, sand dunes, or waves of drifted snow; or hydrosphere and
non-rigid parts of lithosphere, giving ripple-mark of the seashore, tidal ripple-
mark of estuaries, sand banks, ripple-drift, ‘ sand reefs,’ &c.; or between parts of
the lithosphere, when the relative movement is slow enough to allow them to
behave viscously. In this case of slow wave formation, pulse-transmission may
be present, but difficult to observe directly. Moreover, the structures are often
ia in the ‘fossil’ state, e.g. rock-folds, when no longer part of the living
rock.

Sudden interruption of such slow wave-making (e.g. fold passing into fault, the
wave ‘ breaking’) brings out elastic effects, and waves such as those of earthquake
shock become possible, in which the pulse-transmission-of-energy-aspect of waves

‘See Johnson’s Dictionary of the English Language (Latham, 1870); W. W.
Skeat, An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language, 1898; J. Bosworth, A
Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon Language, 1838, and as edited by A. N. Toller, 1892 ;
and Cruden’s Concordance of the Old and New Testament.

TRANSACTIONS. OF SECTION C. 749

is prominent, but which, apparently, do comparatively little towards the building
of permanent waves.

In some cases (e.g. lava flow) where plastic material flows over a bed which
behaves in a rigid manner, the free surface of the upper moving viscous body
is thrown into waves which are analogous to the characteristic water-waves of
shallow streams.

The author has proposed the term Kumatology (xiua,a wave) for the co-
ordinate study of the waves of the Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, and Lithosphere.

Part I].—Deseription of Illustrative Photographs.

. Rock-waves, from a specimen in the Geological Museum, Jermyn Street,

. Ditto.

. Lava-waves, Vesuvius,

. Mud-wave over a stone, section on road up Vesuvius.

. Rippled sand of definite wave-length left after a thunderstorm, Branksome,
Dorset.

6. Supposed imprint of skin of fossil fish, from a piece of sandstone in the
British Museum of Natural History, Cromwell Road, the form being that given by
the rippling of sand by two simultaneous sets of waves.

7. Supposed fossil nests of tadpoles, from a piece of sandstone in the same
museum, being the form given by the rippling of sand by three simultaneous sets
of waves.

8. Ripples of blown sand, Branksome, Dorset.

9. Ripples of blown sand, Ismailia.

10. A desert sand-dune in its steepest, or spraying, form, south side of Lake
Timsah,

11. Sand naturally assorted in a desert dune, from a sample collected by the
author at Ismailia. (Micro-photograph slide made for the author by Newton.)

12. Small dunes on a sandy foreland of the Nile, forming a train of waves, Jooking
up-wind.

Cre Co bo ee

The following photographs illustrate the sorting and sizing of materials by the
waves of the sea :—

13. Mixed detritus, east of Chesil Beach.
14. A photographic field of pebbles lying on the Chesil Beach.
15. Seven sets of pebbles collected by the author on the Chesil Beach, arranged
i comers so as to show the gradation of sizes from end to end of the
each.
16, 17, and 18. The sorting of shingle from sand by waves, and the consequent
formation of ‘chevrons’ of shingle on the beach at Branksome,

8. The Eruption of Vesuvius of 1898. By Tempest ANDERSON, I/.D., B.Sc.

The author stayed about a week at the Hermitage on Vesuvius, in September,
1898, when the eruption was about at its height.

A lava cone has been thrown up at the entrance of the Atrio del Cavallo, the
slopes of which reach to the foot of Sommaon the west side, the cone of Vesuvius
on the east, and nearly to the Hill of the observatory on the 8. W., and a prolonga-
tion of the latter, the Crocella, described as of great beauty, has beer entirely
covered up. The eruption has been going on gently in this locality for about two
years, but has never been very active. Small streams of lava have been almost
constantly poured out, but they have all cooled and solidified before reaching the
foot of the mountain, and consequently have assumed the form of a cone rather
than a large sheet.

The lava in the early part of the eruption had been of the corded variety. In
September 1898, that which was being poured out was scoriaceous.

Lantern photographs from negatives by the author were exhibited, some of
which have been reproduced in the ‘ Alpine Journal, May 1899.

750 REPORT—1899.

9. Investigation of the Underground Waters of Craven. The Sowrces of
the Aire. By Peroy F. Kenpatt, /.G.S.

10. Lhe Recent Eruption of Hina. By Professor GIOVANNI PLATANIA.

The eruptions of Etna from the central crater are less frequent than in the
case of Vesuvius. The last great eruption was in 1892, when 2,470 million cubic
feet of lava was poured forth from a crater on the southern flank. On July 19
a Plinian eruption occurred in the central crater, during which a great number
of ejected blocks of old lava were scattered round the crater to a distance of
over 4,000 feet. Some of the blocks damaged the roof of the Observatory. It
is suggested that this Plinian eruption is a symptom of an impending lava erup-
tion, which will produce a rift in continuation of that of 1892 in the Valle del

Bove.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19,

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. The Geological Conditions of a Tunnel under the Straits of Dover.
By Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, IA., F_Z.S.

In 1882 the physical structure of the cliffs on the English and French sides of
the Straits was brought by the author before the British Association. Since that
time the question of a tunnel has been relegated to a future more or less remote,
while many new facts have been ascertained. It is not, therefore, inopportune to
recur to the subject, which has a special interest for the place of our present
meeting.

The rocks exposed in the cliffs between Folkestone and St. Margaret’s, and
measured for the purposes of the proposed tunnel, are as follows, in descending

order :—

Thickness.
English Feet.

[ VI. St. Margaret’s Chalk. . . ’ . - 280
Upper. | _V. Nodular Chalk with flints ‘ 3 ‘ . « 100
| IV. Chalk with few flints . : : : 3 - 100

Middle. III. Lower White Chalk with Nodular layers without
. 145

flints . : - ‘ S . : :
Taaer { TI. Grey Chalk and Chalk Marl No. II. of Price . - 225
wer. ) J, Glauconitic Marl, No.I.of Price . . . «6 38

Gault.

The Gault, a stiff blue impervious clay, forms a low line of cliffs on the west
side of Eastwear Bay, and disappears beneath low-water mark, opposite the
western end of the Abbotscliffe. It occurs in St. Margaret’s Bay in Sir John
Hawkshaw’s boring at a depth of 536 feet below O.D.

_ The Glauconitic Marl, No. I.,a clayey calcareous deposit, generally impervious,
but sometimes so full of grains of glauconite and sand as to be pervious, overlies the
Gault and passes into the chalk marl, underlying the Lower Grey Chalk, No. IT.
This sets in in the cliff traversed by the Folkestone Tunnel at 360 feet above O.D.,
and descends to Ordnance datum, a little to the east of Shakespeare’s Cliff. It con-
stitutes the base of the cliff from A bbotscliffe as far as that point.

SS ee ay

a i i

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 751

From this point as far as the west base of Eastcliffe, the cliffs are composed of
the Middle Chalk Nodular, and White, No. III, rising on the west to 490 + O.D.,
and plunging down to the east to a depth of 180—O.D, at St. Margaret’s. At its
base is a hard nodular iron-stained layer, the Grit-bed of Price, forming a con-
spicuous band in the English and French cliffs. The three upper members of the
section constitute the Upper Chalk, out of which the cliffs between Dover and St.
Margaret’s have been carved.

All these strata dip steadily to the east at an inclination of about 1 in 72.

On the French side, in the cliffs between St. Pot and Sangatte, the Lower and
Middle Chalk of the English section emerge from the sea with physical characters
the same, and the thickness practically also the same. They dip also to the east,
but at a higher angle.

The French survey of the sea bottom in the Straits for the purposes of the pro-
posed tunnel proves that the Lower and Middle Chalk are perfectly continuous
and constitute the sea floor, the sea in the line of the tunnel being 192 feet in depth
at the deepest point.

It is obvious that the geological structure of the Straits of Dover offers great
facilities for the construction of a tunnel, which would descend at an inclination
of 1 in 70 or 80 on the English, sweep under the Channel and rise with the
strata on the French side, if it can be made in an impervious stratum which cannot
be traversed by the sea water under high pressure. The only stratum satisfying this
condition is the Lower Grey Chalk, and especially the lower and more clayey
horizon overlying the Glauconitic Marl.

A careful examination also of the cliffs proved that the faults, mostly small and
insignificant, do not become water passages at this place in the section, because
they become blocked with clay. There are no springs at this horizon in either the
English or the French cliffs.

These considerations led the Channel Tunnel Companies to sink the shafts at
the Shakespeare Cliff and at Sangatte down to this horizon, and to make their
drifts on the English side 2,300 yards long, and on the French more than a mile,

assing diagonally away from the shore under the sea. The selection is amply
justified by their experience. On the English side the faults visible in the Shake-
speare Cliff were traversed, and yielded a slight oozing of water, which was stopped
by rings of iron tubing. These rings were afterwards removed and the faults
were found to be perfectly water-tight. The water in the French shaft comes from
the fault intersected at a point considerably above the level of the drift, which
here also traversed small water-tight faults.

The chalk is here soft enough to be easily cut by Colonel Beaumont’s machine,
and hard enough to stand without lining. Five years’ exposure has not sensibly
affected the surface of the drift, which remains as fresh as the day when it was
made. The geolovical conditions are therefore peculiarly favourable for the con-
struction of a submarine tunnel at the bottom of the Chalk, and do not present any
engineering difficulty.

2. On a Proposed New Classification of the Pliocene Deposits of the East of
England. By F. W. Harmer, F.G.S.

The term Red Crag, including, as it does, beds differing considerably in age, is
vague and, when we attempt to correlate the Hast-Anglian deposits with those
of other countries, inconvenient ; the Scaldisien zone of Belgium, with its southern
fauna, for example, representing one part of it, and the Amstelien of Holland, in
which northern and even arctic mollusca are common, another.

It seems desirable, therefore, while retaining it for general use, tv adopt for its

‘various horizons some more definite and distinctive names.

The upper Crag deposits arrange themselves geographically, in horizontal rather
than in vertical sequence, assuming always a more recent as well as a more boreal
character as we trace them from south to north. They are the littoral accumula-
tions of a sea which was from time to time retreating in a northerly direction.

792 REPORT—1899,

The classification now proposed, which is based on paleontological evidence, is
as follows :—

Older Pliocene.

Lenhamian 5 5 4 Lenham beds : : Diestien sands,
(Zone of Arca diluvii) Waenrode ?

Nener Pliocene.

Gedgravian . : : . Coyralline Crag . ° Zone a Isycardia cor.
Waltonian ; : ; 5 Essex Crag
(Zone of Neptunea contraria)
Walton horizon . : . Scaldisien.
Oakley af . 4 . Poederlien.
Newbournian . e Red Crag of Newbourn, Sutton, and
Waldringfield ; ; ) ‘Ananiaen

{ Red Crag of Butley and Bawdsey

EERE | (one of Cardium groenlandicum)

Icenian
Lower horizon . . Norwich Crag, Southern district.

Upper os ss » Northern district. )
(Zone of Astarte borealis). if
Chillesfordian . : . (Estuarine) 1]
Chillesford Clay and Sands. J
Weybournian . : . Crag of Weybourne and Belaugh |

(Zone of Tellina balthiea) J
Forest bed (so-called) series.

An analysis of the characteristic mollusca of the different divisions respectively
of the Crag here suggested shows a gradual diminution of the percentages of
extinct and southern forms, and a gradual increase in northern and recent species.
The difference between the Gedgravian (Coralline Crag) and Waltonian is shown
to be less than has been supposed, and the former is here grouped as Newer instead
of as Older Pliocene, as hitherto.

The Crag of Little Oakley, near Harwich, from which the author has recently
obtained nearly 800 species of mollusca, belongs to an horizon different from any-
thing previously described, and serves to bridge over the interval between the Crag
of Walton-on-the-Naze and that of Suffolk. Its fauna closely resembles that of
Walton, but contains some boreal and arctic species unknown from that place,
including Neptunea antiqua (dextral), N. carinata, and N. despecta, and repre-
sents the period when northern forms were first beginning to establish themselves
in the Crag basin. It is approximately and partly equivalent to the Poederlien
zone of Belgian geologists.

The Red Crag beds, the fossils of which are, with few exceptions, the drifted
and stratitied shells of dead mollusca, seem to have been deposited either against
the shore, or in shallow water in proximity to it, in land-locked bays or inlets.
The position which these inlets successively occupied was from time to time
shifted towards the north, in consequence of the upheaval of the southern part of
the Orag area, described by the author in a former paper.’ These inlets were silted
up, one after another, by masses of shelly sand, but as far as the evidence goes the
beds composing the different zones do not overlap. The Waltonian deposits
are confined to the county of Essex, the Newbournian occupying the district to
the north of the river Stour, and the Butleyan beds occurring along a narrow belt
extending northwards from Bawdsey at the mouth of the river Deben. The
Tcenian deposits, which are found only to the north of Aldeburgh, are shown by their
molluscan fauna to belong to a period considerably more recent than any part of

1 Quarterly Journal Geol. Soc., vol. lii. p. 773, 1896,

—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 753

the Red Crag. They cover an area 45 miles by 20 in extreme breadth, and in one
place are nearly 150 feet in thickness, but they are not anywhere known to be
underlaid by beds of Red Crag age. In the northern part of the Icenian area
Astarte borealis occurs, and this species seems to mark a slightly more recent
horizon of this zone. The Weybournian Crag, containing Tediina balthica, is only
known to the north of Norwich, and extends from thence to the Cromer coast.
The author now believes that these latter beds are distinct from, and of older date
than, the Westleton shingle of Prestwich.

3. The Meteorological Conditions of North-Western Europe, during the
Pliocene and Glacial Periods. By F. W. Harmer, /.G.S.

No satisfactory explanation has yet been offered as to the conditions under
which originated the great sheets of shelly sand known to geologists as the Upper
Crag, the littoral deposits of the North Sea in Pliocene times, which contain
everywhere (over an area in Hast Anglia more than sixty miles in length) the
dead shells of mollusca in the most extraordinary profusion. No such accumu-
lations are now taking place on the shores of Norfolk and Suffolk, although
molluscan life is more or less abundant in the adjoining seas. On the coast of
Holland, on the contrary, dead shells are exceedingly common. :

The occurrence of such débris is local rather than general, and seems to be due
sometimes to currents, but more frequently to the action of stormy winds, which
agitate the sea bottom to a greater or less depth. An examination of the daily
weather charts issued by the Meteorological Office shows that movement of dead
shells towards the shore at any place is for the most part in the direction of the
gales which may there be prevalent. At present the cyclonic disturbances, to which
East-Anglian storms are due, pass as a rule with their centres to the north-west
of that district; and hence south-westerly and westerly gales are there common,
and shelly dédris is driven on to the shores of Holland, and not on to those of the
east of England. It would seem, therefore, that during the Pliocene epoch,
strong winds from the east must have prevailed in the Crag area. At an early
stage of the Red Crag period, mollusca now confined to the Arctic Circle had begun
to establish themselves in the Crag basin, so that the glaciation of Scandinavia,
attended with anticyclonic conditions over that country, had probably then com-
menced. At present, when Scandinavia is anticyclonic, storm centres may be
diverted from their usual course towards the south, as was the case, for example,
in October 1898, causing south-easterly and easterly gales, with rough sea, on
the eastern coasts of England. It is suggested that such conditions may have
frequently prevailed there during the Crag period.

The meteorological conditions of the northern hemisphere during the Glacial
epoch must have been widely different from those of our owntime. At present the
accumulation of ice sheets in the Arctic regions is local rather than general ;
Greenland, for example, being glaciated, while the north of Scandinavia enjoys a
milder climate. The latter is due partly to the Gulf Stream, but partly also to
the prevalence of south-westerly winds, caused by the relative positions occupied.
by areas of high and low pressure. Nansen states that a constant area of high
pressure now exists over Greenland, and that the winds blow outwards from that
country in all directions. Similar conditions probably obtained during the Glacial
period over the great ice sheet of northern Europe, producing the most far-
reaching changes on the climate of different parts of the northern hemisphere ;

and this may, to some extent, explain the local character of the accumulation of

great masses of snow and ice during that epoch.

4. On some Paleolithic Implements of North Kent.
By the Rev. J. M. Metxo, I.4., F.G.S.
There is evidence from the abundance of flint implements that the prehistoric
population of Kent must have been considerable. Implements are found at all
1899. 3¢

704 REPORT—1899.

levels up to 600 feet, and great interest is attached to the high level or plateau
group as affording traces of man’s presence before the formation of the existing
river systems.

The implements of the plateau and hill drift are extremely rude, and bear
evidence of rough usage and transportation ; while they differ in type from those
of later Paleeolithic times,

A large collection recently formed by Mr. R. Jones, of East Wickham, con-
tains many interesting examples, which were exhibited by the author. Amongst
the localities from which these have been derived are Swanscombe, Milton Street,
Ash, Darent, Crayford, &c., and also a remarkable series found at Rainham, a
new locality, here at only about 20 feet above high-water mark. A large
number of Paleolithic implements were found on the surface, but they appear to
have been derived from an old gravel; they are for the most part deeply stained
white or yellow, and are highly patinated, whilst also showing signs of con-
siderable wear on their worked edges. The question is, Have they been brought
down to this low level from the high-level drifts of the Medway Valley ?

5, Report on Photographs of Geological Interest. See Reports, p. 377.

6. Report on Irish Elk Remains in the Isle of Man, See Reports, p. 376.

7. Report on the Flora and Fauna of the Interglacial Beds in Canada. _
See Reports, p. 411.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 20.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. Sigmoidal Curves.—By Maria M. Gorpon, D.Se.

The phenomena of crust-torsion are produced when the wave-forms existing in
an already folded region are altered as a result of the superposition of a new series
of folds. Let a unit-area of rectangular folds be taken as a type, where two anti-
clines and an intervening trough in east and west direction have been crossed by
two anticlines and an intervening trough in north and south direction. Then the
cross-arches are four in number, and are areas of uprise limiting obliquely an inner
cross-trough, which represents a common reciprocal area of depression. The new
anticlines east and west of the trough are areas of uprise, while north and south of
the trough the old anticlines are broken by local areas of depression.

The redistribution of the wave-forms in the area determines several distinct
centres towards which crust-creep sets in, and the conflicting nature of the com-
bined horizontal and vertical pressures in relation to the separate centres produces
torsional phenomena. The inner trough is an area of involution, into which the
higher horizons of rock sink and are carried obliquely downward, while each of
the four cross-arches are areas of evolution where the compensatory opposite move-
ments of torsion carry the lower horizons of rock or molten material from below
the crust obliquely upward. ‘Streaming’ of the rock-particles is associated with
this circulatory system of crust-movement.

‘S’-folds gradually take shape around the cross-arches, and as these are
specially liable to be fractured in their most warped, ‘middle limb’ portions,
limiting-faults tend to form in oblique directions and to become continuous with
north and southfaults between the simple lateral arches and the reciprocal troughs.
The outcrop of the fault-zone in the unit-area, therefore, describes characteristic

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. "55

sigmoidal curves, the same curves practically which would be followed by the
outcrop of intermediate horizons of the crust in any ground-plan of the unit-area
of torsion.

Among the tectonic phenomena which may be demonstrated in a unit-area of
torsion are the arrangement of the horizons of the stratigraphical succession in
elliptical whorls set at right angles, the formation of crust-folds in opposite or
sometimes intersecting arcs, and of faults in ‘fault-polygons’ and ‘bundles,’ the
cross-transferences of rock-material], the fan-structure of cross-arches, and the dis-
position of consolidated fault-rock in sigmoidal bands. ‘These phenomena become
much more complicated when the unit-area is considered as part of a much larger
area of torsion, since the varying magnitudes and varying shapes of the wave-
forms in a large region of cross-arches and troughs necessarily cause all kinds of
local structural peculiarities.

Sigmoidal curves limit the great mountain-masses and troughs of the Alpine
system, and are associated there (ex. Prattigau, Salzkammergut, &c.) with all the
above-mentioned phenomena of crust-torsion. What is designated a Central
Massive or a major Trough in the Alpine mountain system really represents a very
large wave-form, which bears upon its surface a number of smaller wave-forms
represented by the subordinate cross-arches and covered troughs in each great
Massive or Trough.

2. Adjourned Discussion on Wave Phenomena, See p. 748,

3, Report on the Ossiferous Caves at Uphill, See Reports, p. 402.
4, Report on Erratic Blocks of the British Isles, See Reports, p. 398.

5. On the Subdivisions of the Carboniferous System in certain portions of
Nova Scotia. By H. M. Amt, IA., F.GS., of the Geological Survey
of Canada,

Considerable discussion has arisen of late in Canada regarding certain sediments,
near the summit of the Paleozoic columns. No doubt exists as to the proper and
natural succession, but whether the red sandstones and shales and conglomerates
of the Union formation, and the grey and dark carbonaceous shales and sandstones
of the Riversdale formation of Pictou, Colchester and Cumberland counties of
Nova Scotia should be classed as Carboniferous or Devonian was the problem
which presented itself to Canadian geologists. ;

From a careful collection of paleontological material in the formations in
question, the writer has been able to satisfy himself that the Union and Riversdale
stratahold a flora and a fauna which in every essential feature are truly Carboniferous.
The plants obtained were submitted both to Professor David White of Washington,
and to Mr. Kidston of Stirling, Scotland, and they both recognise a distinctly
Carboniferous flora.

The Ostracoda were examined by Professor T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., who
reports that the forms have a decidedly Carboniferous facies. The wing of a large
neuropterous insect is referred to a Carboniferous genus by Professor Charles
Brongniart. Reptilian and fish remains, tracks and trails of the former all serve
to point to post-Devonian times.

To assign such a fauna and a flora as are found in the Union and Riversdale
formations of Nova Scotia to the Devonian period would be contrary to the con-
sensus of opinion and generally accepted inferences of the leading geologists in
the world, and contrary to the principles of classification.

The various life-zones of these two formations, as well as the cltaracters of the
sediments due to the conditions in which they were deposited, serve to unite them

3c 2

706 REPORT—1899.

in every respect with the similar sediments which went on in the Millstone Grit
and the Coal Measures in later Carboniferous times.

These two terrigenous formations—the Union and Riversdale—are separated
from the Millstone Grit and Coal Measures of the same district by a series of lime-
stones of marine origin, associated with certain sandstones and mudstones, which
point to a period of subsidence when the Carboniferous sea encroached upon the
land and deposited limestones, holding abundance of the remains of the sea life of
those days. The shallow water, estuarine and terrigenous characters of the Union
and Riversdale formations (eo-Carboniferous) caused by the conditions of deposition
had ceased for a period, and when the marine conditions which followed had
ceased, the former conditions recurred, and similar shallow water, estuarine and
terrigenous deposits, were deposited, and constituted the Millstone Grit and produc-
tive Coal Measures of the Springhill, Pictou, and Joggins coaltields. For these
reasons these two eo-Carboniferous formations are so classed.

In the study of the succession and classification of the fossiliferous and associated
strata in certain portions of Nova Scotia, together with the life-zones they contain,
it has been deemed necessary at the present stage of our study to introduce certain
names to describe better the various formations under discussion, and the following
synoptical table may serve to present them in a condensed manner :—

Southern areas Northern areas
Pleistocene 1 Pleistocene 1
Uneonformity Unconformity

Cape John sandstones.
Pictou freestones.

= aes Smelt Brook shales, &c.
Neo-Carboniferous . A ‘ 5 j J -‘\Small’s Brook (Spirorbis)
limestones.
New Glasgow conglomerates. _
Coal Measures (Stellarton). Unconformity
Millstone Grit (Westville). Millstone Grit.
ae Oneonformity. Unconformity
Brose Car asters Hopewell and toe fe ne
Tnconformity.

{ Union.

Eo-Carboniferous . \ Riversdale.

6. Report on the Registration of Type Specimens. See Reports, p. 405.

1 Of course, not included in Carboniferous, but introduced to show field relations
and succession.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

~I

cr
“I

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—ADAM SxEDewicr, M.A., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The President delivered the following Address :

Variation and some Phenomena connected with Reproduction and Sex.

Iw the following address an attempt is made to treat the facts of variation and
heredity without any theoretical preconceptions, The ground covered has already
been made familiar to us by the writings of Darwin, Spencer, Galton, Weismann,
Romanes, and others. I have not thought it advisable to discuss the theories of
my predecessors, not from a want of appreciation of their value, but because I was
anxious to look at the facts themselves and to submit them to an examination
which should be as free as possible from all theoretical bias.

Zoology is the science which deals with animals. Knowledge regarding
animals is, for convenience of study, classified into several main branches, amongst
the most important of which may be mentioned: (1) the study of structure;
(2) the study of the functions of the parts or organs; (3) the arrangement of
animals in a system of classification; (4) the past history of animals; (5) the
relations of animals to their environment; (6) the distribution of animals on the
earth’s surface. That part of the Science of Zoology which deals with the func-
tions of organs, particularly of the organs of the higher animals, is frequently
spoken of as Physiology, and separated more or less sharply from the rest of
Zoology under that heading. So strong is the line of cleavage between the work
of the Physiologist and that of other Zoologists, that this Association has thought
it advisable to establish a special Section for the discussion of physiological subjects,
leaving the rest of Zoology to the consideration of the old-established Section, D.
In calling attention to this fact, I do not for one moment wish to question the
advisability of the course of action which the Association has taken. ‘The Science
of Physiology in its modern aspects includes a vast body of facts of great import-_
ance and great interest which no doubt require separate treatment. But what I
do wish to point out is that it is quite impossible for us here to abrogate all our
functions as physiologists. Some of the most important problems of the physio-
logical side of Zoology still remain within the purview of this Section.

For instance, the important and far-reaching problems connected with repro-
duction and variation are very largely left to this Section, and that large group
of intricate and almost entirely physiological phenomena connected with the
adaptations of organisms to their environment are dealt with almost exclusively
here. Indeed, we may go further, and say that apart altogether from practical
questions of convenience, which make it desirable to separate a part of physio-

758 REPORT—1899.

logical work from the Zoological Section, it is, as a matter of fact, impossible to
divorce the intelligent study of structure from that of function, The two are
indissolubly connected together. The differentiation of structure involves the
differentiation of function, and the differentiation of function that of structure.
The conceptions of structure and. function are as closely associated as those of
matter and force. A zoologist who confined himself to the study of the structure
of organisms, and paid no attention to the functions of the parts, would be as
absurd a person as a philologist who studied the structure of words and took no
account of their meaning. In the early part of this century, when the subject
matter of zoology was not so vast as it is at present, this aspect of the case was
fully recognised, and one of the greatest zoologists of the century, whether con-
sidered from the point of view of modern anatomy, or of modern physiology,
was Professor of Anatomy and Physiology at the University of Berlin.

Having said that much as to the various aspects of living Nature, of natural
history, if you like, which it falls within the province of this Section to deal with,
I may now proceed to the subject of my address. And when I mention to you
what that subject is, you will be able to make some allowance for the somewhat
commonplace remarks with which I have treated you. For that subject, though
it has its important morphological aspects, is in the main a physiological one; at
any rate, no study which does not take account of the physiological aspect of it
can ever hope to satisfy the intellect of man. The subject, then, to which I wish
to draw your attention at the outset of our proceedings, is the great subject of
Variation of Organisms.

As every one knows, there is a vast number of different kinds of organisms.
Each kind constitutes a species, and consists of an assemblage of individuals which
resemble one another more closely than they do other animals, which transmit
their characteristics in reproduction and which habitually live and breed together.
But the members of a species, though resembling one another more closely than
they resemble the members of other species, are not absolutely alike. They pre-
sent differences, differences which make themselves apparent even in members of
the same family, z.c. in the offspring of the same parents. It is these differences
to which we apply the term variation. The immense importance of the study of
variations may be judged from the fact that, according to the generally received
evolution theory of Darwin, it is to them that the whole of the variety of living
and extinct organisms is due. Without variation there could have been no pro-
gress, no evolution in the structure of organisms. If offspring had always exactly
resembled their parents and presented no points of difference, each succeeding
generation would have resembled those previously existing, and no change, whether
backwards or forwards, could have occurred. This phenomenon of genetic varia-
tion forms the bedrock upon which all theories of evolution must rest, and it is
only by a study of variations, of their nature and cause, that we can ever hope to
obtain any real insight into the actual way in which evolution has taken place.
Notwithstanding its importance, the subject is one which has scarcely received
from zoologists the attention which it merits.

Though much has been written on the causes of variation, too little attention
has of late years been paid to the phenomenon. Since the publication of Darwin’s
great work on the ‘ Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ there
have been but few books of first-rate importance dealing with the subject. The
most important of these is Mr. William Bateson’s work, entitled ‘ Materials for
the Study of Variation.’ I have no hesitation in saying that I regard this work as
a most important contribution to the literature of the Evolution theory. In it
attention is called, with that emphasis which the subject demands, to the supreme
importance of the actual study of variation to the evolutionist, and a systematic
attempt is made to classify variations as they occur in Nature. In preparing this
book Mr, Bateson has performed a very real service to zoology, not the least part
of which is that he has made a most effective protest against that looseness of
speculative reasoning which, since the publication of the ‘Origin of Species,’ has
marred the pages of so many zoological writers.

The Variations of Organisms may be grouped under two heads, according to

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 759

their nature and source: (1) There are those variations which appear to have no
relation to the external conditions, for they take place when these remain un-
changed, e.g. in members of the same litter; they are inherent in the constitution
of the individual. These we shall call constitutional variations, or, as their
“ssn seems nearly always to be connected with reproduction, they may be
called genetic (congenital, blastogenic) variations. (2) The second kind of’ varia-
tions are those which are caused by the direct action of external conditions.
These variations constitute the so-called acquired characters.

My first object is to consider these two kinds of variations, their nature, their
causes, and their results on subsequent generations, and to inquire whether there
are any fundamental differences between them. In this connection it is of par-
ticular importance that we should inquire whether acquired modifications are
transmitted in reproduction. As is well known, there are two schools of thought
holding directly opposite views as to this matter. The one of these schools—the
so-called Lamarckian school—holds that they may be transmitted as such in re-
production ; the other school, on the other hand, maintains that acquired modifi-
cations affect only the individual concerned, and are not handed on as such in
reproduction. ‘That the decision of the matter is not only theoretically important,
but also practically, is evident, for upon it depends the answer to the question
whether mental or other facilities acquired by the laborious exercise of the indi-
vidual are ever transmitted to the offspring—whether the facility which the
individual acquires in resisting temptation makes it any easier for the offspring to
do the same, whether the effects of education are cumulative in successive genera-
tions. To put the matter as Francis Galton has put it, is nature stronger than
nurture, or nurture than nature ?

We have then two kinds of variation to consider: (1) genetic variation, (2)
acquired moditication. It is the formerof these—namely, genetic variation—with
which I wish primarily to deal. Let us examine more fully the mode of its
occurrence.

Genetic Variation.

Organised beings present, as you are aware, two main kinds of reproduction,
the sexual aud the asexual. These two kinds of reproduction present certain differ-
ences, of which the most important, and the only one which concerns us now, is
the fact that genetic variation is essentially associated with sexual reproduc-
tion, and is rarely, if ever, found in asexual reproduction. In other words,
whereas the offspring resulting from asexual reproduction as a rule exactly
resemble the parent, they are always different from the parents in sexual reproduc-
tion. I am aware that I am treading on disputed ground. You will observe that I
do not make the assertion that asexually produced offspring a/ways exactly resemble
the parent, and never present genetic variations. To say that would be going too far
in the present state of our knowledge. Therefore I have put the matter less
strongly, and merely assert that whereas asexual reproduction is cn the whole
characterised by identity between the offspring and the parent, sexual reproduction
is always characterised by differences more or less marked between the two; and
I reserve the question as to whether genetic variations are ever found in asexual
reproduction for later consideration.

This modified form of the statement will, I think, be admitted on all hands, but
before going on I will illustrate my meaning by reference to actual examples.

Asexual reproduction is a phenomenon comparatively rare in the animal king-

‘dom, and when it does occur it is exceedingly difficult to investigate from this

particular point of view. In the vegetable kingdom, on the other hand, it is
quite common. All, or almost all, plants possess this power, and in a very
great many of them the result of its exercise can be fully followed out, and con-
trasted with that of sexual reproduction, Let us follow it out in the potato-plant.
The potato can and does normally propagate itself asexually by means of its under-
ground tubers. As you will know, if you take oneof these and plant it, it gives
rise to a plant exactly resembling the parent. If the tuber (seed as it is sometimes
erroneously called) be that of the Magnum Bonun, it gives rise to a plant with

760 REPORT—1899.

foliage, flowers, and tubers of the Magnum Bonum variety ; if it be of the Snowdrop,
the toliage, flowers, habit, and tubers are totally different from the Magnum
Bonum, and are easily identified as Snowdrops. In this way a favourable variety
of potato can be reproduced to almost any extent with all its peculiarities of earli-
ness or lateness, pastiness or mealiness, power of resisting disease, and so forth.
By asexual reproduction the exact facsimile of the parent may always be obtained,
provided the conditions remain the same.

Now let us turn to the results of sexual reproduction—the seeds, 7.e. the real
seeds, which as you know are produced in the flowers, are the means by which
sexual reproduction is effected. They are produced in great quantity by most
plants, and when placed in the ground under the proper conditions they germinate
and produce plants. But these plants do not resemble the parent. Try the seed
of the Magnum Bonum potato, and raise plants from it. Do you think that any of
them will be the Magnum Bonum with all its properties of keeping, resisting dis-
ease, and so forth? Nota bit of it. The probability is, that not one of your
seedling plants will exactly reproduce the parents; they will all be different.
Again, take the apple; if you sow the seed of the Blenheim Orange and raise
young apple-trees, you will not get a Blenheim Orange. All your plants will be
different, and probably not one will give you apples with the peculiar excellence of
the parent. If you want to propagate your Blenheim Orange and increase the
number of your trees, you must proceed by grafting or by striking cuttings, which
are the methods by which such a tree may be asexually reproduced. And so on.
Examples might be multiplied indefinitely. Every horticulturist knows that
variety characterises seedlings, 7.c. sexual offspring, whereas identity is found in
slips, grafts, and offsets, z.c. in asexual offspring; and that if you want to get a
new plant you must sow seeds, while if you want to increase your stock of an
old one you must strike cuttings, plant tubers, or proceed in some analogous
manner,

An apparent exception to this rule is afforded by so-called bud variation, but
it is not certain that this is really an exception. In so far as these bud variations
are not of the nature of acquired variations produced by a change of external con-
ditions, and disappearing as soon as the old conditions are renewed, they are pro-
bably stages in the growth and development of the organism. That is to say, they
are of the same nature as those peculiarities in animals which appear at a particu-
lar time of life, such asa single lock of hair of a different colour from the rest of the
hair,’ the change in colour of hair with growth,” the appearance of insanity or of
epilepsy at a particular age. There is nothing more remarkable in a single bud on
a tree departing from the usual character at a particular time of life, than in a
particular hair of a mammal doing the same thing.

We have seen that, speaking broadly, genetic variation is connected with sexual
reproduction, and it becomes necessary to examine this mode of reproduction a
little more fully. What is the essence of sexual reproduction, and how does it
differ from asexual? What I am now going to say applies generally to the
phenomenon whether it occurs in plants or animals. Sexual reproduction is
generally carried on by the co-operation of two distinct individuals—these are
called the male and female respectively. They produce, by a process of unequal
fission which takes place at a part of their body called the reproductive gland, a
small living organism called the reproductive cell. The reproductive cell produced
by the male is called in animals the spermatozoon, and is different in form from
the corresponding cell produced by the female, and called in animals the ovum.
The object with which these two organisms are produced is to fuse with
one another and give rise to one resultant uninucleated organism or cell,
which we may call the zygote. This process of fusion between the two kinds
of reproductive cells, which are termed gametes, is called conjugation, The
difference in structure between the male and female gamete is a matter of
secondary importance only, and is connected with the primary function of

1 Darwin, Vasiation, vol. i. p. 449. ;
2 As an example I may refer to the Himalayan rabbit; Darwin, Variation,
vol, i, p. 114,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, 761

eéming into contact and fusing. The same may be said with regard to the
so-called sexual differences of the parents of the two kinds of gametes, and to the
powerful instincts which regulate their action. The conjugation of the male and
female gamete, or the fertilisation of the ovum, as it is sometimes called, consists
in the fusion of two distinct masses of protoplasm which are nearly always produced
by different individuals, In the case of hermaphrodites, the term applied to
organisms which produce both male and female gametes in the same individual,
there is generally some arrangement which tends to prevent the male gamete from
conjugating with the female gamete of the same parent; but this phenomenon is
not absolutely excluded, and takes place as a normal phenomenon in many plants
and possibly in some animals,

This fusion of the protoplasm of the two gametes gives us a uninucleated
organism— for the fusion of the nuclei of the two gametes seems to be an essential
part of the process—in which the potencies of the two gametes are blended. The
sygote, as the mass formed of the fused gametes is called, is formed by the com-
bination of two individualities, and is therefore essentially a new individuality, the
characters of which will be different from the characters’ of both of the parents.
This fact, which is not apparent in the zygote when first established, because the
parts are hardly distinguishable by our senses, becomes obvious as soon as organs,
with the appearance of which we are familiar, are formed. As a general rule this
cannot be said to have occurred until what we call maturity has been nearly
reached, because we are not familiar enough with the features of immature organ-
isms to detect individual differences. But you may rest assured that such differ-
ences exist at all stages of growth from that of the uninucleated zygote till death.
How the characters of the two parents will combine in the zygote it is impossible
to predict, and the result is never the same even though the conjugations have
been between gametes of identical origin. There may be an almost perfect
mixture, the blending extending to even quite minute details; or the characters
of the one parent may predominate—be prepotent, as we call it—over those of
the other; or they may blend in such a way that the zygote offers characters found
in neither parent. Or, finally, the features of one parent may come out at one
stage of growth, those of the other at another stage. But, however the characters
muy blend, the product never exactly resembles the parents. The extent to which
it differs from them is the measure of the variation.

To resume, it will be observed that in the method of reproduction sometiines
called sexual, two distinct processes occur. One of these is the real reproductive
act, which consists in the production by fission of uninuclear individuals called
gametes; the second is the fusion of the gametes to form the zygote. The gametes
are of two kinds, and the reason of there being two kinds is intelligible when we
consider the parts they have to play. The male gamete is nearly always endowed
with locomotive power, and the female gamete is stored with food material to be
used by the zygote in the first stages of growth. The destiny of these two uninu-
cleated organisms is to fuse with one another, and so to give rise to a zygote
which ultimately assumes the typical form of the species. Asa general rule the
gametes have but a limited duration! of life unless they conjugate, and this is
quite intelligible when we remember that they have no organs, eg. digestive
organs, suitable for the maintenance of life. It is rarely found that they have the
power of assuming the form of their parent, unless they conjugate. This never
happens in the case of the male gamete (at any rate in animals), and only rarely
in that of the female. When it occurs—that is to say, when the ovum develops
without conjugation—we call the phenomenon parthenogenesis. Parthenogenesis
is found more commonly in Arthropods than in other groups, but it may be more
common than is supposed.?

‘ Under favourable conditions they may live a considerable time—e.g. the sper-
matozoon of certain ants, which are stated by Sir John Lubbock to live in some cases
for seven years.

? It may be mentioned as a curious fact that parthenogenesis is rarely found in
the higher plants, and, as I have said, is not known for the male gamete among
animals.

762 REPORT—1899.

In sexual reproduction then, in addition to the real reproductive act, which is
the division by fission of the parent into two unequal parts, the one of which con-
tinues to be called the parent, while the other is the gamete, there is thesubsequent
conjugation process. It is to this conjugation process that that important con-
comitant of sexual reproduction must be attributed, namely genetic variation. We
have thus traced genetic variation to its lair. We have seen that it is due to the
formation of a new individuality by the fusion of two distinct individualities. We
have also seen that in the higher animals it is always associated with the repro-
ductive act.

Let us now take a wider survey and endeavour to ascertain whether this most
important process, a process upon which depends the improvement as well as
the degradation of races, ever takes place independently of the reproductive act.
In the Metazoa,to which for our present purpose I allude under the term higher
animals, conjugation never takes place except in connection with reproduction. It is
impossible from the nature of the process that it should do so, as I hope to explain
later on. But among the Protozoa, the simplest of all animals, it is conceivable
that conjugation might take place apart from reproduction, and as a matter of
fact it does do so, Let us now examine a case in which this occurs. Amongst
the free-swimming ciliated Infusoria it frequently happens that two individuals
become applied together, and that the protoplasm of their bodies becomes con-
tinuous. They remain in this condition of fusion for some days, retaining how-
ever their external form and not undergoing complete fusion. While the continuity
lasts there is an exchange of living substance between the two bodies, in which
exchange a bit of the nucleus of each participates. It thus happens that at the
end of conjugation, when the two animals separate, they are both different from
what they were at the commencement; each has received protoplasm and a
nucleus from its fellow, and the introduced nucleus fuses, as we know, with the
nucleus which has not moved. It would therefore appear that all the essential
features of the conjugation process, as we learnt them in the case of the conjuga-
tion of the gametes in the Metazoa, are present, and it is impossible to doubt that
we have here an essentially similar phenomenon. The phenomenon differs, how-
ever, from the conjugation first described in this interesting and important respect,
that the two animals separate and resume their ordinary life. It is true that
their constitution must have been profoundly changed, but they retain their general
form. I say that the constitution of the exconjugates, as we may call them after
they are separated, must be different from what it was before conjugation, but so far
as I know no difference in structure corresponding with this difference in con-
stitution has been recorded. I feel no sort of doubt, however, that structural
differences, z.e. variations, will be detected when the exconjugates are closely.
scrutinised and compared with the animals before conjugation, and [ would suggest
that definite observations be made with a view to testing the point. Here then
we have a case of conjugation entirely dissociated from reproduction, Other cases
of a similar character are known among the Protozoa, though as a general rule the
fusion between the conjugating organisms is complete and permanent. Among
plants conjugation is generally associated with reproduction, but not always; for.in
certain fungi * fusion of hyphe and consequent intermingling of protoplasm occurs,
and is not followed by any form of reproduction. Among bacteria alone, so far as
I know, has the phenomenon of conjugation never been observed.

To sum up, we have seen that the phenomenon of conjugation is very widely
distributed. Excluding the bacteria, there is reason to believe that it forms a

part of the vital phenomena of all organisms. Its essential features are a mixture

and fusion of the protoplasm of two different organisms, accompanied by a fusion
of their nuclei. It results in the formation of a new individuality, which differs
from the individualities of both the conjugating organisms. This difference
manifests itself in differences in habit, constitution, form, and structure; such
differences constituting what we have called genetic variations.

? It must be mentioned, however, that in the case of these fungi the fusion of
nuclei has not been observed, nor has it been noticed whether the habit, structure,
or constitution of the conjugating plants is altered after the fusion.

‘'

OO _———————— ——
T

TRANSACTIONS Of SECTION D, 763

The conjugation of the ovum and spermatozoon in the higher animals, and
the corresponding process in the higher plants, are special cases of this conjuga-
tion, in which special conjugating individuals are produced, the ordinary indi-
viduals being physically incapable of the process. The phenomenon of sex, with
all its associated complications, which is so characteristic of the higher animals
and plants, is merely a device to ensure the coming together of the two gametes.
In the lower animals it is possible for the ordinary organism to conjugate ; con-
sequently the phenomenon does not form the precursor of developmental change,
and is in no way associated with reproduction. Indeed, in such cases it is often
the opposite of reproduction, inasmuch as it brings about a reduction in the
number of individuals, two separate individuals fusing to form one.

Acquired Characters.

We now come to the consideration of the second kind of variations—namely,
those which owe their origin to the direct action of external agencies upon the
particular organism which shows the variation; or, as Darwin puts it, to the
definite action of external conditions These are the variations which I have
called acquired variations or acquired characters. This is not a good name for
them, but at the present moment, when I am about to submit them to a critical
examination, I do not know of any other which could be suitably applied. Later
on, when I sum up the various effects of the direct action of external agencies
upon the organism, I may be able to use a more suitable term.

The main peculiarities of acquired variations are two in number: (a) they
make their appearance as soon as the organism is submitted to the changed con-
ditions ; (4) speaking generally they are more or less the same in all the individuals
of the species acted upon. As examples of this kind of variations, I may mention
the effect of the sun upon the skin of the white man; the Porto Santo rabbit, an
individual of which recovered the proper colour of its fur in four years under the
English climate; the change of Artemia salina to Artemia milhausenii; the
increase in size of muscles as the result of exercise; and the development of any
special facility in the central nervous system. Among plants, variations of this
kind are very easily acquired, by altering the soil and climate to which the
individuals are submitted. So common are they, that it is quite possible that a
large number of species are really based upon characters of this kind; characters
which are produced solely by the external conditions, and which frequently dis-
appear when the old conditions are reverted to.

With regard to these variations, we want to ask the following question: Do
they ever last after the producing cause of them is removed, and are they trans-
mitted in reproduction? In a great number of cases they either cease when the
cause which has produced them is removed, or if they last the life of the individual
they are not transmitted in reproduction. But is this always the case? That is
the important question we now have to consider.

But before doing so let us inquire what acquired characters really are. The
so-called adults of all animals have, as part of their birthright, a certain plasticity
in their capacity of reactiny to external influences; they all have a certain power
of acquiring bodily and mental characters under the influence of appropriate
stimuli. This power varies in degree and in quality in different species. In
plants, for instance, it is mainly displayed in habit of growth, form of foliage, &c.;
In man in mental acquirements, and so on. But however it is displayed, it is
this property of organisms which permits of the acquisition of those modifications
of structure which have been so widely discussed as acquired characters. Now
this power, when closely considered, is in reality only a portion of that capacity
for development which all organisms possess, and with which they become
endowed at the act of conjugation. A newly formed zygote possesses a certain
number of hidden properties which are not able to manifest themselves unless it
is submitted to certain external stimuli. It is these stimuli which constitute the
external conditions of existence, and the properties of the organism which are

1 Darwin, Variation, ed, 2, vol. i. p. 119.

764. REPORT—1899,

only displayed under their influence are what we call acquired characters. They
are acquired in response to the external stimuli.

It would appear, then, that every feature which successively appears in an
organism in the march from the uninucleated zygote to death is an acquired
character. At first the stimuli which are necessary are quite simple, being little
more than appropriate heat and moisture; later on they become more complicated,
until finally, when the developmental period is over and the mature life begins,
the necessary conditions attain their greatest complexity, and their fulfilment
constitutes what we call in the higher animals education. Education is nothing
more than the response of the nearly mature organism to external stimuli, the
penultimate response of the zygote to external stimuli, the ultimate being those of
senile decay, which end in natural death. Acquired properties, it will be seen, are
really stages in the developmental history. They differ in the complexity of the
stimulus required to bring them out. For instance, the segmentation of the egg
requires little more than heat and moisture, the walling of the chick the stimulus
of light and sound and gravity, the evolutions of an acrobat the same in greater
complexity, and lastly the action of a statesman requires the stimulation of almost
every sense in the greatest complexity. Moreover, not only are there differences
in the complexity of the stimulus required, but also in the rapidity with which the
organism reacts to it. The chick undergoes its whole embryonic development
in three weeks, a man in nine months; the chick develops its walking mechanism
in a few minutes, while a man requires twelve months or more to effect
the same end, Chickens are much cleverer than human beings in this respect.
There is the same kind of difference between them that there is between
the power of learning displayed by a Macaulay and that displayed by a stupid
child.

An instinct is nothing more than an internal mechanism which is developed
with great rapidity in response to an appropriate stimulus. It is difficult for us
to understand instincts, because with us almost all developmental processes are
extremely slow and gradual. This particularly applies to the development of those
nervous mechanisms, the working of which we call reason.

Within certain limits the external conditions may vary without harming the
organism, but such variations are generally accompanied by variations in the form
in which the properties of the zygote are displayed. If the variations of the
conditions are too great, their action upon the organism is injurious, and results in
abortions or death. And in no case can the external conditions call out properties
with which the zygote was not endowed at the act of conjugation.

It would thus appear that acquired characters are merely phases of develop-
ment; they are the manifestations of the properties of the zygote, and are called
forth only under appropriate stimulation; moreover, they are capable of varying
within certain limits, according to the nature of the stimulus, and it is to these
variations that the term ‘ acquired character’ has been ordinarily applied.

A genetic character, on the other hand, is the possibility of acquiring a certain
feature under the influence of a certain stimulus; it is not the feature itself—that
is an acquired character—but it is the possibility of producing the feature. Now
as the possibility of producing the feature can only be proved to exist by actually
producing it, the term ‘genetic character’ is frequently applied to the feature
itself, which is, as we have seen, an acquired character. In consequence of this
fact, that we can only determine genetic characters by examining acquired
characters, a certain amount of confusion may easily arise, and has indeed often
arisen, in dealing with this subject. This can be avoided by remembering that
in describing genetic characters account must always be taken of the conditions.
For example, the white fur of the Arctic hare is an acquired character, acquired in
response to a certain stimulus; while the power of so responding to the particular
stimulus when applied at the correct time is a genetic character. Thus a genetic
character is a character which depends upon the nature of the organism, while an
acquired character depends on the nature of the stimulus.

If we imagine a zygote to be a machine capable of working out certain results on
material supplied to it, then we should properly apply the term ‘genetic character’

Ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 765

to the features of the machinery itself, and the words ‘acquired character’ to the
results achieved by its working. These clearly will depend primarily on the
structure of the machinery, and secondarily upon the material and energy supplied
to it—that is to say, upon the way in which it is worked.

Variations in genetic characters are variations in the machinery of different
zygotes—that is to say, in the constitution—while variations in acquired characters
are variations in the results of the working of one zygote according to the
conditions under which it is worked.

For instance, let us take the case of those twins which arise by the division of
one zygote, and are consequently identical in genetic characters, 7.e. in constitution.
If they are submitted to different conditions, they will develop differences which
will depend entirely upon the conditions and the time of life when the differen-
tiation in the conditions occurred. ‘These differences then will be a function of the
external conditions, z7.e. of the manner in which the machinery is worked, and
constitute what we call variation in acquired characters,

Are Acquired Characters Transmissible as such in Reproduction ?

To return to our question, are the so-called acquired characters ever trans-
mitted in reproduction? Let us consider what this question means in the light of
the preceding discussion. Acquired characters are features which arise in the
zygote in response to external stimuli. Now the zygote at its first establishment
has none of the characters which are subsequently acquired. All it has is the
power of acquiring them. Clearly, then, acquired characters are not transmitted.
The power of producing them is all that can be transmitted ; and this power resides
in the reproductive organs and in the gametes to which the reproductive organs
give rise, so that the question must be put in another form. Is it possible by
submitting an organism to a certain set of conditions, and thus causing it to acquire
certain characters, so to modify its reproductive organs that the same characters
will appear in its offspring as the result of the application of a different and
simpler stimulus ?

For instance, the power of reading conferred by education, the hardness of the
hands and increased size of the muscles produced by manual labour : is it possible
that these characters, now produced by complex external stimuli applied at a
particular period of life, should ever in future ages be produced by the simpler
stimuli found within the uterus, so that a man may be born able to read or write,
or with hands horny and hard like those of a navvy ?

In trying to find an answer to this question let us first of all look into the
probabilities of the case, to see if we can relate the question to any other class of
phenomena about which we have, or think we have, definite knowledge.

When an organism is affected by external agents the action may apply to the
whole organisation or principally to one organ. Let us take a case in which one
organ only appears to be affected, e.g. the enlargement by exercise of the right arm
of a man. Now, although in this case it is only the muscles of the arm which
appear at first sight to be affected, we must not forget that the organs of the body
are correlated with one another, and an alteration of one will produce an altera-
tion in others. By exercise of the right arm the muscles of that arm are obviously
enlarged, but other changes not so obvious must also have taken place. The
bones to which the muscles are attached will be altered; the blood-vessels sup-
plying the muscles will be enlarged, and the nerves which act upon the muscles,
and probably the part of the central nervous system from which they proceed, will
also be altered. ‘These are some of the more obvious correlated changes which
will have occurred ; no doubt there will have been others—indeed it is not perhaps
too much to say that all the organs of the body will have reacted to the enlarge-
ment of the arm—but the effect on organs not in functional correlation with the
muscles of the right arm will be imperceptible, and may be neglected. Thus the
colour of the hair, the length and character of the alimentary canal, size of the
leg muscles, the renal organs, &c., will not show appreciable alteration.
Above all, the other arm will not be affected, or if it is affected the alteration

766 REPORT—1899.

will be so slight as not to be noticeable. Now, we know that homologous parts,
whether symmetrically homologous or serially so, are in some kind of close con-
nection. For instance, when one member of an homologous series varies, it is
commonly found that other members of the same series will also vary. Yet in
spite of this connection which exists between the right and left arms and between
the right arm and right leg, there is no similar alteration either in the left arm or
in the right leg. Now, if parts which from these facts we may suppose to be in
some connection are not affected, how can we expect the reproductive organs not
only to be modified, but also to be so modified that the germs which are about to
be budded off from them will be so affected as to produce exactly the same
character—in this case enlarged muscle, &c.—without the application of the same
stimulus, viz. exercise? Thus, while I freely admit that every alteration of an
organ in response to external agents will react through the whole organisation,
affecting each organ in functional correlation with the affected organ in a way
which will depend upon the function of the correlated organ, and possibly other
organs not in functional correlation in an indefinite way and toa slight extent,
yet I maintain that it is very hard to believe that it will have such a sharp and
precise effect upon every spermatozoon and ovum subsequently produced that not
merely will these products be altered generally in all their properties, but that one
particular part of them—and that part of them always the same—will be so
altered that the organisms which develop from them will be able to present the
same modification on the application of a different stimulus. It is inconceivable ;
unless, indeed, we suppose that the very molecules of the incipient organs in the
germ are more closely correlated with corresponding parts of the parent body
than are the homologous parts of the parent body with one another.

Now, to prove the existence of such a remarkable and intimate correlation
would surely require the very strongest and most conclusive evidence. Is there
any such strong evidence? I think I may fairly answer this question in the
negative. The evidence which has been brought forward in favour of the so-
called inheritance of acquired characters is far from conclusive. That such
evidence! exists I do not deny, but it is all, or almost all, capable of receiving
other interpretations.

Effect of Changed Conditions upon the Reproductive Organs.

On the other hand, all the certain evidence we have concerning what happens
when the reproductive organs are affected, either directly or by correlation, by a
change of conditions—and, as we have seen above, they must be affected if there
is to be any change in the offspring—tends to show that there is not any relation
between the effect produced on the parent and that appearing in the offspring.

The only means of judging whether the reproductive organs are affected by
external conditions is by observing any change which may occur in their function.
Now, only two such physiological effects of a change of conditions are certainly
known; these are (1) the production of sterility or of partial sterility; (2) the
production of an increased but indefinite variability in the offspring. With
regard to the first of these effects: One of the most common, or at any rate one

- of the most noticeable alterations in an organism, effected by change in the
external conditions, is an alteration of the reproductive system, an alteration of
such a kind that organisms which had previously freely interbred with one
another are no longer able to do so. One of the most common results of removing
organisms from their natural surroundings is to induce sterility or partial sterility.
There is no reason to doubt that this sterility or tendency to sterility is, broadly
speaking, due to an affection of the reproductive system. In the case of the
higher animals, it may in some cases be due to an action upon the instincts, but
in the lower animals and in plants we can hardly doubt that it is due to a direct
action upon the reproductive organs. Indeed in plants these organs are often
visibly atlected. Among animals, however, there does not appear to be any satis-

1 For a ood statement and discussion of the evidence in favour of this view, see
Romanes’s Darnin and after Darwin, vol. ii. chaps. 3 and 4.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, 767

factory evidence on the point, and it is not known what organs are affected,
whether it is the actual gametes, or the reproductive glands, or some of the other
organs concerned.!

The other result of changed conditions which is certainly known is to induce an
increased amount of variability of the genetic kind, though not immediately, often
indeed not until after the lapse of some generations. On this point Darwin says :
‘Universal experience shows us that when new flowers are first introduced into
our gardens they do not vary; but ultimately all, with the rarest exceptions, vary
to a greater or less extent’ (‘ Variation,’ii. p. 249).?, With regard to the variability
thus induced, it is to be noticed that it is not confined to any particular organ,
nor does it show itself in any particular way. On the contrary, the whole organi-
sation is affected, and the variations are quite indefinite.

To sum up the argument asit at present stands: (1) a change in conditions cannot
affect the next generation unless the reproductive organs are affected ; (2) from a con-
sideration of the facts of the case, it is almost inconceivable that the effect produced
upon any organ of a given organism by a change of conditions should so modify the
reproductive organs of that organism as to lead to a corresponding modification in
the offspring without the latter being exposed to the same conditions; (3) the only
effects, which are certainly known, of changed conditions upon the reproductive
organs are (a) the production of sterility ; (6) an increase in genetic variability.

As far then as our certain knowledge goes, it would appear that a change of
conditions may have one or both of the following effects :—

(1) A definite change, of the same character or nearly so, in all the individuals
acted upon. Such changes may be adaptive or non-adaptive, but they are not
permanent, lasting only so long as the change of conditions, or at most during the
ife of the individual acted upon. They are not transmitted in reproduction, and
do not appear in the offspring unless it is submitted to the same conditions. These
variations are the direct result of the action of the environment upon the indivi-
dual, with the exception of the reproductive organs.

(2) Increase in the variations of the genetic kind. These are seen not in the
generation ° first submitted to the changed condition, but in the next or some
subsequent generations. The effect is produced through the reproductive organs.
These variations are non-adaptive, and different in each individual.

If the reproductive organs are affected we get an increase in the variations of
the genetic kind. These, we have seen, are usually of an indefinite character; they
are different in every case, and their nature cannot be predicted from experi-

-ence. But we still have to ask: Is this a universal rule? Does it never happen
that a change of conditions so affects the reproductive organs as to produce a defi-
nite non-adaptive change of the same character or nearly so in all the descendants
of the individual acted upon? This is the most obscure question connected with
the study of variations. If such changes occur, they might be cumulative, being
increased in amount by the continued action of the conditions. They would be
non-adaptive, their nature depending on the constitution of the reproductive cells
and having no functional relation to the original stimulus.

As possible examples of such variation, I may recall those variations referred
to by Darwin as ‘fluctuating variations which sooner or later become constant

1 The exact cause of this sterility in the higher animals is a point which specially
needs investigation.

? The phenomenon of increased variability following upon change of conditions
has most often been observed when the change has been from a state of nature toa
state of cultivation. Hence the conclusion has been drawn that the kind of change
involved in domestication alone induces variation. But there is no evidence in
favour of this view. The evidence shows that change of conditions in itself may
induce greater variability.

3 No doubt the individuals of the generation first submitted to the changed condi-
tions would be affected as regards their reproductive organs, which would be altered
in structure, but this has not been made out, though there are indications of such an
effect in certain plants, vide Appendix.

768 REPORT—1899.

through the nature of the organism and of surrounding conditions, but not through
natural selection’ (‘ Origin,’ ed. 6, p. 176); to the variations in turkeys and ducks
which take place as the result of domestication (‘ Variation,’ ii. p. 250); to those
variations which Darwin had in his mind when he wrote the following sentence
(Origin, p. 72): ‘There can be little doubt that the tendency to vary in the same
manner has often been so strong that all the individuals of the same species have
been similarly moditied without the aid of selection,’

It is, however, as I have said, extremely doubtful if variations of this kind
really occur. The appearance of them may be caused by the combination of the
two other kinds of variation. In all cases which might be cited in support of their
occurrence, there are the following doubtful elements: (1) no clear statement as
to whether the variations showed themselves in the individuals first acted upon ;
(2) no history of the organisms when transported back to the old conditions.

Moreover, a general consideration of the facts of the case renders it improbable
that such similar and definite genetic variations should often occur, at any rate
in sexual reproduction. For although the effect upon the reproductive organs
may possibly be almost the same in nearly all the individuals acted upon, it
must not be forgotten that the reproductive elements have to combine in the act
of conjugation, and that it is the essence of this act to produce products which
differ in every case.

Effect of Changed Conditions in Asexual Reproduction.

This brings us to the consideration of the question reserved on p. 3: Are
genetic variations ever found in asexual reproduction ?

If the views expressed in the earlier part of this Address are correct, it would
seem to follow that genetic variations are variations in the actual constitution, and
are inseparably connected with the act of conjugation. The act of conjugation
gives us a new constitution, a new individuality, avd it is the characters of this
new individual in so far as they differ from the characters of the parents which
constitute what we have called genetic variations. According to this the answer
to our question would be that genetic variations cannot occur in asexual repro-
duction, and that if any indefinite variability recalling genetic variability makes
its appearance! it must be part of the genetic variability and directly traceable
to the zygote from which the asexual generations started.

But if genetic variability is not found in asexual reproduction the question still
remains, can the other kind of variations—namely, those due to the direct action of
external forces upon the organism—he transmitted in asexual reproduction? Now
we have already seen that the etlect of external agencies acting upon the organism
must be regarded under: two heads, according as to whether the reproductive
organs are or are not affected. If the reproductive organs are not affected, then
variations caused by the impact of external forces will not be transmitted ; if, on
the other hand, they are affected, the next generation will show the effect. We
have further seen that in the case of sexual reproduction a modification of the

} Weismann, On Heredity, vol. ii. English edition, p. 161. Warren, E. ‘ Observa-
tion on Heredity in Parthenogenesis,’ Proc. Roy. Soc. 65, 1899, p. 154. These are the
only observations I know of on this subject. They tend to show the presence of a
slight variability, but they are not entirely satisfactory. In connection with this
matter I may refer to Weismann’s view that Cypris reptans, the species upon which
his observations were made, reproduces entirely by parthenogenesis, and has lost the
power of sexual reproduction. This view is based on the fact that he has bred forty
consecutive parthenogenetic generations and has never seena male. As Weismann
bases some important conclusions on this view, with regard to the importance of
conjugation in rejuvenescence of organisms, I may point out that the fact that he has
bred forty successive generations and has never seen a male cannot be regarded as
conclusive evidence that males never appear. We know of many cases in which
reproduction can continue for more than forty generations without the intervention
of conjugation, e.g. ciliated infusoria, many plants, and of other species of crustacea
in which the male is vety rare and only appears after long intervals. 5

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 769

teproductive organs will, because of the intervention of conjugation, appear as an
increase in genetic variability only. How will the matter stand in the case of
asexual reproduction ? First, with regard to modifications which do not affect the
reproductive system—they, as in sexual reproduction, will not be transmitted.
Secondly, as regards modifications which do affect the reproductive organs—they
will be transmitted, z.c. they will affect the next generation; and the question
arises, how will they be transmitted? or here we have the opportunity wanting
in the case of sexual reproduction of studying the transmission of modifications
of the reproductive system without the complications introduced by the act of
conjugation. ;

In considering this matter, it must be remembered that the reproductive
organs are with regard to external influences exactly as any other organ. They
can be modified either directly or indirectly, though they are in animals often less
liable to direct moditication by reason of their internal position! These modifica-
tions may, as in the case of other organs, be obvious to the eye of the observer, or
they may be so slight as only to be detected by an alteration of function. Now,
in the case of the reproductive organs this alteration of function will show itself
in the individuals of the next generation (if not before) which proceed directly and
without any complication from the affected tissue. How will these individuals he
affected P Will they all be affected in the same kind of way, or will they be affected
in different ways? Finally, will the modification last their lives only, or will it
continue into subsequent asexually produced generations ?

Let us endeavour to answer these questions :—

(1) How will the offspring be affected? That will depend entirely upon how
the reproductive organ was affected. Will the modification in the offspring have
any adaptive relation whatever to the external cause? Now here we have a
capital opportunity, an opportunity not afforded at all by sexual reproduction, of
examining by experiment and observation the Lamarckian position, My cwn
opinion is that there will be no relation of an adaptive kind between the external
cause and the modification of the offspring. For instance, let us imagine, as an
experiment, that a number of parthenogenetically reproducing organisms are sub-
mitted to a temperature lower than that at which they are accustomed to live.
Let us suppose that the cold affects their reproductive organs and produces a modi-
fication of the offspring. Will the modification be in the direction of enabling
the offspring to flourish in a lower temperature than the parent? My own opinion,
as I have said, is that there will probably be no such tendency in the offspring, if
all possibility of selection be excluded. But that is only an opinion. The question
is unsettled, and must remain unsettled until it is tested upon asexually reproduc-,
ing organisms.

(2) Will they all be affected in the same kind of way? Yes, presumably they
will. I arrive at this conclusion, not by experiment, but by reasoning from analogy.
In the case of other organs of the body, the same external cause produces in all
individuals acted upon, roughly speaking, the same kind of effect, e.g. action of
sun upon skin, effect of transplanting maize, Porto Santo rabbits, &c. The
question, however, cannot be settled in this way. It requires an experimental
answer.

(3) Will the modification last beyond the life of the individuals produced by
the affected reproductive organ? I can give no answer to this question. We
haye no data upon which to form ajudgment. We cannot say whether it is possible
permanently to modify the constitution of an organism in this way, or whether,
however strong the cause may be, consistently of course with the non-destruction
of life, the effects will gradually die away—it may be in one, it may be in two or
more generations. There are cases known which might assist in settling these
questions, hut I must leave to another opportunity the task of examining them.
I refer to such cases as Artemia salina, various cases of bud variation which
cannot be included under the head of growth variation,

1 How far the abnormal position of the testes of mammalia may receive its
explanation in this connection is a question worthy of consideration,
Pp q J

1899, 3D

770 REPORT—1899,

Senile Decay and Rejuvenescence of Organisms.

Another question, also of the utmost importance, confronts us at this point.
As is well known, organisms are liable to wear and tear, sooner or later some part
or parts essential to the maintenance of the vital functions wear out and are not
renewed by the reparative processes which are supposed to be continually taking
place in the organism. This constitutes what we call senile decay, and leads to the
death of the organism. Asa good example of the kind of cause of senile decay,
we may mention the wearing out of the teeth, which in mammals at any rate are
not replaced ; the wearing out of the elastic tissue of the arterial wall, which is
probably not replaced. There is no reason to suppose that the reparative process
of any organism is sufliciently complete to prevent seniledecay. There is probably
always some part or parts which cannot be renewed, even in the simplest organisms,
Maupas has shown that this holds for the ciliated Infusoria, and he has also shown
how the renewal of life, which of course must be effected if the species is to con-
tinue, is brought about. He has shown that it is brought about by conjugation,
during which process the organism may be said to be put into the melting-pot and
reconstituted. For instance, many of the parts of the conjugating individuals are
renewed, including the whole nuclear apparatus, which there is every reason to
believe is of the greatest importance to living matter.

On reconsidering the life of the Metazoa in light of the facts established by
Maupas for the Infusoria, we see that all Metazoa are in a continual state of
fission, as are the ciliated Infusoria. They are continually dividing into two
unequal parts, one of which we call the parent and the other the gamete. The
parent Metazoon must eventually die; it cannot be put into the melting-pot; its
parts cannot be completely renovated. The gamete can be put into the melting-
pot of conjugation, and give rise to an entirely reconstituted organism, with all the
parts and organs brand-new and able to last for a certain time, which is the
length of life of the individual of the species.

Is there any other way than that of conjugation by which an organism can
acquire a complete renewal of its organs? Is the renewal furnished by the
development of all the parts afresh which takes place in a parthenogenetic ovum
such a complete renewal? This question cannot now be certainly answered, but
the balance of evidence is in favour of a negative answer. And this view of the
matter is borne out by a consideration of the facts of the case. In all cases of
conjugation which have been thoroughly investigated, the nuclear apparatus is
- completely renewed. It would appear indeed as though the real explanation of
the uninuclear character of the Metazoon gamete is to be sought in the necessity
of getting the nuclear apparatus into the simplest possible form for renewal. Now
in the development of a parthenogenetic ovum the ordinary process of renewal
of the nucleus is often in partial abeyance. As avrule it only divides once instead
of twice, and there is, of course, no reinforcement bynuclear fusion. It is, of course,
possible that the reinforcement by nuclear fusion which occurs in conjugation may
have a different explanation from the nuclear reconstitution which takes place in
the formation of polar bodies and similar structures. On the other hand, it may
all be part of the same process. We cannot tell. So that we are unable to
answer the question whether for complete rejuvenescence a new formation of all
parts of the organism is sufficient, or whether a reconstitution of the nuclear
apparatus of the kind which takes place in the maturation of the Metazoon
ovum and the division of the micro-nucleus of Paramecium is also required; or
finally, whether in addition to the latter phenomenon a reinforcement and
reconstitution by fusing with another nucleus is also necessary for that complete
rejuvenescence which enables an organism to begin the life cycle again and to pass
through it completely.

With regard to buds in plants there is reason to believe that they share in the

owing old of the parent. That is to say, if we suppose the average life of the
individual to be 100 years,a bud removed at 50 will be 50 years of age, and
only be able to live on the graft for 60 more years,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, 771

Heredity,

Having now spoken at some length of the phenomenon of variation, I must
i. to consider from the same general point of view the phenomenon ot

eredity.

As We have seen, in asexual reproduction heredity appears, as a general rule,
if not always, to be complete. The offspring do not merely present resemblances
to the parent—they are identical with it. And this fact does not appear to be
astonishing when we consider the real nature of the process, Asexual reproduc-
tion consists in the separation off of a portion of the parent, which, like the parent,
is endowed with the power of growth. In virtue of this property it will assume,
if it does not already possess it, and if the conditions are approximately similar,
the exact form of the parent. It is a portion of the parent; it is endowed with
the same property of growth; the wonder would be if it assumed any other
form than that of the parent. Indeed, it is doubtful if the word ‘heredity ’ would
ever have been invented if the only form of increase of organisms was the asexual
one, because, there being no variation to contrast with it, it would not have struck
us as a quality needing a name, any more than we have a name for that property
of the number two which causes it to make four when duplicated.

The need for the word ‘heredity’ only becomes apparent when we consider that
other form of reproduction in which the real act of reproduction is associated with
the act of conjugation. Looking at reproduction from a broad point of view, we
may sum up the difference between the two kinds, the sexual and the asexual, by
saying that whereas the essence of sexual reproduction is the formation of a new
individuality, asexual reproduction merely consists in increasing the number of one
kind of individual. From this point of view sexual reproduction is better termed
the creation of a new individuality, for that, and-not the increase in the number
of individuals, is its real result. Inasmuch as conjugation of two organisms is the
essential feature of sexual reproduction, it would appear that the number of
individuals would be actually diminished as a result of it; and this does really
happen, though in a masked manner, for we are not in the habit of looking upon
the spermatozoon and ovum as individuals, though it is absurd not to do so, as they
contain latent all the properties of the species, and are sometimes able to manifest
these properties (parthenogenetic ova) without conjugating. In some of the lower
organisms the fact that conjugation does not result in an increase of the number of
individuals, but only in the production of a new individuality, is quite apparent,
for in them two of the ordinary individuals of the species fuse to form one (many
Protozoa).

So that sexual reproduction gives us a new individuality which can spread to
almost any extent by asexual reproduction. This asexual reproduction gives us a
group of organisms which is quite different from a group of organisms produced by
sexual reproduction. Whereas the latter groups constitute what we call species,
the former group has, so far as I know, no special name, unless it be variety ; but
variety is not a satisfactory name, for it has been used in another sense by
systematisers.

Heredity, then, is really applicable only to the appearance in a zygote of some
of the properties of the gametes. A zygote has this property of one of the prece-
dent gametes, and that property of the other, in virtue of the operation of what we
call heredity ; it has a third property possessed by neither of the precedent gametes
in virtue of the action of variation, the nature of which we have already examined.
It is impossible to say which property of a gamete will be inherited, and it is
impossible to predict what odd property will result from the combination of the
properties of the two gametes. Of one thing only are we certain, that they are
never the same in zygotes formed by gametes produced in immediate succession
from the same parent.

We may thus regard the activities of the zygote as the resultant of the dashing
together of the activities of the gametes.

Conjugation, then, is a process of the utmost importance in Biology; it pro-

3D

772 ; rEporT+1899;
vides the mechanism by which organisms are able to vary, independently of the
conditions in which they live. It lies, therefore, at the very root of the evolution
problem; the power of combining to form a zygote is one of the fundamental
properties of living matter,

Species.

Now let us consider one of the effects of this property upon organisms, The
effect to which I refer is the division of animals into groups called species. Species
are groups of organisms, the gametes of which are able to conjugate and produce
normal zygotes. Now in Nature there appear to be many causes which prevent
gametes from conjugating. First and most important of all is some physical
incompatibility of the living matter which prevents that harmonious blending of
the two gametes which is essential for the formation of a normal zygote. Very
little is known as to the real nature of this incompatibility ; in fact it is hardly an
exaggeration to say that nothing is known. It may be that there is actual
repulsion between the gametes, or it may be in some cases, at least, that the
gametes are able to fuse, but not to undergo that intimate blending which is
necessary for the production of a perfect zygote. In some cases we know that
something like this happens; for instance, a blend can be obtained between the
horse and the ass, but it is not a perfect blend, the product or zygote being imper-
fect in one most important particular—namely, reproductive power,

A second cause which prevents conjugation is a purely mechanical one—viz.
some obstacle which prevents the two gametes from coming together. As an
instance of this I may refer to those cases amongst plants in which conjugation is
impossible, because the pollen tube is not long enough to reach the ovule. In yet
other cases conjugation is impossible because the organisms are isolated from one
another either geographically or in consequence of their habits. There are probably
many causes which prevent conjugation, but, whatever they may be, the effect of
them is to break up organisms into specific groups, the gametes of which do
normally conjugate with one another.

In many cases, no doubt, the gametes of organisms which are kept apart in
Nature by mechanical barriers will conjugate fully if brought together. But in
the great majority of cases it is probable no amount of proximity will bring about
complete conjugation. There is physical incompatibility. Here is a fruitful
opening for investigation. Observations are urgently needed as to the real nature
of this incompatibility.

Importance of the Study of Variation,

Another and most important effect of conjugation is, as we have seen, the much-
spoken-of constitutional or genetic variations. They are,as we have already insisted,
of the utmost importance to the evolutionist. Evolution would have: been impos-
sible without them, for it is made up of their summation. It becomes therefore desi-
rable to find out to what extent a species is capable of varying. This can only be
done, as Mr. Bateson has pointed out, by recording all variations found. Mr. Bate-
son, in his work already referred to, has carried this out, and has shown the way —
to acollection of these most important data. In order to carry it further, I would
suggest that the collection be made not only for structure, but also for function.
This has been done largely for the nervous functions by psychologists and natural-
ists who pay special attention to the instincts of animals; but we want a similar
collection for other functions. [or instance, the variations in the phenomena of
heat and menstruation, and of rut amongst mammals, and so on, To do this is
really only to apply the methods of comparative anatomy and comparative
physiology to the members of a species, as they have already been applied to the
different species and larger groups of the animal kingdom. Such investigations
cannot fail to be of the greatest interest. Indeed, when we have learnt the normal
habits and structure of a species, what more interesting study can there be than
the study of the possibilities of variation contained within it? Then when we
know the limits of variability of any given specific group, we proceed to try if we

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 773

can by selective breeding or alteration of the conditions of life alter the variability,
and perhaps call into existence a kind of variation quite different in character from
that previously obtained as characteristic of the species.

The Evolution of Heredity and the Origin of Variation.

These remarks bring me to the consideration of a point to which I am anxious to
call your attention, and which is an important aspect of our subject. Has the
variability of organisms ever been different from what it is now? Has or has not
evolution had its influence upon the property of organisms as it is supposed to have
had upon their other properties? There is only one possible answer to this
question. Undoubtedly the variability of organisms must have altered with the
progress of evolution. It would be absurd to suppose that organisms have
remained constant in this respect while they have undergone alteration in all their
other properties. If the variability of organisms has altered, it becomes necessary
to inquire in what direction has it altered? Has the alteration beeu one of
diminution, or has it been one of increase? Of course, it is possible that there has
been no general alteration in extent with the course of evolution, and that the
alteration, on the whole, has been one of quality only. But passing over this
third possibility, let us consider for the moment which of the two first named
alternatives is likely to have occurred.

According to the Darwinian theory of evolution, one of the most important
factors in determining the modification of organisms has been natural selection.
Selection acts by preserving certain favourable variations, and allowing others less
favourable to be killed off in the struggle for existence. It thus will come about
that certain variations will be gradually eliminated. Meanwhile the variations of
the selected organisms will themselves be submitted to selection, and certain of
these will be in their turn eliminated. In this way a group of organisms becomes
more and more closely adapted to its surroundings; and unless new variations
make their appearance as the old unfavourable ones are eliminated, the variability
of the species will diminisu as the result of selection, Is it likely that new
variations will appear in the manner suggested? To answer this question we
must turn to the results obtained by human agency in the selective breeding of
animals. The experience of breeders is that continued selection tends to produce
a greater and greater purity of stock, characterised by small variability, so that if
the selective breeding is carried too far, variation almost entirely ceases, and there
is little opportunity left for the exercise of the breeder's art. When this condition
has been arrived at, he is obliged, if he wants to produce any further modifications
of his animals, to introduce new blood—z.e. to bring in an individual which has
either been bred to a different standard, or one in which the variability has not
been so completely extinguished.

It would thus appear, and I think we are justified in holding this view, at any
rate provisionally, that the result of continued selection will be to diminish the
‘variability of a species; and if carried far enough, to produce a race with so little
variability, and so closely adapted to its surroundings, that the slightest alteration
in the conditions of life will cause extinction.

If selection tends to diminish the variability of a species, then it clearly follows
that as selection has been by hypothesis the most important means of modifying
organisms, variation must have been much greater in past times than it is now.

! The expression ‘extinction of species’ seems to be used in two senses, which are
generally confused. Firstly, a species may become modified so that the form with
which we are familiar gradually gives place to one or more forms which have been
gradually produced by its modification. That is to say, a character or series of
characters becomes gradually modified or Jost in successive generations. ‘This is not
really extinction, but development. Secondly, a species may gradually lose its
variability, and become fixed in character. If the conditions then change, it is
unable to adapt itself to them, and becomes truly extinct. In this case it leaves ng
descendants, We haye to do with degth, and not with development,

774 REPORT—1899,

In fact it must have been progressively greater the farther we go back from the
present time.

The argument which I have just laid before you points, if carried to its logical
conclusion—and I see no reason why it should not be so carried—to the view that
at the first origin of life upon the earth the variability of living matter consequent
upon the act of conjugation must have been of enormous range: in other words, it
points to the view that heredity was a much less important phenomenon than it is
at present. Following out the same train of thought, we are inevitably driven to
the conclusion that one of the most important results of the evolutionary change
has been the gradual increase and perfection of heredity as a function of organisms
and a gradual elimination of variability.

This view, if it can be established, is of the utmost importance to our theoretical
conception of evolution, because it enables us to bring our requirements as to time
within the limits granted by the physicists. If variation was markedly greater in
the early periods of the existence of living matter, it is clear that it would have
been possible for evolutionary change to have been effected much more rapidly than
at present—especially when we remember that the world was then comparatively
unoccupied by organisms, and that with the change of conditions consequent on
the cooling and differentiation of the earth’s surface, new places suitable for
organic life were continually being formed. It will be observed that the conclusion
we have now reached, viz. that variation was much greater near the dawn of life .
than it is now, and heredity a correspondingly less important phenomenon, is a
deduction from the selection theory. It becomes, therefore, of some interest to
inquire whether a suggestion obtained by a perfectly legitimate mode of reasoning
receives any independent confirmation from other sources. The first source of
facts to which we turn for such confirmation must obviously be paleontology.
But paleeontology unfortunately affords us no help. The facts of this science are
too meagre to be of any use. Indeed, they are wanting altogether for the period
which most immediately concerns us—namely, the period when the existing forms
of life were established. This took place in the prefossiliferous period, for in the
earliest fossiliferous rocks examples of almost all existing groups of animals are
met with.

But although paleontology affords us no assistance, there is one class of facts
which, when closely scrutinised, does lend some countenance to the view that when
evolutionary change was at its greatest activity, 7.c. when the existing forms of
life were being established, variation was considerably greater than it is at the
present day.

But as this address has already exceeded all reasonable limits, and as the
question which we are now approaching is one of very great complexity and
difficulty, I am reluctantly compelled to defer the full consideration and treatment
of it to another occasion. I can only hope that the far-reaching importance of my
subject and the interest of it may to some extent atone for the great length which
this address has attained,

APPENDIX.

The following observations on the condition of the male reproductive organs in
highly variable plants are quoted from Darwin’s ‘ Variation of Animals and Plants
under Domestication,’ vol. il. pp. 256 et seq.

Tn certain plant hybrids which are highly variable, it is known that the anthers
contain many irregular pollen-grains. Exactly the same fact has been noticed by
Max Wichura in many of our highly cultivated plants which are extremely
variable, and which there is no reason to believe have been hybridised, such as the
hyacinth, tulip, snapdragon, potato, cauliflower, &c.

The same observer also ‘finds in certain wild forms the same coincidence
between the state of the pollen and a high degree of variability, as in many
species of Rubus; but in R. cesius and zdeus, which are not highly variable

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, Véa

species, the pollen is sound.’ A little further on Darwin says ‘these facts indicate
that there is some relation between the state of the reproductive organs and a
tendency to variability; but we must not conclude that the relation is strict.’
Finally he sums up the matter in these words: ‘On the whole, it is probable that
any cause affecting the organs of reproduction would likewise aflect their product—
that is, the offspring thus generated.’

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
The following Papers were read :—

1, Astrosclera Willeyana, the type of a new family of Recent Sponges.
By J. J. Lister, IA., £.Z.8., Demonstrator of Comparative Anatomy
in the University of Cambridge.

In the collections brought home by Dr. Willey from the Western Pacific were
four specimens of a peculiar hard white organism which he found growing on dead
coral at a depth of 30 fathoms, in Sandal Bay, Lifu, Loyalty Islands. These he
has placed in my hands for examination. The specimens are cylindrical in shape,
and measure about 10 mm. in height and 5 mm. in breadth. The base is slightly
spreading, and the upper surface gently convex.

Skeleton.—The skeleton is formed of solid polyhedral elements, which are
composed of crystalline fibres radiating from a central point. They are united
into a mass so rigid that to obtain sections of it slices were cut with a fret-saw,
and, after embedding in copal by von Koch’s method, were ground down thin on a
hone. The mineral constituent of the skeleton is carbonate of lime in the form—
as the specific gravity shows—of aragonite. The skeleton is permeated by canals
which open only on the upper surface. There is no large central space to which
the canals are tributary. Many are approximately parallel with the axis, and they
communicate very freely by branch canals, which run from one to another, dividing
and anastomising (see fig. on p. 776).

The sides are smooth and imperforate, while the curved upper surface is closely
pitted by the openings of the canal system. In one specimen the upper surface is
traversed by grooves, which radiate, with an approavh to symmetry, from one
point. These are apparently radially directed canals of the skeleton in course of
formation. There is no indication that the central point is occupied by a canal
larger than the others, whose openings are scattered over the surface.

The ridges of the skeleton between the openings are produced into irregular
crests and points formed of skeletal elements, which are more and more loosely
connected with one another as the surface is approached.

The gelatinous layer which invests the upper surface is crowded with young
growing skeletal elements, the small ones free and spherical, the larger packed
together like hailstones, and assuming the polyhedral form.

Origin of the Skeletal Elements.—The spherules take their origin in single
cells of the jelly, near the upper surface. In the early stages of growth the
granular nucleated cell body is seen as a thin investing layer surrounding the
spherule, which’is from the first composed of radiately arranged crystalline fibres.
As the spherule increases in size it takes up its position as an element of the
fixed skeleton, and in the course of their growth the angular spaces between
adjacent skeletal elements are completely filled in to the exclusion of the soft
parts. The elements thus lose their spherical shape and become polyhedral. The
external surface of a spherule in contact with a layer of soft tissue is often beset
with radiating points, and resembles a portion of a spheraster of a siliceous sponge.
After decalcification a more or less abundant organic basis of the skeleton is left ;
the central parts of the spherules take a deeper stain, and are thus marked off from.
the peripheral portions,

776 REPORT—1899.

The Soft Tissues.—The gelatinous layer, above alluded to as investing the
ridges of the skeleton, lines the openings of the canal system and extends as a
sheet, thin in the centre, over the mouth of each canal. A round pore is frequently
present at this point, but in many cases the membrane is not perforated; the
spaces at the mouths of the canals are, however, in communication with one
another by lateral channels through the jelly, beneath the surface membrane.
Besides the cells in which the spherules are found, there are branched amceboid

cells sparsely scattered through the jelly.

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CILIATED CHAMBERS

CANAL

Section of soft tissue (highly magnified),

The soft tissues of the sponge are contained in the skeletal canals (as they may
now be termed to distinguish them from the canals which run in the soft parts),
and penetrated by the water-bearing canals which open by the pores at the surface.
From the main canals small ones are given off which ramify in the layer cf soft
tissue in contact with the skeleton.

As the canals are followed downwards into the interior, the cellular elements
in their walls, at first scattered, become more and more abundant, and the jelly
legs conspicuous, Ata short distance from the surface the soft tissue assumes the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. ri

characters which are maintained throughout the interior of the sponge. A section
through it shows that it is largely made up of cells united into a reticulum with
vacuolar spaces of various sizes forming the meshes. The jelly which is so con-
spicuous in the surface layers appears to be scanty or altogether absent here.
Besides the smaller branched protoplasmic masses with nuclei 1°5—2y in diameter,
which make up the greater part of the reticulum, there are larger and more
circumscribed cells with larger nuclei (2—3 diam.) Scattered through the
reticulum, and with their walls apparently formed by portions of it, are the
ciliated chambers and the ramifying branches of the canal system.

Ciliated Chambers.—These are round or oval chambers of minute but fairly
uniform size, the larger measuring 18 by 11, the smaller 10 by 8u. (The sections
of smaller diameter are doubtless in many cases transverse to the long axis of larger
chambers.) Their walls are formed by cells which send out processes laterally, and
these, joining with one another, bound the chamber, others extending away from the
chamber are continuous with other cells of the reticulum, while a third set of
processes project into the cavity of the chamber, and each, tapering gradually from
its base, forms a flagellum which may extend across to the other side of the
chamber. There is no indication of a collar, or of the abrupt truncated termination
of the cell body at the base of the flagellum, characters which are usually seen in
choanocytes. A well-marked nucleus is situated at the base of the flagellum at its
junction with the body of the cell. The flagella project from about half the
concave inner surface of the chamber, some four or five commonly appearing in
section, and their tips thus converge, and are often seen to have become entangled.
The remainder of the inner wall of the chamber is smooth. The cavity opens into
a branch of the canal system by a narrow passage about 4 in diameter.

Although the features of the ciliated chambers above described differ in many
points from those usually met with in sponges, they are so distinctly seen as to
give the impression that they are approximately those of the living tissue.

The larger branches of the canal system, with flattened nuclei scattered over
their walls, are easily recognised, but in many cases it is difficult to decide whether
a particular space met with in a section is to be referred to the canal system or to
a vacuolar mesh of the reticulum, if indeed the two are distinct.

In some of the skeletal canals the tissue above described is abundant, in others
only a thin lining of loose vacuolated tissue is found, but all intermediate con-
ditions in the character of the soft tissue lying between the skeleton and the main
trunks of the canal system are met with.

The existence of ciliated chambeys implies the existence of afferent and
efferent channels. I have not been able to recognise, from the structure, a
differentiation of the canals into these two categories, but it seems clear that
the efferent system is not collected into one or a few large channels, such as
are commonly found in sponges. My impression is that there are a large number
not only of afferent but efferent trunks to the canal system, supplying and draining
approximately equal areas.

Reproduction.—Each of the three specimens which I examined by sections
contained large eggs or embryos. They are found near the orifices of the larger
canals, separated from the skeletal wall by a thin layer of soft tissue. I have not
been able to recognise eggs in a young stage of growth. An advanced ovwm in
one specimen measures 0:1 mm. in length, and has a thick-walled nucleus 25u
in diameter, and a well-marked germinal spot. An embryo in the same specimen
has a superficial layer of nuclei, and the protoplasm about them is disposed in
columns perpendicular to the surface. Internally the columns are merged in the
granular protoplasm which occupies the interior of the embryo, and this is
obscurely divided into irregular masses, but not, so far as I can detect, containing
nuclei. None of the embryos have a segmentation cavity. It appears, then, that
the development leads to the formation of a larva of a parenchymula type, rather
than an amphiblastula. I have not been able to recognise any stage in the
formation of spermatozoa.

Tn the course of growth the soft tissues appear to be withdrawn from the

778 REPORT—1899.

skeletal canals in the basal region of the sponge, these being left empty, or with
only a thin layer of tissue on their walls.

Zoological Position.—That the animal under consideration belongs to the
Porifera seems clear from the presence in the soft tissues of numerous chambers
provided with flagella and communicating with a system of canals which ulti-
mately open to the exterior by pores. The soft tissues are, moreover, supported
by a skeleton composed of elements which are secreted by cells of the jelly.

On the other hand, that it is not a Celenterate is shown by the absence of
polyps, mesenteries, and thread-cells.

But admitting that Astrosclera is a Sponge, there are many features which
separate it from the living members of this group. Among these may be men-
tioned :—

(a) The shape of the skeletal elements. They are polyhedra, which begin as
spheres, and may pass through a spheraster stage.

(6) Their union to form a rigid skeleton to the exclusion of the soft parts. In
Petrostroma of Déderlein the supporting skeleton is also formed of fused calcareous
spicules, but these are modified quadriradiates.

(c) The mode of growth by the addition of new skeletal elements at the upper
surface, and without interstitial growth.

(d) The limitation of the pores to the upper surface. Tewtoriwm (Vosmaer),
a siliceous sponge classed with the Polymastide, presents a similar limitation.

(e) The absence of large gastral spaces.

(7) The small size of the ciliated chambers. They do not exceed 18u by 11p,
while the smallest size given by Heckel for the Lewcones (whose ciliated chambers
are smaller than those of other Calcarea) is 60% by 40u. Among the non-Calcarea
42u is the smallest diameter given for the ciliated chambers.

(g) The character of the cells bearing the flagella. They appear not to be
collar-cells of the usual type, but more or less amosboid, and without a collar, the
body of the cell gradually tapering into the flagellum.

From the Calearea it differs also in the following features :—

(a) The flagellate cells are limited to about half the interior of the ciliated
chambers,

(6) There appears to be a long and complicated canal system both on the
afferent and efferent sides of the ciliated chambers.

(c) The mineral constituent of the skeleton is aragonite and not calcite.

While Astrosclera is very distinct. from any of the families of living sponges,
its resemblance to certain members of the group of fossil sponges Pharetrones is
very striking. These are found in strata ranging from the Devonian to the
Cretaceous periods.

The feature characteristic of many members of this group (though authorities
are by no means agreed either on its essential characters or limits) is that the
skeletal elements are united together into dense trabecule or ‘fibres,’ as they are
technically called, between which a branched canal-work is often present, leading
into a central gastral cavity. The latter, however, may be so shallow as almost
to cease to exist. A cortical layer, which has been thought to be imperforate,
often clothes the outer surface of the cylindrical members of this group, and in that
case the pores leading to the interior would be limited to the upper part of the
sponge. Insome cases radiating grooves are present on the upper surface con-
verging towards the mouth of the gastral cavity, the initial stage of the branched -
canals of the interior.

If we suppose the trabeculz of the skeleton of one of the simple forms to
increase in thickness, and the gastral cavity to become wholly obliterated (as is
very nearly the case in Stedlispongia), we have a form agreeing with <Astrosclera
in the larger features of the anatomy of the skeleton.

On turning our attention, however, to the elements of which the fibres of the
skeleton are formed, we find that in the Phwretrones in which the structure is most

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 779

perfectly preserved, they are well-marked tri- and quadriradiate spicules similar to
those of other calcareous sponges.! They are closely packed together, the rays
being bent to adapt them to one another to form tke fibre of the sponge. The
spicules have been clearly demonstrated in several genera, including, besides simple
forms, the remarkable segmented sponges such as Verticillites, which consist of
tubular seyments whose walls are formed of close-packed spicules, and which are
superposed one upon another, the roof of one forming the floor of its successor.

In the Triassic deposits of St. Cassian in the Tyrol, representatives of the
Pharetrones occur, in which the fibres of the skeleton are made up, not of spicules,
but of spheroidal masses, with a radiate structure strikingly resembling the ele-
ments of the skeleton of Astrosclera.”

The view of this structure generally held by paleeontologists is that it is second-
ary, being due to a recrystallisation of the lime. If this is the case, it is certainly
a remarkable coincidence that the structure should resemble so closely that of a
living form, which in the larger features of the anatomy of its skeleton resembles
members of the Pharetrones. A fact which supports the view of the secondary
nature of the spherulitic structure is that the fossils in which it occurs are the repre-
sentatives in the St. Cassian beds of both simple (e.g. Corynella gracile, Miinstyr.),
and segmented (e.g. Enoplocelia and Thawmastocelia) forms of the Pharetrones,
which as they occur elsewhere exhibit as we have seen well-marked tri- and
quadriradiate spicules.

Supposing the spherulitic structure to be secondary in these fossils, the nature
of the skeletal elements is a definite character dividing Astrosclera from the
Pharetrones.

Under these circumstances it seems better to class Astrosclera as the type of a
new family Astroscleride, possibly allied to the Pharetrones, but certainly without
close affinity with any other known group of sponges.°

2. On the Morphology of the Cartilages of the Monotreme Larynx. By
Jounson Symineton, J/.D., Professor of Anatomy, Queen’s College,
Belfast.

This paper contained a description of the cartilaginous framework of the larynx
of the ornithorhynchus and the echidna, based upon ordinary dissections and
et hs serial microscopic sections of the organ.

he condition of the thyroid cartilage in the monotremes is of special interest,
as it forms the basis of Dubois’ theory of the origin of this cartilage from two
pairs of visceral arches, the fourth and fifth post-oral. The author referred to the
different descriptions of this cartilage given by Dubois, Wiedersheim, Walker,
and Gegenbaur, and showed that it consists of a single piece of cartilage, which
includes a median ventral part and two pairs of cornua. The median portion is
not, as usually represented, a separate element or copula, but is directly continuous
with the cornua, The thyroid cartilage of the monotremes agrees, therefore, with
that of the higher mammals in consisting of a single cartilaginous mass, but it
differs in that its anterior and posterior cornua pass from the small median portion,
or body, round the sides of the larynx in a dorsal and caudal direction nearly
parallel with one another, and the anterior cornua are further peculiar in being
eae by a large part of their anterior borders with the posterior cornua of

e hyoid. j

_ According to Gegenbaur the cartilage of the epiglottis is a derivative of the
sixth post-oral visceral arch. He based this theory mainly upon his observations to

1 These are beautifully shown in the Warminster specimens described by Hinde,
Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. ser. 5, vol. x. (1882), p. 185. :
* Cp. Zittel, Grundziiye der Paleontologie, p. 59, fig. 88; also Studien iiber
ate Spongien, iii., Abh. k. bayer. Ak. Wiss. Cl. ii. Bd. 13 Abth. 2 (1879), pl. xii.
g. 5.
5 A fuller and illustrated description will appear in Dr Willey’s Zological Results.

780 , REPORT—1899.

the effect that in the monotremes the epiglottis is composed of hyaline cartilage, and
thus, in its primitive form, has the same histological structure as the other visceral
arches. The author's results are entirely opposed to those of Gegenbaur. He
found its structure to be similar to that of ordinary mammals, viz. yellow elastic
cartilage. The existence of an abundant network of elastic fibres was demon-
strated by various stains, especially picric acid and orcein.

Both the ontogeny and the phylogeny of the mammalian epiglottis support the
view that it is a single median structure, and not, as Gegenbaur believes, the result
of the fusion of two lateral elements.

Gegenbaur’s theory of the phylogeny of the epiglottis must be abandoned,
while the view of Dubois that it is a new formation of cartilage in the submucous
tissue, not represented in submammalian vertebrates, appears to me to be consistent
with the known facts of its structure, relations, and comparative anatomy.

The arytenoid cartilages of the monotremes closely resemble those of the
marsupialia except that they are relatively somewhat smaller. The interarytenoid
cartilage is present and has the same relations as in marsupials, but in both
echidna and ornithorhynchus there is an additional median cartilaginous element in
the ventral wall of the larynx posterior to the interarytenoids

3. The Palpebral and Oculomotor Apparatus of Fishes.
By N. Bisoop Harman, .B., FRCS,

This paper is based upon observations drawn from the examination of seventy
species of fishes, a number which includes examples of most British and some
foreign species.

(1) Palpebral Apparatus.—Gradations in form were found from simple to
complex forms, but it was to be noted that this gradation did not coincide with
any plan of development of orders of fish, since the most complex were found in
species nearest the main line of phylogeny. .

The occurrence of simple forms of provision did not show any scheme of classi-
fication either from relation or habitat. In more complex forms an ‘ extra palpebral
fold’ found in salmon and herring appears to serve asa ‘fender ’ to the eye in fishes
frequenting river and seashore.

The provision of greatest interest was found in the nictitating membrane of
selachians. The relative values of these folds in Carcharias, Galeus, Mustelus,
and Scyllium appear to depend on the coincident condition of the ordinary
palpebral margin. The certainty of the presence of this membrane in the last-
named fish was noted by observation on the living fish.

The development of the membrane as an epiblast-clad fold of dermis springing
from the ocular aspect of a previously formed lower lid was shown by serial
sections of the region in Mustelus embryos.

The source of the complex musculature of the eyelids of these fish was traced
by the same means to the branchial musculature of the spiracle; this remarkable
transference of muscle tissue from a branchial musculature to so dissimilar an
apparatus as palpebral folds was further shown by the inverse ratio existing
between the condition of spiracle and nictitating membrane. In those fish in
which the latter is at its highest development the spiracle is absent, and vice versd.

(2) Relation of Bulb to Orbital Walls.—-The presence of an orbital sac was
noted. Between its least developed form as a bursal sac separating the bulb from
the underlying pharyngeal muscles in the fishing frog, to the large sac affording
complete investment to the orbit and to the structures within it, and the special
muscular evagination of the sac to form the recessus orbitalis of Holt in the
pleuronectids, a complete gradation of form can be traced.

Investing the bulb was found a complete membrane attached peripherally to
the palpebral folds, and affording tubular sheaths to the muscles ; the membrane in
its relations agreed well with the capsule of Tenon in the higher mammals.

The eyes of many cartilaginous fishes are supported by a rod of cartilage ;
rays exhibit the structure in its mest complete form of cup, stem and bal], and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, 731

socket-joint; the stem is stayed hy ligaments. In sharks it dwindles into a
slender rod, and is absent in some. Its origin was found to be by an independent
chondrification within the mesoblast packing of the orbit,

The eyes of many bony fishes are supported by a ligament in close relation to
the optic nerve. The occurrence of the ligament was very frequent in fresh-water
fishes.

(3) Musculature.—The eye-muscles of fishes are singularly uniform in their
relations, Among the variations found may be noted that in Zygena Maleus
The short M. recti are attached to the distant basis cranii by means of a long
common tendon.

Provision for projection and retraction of the bulb was found in a few cases,
the special movement of the eyes of Feriopthalmus koelreuteri is probably not of
this nature; but of elevation and depression.

The formation of palpebral retractors by a superficial delamination of the
M. recti was noted in some cases.

A special form of M. obliquus superior was found to exist in both eyes of all
pleuronectids, which provides for the rotation of the eye. This muscle consists
here of two parts, one like the normal M. obliquus superior of other fish, a second
in a long, slender, strap-like portion, which embraces the upper and outer qua-
drant of the bulb. The axis of vision of these fish can be noted to be frequently
in a state of convergence; it is particularly interesting to note this specialisation
in this connection, since like conditions of the muscle are found in animals
possessing the capacity of convergence of visual axes, e.g. horse and man. ‘This
indicated the possibility of independent evolution of organs in widely severed
types along similar lines when the conditions of use are similar!

4, The Pelvic Symphysial Bone of the Indian Elephant. ‘
By Professor R. J. ANDERSON.

The symphysial cartilage of many mammals is often converted into bone.
Numerous examples have been noted and commented on by myself and others. It
is only necessary to refer to the fact that ligaments are often converted into bone.
The tentorium cerebelli of certain carnivora, the ligaments of the pelvis (sacro-
sciatic) in the sloth and armadillo, the tendons in the leg of the turkey,-the supra-
scapular ligament in man, and the-abdominal fibrous bands in the crocodile, are
the often-cited examples of bones that are developed in tendinous or membranous
structures.

The symphysial cartilage or bone has been, in the pelvis, regarded as the
equivalent (homologous to the whole or part) of the sternum, and has been called a
pelvisternum. Whether this be so or not, the actual condition of the bone is of
considerable morphological interest.

Mr. Schliiter of Halle supplied to our Museum three years ago the rough skele-
ton of an elephant. When cleaned and mounted, it appeared to have been about
eight feet high at the shoulder. The ischio-pubic epiphyses are still separate, and
the iliac crest, still incomplete, is not united to the ilium. The head of the femur
and the great trochanter are not united to the shaft of the thigh-bone.

A wedge-shaped bone exists between the pubes of opposite sides, the anterior
surface is triangular, is two and a half inches in height, and one and a quarter inches
wide This surface is convex from below upwards. The lower surface, which is
keeled, is two and a half inches in length. The bone tapers posteriorly.

The skeleton of the elephant in the National Museum of Ireland has a small pelvic
symphysial bone, and the camel in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons
of Ireland has also a well-formed example of the same bone. Many skeletons have,
however, been so well (?) cleaned that the symphyses have disappeared.

* It is not easy to account for the symphysial cartilage or bone morphologically,

' The paper has been published in extenso, with plates, in the Jowrnal af Anatomy
and Physiology, Nov. 1899, vol, xxxiy. p, 1. :

782 REPoRT—1899. :

but the observations of Albrecht, although somewhat disconnected, are worthy of
consideration. It will be remembered, however, that the sternum is in its incep-
tion very intimately connected with the rib arches, to which the ribs are hinged,
and which, with the spinal column, form the fixed bars on which the ribs swing,
and is, as nearly as possible, the result of the fusion of the lower ends of the ribs to
form a beam, from which the ribs are afterwards segmented and made to swing on
the sternal and dorsal hinges, whilst two rows of (lateral) centres of ossification
lead, in the course of development, to the solidification of the sternum. The sym-
physial cartilage, in man at least, presents occasionally for observation a pelvic
fissure.

5. A few Notes on Rhythmic Motion. By Professor R. J. ANDERSON.

6. The Crystallisation of Beeswax and its Influence on the Formation of
the Cells of Bees. By Cuartes Dawson, F.G.S., &c., and 8. A.
Woopueap, B.Sc., F.C.S.

The hexagonal arrangement of the cells of bees has been generally ascribed to
a structural instinct of bees; the object of this paper is now to show that the form
of the bee-cell is chiefly influenced by a kind of crystalline formation due to the
cooling of the wax.

7. Report on Photographic Records of Pedigree Stock. See Reports, p. 424.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

The following Reports were read :—

1. First Report on the Plankton and Physical Conditions of the
English Channel.—See Reports, p. 444.

2. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples
See Reports, p. 431.

3. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Marine Biological Laboratory,
Piymouth.—See Reports, p. 437,

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1 The Development of Lepidosiren paradowx. By J. GRAHAM KERR.

2. Animals in which Nutrition has no Influence in Determining Sex.
By James F, Geman.

The edible mussel (Mytilus edulis) may be found at all different levels between
moderately high and low tide marks, ‘he individuals are fixed, and feed only

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, 783

when covered by water. Those which are placed high up in the tidal zone are
not so well nourished as those which have a lower position. ‘The former have less
time during which feeding is possible, and are much smaller in size than the latter.
Mussels have the sexes separate. Their larval free-swimming stage ceases before
sex is differentiated, as far as can be made out by histological examination. There
is not a relatively greater number of females in the middle and lower zones, nor a
relatively greater number of males in the higher zones. The inference is that in
the mussel nutrition has no influence in determining sex.

The common limpet (Patella vulgata) is also found everywhere in the tidal
zone. Its sexes are separate, and the free-swimming stage ceases before sex is
differentiated. The limpet is not fixed in the same sense as the mussel, but from
its habits it may be considered as practically fixed.

The same facts regarding the numerical proportion of males and females at
different levels were found to hold good for the limpet as for the mussel, and the
same inferences were drawn. In the mussel and the limpet there are no well-
marked secondary sexual characters, and the ovary and testes are equal in bulk,
On the other hand, in the special animals in which nutrition has been distinctly
shown to influence the determination of sex there isa disproportion sometimes
extreme between the amounts of the male and female sexual products. This is
due chiefly to the fact that the eggs in these cases are provided with much deuto-
plasm, while the sperm is small in amount. The presence of deutoplasm in large
quantity cannot, however, be considered to be primitively characteristic of ova.

Bearing of the foregoing on the general questions of the evolution and deter-
mination of sex.

3. Lxhabition of Newly Discovered Remains of Neomylodon from Patagonia.
By F. P. Moreno and A. Suira Woopwarp,

On behalf of Dr. F. P. Moreno, Director of the La Plata Museum, Mr. A. Smith
Woodward exhibited some newly discovered remains of the supposed extinct
ground-sloth Neomylodon, discovered by Dr. R. Hauthal in a cavern in Patagonia.
The animal had previously been known only by a piece of armoured skin from the
same cavern. The new specimens ccmprised a skull, evidently broken by man,
and some well-preserved pieces of exciement. These were found beneath a layer
of earth in the cave, with a large quantity of hay and other evidence of the pre-
sence of man. The excrement showed that the animal fed on grasses and herbs,
not on the foliage of trees. The skull, which still showed pieces of flesh and carti-
lage adhering to it, seemed to be identical with one from the Pampa formation
further north, named Glossotherium or Grypotherium, as already observed by Dr.
Santiago Roth. The theory of Dr. Hauthal, that these ground-sloths were kept
in captivity in the cave by the ancient Patagonians, was adversely criticised by
several speakers, and the fresh appearance of the specimens was specially com-
mented upon.

4, Exhibition of and Remarks on a Skull of the extinct Chelonian Miolania
Srom Patagonia, By F.P. Moreno and A. Smrra Woopwarp.

Mr. Smith Woodward also exhibited, on behalf of Dr. Moreno, a skull of the
extinct Chelonian reptile, Miolania, obtained by Dr. Roth for the La Plata
Museum during his recent expedition to Chubut. The skull proved to be
essentially identical with others already discovered in superficial deposits in
Queensland and in Lord Howe's Island, 400 miles off the coast of New South
Wales. The discovery was thus of great interest, as apparently favouring the
hypothesis of a former great antarctic continent, of which Australia and Patagonia
are now mere remnants,

——

784 rEPORT—1899,
5. The Fur Seals of the Behring Sed:
By G. E. H. Barrerr-Hamirron,.

6. Report on Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.
See Reports, p. 447.

7. Report on ‘ Index Animalium.’ See Reports, p. 429.

8, Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands. See Reports, p. 436.

9. Report on Zoological and Botanical Publications. See Reports, p. 444.

10. Report on the Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands.
See Reports, p. 441.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.

1. Expériments on the Artificial Rearing of Sea-Fish.
By W. Garstang, MA.

Recent experiments at the Plymouth laboratory with the larve of the Butterfly
Blenny (Blennius ocellaris) have shown that under suitable conditions the
metamorphosis of Teleostean larvee can be completed with a death-rate not
exceeding 30 per cent. or 40 per cent. of the original numbers. The failure of
MM. Fabre-Domergue and Biétrix in their experiments upon Cottus, and of
Cunningham in the case of other fishes, is probably to be attributed to their
employment either of absolutely stagnant water or of water in a state of
very slow circulation. In my experiments the mortality in the early stages
of development, when stagnant water was employed, was invariably very
high. The larvae remained inactive and refused to feed, exactly as in the experi-
ments of the French observers. But if during the first week of development the
water was kept in a constant state of gentle agitation by means of the ‘plunger’
devised by Messrs. Allen and Brown, the larve remained healthy and active, and
were incessantly on the look-out for food particles. On the other hand, agitation
of the water appears to be unnecessary in the later stages of development, for if
the larvee are kept healthy in agitated water during the first week of their
development they may complete their metamorphosis in absolutely stagnant water,
provided it is properly oxygenated and supplied with food, and is kept free from
the accumulation of organic débris.

The success of my later experiments was so complete that I propose to continue
them on a larger scale during the’coming spawning season with the larvae of
food-fishes, in the hope of throwing light upon the difficult problems of sea-fish

culture.

9, Plaice Culture in the Limfjord, Denmark.
By Dr. C. G. Jou. PEreksen,

The Limfjord runs right across the northern part of the peninsula of Jutland,
there being an entrance from the North See at Thyborén, and another from the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 785

Cattegat at Hals. The distance between these two entrances is about ninety
English miles.

The fjord consists of several extensive broads connected with each other by
sounds and narrow cbannels. The total area of the water-surface is estimated at
416 square English miles. The average depth is between three and four fathoms,
and the greatest depth is only twelve fathoms. Close to the shore, and where strong
currents prevail, the bottom consists of shells, gravel, and sand, but elsewhere it is
a soft blue mud, Zostera maritima grows in great luxuriance in most of the
shallow reaches. In summer the temperature of the water of the Limfjord is
several degrees higher than that of the North Sea and Cattegat, but in winter it is
much lower, and the surface is then frequently covered with a thick layer of ice.
The salinity of the water decreases from the North Sea towards the inner Broads,
where it was often nearly fresh. There is scarcely any tide; the rise and fall of
level, and the currents are chiefly determined by the action of the wind. The shores
of the Limfjord are varied and picturesque, many of the hills being crowned by
the characteristic Viking Mounds.

The fjord has witnessed many changes. During the Stone Age the water
stood at a higher level and was much salter, especially in the eastern part. This
is proved by the position, far from the present shore, of the ancient kitchen-
middens with abundance of oyster shells. This salt-water period was followed by
several others, in some of which the water became nearly fresh; the oysters dis-
appeared, and the fjord contained many fresh-water fish. The last great change
took place in 1825, when the North Sea broke into the fjord near Thyborén. The
ee in consequence, became salter, and the oysters subsequently returned to the

jord.

: The Thyborén Channel is now about half a mile wide: the navigable part, with
a depth of eight to twelve feet,is kept open by the continual work of a Hopper
dredger. The Nissum Broad, which is in direct communication with the North
Sea by means of this channel, has an area of about seventy square miles. This
Broad is every year crowded with small plaice. I estimate that there is here at
least one plaice on every square fathom of the bottom, a calculation made by means
of counting all the plaice fished with a plaice-seine on different places of the
Broad, every haul describing an area of about one-quarter Ténde Land (1 Ténde
Land =1;4, acre)! On July 1 last a haul was made here with a Danish plaice-
seine, for the information of some of the delegates to the recent Stockholm Con-
ference. The whole operation occupied less than an hour, and 3,400 plaice were
landed on the deck of the fishery steamer Sallingsiind. The majority of these fish
measured between seven and eight inches, a few were much smaller, and only one
measured thirteen inches.

No fertilised plaice eggs have ever been observed in this or any other part of
the Limfjord, but plaice from two to seven inches in length come in from the North
Sea in abundance in spring. Many of these migrate farther into the fjord, but
others migrate out into the North Sea again, in winter, for specimens labelled in
the Nissum Broad have been captured in the North Sea.” The plaice does not
breed in the fjord; but the fry of the year immigrates in the course of the year
from the North Sea. The plaice are so crowded in the Nissum Broad, that they
do not grow fast from want of sufficient food. Labelled specimens were found
to have grown only half an inch in six months, while other specimens from the
Nissum Broad, placed in another Broad at the same time, increased five inches in
length during the same period.®

It may be mentioned here, that over the whole Limfjord quantitative examina-

’ Comp. Report from the Danish Biological Station, vi. 1895, p. 23,

* Comp. luc. cit. p. 6, and 8-10, and Table I. belonging to this Report, where a
graphical scheme is given showing (1) that the size of the plaice increases with the
distance from the North Sea; (2) that the fry of the year only is to be found in the
western part of the Limfjord.

5 Comp. Joe. cit. p. 20, and Appendix II. to this Report: ‘On the Labelling of
Living Plaice in the Limfjord in 1895.’

1899. JE

786 REPORT—1899.

tions have been made by an apparatus which covers one square foot bottom surface
and takes up all invertebrates (bivalves, worms, &c.) living on this. In this way
it was shown that there are many places where 1,400 bivalves (Abra, Corbula, and
Solen) live on one square foot bottom surface, and that, for instance, in the Thisted
Broad, where the plaice grows quicker and becomes larger than in the other Broads,
food suitable for plaice is not more abundant than in the other Broads. The
different growth must therefore be owing to the different number of fish per Ténde
Land:

In Nissum Broad there are at least 932 plaice per Ténde Land.

In Kaas Broad ‘s a 375 ” 2
In Veno Bugt ~ 59 297 of ”
In Thisted Broad ,, at most 7 Ff} $s

On July 2, a haul of the seine, under precisely similar conditions as in Nissum
Broad, was taken in Kaas Broad, which is farther removed from the North Sea
entrance than the Nissum Broad. This haul yielded only 1,400 plaice, but they
were of larger size, the majority measuring eight anda half to nine and a half
inches. My view that the small size and slow growth of the plaice in the Nissum
Broad is due to overcrowding is confirmed by the interesting experiments in the
Thisted Broad. One haul was made on July 3, 1899, in this Broad, and thirty-six
plaice were caught; all these fish were of a larger size than those in the other
Broads, and their damaged fin-rays showed that they all really were transplanted.
The transplantation of these fish was made in March and April 1899. This Broad
is about forty miles from the North Sea entrance at Thyborén, and a few years
ago contained practically no plaice. Thousands of plaice from seven to ten inches
in length are now every year transported by the fishermen, partly aided by a
Government grant, from the North Sea to this Thisted Broad in April, and it has
been found that, by November of the same year, they have grown to thirteen and
fifteen inches in length, Generally speaking, these transplanted fish weigh one-
fifth of a pound when put into the Thisted Broad in April, and weighed one pound
when taken out in November.

The cost of transplanting a young plaice from the North Sea is one-sixth of a
penny, and the value of the plaice, when recaptured in November, is fourpence.
Last year, between 100,000 and 200,000 were transplanted in this way, and prac-
tically all the fish were recaptured for the market.

I believe that there is food enough in the Thisted Broad to support 30,000
plaice on every square mile, so that 500,000 might be transported to this Broad
annually. There are other Broads in the Limfjord where there are now no plaice,
and it is believed that 3,000,000 plaice might be transplanted to the Limfjord
annually. Should this scheme of fish culture be carried out, there would be an
enormous increase in the value of the Danish plaice fisheries, There is now before
the Danish Parliament a bill asking for a grant of 1,000/. a year for transplanting
these young plaice, with the view of finding out how many of these fish can live
on each square mile of the fjord and, at the same time, yield an economic result in
the direction here indicated.

Although there is at present no definite statistical information on the subject,
I am of opinion that there is no diminution in the number of small immature
plaice on the coasts of Denmark. Nature appears to yield a constant and abund-
ant supply. The supply of food does not seem to be sufficient for the young fish
in many places. Onthe other hand, my researches in the Cattegat show that there
large-sized spawning plaice have diminished in number.

Dr. J. Hjort has this year transplanted from the Danish coast 22,000 small
plaice to the Christiania fjord in Norway ; it will be most interesting to learn the
result of his experiments.

Should these prove successful, there can be little doubt that a similar kind of
fish culture could be carried on in many of the sea lochs of other countries.

TRANSACTIONS .OF SECTION D. 787

3. On the Occurrence of the Grey Gurnard (Trigla gurnardus, L.), and
its Spawning in the Inshore and Offshore Waters. By W. C.
McIntosu.

In the following remarks the grey gurnard is used to illustrate certain features
of the resources of the sea, and it is of some importance in this respect, though it
has to be remembered that the gurnard is a fish that often swims in mid-water,
and occasionally may be caught near the surface.

In the Trawling Investigations of 1884 (Royal Commission, under Lord
Dalhousie), the grey gurnard ranked, as regards numbers, third in the list of
saleable fishes, only the haddock and the whiting exceeding it in total numbers.
Tn that report the fishes, as they ought to be in all such inquiries, were arranged
according to months as well as stations, and it appears therefrom that few gurnards
occur in the trawl] in January or February, but they are found in large numbers in
March, increase still more in April, and in May attain their maximum in St.
Andrews Bay. They remain in fair, though smaller numbers, in the bay in June,
July, and August, and in the latter month even increase in numbers at nine miles
from land. Their occurrence, however, is not confined to inshore waters, for at
Smith Bank, off Caithness, they were in considerable numbers in April, and many
not fully ripe, and so in 24 to 30 fathoms water, 4 to 8 miles S.E. of the Isle of Man.

Again, in May, in water 32 to 40 fathoms in depth, and 25 to 38 miles from
land, they were also in considerable numbers, and spawning. In June and July
they were still found in offshore waters, and some spawning. In the middle of
August large gurnards were extremely numerous 15 miles from land, two hauls of
the trawl giving respectively 363 and 456 specimens. These facts showed that
gurnards were scarce in the trawl, both in inshore and offshore waters in the early
months, became more conspicuous in both in April, had high numbers in May and
June in inshore waters, and considerable numbers in offshore waters. The distri-
bution of the species was further alluded to in the ‘ Food-fishes.’ !

In the ‘Resources of the Sea,’ the gurnard, from the returns of the Garland,?
formed one of the most conspicuous features in connection with the round fishes,
and showed, more or less, the spindle formed by marine animals—yertebrate and
invertebrate—during the year, the wide central part of the spindle occurring in
the warmer months, and the figure tapering off to a point in January and again in
December. Different areas, however, vary: thus in St. Andrews Bay the capture
of gurnards is nearly double that in the Forth, and the larger forms (over 11 inches)
show a great increase in August, while those from 7 to 10 inches, and those
under 7 inches, have their maximum, during the decade, in June. It must be
borne in mind that in this area, however, there were serious blanks in the decade
in the important months of May and August.

In the Forth, again, the maximum captures of the gurnards over 11 inches
are found in the ten years (and taking each year by itself) to fall in no less than
six months, viz. April, May, June, July, August, and September, the number of
times in each month varying. May has the pre-eminence of three maxima, yet
August remains steadily high throughout, as in the totals for fishes generally in
the returns of the Garland. It is doubtful, however, if such increase in August
is due to a ‘second migration,’ like the herring, for spawning purposes, as Dr.
Fulton, the able superintendent of the Fishery Board’s investigations, supposes.
Of the next size (7 to 10 inches), the maxima are found in two months only, viz.
May and June, and August never attains prominence. Those under 7 inches
have their maxima in five months, viz. from May to October—July being absent.

Now the fact that the smaller forms (most of which do not spawn) show a
decided tendency to increase in certain months, should make caution necessary in
attributing the increase in inshore waters in August to this function (spawning).
Experience proves that the spawning of the gurnard goes on from the end of
April till September, and that no special accession of ova occurs in August ;

1 Life Histories of the Food-fishes, McIntosh and Masterman, p. 136.
2 The ship of the Fishery Board for Scotland.

3H2

788 REPORT—1899.

indeed, the eggs ave fewer than in June. Moreover, spawning gurnards are
common in the offshore waters during the same period, and while it is rare to find
post-larval and very young gurnards in St. Andrews Bay or the Forth, they occur
in numbers in the offshore waters. Again, as above mentioned, there are other
fishes which show an increase in August, and though that of the larger sizes is
not so pronounced, still such increase has to be taken into consideration.

It is curious that the grey gurnard, though stated to be inshore spawned in the
blue-book (just as the dab is also in error claimed as an inshore spawner), has not
been used by the Fishery Board of Scotland to substantiate their large closures of
areas against trawling. The following table may explain tke cause of the silence
on this head :

Grey Gurnard. Average per Haul, 1886-1895.

“ St. Andrews | St. Andrews
Year Bay Forth | Year Bay Forth
1886 24 10 | 1891 13 15
1887 52 20 1892 27 19
1888 20 13 1893 13 15
1889 18 13 1894 8 9
1890 21 9 1895 44 14
|
Average 25 * 13 Average 20 | 15

Considering the differences in the circumstances under which the work was
carried on in the two quinquennial periods (viz. as regards warmer and colder
months, inequality of hauls on stations, duration of haul, and other features), it is
remarkable that the divergences were not more pronounced. No fish, indeed, ~
could more conclusively show that the position taken up in the ‘ Resources of
the Sea’ is that which best agrees with the facts of the case. Such a fish to-day
is very much in the position it has always held in the ocean. It is true the larger
forms of some species become fewer under persistent fishing, and this occurs
irrespective of trawling—as, for example, in former years off the coast of America
and Australia. Increased wariness—for fishes, both marine and fresh-water, have
much more intelligence than is usually supposed—must also be taken into account.
There is no need to fear the serious decadence of our marine fisheries. When we
doubt, let us remember the herring with its eggs deposited on the bottom, and
think how much more likely it is to suffer by the operations of man than almost
all the other marine food-fishes, with their transparent and minute floating or
pelagic eggs—disseminated widely by tides and currents.

4, On the Thames Estuary: its Physico-Biological Aspects as bearing
upon its Fisheries. By Dr. J. Muniz.

5. Interim Report on a Circulatory Apparatus for keeping Aquatic
Organisms under definite Physical Conditions, See Reports, p. 431.

6. Exhibition of Dr. Petersen's Closing Net for Quantitative Estimation
of Plankton. By W. Garsrane, M.A.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION EB, 789

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTIoN—Sir JoHN Murray, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc, LL.D.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The President delivered the following Address :—

In his opening Address to the members of the British Association at the Ipswich
meeting, the President cast a retrospective glance at the progress that had taken
place in the several branches of scientific inquiry from the time of the formation of
the Association in 1831 down to 1895, the year in which were published the last
two of the fifty volumes of Reports containing the scientific results of the voyage
of H.M.S. Challenger. In that very able and detailed review there is no reference
whatever to the work of the numerous expeditions which had been fitted out by
this and other countries for the exploration of the depths of the sea, nor is there
any mention of the great advance in our knowledge of the ocean during the period
of sixty-five years then under consideration. This omission may be accounted for
by the fact that, at the time of the formation of the British Association, knowledge
concerning the ocean was, literally speaking, superficial. The study of marine
phenomena had hitherto been almost entirely limited to the surface and shallow
waters of the ocean, to the survey of coasts and of oceanic routes directly useful
for commercial purposes. Down to that time there had been no systematic
attempts to ascertain the physical and biological conditions of those regions of the
earth’s surface covered by the deeper waters of the ocean; indeed, most of the
apparatus necessary for such investigations had not yet been invented.

The difficulties connected with the exploration of the greater depths of the
sea arise principally from the fact that, in the majority of cases, the observations
are necessarily indirect. At the surface of the ocean direct observation is possible,
but our knowledge of the conditions prevailing in deep water, and of all that is
there taking place, is almost wholly dependent on the correct working of instru-
ments, the action of which at the critical moment is hidden from sight.

It was the desire to establish telegraphic communication between Europe and
America that gave the first direct impulse to the scientific exploration of the great
ocean-basins, and at the present day the survey of new cable routes still yields
each year a large amount of accurate knowledge regarding the floor of the ocean.
Immediately before the Challenger Expedition there was a marked improvement
in all the apparatus used in marine investigations, and thus during the Challenger
Expedition the great ocean-basins were for the first time systematically and
successfully explored. This expedition, which lasted for nearly four years, was
successful beyond the expectations of its promoters, and opened out a new era in
the study of oceanography. A great many sciences were enriched by a grand
accumulation of new facts. Large collections were sent and brought home,
and were subsequently described by specialists helonging to almost every-civilised
nation. Since the Challenger Expedition there has been almost a revolution in the

790 REPORT—-1899.

methods employed in deep-sea observations. The most profound abysses of the
ocean are now being everywhere examined by sailors and scientific men with
increasing precision, rapidity, and success.

The recognition of oceanography as a distinct branch of science may be said to
date from the commencement of the Challenger investigations. The fuller knowledge
we now possess about all oceanic phenomena has had a great modifying influ-
ence on many general conceptions as to the nature and extent of those changes
which the crust of the earth is now undergoing and has undergone in past geological
times. Our knowledge of the ocean is still very incomplete. So much has, how-
ever, already been acquired that the historian will, in all probability, point to the
oceanographical discoveries during the past forty years as the most important
addition to the natural knowledge of our planet since the great geographical
voyages associated with the names of Columbus, Da Gama, and Magellan, at the
end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries.

It is not my intention on this occasion to attempt anything like a general
review of the present state of oceanographic science. But, as nearly all the samples
of marine deposits collected during the past thirty years have passed through my
hands, I shall endeavour briefly to point out what, in general, their detailed exami-
nation teaches with respect to the present condition of the floor of the ocean, and I
will thereafter indicate what appears to me to be the bearing of some of these
results on speculations as to the evolution of the existing surface features of our
planet.

Depth of the Ocean.

All measurements of depth, by which we ascertain the relief of that part of
the earth’s crust coyered by water, are referred to the sea-surface ; the measure-
ments of height on the land are likewise referred to sea-level. It is admitted
that the ocean has a very complicated undulating surface, in consequence of the
attraction which the heterogeneous and elevated portions of the lithosphere
exercise on the liquid hydrosphere. In the opinion of geodesists the geoid may
in some places depart from the figure of the spheroid by 1,000 feet. Still it is not
likely that this surface of the geoid departs so widely from the mean ellipsvidal
form as to introduce a great error into our estimates of the elevations and de-
pressions on the surface of the lithosphere.

The soundings over the water-surface of the globe have accumulated ai a rapid
rate during the past fifty years. In the shallow water, where it is necessary
to know the depth for purposes of navigation, the soundings may now be spoken of
as innumerable; the 100-fathom line surrounding the land can therefore often be
drawn in with much exactness. Compared with this shallow-water region, the
soundings in deep water beyond the 100-fathom line are much less numerous;
each year, however, there are large additions to our knowledge. Within the
last decade over ten thousand deep soundings have been taken by British ships
alone. The deep soundings are scattered over the different ocean-basins in varying
proportions, being now most numerous in the North Atlantic and South-west
Pacific, and in these two regions the contour-lines of depth may be drawn in with
greater confidence than in the other divisions of the great ocean-basins. It may
be pointed out that 659 soundings taken quite recently during cable surveys in the
North Atlantic, although much closer together than is usually the case, and yield-
ing much detailed information to cable engineers, have, from a general point of
view, necessitated but little alteration in the contour-lines drawn on the Challenger
bathymetrical maps published in 1895. Again, the recent soundings of the
German s.s. Valdivia in the Atlantic, Indian, and Southern Oceans have not caused
very great alteration in the positions of the contour-lines on the Challenger
maps, if we except one occasion in the South Atlantic when a depth of 2,000
fathoms was expected and the sounding machine recorded a depth of only 536
fathoms, and again in the great Southern Ocean when depths exceeding 3,000
fathoms were obtained in a region where the contour-lines indicated between 1,000
and 2,000 fathoms. This latter discovery suggests that the great depth recorded
by Ross to the south-east of South Georgia may not be very far from the truth,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION £. 791

T have redrawn the several contour-lines of depth in the great ocean-basins,
after careful consideration of the most recent data, and these may now be re-
_ garded as a somewhat close approximation to the actual state of matters, with
the possible exception of the great Southern and Antarctic Oceans, where there
are relatively few soundings, but where the projected Antarctic Expeditions should
soon be at work, On the whole, it may be said that the general tendency of
recent soundings is to extend the area with depths greater than 1,000 fathoms,
and to show that numerous volcanic cones rise from the general level of the floor
of the ocean-basins up to various levels beneath the sea-surface.

The areas marked out by the contour-lines of depth are now estimated as
follows :—

Between the shore and 100 fms. 7,000,000 sq. geo. m. (or 79% of the sea-bed)

. 100 ,, 1,000 ,, 10,000,000 ,, ,, (or10% ,, ion i

“ 1,000 ,, 2,000 ,, 22,000,000 _,, is (or 21% _ ,, is

ré 2,000 ;, 3,000 ,, 57,000,000 ,, | (or65% ~ MS
Over 3,000 fathoms, 7,000,000 , 5 (or 7% , » )

103,000,000 sq. geo. m. 100 per cent.

From these results it appears that considerably more than half of the sea
floor lies at a depth exceeding 2,000 fathoms, or over two geographical miles. It
is interesting to note that the area within the 100-fathom line occupies 7,000,000
square geographical miles, whereas the area occupied by the next succeeding 900
fathoms (viz. between 100 and 1,000 fathoms) occupies only 10,000,000 square
geographical miles. This points to a relatively rapid descent of the sea-floor along
the continental slopes between 100 and 1,000 fathoms, and therefore confirms the
results gained by actual soundings in this region, many of which indicate steep
inclines or even perpendicular cliffs. Not only are the continental slopes the seat
of many deposit-slips and seismic disturbances, but Mr. Benest has given good
reasons for believing that underground rivers sometimes enter the sea at depths
beyond 100 fathoms, and there bring about sudden changes in deep water. Again,
the relatively large area covered by the continental shelf between the shore-line
and 100 fathoms points to the wearing away of the land by current and wave
action.

On the Challenger charts all areas where the depth exceeds 3,000 fathoms
have been called ‘ Deeps,’ and distinctive names have been conferred upon them.
Forty-three such depressions are now known, and the positions of these are shown
on the map here exhibited; twenty-four are situated in the Pacific Ocean, three
in the Indian Ocean, fifteen in the Atlantic Ocean, and one in the Southern and
Antarctic Oceans, The area occupied by these thirty-nine deeps is estimated at
7,152,000 square geographical miles, or about 7 per cent. of the total water-surface
of the globe. Within these deeps over 250 soundings have been recorded, of which
twenty-four exceed 4,000 fathoms, including three exceeding 5,000 fathoms.

Depths exceeding 4,000 fathoms (or four geographical miles) have been recorded
within eight of the deeps, viz. in the North Atlantic within the Nares Deep; in
the Antarctic within the Ross Deep; in the Banda Sea within the Weber Deep ;
in the North Pacific within the Challenger, Tuscarora, and Supau Deeps ; and in
the South Pacific within the Aldrich and Richards Deeps. Depths exceeding
5,000 fathoms have been hitherto recorded only within the Aldrich Deep of the
South Pacific, to the east of the Kermadecs and Friendly Islands, where the
greatest depth is 5,155 fathoms, or 530 feet more than five geographical miles,
being about 2,000 teet more below the level of the sea than the summit of Mount
Everest in the Himalayas is above it. The levels on the surface of the lithosphere
thus oscillate between the limits of about ten geographical miles (more than
eighteen kilometres).

Temperature of the Ocean-floor.

Our knowledge of the temperature on the floor of the ocean is derived from
observations in the layers of water immediately above the bottom by means of

792 REPORT—1899.

deep-sea thermiometers, from the electric resistance of telegraph cables resting on
the bed of the great ocean-basins, and from the temperature of large masses of
mud and ooze brought up by the dredge from great depths. These observations
are now sufficiently numerous to permit of some general statements as to the
distribution of temperature over the bottom of the great oceans.

All the temperatures recorded up to the present time in the sub-surface waters
of the open ocean indicate that at a depth of about 100 fathoms seasonal variation
of temperature disappears. Beyond that depth there is a constant, or nearly
constant, temperature at any one place throughout the year. In some special
positions, and under some peculiar conditions, a lateral shitting of large bodies of
water takes place on the floor of the ocean at depths greater than 100 fathoms.
This phenomenon has been well illustrated by Professor Libbey off the east coast
of North America, where the Gulf Stream and Labrador Current run side by side
in opposite directions. This lateral shifting cannot, however, be called seasonal,
for it appears to be effected by violent storms, or strong off-shore winds bringing
up colder water from considerable depths to supply the place of the surface
drift, so that the colder water covers stretches of the ocean’s bed which under
normal conditions are overlaid by warmer strata of water. Sudden changes of
temperature like these cause the destruction of innumerable marine animals, and
produce very marked peculiarities in the deposits over the areas thus affected.

It is estimated that 92 per cent. of the entire sea-floor has a temperature lower
than 40° F. This is in striking contrast to the temperature prevailing at the surface
of the ocean, only 16 per cent. of which has a mean temperature under 40° F.
The temperature over nearly the whole of the floor of the Indian Ocean in deep
water is under 35° F. <A similar temperature occurs over a large part of the
South Atlantic and certain parts of the Pacific, but at the bottom of the North
Atlantic basin and over a very large portion of the Pacific the temperature is
higher than 35°F. In depths beyond 2,000 fathoms, the average temperature
over the floor of the North Atlantic is about 2° F. above the average temperature
at the bottom of the Indian Ocean and South Atlantic, while the average tempera-
ture of the bed of the Pacific is intermediate between these.

It is admitted that the low temperature of the deep sea has been acquired at.
the surface in Polar and sub-Polar regions, chiefly within the higher latitudes of
the southern hemisphere, where the cooled surface water sinks to the bottom and
spreads slowly over the floor of the ocean into equatorial regions. These cold
waters carry with them into the deep sea the gases of the atmosphere, which are
everywhere taken up at the surface according to the known laws of gas absorp-
tion. In this way myriads of living animals are enabled to carry on their exist-
ence at all depths in the open ocean. The nitrogen remains more or less constant
at all times and places, but the proportion of oxygen is frequently much reduced in
deep water, owing to the processes of oxidation and respiration which are there

oing on.

5 The deep sea is a region of darkness as well as of low temperature, for the
direct rays of the sun are wholly absorbed in passing through the superficial layers
of water. Plant-life is in consequence quite absent over 93 per cent. of the bottom
of the ocean, or 66 per cent. of the whole surface of the lithosphere. The abundant
deep-sea fauna, which covers the floor of the ocean, is therefore ultimately dependent
for food upon organic matter assimilated by plants near its surface, in the shallower
waters near the coast-lines, and on the surface of the dry land itself.

As has been already stated, about 7,000,000 square geographical miles of the
sea-floor lies within the 100-fathom line, and this area is in consequence subject to
seasonal variations of temperature, to strong currents, to the effects of sunlight,
and presents a great variety of physical conditions, The planktonic plant-life is
here reinforced by the littoral seaweeds, and animal-life is very abundant. About
40 per cent. of the water over the bottom of this shallow-water area has a mean
temperature under 40° F., while 20 per cent. has a mean temperature between 40°
and 60° F., and 40 per cent. a temperature of over 60° F.

It follows from this that only 3 per cent. of the floor of the ocean presents
conditions of temperature fayourable for the vigorous growth of corals and those

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION FE, 793

other benthonic organisms which make up coral reefs and require a temperature
of over 60° F. all the yearround. On the other hand, more than half of the surface
of the ocean has a temperature which never falls below 60° F. at any time of the
year. In these surface-~waters with a high temperature, the shells of pelagic
Molluses, Foraminifera, Algze, and other planktonic organisms are secreted in great
abundance, and fall to the bottom after death.

It thus happens that, at the present time, over nearly the whole floor of the
ocean we have mingled in the deposits the remains of organisms which had lived
under widely different physical conditions, since the remains of organisms which
lived in tropical sunlight, and in water at a temperature above 80° F., all their
lives, now lie buried in the same deposit on the sea-floor together with the remains
of other organisms which lived all their lives in darkness and at a temperature
near to the freezing-point of fresh water.

Marine Deposits on the Ocean-floor.

The marine deposits now forming over the floor of the ocean present many
interesting peculiarities according to their geographical and bathymetrical position.
On the continental shelf, within the 100-fathom line, sands and gravels predomi-
nate, while on the continental slopes beyond the 100-fathom line, Blue Muds, Green
Muds, and Red Muds, together with Volcanic Muds and Coral Muds, prevail, the
two latter kinds of deposits being, however, more characteristic of the shallow
water around oceanic islands. The composition of all these Terrigenous Deposits
depends on the structure of the adjoining land. Around continental shores, except
where coral reefs, limestones, and volcanic rocks are present, the materials consist
principally of fragments and minerals derived from the disintegration of the ancient
rocks of the continents, the most characteristic and abundant mineral species being
quartz. River detritus extends in many instances far from the land, while off high
and bold coasts, where no large rivers enter the sea, pelagic conditions may be
found in somewhat close proximity to the shore-line. It is in these latter positions
that Green Muds containing much glauconite, and other deposits containing many
phosphatic nodules, have for the most part been found; as, for instance, off the
eastern coast of the United States, off the Cape of Good Hope, and off the eastern
coasts of Australia and Japan. The presence of glauconitic grains and phosphatic
nodules in the deposit at these places appears to be very intimately associated with
a great annual range of temperature in the surface and shallow waters, and the
consequent destruction of myriads of marine animals. As an example of this
phenomenon may be mentioned the destruction of the tile-fish in the spring of 1882
off the eastern coast of North America, when a layer six feet in thickness of dead
fish and other marine animals was believed to cover the ocean-floor for many
square miles,

In all the Terrigenous Deposits the evidences of the mechanical action of tides, of
currents, and of a great variety of physical conditions, may almost everywhere be
detected, and it is possible to recognise in these deposits an accumulation of mate-
rials analogous to many of the marine stratified rocks of the continents, such as
sandstones, quartzites, shales, marls, greensands, chalks, limestones, conglomerates,
and volcanic grits.

With increasing depth and distance from the continents the deposits gradually
lose their terrigenous character, the particles derived directly from the emerged
land decrease in size and in number, the evidences of mechanical action disappear,
and the deposits pass slowly into what have been called Pelagic Deposits at an
average distance of about 200 miles from continental coast-lines. The materials
composing Pelagic Deposits are not directly derived from the disintegration of the
continents and other land-surfaces. They are largely made up of the shells and
skeletons of marine organisms secreted in the surface waters of the ocean, consist-
_ ing either of carbonate of lime, such as pelagic Molluscs, pelagic Foraminifera, and
pelagic Algze, or of silica, such as Diatoms and Radiolarians. The inorganic con-
stituents of the Pelagic Deposits are for the most part derived from the attrition of
floating pumice, from the disintegration of water-logged pumice, from showers of

794 REPORT—1899.

volcanic ashes, and from the débris ejected from submarine volcanoes, together
with the products of their decomposition. Quartz particles, which play so
important a 7éle in the Terrigenous Deposits, are almost wholly absent, except
where the surface waters of the ocean are aflected by floating ice, or where the
prevailing winds have driven the desert sands far into the oceanic areas. Glau-
conite is likewise absent from these abysmal regions. The various kinds of Pelagic
Deposits are named according to their characteristic constituents, Pteropod Oozes,
Globigerina Oozes, Diatom Oozes, Radiolarian Oozes, and Red Clay.

The distribution of the deep-sea deposits over the floor of the ocean is shown
on the map here exhibited, but it must be remembered that there is no sharp line
of demarcation between them; the Terrigenous pass gradually into the Pelagic
Deposits, and the varieties of each of these great divisions also pass insensibly
the one into the other, so that it is often difficult to fix the name of a given
sample.

On another map here exhibited the percentage distribution of carbonate of lime
in the deposits over the floor of the ocean has been represented, the results being
founded on an extremely large number of analyses. The results are also shown
in the following table :—

Sq. Geo. Miles. Percentage.

Over 75% CaCO, ; ; 6,000,000 58
50 to 75% =,, . - 24,090,000 23°2
25to 50% =,, 5 - 14,000,000 13°5
Under 25% __—s« . - 59,000,000 57°65
103,000,000 100

The carbonate of lime shells derived from the surface play a great and puzzling
réle in all deep-sea deposits, varying in abundance according to the depth of the
ocean and the temperature of the surface waters. In tropical regions removed
from land, where the depths are less than 600 fathoms, the carbonate of lime due
to the remains of these organisms from the surface may rise to 80 or 90 per cent. ;
with increase of depth, and under the same surface conditions, the percentage of
carbonate of lime slowly diminishes, till, at depths of about 2,000 fathoms, the
average percentage falls to about 60, at 2,400 fathoms to about 30, and at about
2,600 fathoms to about 10, beyond which depth there may be only traces of
carbonate of lime due to the presence of surface shells, The thin and more delicate
surface shells first disappear from the deposits, the thicker and denser ones alone
persist to greater depths, A careful examination of a large number of obser-
vations shows that the percentage of carbonate of lime in the deposits falls off
eels more rapidly at depths between 2,200 and 2,500 fathoms than at other

epths.

Pthe Red Clay, which occurs in all the deeper stretches of the ocean far from
land, and covers nearly half of the whole sea-floor, contains—in addition to vol-
canic débris, clayey matter, the oxides of iron and manganese—numerous remains
of whales, sharks, and other fishes, together with zeolitic crystals, manganese
nodules, and minute magnetic spherules, which are believed to have a cosmic
origin. One haul of a small trawl in the Central Pacific brought to the surface on
one occasion, from a depth of about two and a half miles, many bushels of
manganese nodules, along with fifteen hundred sharks’ teeth, over fitty fragments
of earbones and other bones of whales. Some of these organic remains, such as
the Carcharodon and Lamna teeth and the bones of the Ziphioid whales, belong
apparently to extinct species. One or two of these sharks’ teeth, earbones, or
cosmic spherules, may be occasionally found in a Globigerina Ooze, but their
occurrence in this or any deposits other than Red Clay is extremely rare.

Our knowledge of the marine deposits is limited to the superficial layers; asa
rule the soundir.g-tube does not penetrate more than six or eight inches, but in
some positions the sounding-tube and dredge have been known to sink fully two feet
into the deposit. Sometimes a Red Clay is overlaid by a Globigerina Ooze,
more frequently a Red Clay overlies a Globigerina Ooze, the transition between
the two layers being either abrupt or gradual. In some positions it is possible to

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION EK, (

account for these layers by referring them to changes in the condition of the
surface waters, but in other situations it seems necessary to call in elevations and
subsidences of the sea-floor.

ff the whole of the carbonate of lime shells be removed by dilute acid from a
typical sample of Globigerina Ooze, the inorganic residue left behind is quite
similar in composition to a typical Red Clay. This suggests that possibly, owing to
some hypogene action, such as the escape of carbonic acid through the sea-floor,
a deposit that once was a Globigerina Ooze might be slowly converted into a Red
Clay. However, this is not the interpretation which commends itself after an
examination of all the data at present available; a consideration of the rate of
accumulation probably affords a more correct interpretation. It appears
certain that the Terrigenous Deposits accumulate much more rapidly than
the Pelagic Deposits. Among the Pelagic Deposits the Pteropod and Globi-
gerina Oozes of the tropical regions, being made up of the calcareous shells of
a much larger number of tropical species, apparently accumulate at a greater rate
than the Globigerina Oozes in extra-tropical areas. Diatom Ooze being composed
of both calcareous and siliceous organisms has again a more rapid rate of deposition
than Radiolarian Ooze. In Red Clay the minimum rate of accumulation takes
place. The number of sharks’ teeth, of earbones and other bones of Cetaceans,
and of cosmic spherules, in a deposit may indeed be taken as a measure of the rate
of deposition. These spherules, teeth, and bones are probably more abundant
in the Red Clays, because few other substances there fall to the bottom to cover
them up, and they thus form an appreciable part of the whole deposit. The
volcanic materials in a Red Clay having, because of the slow accumulation, been
for a long time exposed to the action of sea-water, have been profoundly altered.
The massive manganese-iron nodules and zeolitic crystals present in the deposit
are secondary products arising from the decomposition of these volcanic materials,
just as the formation of glauconite, phosphatic, and calcareous and barytic nodules
accompanies the decomposition of terrigenous rocks and minerals in deposits nearer
continental shores. There is thus a striking difference between the average
chemical and mineralogical composition of Terrigenous and Pelagic Deposits.

It would be extremely interesting to have a detailed examination of one of
those deep holes where a typical Red Clay is present, and even to bore some depth
into such a deposit if possible, for in these positions it is probable that not more
than a few feet of deposit have accumulated since the close of the Tertiary period.
One such area lies to the south-west of Australia, and its examination micht
possibly form part of the programme of the approaching Antarctic explorations.

Life on the Ocean-floor,

It has already heen stated that plant-life is limited to the shallow waters, but
fishes and members of all the invertebrate groups are distributed over the floor of
the ocean at all depths. The majority of these deep-sea animals live by eating
the mud, clay, or ooze, or by catching the minute particles of organic matter
which fall from the surface. It is probably not far from the truth to say that
three-fourths of the deposits now covering the floor of the ocean have passed
through the alimentary canals of marine animals. These mud-eating species, many
of which are of gigantic size when compared with their allies living in the shallow
coastal waters, become in turn the prey of numerous rapacious animals armed with
peculiar prehensile and tactile organs. Some fishes are blind, while others haye
very large eyes. Phosphorescent light plays a most important rd/e in the deep
sea, and is correlated with the prevailing red and brown colours of deep-sea
organisms. Phosphorescent organs appear sometimes to act as a bull’s-eye lantern
to enable particles of food to be picked up, and at other times asa lure or a warning.
All these peculiar adaptations indicate that the struggle for life may be not much
less severe in the deep sea than in the shallower waters of the ocean,

Many deep-sea animals present archaic characters ; still the deep sea cannot be
said to contain more remnants of faunas which flourished in remote ceological
periods than the shallow and fresh waters of the continents. Indeed, kine-crabs

796 REPORT—1899.

Lingulas, Trigonias, Port Jackson sharks, Ceratodus, Lepidosiren, and Protopterus,
probably represent older faunas than anything to be found in the deep sea.

Sir Wyville Thomson was of opinion that, from the Silurian period to the
present day, there had been as now a continuous deep ocean with a bottom tem-
perature oscillating about the freezing-point of fresh water, and that there had
always been an abyssal fauna. I incline to the view that in Paleozoic times the
ocean-basins were not so deep as they are now; that the ocean then had through-
out a nearly uniform high temperature, and that life was either absent or represented
only by bacteria and other low forms in great depths, as is now the case in the
Black Sea, where life is practically absent beyond 100 fathoms, and where the
deeper waters are saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen. This is not, however,
the place to enter on speculations concerning the origin of the deep-sea fauna,
nor to dwell on what has been called ‘ bipolarity’ in the distribution of marine
organisms,

Evolution of the Continental and Oceanic Areas.

I have now pointed out what appear to me to be some of the more general
results arrived at in recent years regarding the present condition of the floor of
the ocean. I may now be permitted to indicate the possible bearing of these
results on opinions as to the origin of some fundamental geographical phenomena ;
for instance, on the evolution of the protruding continents and sunken ocean-basins.
In dealing with such a problem much that is hypothetical must necessarily be
introduced, but these speculations are based on ascertained scientific facts.

The well-known American geologist, Dutton, says: ‘It has been much the
habit of geologists to attempt to explain the progressive elevation of plateaus and
mountain platforms, and also the folding of strata, by one and the same process.
T hold the two processes to be distinct, and having no necessary relation to each
other. There are plicated regions which are little or not at all elevated, and
there are elevated regions which are not plicated.’ Speaking of great regional
uplifts, he says further: ‘ What the real nature of the uplifting force may be is,
to my mind, an entire mystery, but I think we may discern at least one of its
attributes, and that is a gradual expansion or a diminution of density of the
subterranean magmas. . . . We know of no cause which could either add to the
mass or diminish the density, yet one of the two must surely have happened. .. .
Hence I infer that the cause which elevates the land involves an expansion of the
underlying magmas, and the cause which depresses it is a shrinkage of the
magmas; the nature of the process is at present a complete mystery.’ I shall
endeavour to show how the detailed study of marine deposits may help to solve
the mystery here referred to by Dutton.

The surface of the globe has not always been as we now see it. When, in the
past, the surface had a temperature of about 400° F., what is now the water of
the ocean must have existed as water vapour in the atmosphere, which would
thereby—as well as because of the presence of other substances—be increased in
density and volume. Life, as we know it, could not then exist. Again, science
foresees a time when low temperatures, like those produced by Professor Dewar
at the Royal Institution, will prevail over the face of the earth. The hydrosphere
and atmosphere will then have disappeared within the rocky crust, or the waters
of the ocean will have become solid rock, and over their surface will roll an ocean
of liquid air about forty feet in depth. Life, as we know it, unless it undergoes
suitable secular modifications, will be extinct. Somewhere between these two
indefinite points of time in the evolution of our planet it is our privilege to live, to
inrestignte, and to speculate concerning the antecedent and future conditions of
things.

When we regard our globe with the mind’s eye, it appears at the present time
to be formed of concentric spheres, very like, and still very unlike, the successive
coats of an onion. Within is situated the vast nucleus or centrosphere ; surrounding
this is what may be called the tektosphere,! a shell of materials in a state bordering

1 rnxrés, molten,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 797

on fusion, upon which rests and creeps the lithosphere. Then follow hydrosphere
and atmosphere, with the included dzosphere.1 To the interaction of these six
geospheres, through energy derived from internal and external sources, may be
referred all the existing superficial phenomena of the planet.

The vast interior of the planetary mass, although not under direct observation,
is known, from the results of the astronomer and physicist, to have a mean density
of 5:6, or twice that of ordinary surface rock. The substances brought within the
reach of observation in veinstones, in lavas, and hypogene rocks—by the action
of water as a solvent and sublimant—warrant the belief that the centrosphere is
largely made up of metals and metalloids with imprisoned gases. It is admitted
that the vast nucleus has a very high temperature, but so enormous is the pressure
of the superincumbent crust that the melting-point of the substances in the interior
is believed to be raised to a higher value than the temperature there existing—
the centrosphere in consequence remains solid, for it may be assumed that the
melting-point of rock-forming materials is raised by increase of pressure. Astro-
nomers from a study of precession and nutation have long been convinced that the
centrosphere must be practically solid.

Recent seismological observations indicate the transmission of two types of
waves through the earth—the condensational-rarefactional and the purely dis-
tortional—and the study of these tremors supports the view that the centrosphere
is not only solid, but possesses great uniformity of structure. The seismological
investigations of Professors Milne and Knott point also to a fairly abrupt
boundary or transition surface, where the solid nucleus passes into the somewhat
plastic magma on which the firm upper crust rests.

In this plastic layer or shell—named the tektosphere—the materials are most
probably in a state of unstable equilibrium and bordering on fusion. Here
the loose-textured solids of the external crust are converted into the denser
solids of the nucleus or into molten masses, at a critical point of temperature and
pressure; deep-seated rocks may in consequence escape through fissures in the
lithosphere. Within the lithosphere itself the temperature falls off so rapidly
towards the surface as to be everywhere below the melting-point of any substance
there under its particular pressure.

Now, as the solid centrosphere slowly contracted from loss of heat, the primi-
tive lithesphere, in accommodating itself{—through changes in the tektosphere—to
the shrinking nucleus, would be buckled, warped, and thrown into ridges. That
these movements are still going on is shown by the fact that the lithosphere is
everywhere and at all times in a slight but measurable state of pulsation. The
rigidity of the primitive rocky crust would permit of considerable deformations of
the kind here indicated. Indeed, the compression of mountain chains has most
probably been brought about in this manner, but the same cannot be said of the
elevation of plateaus, of mountain platforms, and of continents.

From many lines of investigation it is concluded, as we have seen, that the
centrosphere is homogeneous in structure. Direct observation, on the other hand,
shows that the lithosphere is heterogeneous in composition. How has this hetero-
geneity been brought about? The original crust was almost certainly composed
of complex and stable silicates, all the silicon dioxide being in combination
with bases. Lord Kelvin has pointed out that, when the solid crust began to
form, it would rapidly cool over its whole surface; the precipitation of water
would accelerate this process, and there would soon be an approximation to present
conditions. As.time went on the plastic or critical layer—the tektosphere—
immediately beneath the crust would gradually sink deeper and deeper, while
ruptures and re-adjustments would become less and less frequent than in earlier
stages. With the first fall of rain the silicates of the crust would be attacked by
water and carbon dioxide, which can at low temperatures displace silicon dioxide
from its combinations. The silicates, in consequence, have been continuous]
robbed of a part, or the whole, of their bases. ‘he silica thus set free goes ulti-
mately to form quartz veins and quartz sand on or about the emerged land, while

1 Bios, life.

798 REPORT—1899.

the bases leached out of the disintegrating rocks are carried out into the ocean
and ocean-basins, A continuous disintegration and differentiation of materials of
the lithosphere, accompanied by a sort of migration and selection among mineral
substances, is thus always in progress. Through the agency of life, carbonate of
lime accumulates in one place; through the agency of winds, quartz sand is heaped
up in another; through the agency of water, beds of clay, of oxides of iron and
of manganese are spread out in other directions.

The contraction of the centrosphere supplies the force which folds and crumples
the lithosphere. The combined effect of hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere
on the lithosphere gives direction and a determinate mode of action to that force.
From the earliest geological times the most resistent dust of the continents has
been strewn along the marginal belt of the sea-floor skirting the land. At the
present time the deposits over this area contain on the average about 70 per cent. of
free and combined silica, mostly in the form of quartz sand. In the abysmal
deposits far from land there is an average of only about 30 per cent. of silica, and
hardly any of this inthe form of quartz sand. Lime, iron, and the other bases largely
predominate in these abysmal regions. The continuous loading on the margins of
the emerged land by deposits tends by increased pressure to keep the materials of
the tektosphere in a solid condition immediately beneath the loaded area. The
unloading of emerged land tends by relief of pressure to produce a viscous
condition of the tektosphere immediately beneath the denuded surfaces. Under
the influence of the continuous shakings, tremors, and tremblings always taking
place in the lithosphere the materials of the tektosphere yield to the stresses acting
on them, and the deep-seated portions of the terrigenous deposits are slowly carried
towards, over, or underneath the emerged land. The rocks subsequently re-formed
beneath continental areas out of these terrigenous materials, under great pressure
and in hydrothermal conditions, would be more acid than the rocks from which
they were originally derived, and it is well known that the acid silicates have a
lower specific gravity than the intermediate or basic ones. By a continual repeti-
tion of this process the continental protuberances have been gradually built up of
lighter materials than the other parts of the lithosphere. The relatively light
quartz, which is also the most refractory, the most stable, and the least fusible
among rock-forming minerals, plays in all this the principal ré/e. The average
height of the surface of the continents is about three miles above the average level
of the abysmal regions. If now we assume the average density of the crust
beneath the continents to be 2°5, and of the part beneath the abysmal recions to
be 3, then the spheroidal surface of equal pressure—the tektosphere—would have a
minimum depth of eighteen miles beneath the continents and fifteen miles beneath
the oceans, or if we assume the density of the crust beneath the continents to be
2'5, and beneath the abysmal regions to be 2°8, then the tektosphere would be
twenty-eight miles beneath the continents and twenty-five miles beneath the
oceans. The present condition of the earth’s crust might be brought about by the
disintegration of a quantity of quartz-free voleanic rock, covering the continental
areas to a depth of eighteen miles, and the re-formation of rocks out of the
disintegrated materials.

Where the lighter and more bulky substances have accumulated there has been
a relative increase of volume, and in consequence bulging has taken place at the
surface over the continental areas, Where the denser materials have been laid
down there has been flattening, and in consequence a depression of the abysmal
regions of the ocean-basins. It is known that, as a general rule, where large
masses of sediment have been deposited, their deposition has been accompanied
by a depression of the area. On the other hand, where broad mountain platforms
have been subjected to extensive erosion, the loss of altitude by denudation has
been made good by a rise of the platform. This points to a movement of matter
on to the continental areas.

If this be anything like a true conception of the interactions that are taking
place between the various geospheres of which our globe is made up, then we can
understand why, in the gradual evolution of the surface features, the average
level of the continental plains new stands permanently about three miles above

EE

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 799

the average level of those plains which form the floor of the deep ocean-basins.
‘We may also understand how the defect of mass under the continents and an
excess of mass under the oceans have been brought about, as well as deficiency of
mass under mountains and excess of mass under plains. Even the local anomalies
indicated by the plumb-line, gravity, and magnetic observations may in this way
receive a rational explanation. It has been urged that an enormous time—greater
even than what is demanded by Darwin—would be necessary for an evolution of
the existing surface features on these lines, I do not think so. Indeed, in all that
relates to geological time I agree, generally speaking, with the physicists rather
than with the biologists and geologists,

Progress of Oceanic Research.

I have now touched on some of the problems and speculations suggested by
recent deep-sea explorations; and there are many others, equally attractive, to
which no reference has been made. It is abundantly evident that, for the satisfac-
tory explanation of many marine phenomena, further observations and explorations
are necessary. Happily there is no sign that the interest in oceanographical work
has in any way slackened. On the contrary, the number of scientific men and
ships engaged in the study of the ocean is rapidly increasing. Among all civilised
peoples and in all quarters of the globe the economic importance of many of the
problems that await solution is clearly recognised.

We have every reason to be proud of the work continually carried on by the
officers and ships attached to the fy draeeaihis Department of the British Navy.
They have surveyed coasts in all parts of the world for the purposes of navigation,
and within the past few years have greatly enlarged our knowledge of the sea-bed
and deeper waters over wide stretches of the Pacific and other oceans. The
samples of the bottom which are procured, being always carefully preserved by the
officers, have enabled very definite notions to be formed as to the geographical and
bathymetrical distribution of marine deposits.

The ships belonging to the various British Telegraph Cable Companies have
done most excellent work in this as well as in other directions. Even during the
present year Mr. R. E. Peake has in the s.s. Britannia procured 477 deep soundings
in the North Atlantic, besides a large collection of deep-sea deposits, and many
deep-sea temperature and current observations.

The French have been extending the valuable work of the Talisman and
Travailleur, while the Prince of Monaco is at the present moment carrying on his
oceanic investigations in the Arctic Seas with a large new yacht elaborately and
specially fitted out for such work. The Russians have recently been engaged in
the scientific exploration of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, and a special ship
is now employed in the investigation of the Arctic fisheries of the Murman coast
under the direction of Professor Knipowitsch. Admiral Makaroff has this summer
been hammering his way through Arctic ice, and at the same time carrying on a great
variety of systematic observations and experiments on board the Yermak—the most
powerful and most effective instrument of marine research ever constructed. Mr.
Alexander Agassiz has this year recommenced his deep-sea explorations in the
Pacific on board the U.S. steamer Albatross. He proposes to cross the Pacific in
several directions, and to conduct investigations among the Paumotu and other
coral island groups. Professor Weber is similarly employed on board a Dutch
man-of- war in the East Indian Seas. The Deutsche Seewarte at Hamburg, under
the direction of Dr. Neumayer, continues its praiseworthy assistance and encourage-
ment to all investigators of the ocean, and this year the important German Deep-
sea Expedition, in the s.s. Valdivia, arrived home after most successful oceano-
graphical explorations in the Atlantic, Indian, and Great Southern Oceans.

The Belgica has returned to Europe safely with a wealth of geological and
biological collections and physical observations, after spending, for the first time
on record, a whole winter among the icefields and icebergs of the Antarctic. Mr.
Borchgrevink in December last again penetrated to Cape Adare, successfully landed
his party at that point, and is now wintering on the Antarctic continent. The

800 REPORT—1899.

expeditions of Lieutenant Peary, of Professor Nathorst, of Captain Sverdrup, and
of the Duke of Abbruzzi, which are now in progress, may be expected to yield
much new information about the condition of the Arctic Ocean. Mr. Wellman has
just returned from the north of Franz Josef Land, with observations of considerable
interest.

Some of the scientific results obtained by the expeditions in the Danish steamer
Ingolf have lately been published, and these, along with the results of the joint
work pursued for many years by the Swedes, Danes, and Norwegians, may ulti-
mately have great economic value from their direct bearing on Fishery problems,
and on weather forecasting over long periods of time.

Largely through the influence of Professor Otto Pettersson an International
Conference assembled at Stogkholm a few months ago, for the purpose of
deliberating as to a programme of conjoint scientific work in the North Sea and
northern parts of the Atlantic, with special reference to the economic aspect of
sea-fisheries. A programme was successfully drawn up, and an organisation
suggested for carrying it into effect; these proposals are now under the considera-
tion of the several States. The Norwegian Government has voted a large sum of
money for building a special vessel to conduct marine investigations of the nature
recommended by this conference. It is to be hoped the other North Sea Powers
may soon follow this excellent example.

The various marine stations and laboratories for scientific research in all parts
of the world furnish each year much new knowledge concerning the ocean.
Among our own people the excellent work carried on by the Marine Biological
Association, the Irish Fisheries Department, the Scottish Fishery Board, the
Lancashire Fisheries Committee, the Cape and Canadian Fisheries Departments, is
well worthy of recognition and continued support. Mr. George Murray, Mr.
H. N. Dickson, Professor Cleve, Professor Otto Pettersson, Mr. Robert Irvine, and
others have, with the assistance of the officers of the Mercantile Marine, accumu-
lated in recent years a vast amount of information regarding the distribution of
temperature and salinity, as well as of the planktonic organisms at the surface of
the ocean. The papers by Mr. H. C. Russell on the icebergs and currents of the
Great Southern Ocean, and of Mr. F. W. Walker on the density of the water in
the Southern Hemisphere, show that the Australian colonies are taking a practical
interest in oceanographical problems.

Proposed Antarctic Explorations.

The great event of the year, from a geographical point of view, is the
progress that has been made towards the realisation of a scheme for the
thorough scientific exploration in the near future of the whole South Polar region.
The British and German Governments have voted or guaranteed large sums of
money to assist in promoting this object, and princely donations have likewise been
received from private individuals, in this connection the action of Mr. L. W.
Longstaff in making a gift of 25,000/., and of Mr, A. C. Harmsworth in promising
5,0002., being beyond all praise.

There is an earnest desire among the scientific men of Britain and Germany
that there should be some sort of co-operation with regard to the scientific work
of the two expeditions, and that these should both sai] in 1901, so that the invalu-
able gain attaching to simultaneous observations may be secured. Beyond this
nothing has, as yet, been definitely settled. The members of the Association will
presently have an opportunity of expressing their opinions as to what should be
attempted by the British Expedition, how the work in connection with it should
be arranged, and how the various researches in view can best be carried to a
successful issue.

I have long taken a deep interest in Antarctic exploration, because such explo-
ration must necessarily deal largely with oceanographical problems, and also
because I have had the privilege of studying the conditions of the ocean within
both the Arctic and Antarctic circles. In the year 1886 I published an article on
the subject of Antarctic Exploration in the ‘Scottish Geographical Magazine.’
This article led to an interesting interview, especially whep viewed in the light of

tit pla Se ned

Se

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION BE, 801

after events, for, a few weels after it appeared in type, a young Notwegian walked
into the Challenger office in Edinburgh to ask when the proposed expedition
would probably start, and if there were any chance of his services being accepted.
His name was Nansen,

When at the request of the President I addressed the Royal Geographical
Society on the same subject in the year 1893, I made the following statement as
to what it seemed to me should be the general character of the proposed explora-
tion: ‘A dash at the South Pole is not, however, what I advocate, nor do I
believe that is what British Science at the present time desires. It demands
rather a steady, continuous, laborious, and systematic exploration of the whole
southern region with all the appliances of the modern investigator.’ At the same
time I urged further, that these explorations should be undertaken by the Royal
Navy in two ships, and that the work should extend over two winters and three
summers.

This scheme must now be abandoned, so far at least as the Royal Navy is
concerned, for the Government has intimated that it can spare neither ships nor
officers, men nor money, for an undertaking of such magnitude. The example of
Foreign Powers—rather than the representations from our own scientific men—
appears to have been chiefly instrumental in at last inducing the Government to
promise a sum of 45,000/., provided that an equal amount be forthcoming from
other sources. - This resolve throws the responsibility for the financial administra-
tion, for the equipment, and for the management of this exploration, on the repre-
sentative scientific societies, which have no organisation ready for carrying out
important executive work on such an extensive scale. 1 am doubtful whether this
state of matters should be regarded as a sign of increasing lukewarmness on the
part of the Government towards marine research, or should rather be looked on as
a most unexpected and welcome recognition of the growing importance of science
and scientific men to the affairs of the nation. Let us adopt the latter view, and
accept the heavy responsibility attached thereto.

Any one who will take the trouble to read, in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the Royal
Society of London, the account of the discussion which recently took place on
‘The Scientific Advantages of an Antarctic Expedition, will gather some idea of
the number and wide range of the subjects which it is urged should be investigated
within the Antarctic area ; the proposed researches have to do with almost every
branch of science. Unless an earnest attempt be made to approach very near to
the ideal there sketched out, widespread and lasting disappointment will certainly
be felt among the scientific men of this country. The proposed expedition should
not be one of adventure. Not a rapid invasion and a sudden retreat, with tales of
hardships and risks, but a scientific occupation of the unknown area by observation
and experiment, should be aimed at in these days.

I have all along estimated the cost of a well-equipped Antarctic Expedition at
about 150,000/. I see no reason for changing my views on this point at the present
time, nor on the general scope of the work to be undertaken by the proposed
expedition, as set forth in the papers I have published on the subject. ‘There is
now a sum of at most 90,000/. in hand, or in view. If one ship should be specially
built for penetrating the icy region, and be sent south with one naturalist on board,
then such an expedition may, it will be granted, bring back interesting and impor-
tant results. But it must be distinctly understood that this isnot the kind of
exploration scientific men have been urging on the British public for the past
fifteen or twenty years. We must, if possible, have two ships, with landing parties

“for stations on shore, and with a recognised scientific leader and staff on board

of each ship. Although we cannot have the Royal Navy, these ships can be most
efficiently officered and manned from the Mercantile Marine. With only one ship
many of the proposed observations would have to be cut out of the programme.
In anticipation of this being the case, there are at the present moment irrecon-
cilable differences of opinion among those most interested in these explorations, as
to which sciences must be sacrificed,

The difficulties which at present surround this undertaking are fundamentally
those of money. These difficulties would at once disappear, and cthers would

1899, oF

802 REPORT—1899,

certainly be overcome, should the members of the British Association at this
meeting agree to place in the hands of their President a sum of 50,000/., so that the
total amount available for Antarctic exploration would become something like
150,000/. Although there is but one central] Government, surely there are within
the bounds of this great Empire two more men like Mr. Longstaff. The Government
has suddenly placed the burden of upholding the high traditions of Great Britain
in marine research and exploration on the shoulders of her scientific men. In
their name I appeal to all our well-to-do fellow-countrymen in every walk of life
for assistance, so that these new duties may be discharged in a manner worthy of
the Empire and of the well-earned reputation of British Science.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. On Polar Exploration by means of Icebreakers.
By Admiral Maxarorr, Imperial Russian Navy.

The steel steamer Zermak, of 8,000 tons displacement, was specially built for
use as an icebreaker for keeping open the route to Baltic ports in winter and
through the Kara Sea in summer. The trial trip of the vessel to the Arctic ice
north of Spitzbergen was described, and its advantages of strength, speed, and
comfort over all previous exploring vessels were explained.

2. Physical Observations in the Barents Sea. By W.S. Bruce.
3. Report of the Committee on African Climatology. See Reports, p. 448,

4, Setsmology in relation to the Interior of the Earth,
By Joun Mine, /.K.S,

After the blow or blows have been struck which cause an earthquake a flood
of motion sets out in all directions over the surface of the earth, and in all direc-
tions through its interior. That which passes over the surface does so in waves
which, whilst travelling at a fairly constant velocity, increase in amplitude and
period. The waves which pass through the interior travel swifter and swifter the
nearer their path is to a diameter. Ata distant station the first motion recorded
is that which has travelled through the earth, and the last that which has travelled
round its surface. Intermediate motion would be that which had passed through
the earth and then completed its journey to the observing station through the
surface. Observation shows that the average velocity with which waves pass
through the earth varies with the square root of the average depth of the paths
they follow. Coupling this observation with the knowledge we possess respect-
ing the density of our world as a whole and the density of the materials on its
surface, Dr. C. G. Knott shows that the elasticity which governs the transmission
of the precursors of the real earthquake increases at a rate of about 1 per cent. for
every mile of descent.

The second section of the paper treated of the motion following the
originating blows of an earthquake. It was a common observation to find
that large earthquakes are a few minutes later followed by other violent disturb-
ances, and because these second shocks had characteristics similar to the first ones
they might be regarded as ‘echoes.’ Such symmetrical repetitions, which were
illustrated by seismograms, indicate that we were not dealing with irregular
adj ustment of fractured materials, but with phenomena analogous to musical rever-

erations.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Ff. 803

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. On the Voyage of the ‘ Southern Cross’ from Hobart to Cape Adare.
By Huew Rosert Mitt, D.Sce., F.RSL.

By permission of Sir George Newnes the particulars of the voyage of his Polar
yacht Southern Cross from Tasmania to Cape Adare conveying the Antarctic
expedition under the command of Mr. Borchgrevink were laid before the Section.

The Southern Cross left the Thames on August 24, 1898, and Hobart on De-
cember 19, reached the first ice on December 30 in 61° 56'S. and 159° E., and
entered the heavy pack on January 1, 1899. She worked her way slowly to
66° 46’ S. on January 31, then turned northward, got clear of the pack, and entered
it again farther east on February 13, and passed through easily, anchoring off the
beach near Cape Adare on February 17. In spite of heavy storms the whole party
was safely landed with their stores, and the ship left for the north on February 28.

2. The Problem of Antarctic Exploration. By Henryk Arcrowskt.

The question of Antarctic exploration is now before the scientific world, and it
must be answered in such a manner that the results of the voyages of exploration
may be in accordance with modern requirements. A great step in our knowledge
of the physical conditions of the globe is about to be made.

I would insist, in the first place, that it is necessary to aim not only at the
discovery of new lands and the observation of their configuration. The geology
of these lands must be studied, and also the glaciers and the condition of the sea-
ice which surround them. The various physical and natural sciences have then to
be considered, taking account of magnetic and meteorological conditions, fauna,
flora, &c. All these, however, concern only one side of the question, for in the
southern hemisphere not only are the Antarctic lands—continent or islands—
totally unknown, but also a very large part of the three great neighbouring
oceans. At the present day it is impossible to consider the land alone; the whole
Antarctic area exhibits phenomena which remain very imperfectly known. I refer
specially to the great questions of atmospheric circulation, climate, cireumpolar
oceanography, and magnetic conditions,

Hence Antarctic explorations must be conducted in three ways :—

1. A system of fixed stations arranged between the edge of the continents and
the zone of ice. These stations should be supplied with all necessary magnetic
and meteorological instruments, and continue at work simultaneously for one year
at least.

2. During the same year two polar expeditions should set out on opposite sides
towards the South Pole. This would require two vessels strong enough to with-
stand the pack and equipped for wintering.

3. Finally a circumpolar expedition, planned to follow the edge of the pack
right round, and specially equipped for oceanographical and zoological work.
This expedition would also survey the accessible parts of the Antarctic coast.

Such a system of exploration must necessarily be the work of several nations.
‘Weyprecht’s idea should be revived and followed. Antarctic exploration must be
conducted systematically, and it ought to be international. A series of cireumpolar
stations, where comparable and simultaneous observations are carried on, would
make the results of the British and German Antarctic expeditions remarkably
complete, and vastly enhance their value.

I should suggest the following arrangement of stations.

A polygon of stations should unite South America and the Antarctic lands,
The path of the cyclonic storms passes to the south of Cape Horn, and—at least
during part of the year—to the north of Palmer Land. The polygon should
include stations on the east and west coasts.of Graham Land, and one of the South

3F2

804 REPORT—1899

Shetland Islands, on South Orkney and on one of the Sandwich Islands, together
with stations at Cape Pillar, Cape Virgins, Cape Horn, Staten Island and the
Falklands. With such a system of observations it would be possible tu determine
exactly the track of every cyclone crossing the polygon of stations. This is a
matter of very great practical importance. These cyclones seem to travel in the
general direction of the upper winds from west to east, and to follow the outline of
Alexander, Graham, and Palmer Lands, but how and why this is so we cannot tell
as yet. Between South America and the Antarctic land there isa belt of low
pressure which seems to encircle the Antarctic region where there is apparently a
permanent anticyclone; but observations are wanting to determine the associated
conditions of atmospheric circulation.

It seems scarcely necessary to insist on the advantages which two other
polygons of stations would offer, one to the south of the Indian Ocean, the other
between New Zealand and Victoria Land, The second polygon would be formed
by the islands of Prince Edward, Crozet, Kerguelen, and a station on Enderby
Land. The third polygon would include the Balleny, Macquarie, and Auckland
Islands. This would be a particulsrly interesting polygon on account of its
comparative proximity to the magnetic pole.

The two vessels designed to winter in the pack should approach along the
meridians of 145° W. and 35° E. Imprisoned in the pack, as the Belgica was,
these vessels would be able to carry on oceanographical and zoological work, and
also to collect magnetic and meteorological observations, thus adding two stations
near the pole to the various polygons. From the meteorological point of view it
would be extremely interesting for these vessels to reach high latitudes, for the
region near the pole will probably differ greatly from the northern edge of the
Antarctic lands in everything regarding atmospheric pressure, wind, and storms,

As to the circumpolar expeditions I think that the vessel intended for this
purpose should be quite independent of those which penetrate the pack. The
region is too great to admit of the whole voyage being completed in one season—
three would probably be necessary. It is not easy to indicate the route which
should be followed, for everything depends on circumstances. Still it may be
observed that—in summer at least—easterly winds predominate near the edge of
the south polar pack, and therefore it would be advantageous to proceed from east
to west.

Leaving the River Plate in September the vessel might commence work at the
South Shetlands at the beginning of October. The months from November to
March might be occupied in the voyage from 60° W. to 150° W. along the pack,
and thence a passage might be made to Melbourne. The following summer the
extreme south of the Indian Ocean might occupy the vessel, and a third season
might be devoted to the Antarctic Atlantic.

This programme is doubtless but a dream. I often wished, on board the
Belgica, that:I dared to propose it as a programme, because it seemed to me
perfectly realisable. One may perhaps speak of it at the dawn of a new century,

3. Notes on the Physical and Chemical Work of an Antarctic Expedition.
By J. Y. Bucuanayn, F.R.S.

In an Antarctic Expedition, the physical and chemical work to be done falls
into two classes, according as it has to be done at sea or on land.

The principal object at the outset of the expedition should be to push energeti-
cally southwards, and effect a landing in the most suitable place in the highest
possible southern latitude, and there establish the principal station. The locality
should be chosen where the ship, or one of the ships, would find safe winter
quarters.

As the principal object is to establish the expedition as advantageously as
possible on land, no time should be‘spent unnecessarily at sea, For this reason
magnetic observations at sea should not be contemplated. They take up an

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION FE. 805

enormous amount of time, and besides, if they are to be of any use, the distribu-
tion of iron in the ship has to be arranged under such restrictions as to interfere
materially with the usefulness of the ship in other directions. On land the
magnetic observations would occupy a first place, also pendulum observations
for the determination of the intensity of gravity and tidal observations,

It has been the general experience of Antarctic navigators that the heavy
ack ice is met with at a considerable distance from land, and between it and the
and there is comparatively open water The ice which would cover this water in

winter would probably loosen earlier than the heavy pack, and the ship, if winter-
ing inside, might be able to move much earlier than it would be pos-ible for her
to pass the pack; and this would be an additional advantage of finding winter
quarters for the ship.

Perhaps the most important work to be done is to obtain a complete meteoro-
logical record during the whole of the sojourn of the expedition in Antarctic
regions, whether at sea or on land. At present, any view as to the meteorological
conditions on the Antarctic land may be held, because we have no facts by which
to regulate our speculations. The expedition should be fully supplied with instru-
ments for this purpose, and especially with self-recording instruments.

As the station must necessarily be on land, and not on ice, geological observa-
tions will be made as a matter of course.

What distinguishes the Antarctic regions above everything is the development
of ice as a geological feature, whether it is met with at sea as icebergs, or on land
as glaciers, or a continuous covering. It is almost certain that any station on
land will be within easy reach of a glacier, and means should be taken to establish
marks as early as possible which will enable its motion to be observed before
darkness sets in and after the sun reappears. The Greenland glaciers appear to
move about three times as fast as the Swiss ones. Do the Antarctic ones move
faster still? In Spitzbergen the glacier streams sometimes take very large pro-
portions. How does it stand with the Antarctic ones in this respect? The
‘erain’ of the Spitzbergen glaciers does not seem to be larger than that of the
principal Swiss glaciers. The Antarctic land ice must be dissected with a view to
the determination of the size and the articulation of the grain, It is, therefore, of
the first importance that the chemist and physicist should have spent some time
both in summer and in winter examining for himself the conditions of one of the
Swiss glaciers. This is quite as necessary for him as having spent a certain time
in a chemical or a physical laboratory.

The ordinary work of a chemist and physicist at sea is now so well understood
that it is hardly necessary to say much on it. The temperature and density of
the surface water are observed at stated intervals. Whenever it is possible the
temperature of the water at the bottom and at intermediate depths is observed
and samples obtained. The gases dissolved in the water at the surface, at the
bottom, and at intermediate depths, should be boiled out and preserved for analysis
as often as possible. The proportion of oxygen to nitrogen in the gas gives an
idea of the extent to which the dissolved atmosphere has been wsed, or of the
amount of animal life which it has supported.

The apparatus for use on deck and in the laboratory is so various, and has been
so often described, that little more remains to be said about it than that most
observers prefer their own apparatus.

With regard to the district which would fall to the English expedition to
explore, I should welcome an arrangement which would enable it to follow to its
Antarctic source the remarkable stream of very cold water which the Challenger
found flowing at the bottom of the depression which runs along the eastern coast
of South America from the River Plate to the equator. This work would also
carry the expedition in the direction of Weddell’s highest latitude, and of Ross’s
deepest sounding. The base of the English expedition would then be the
Falkland Islands. '

Much more might be said about the work which a chemist and physicist may
find to do under various circumstances ; but it is to be assumed that whoever is
appointed will know his business. His principal duty, in a new region like the

806 REPORT—1899,

Antarctic, will be to keep his science and his art handy to be turned to good
account whenever the occasion may arise.

4, On Antarctic Hxploration with reference to its Botanical Bearings.
By G. Murray, /.4L.S.

5, Report of the Committee on the Exploration of Sokotra,
See Reports, p. 460.

6. Travels in East Bokhara. By Mrs. W. RickmerR RICKMERS.

Accompanied by Mr. Rickmers and Dr. v. Krafft, I left the ancient capital of
Bokhara in June, 1898. The object of the journey was the exploration of some of
the little-known parts of the eastern provinces of the Khanate. After a two-weeks’
ride on horseback through steppe and loess, the mountains of the province of
Baljuan were reached.

We lived for five months among the conglomerate mountains of the Yakh-Su
Valley. This region is extremely wild and fantastic, reminding one at the same
time of the Dolomites and the ‘ Bad Lands,’ with their dark and deep cations. The
natives, who speaka Persian dialect, extract gold from the alluvial deposits in these
valleys. ‘Cheir method is very primitive, and yields them a precarious livelihood,
but experiments conducted on a large scale have shown that modern processes must
assure big profits to enterprising pioneers. The stones composing the conglomerate
are mostly crystalline, and the whole formation, which is in places 4,000 ft. thick,
is ascribed by Dr. v. Krafft to the tertiary period. The highest summit, a towering
cupola, is 13,000 ft. high, and was several times climbed. A glacier of the second
order comes down on one side, and is curious for having a moraine composed of
rounded fragments, which, of course, could not be otherwise, seeing that the moun-
tain is entirely composed of conglomerate. Mr. Rickmers and Dr. v. Krafft, after
several attempts, succeeded in making the first ascent of the Kuch-Manar, a jagged
peak 12,000 ft. in height. The views obtained from these points were most beau-
tiful and instructive; towards the east one beheld an ocean of snow and ice,
bounded by the Pamir and the Alai, whereas towards the west the ground
sloped down to the immense Transcaspian plain,

Much time was devoted to the examination of phenomena new to the
literature of physical geography. These were the ‘ Barriers of the Dandushka,’
which are remarkable for having been formed by hydrodynamic agencies, and for
having subsequently been pierced by a caiion, likewise formed by water. Vegetable
and animal lite was not abundant. Thin woods are only to be found in some of
the more secluded valleys, where the natives rarely penetrate.

Excursions into the surrounding provinces were also made, Dr. v. Krafit
visited Darwaz, and brought back valuable geological information. Mr. Rickmers
and I went to Kulab, and thence to the Afghan frontier, where we spent several
days among the jungles of the Oxus,

The return journey was vd Baljuan, Karatagh, Baissnu, and Kitab to Samar-
kand. From Samarkand an interesting lake, the Timur-Dera-Kul, situated at a
great height among the mountains, was visited.

7. A Journey in Western Oaxaca, Mexico. By O. H. Howarru.

The exploration of a portion of the State of Oaxaca, lying south and west
between the capital city and the sea, became necessary in the latter part of last
year, with a view to ascertain a possible route between the valley of Rio Minas, on
the upper course of the Peiioles river, and a point on the Southern Railway,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 807

without traversing the high mountain ridges extending between that valley and
the city, on a direct line. The whole region is mountainous, being an expansion
of the parallel main ranges of the Western Sierra Madre continued through the
States of Guerrero and Oaxaca as far south as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The
ridges, though approximately parallel, are of somewhat irregular conformation.
They rise generally to an altitude of between 8,000 and 9,000 feet, being inter-
sected by valleys of generally greater breadth than the caiions of the same range
further north; these valleys, however, descending to levels of from 3,000 to 4,000
feet, and of course to still lower elevations as the ranges approach the Pacific
Coast. The ranges are largely covered with varied foliage, and the prospect from
any of the high ridges is of great magnificence.

On leaving the city of Oaxaca in a westerly direction an open rolling country,
partly bare of vegetation, is traversed for a distance of nine or ten miles to the
foothills of the nearest range, crossing the river Atoyac close to the city. A pro-
minent object in the centre of this tract is the white dome of the unfinished
monastery of Cuilapa, a remarkable structure of high architectural interest raised
by Cortez during his occupation of the country, and said to have also comprised a
residence for the Princess Malintzi or Malinche. The evidence of this is, however,
doubtful, and may possibly have been based on the existence in one of the tran-
septs of a massive inscribed gravestone on which the name of Cortez appears.
Entering the range by the winding caiion of Zavaleta a gradual ascent is made to
a summit clothed with pine forests, where natural ice is prepared and stored on a
singular native system. The trail issues above the little mountain village of San
Pablo Cuatro Venados, or St. Paul of the Four Deer, one of the most remarkable
sites of early settlement in Mexico, Following the ridge another descent com-
mences through a heavily timbered caiion to the mining village of San Micuel
Peras, some fifteen miles further. A mile beyond this is the meeting of two forks
of the Rio Verde, and the usual uncertain nomenclature as to rivers and other
local features is encountered. A second ascent to 9,000 feet has then to be accom-
plished by exceedingly rough trails, succeeded by a descent into a valley of less
depth, but falling gradually to the north and south of the point of crossing. On
reascending from this, a summit is reached crowned by a native village known as
Huitepec, occupied by a population of Indians whose language proved to be entirely
distinct from any of the known dialects of the State, and apparently isolated. It
possesses several peculiarities, and seems to be a solitary survival of one of the most
ancient tongues of Central America.

Immediately beyond this the geological formation changes suddenly, the next
descent being entirely covered with vast irregular boulders of grey limestone,
amongst which the threading of a trail with horses and pack-mules is a matter of
extreme difficulty. Again a high ridge has to be traversed at an altitude equal to
the previous ones, amongst alternations of pine and scrub-oak growth and open
spaces of along fine grass, with a variety of flowering plants. At some six or
seven miles beyond Huitepec the trail enters the head of an extremely steep cafion,
the side of which it skirts with an available width of sometimes not more than a
foot or eighteen inches, this track being known as the Infiernillo or‘ Little Infernal,’
a name which the traveller by it considers by no means inappropriate, especially
in the season of rains, when the clayey surface becomes slippery with moisture.

Finally, the trail leads out upon a fourth ridge, overlooking the attractive
valley of Rio Minas, with its winding river, a last descent being now made to a
level of 4,200 feet. The few inhabitants of this country, a delightful one both in
climate and fertility, are of a simple and hospitable disposition, and engaged, so
far as they follow any pursuit at all, entirely in agricultural occupations, though
surrounded by rich mineral formations. The general absence of animal life is
noticeable, though the valleys abound with butterflies and other insects. Poisonous
insects of all kinds, and also snakes, appear to be very rare; in fact, almost
unknown.

The difficulty of access from the well-populated valley of Oaxaca has no doubt
contributed to the isolation of a district so inviting. Further down the course of
the Penoles river, where it issues westward, the valley divides to the north-west

808 REPORT—1899.

and south-east, and without any great change of elevation in the former direction
trends towards the district capital of Nochistlan at a distance of about thirty-five
miles, and thence in an easterly course towards the line of the Southern Railway
at Parian, some thirty miles north of the city of Oaxaca. This latter approach
has a good road, which, prior to the existence of the railway, would merely have
led into the mountains again. It may be expected, however, that slow as the
Mexicans are to recognise or avail themselves of any advantages of communication,
the better access from the north to these productive valleys may gradually lead to
their occupation and development, when further explored under European auspices.

The climatic conditions are similar to those of all the southern interior cf
Mexico, though, owing to the intersection of the country by long and lofty ridges,
the rainfall during the wet season is somewhat greater, The journey here described
was undertaken during the month of December last, when the atmospheric condi-
tions are perhaps unrivalled in the world as to temperature and salubrity,

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16,

The following Papers were read :—

1. Oceanographical and Meteorological Results of the German Deep-sea
Expedition in the ‘ Valdivia.” By Dr. Geruarp Scuort.

The voyage of the Valdivia was undertaken at the cost of the Imperial German
Government, and may be generally described as a circumnavigation of Africa,
although the route involved some wide sweeps away from that continent. From
Capetown the route led southward into the Antarctic Ocean until the ice-pack
forbade further progress ; then along the edge of the ice from 0° to 60° East longi-
tude, then north to Kerguelen. The two main geographical results of the cruise
were the rediscovery of Bouvet Island, and the sounding of the whole of the tropical
Indian Ocean for the first time.

The oceanographical work included a large number of deep-sea soundings. The
Valdivia was provided with two sounding machines. The Sigshee machine worked
remarkably well even in very stormy weather. The introduction of an electro-
motor for reeling in the line was a novelty that turned out most satisfactory ; it is
especially to be commended for. Polar work in which steam pipes are apt to freeze.
The best results of the sounding work were on the southern part of the cruise,
from Capetown to Bouvet Island, thence along the edge of the ice to the vicinity
of Enderby Land, and thence to Kerguelen, because the ship was then in waters
which had rarely been visited, and because of the discovery of remarkably great
depths of 2,800 to 3,000 fathoms, in place of the supposed Antarctic plateau.
Many details of the form of the ocean-bed were also studied, as, for example, the
enclosed seas between the west of Sumatra and the Nias Islands, the steep sub-
marine slope from Sumatra to the Indian Ocean, the connection of the Chagos
Islands with the Maldives, and the slope of the Agulhas bank to the deep sea.

The measurement of deep-sea temperature came next in importance. We can
only refer here to the results obtained in the tropical Indian Ocean and on the
margin of the ice. In the first-named instance an extraordinarily rapid transition
between the temperature of the superficial layer heated by the sun and the deeper
mass of cold water was observed, forming a sort of Sprungschicht between the
depths of 50 and 100 fathoms, On the border of the ice the distribution of tem-
perature was a cold layer on the surface, produced by the melting of ice with a
temperature of from 29° to 80° F.; below 50 fathoms warmer and salter water (the
temperature rising from 32° to 35° F.), and below that to nearly 1,000 fathoms a
steadily falling temperature. The larger icebergs all dip into the warmer layer.
This arrangement of temperature is not identical with that found in the Antarctic
by the Challenger, although similar to it.

The expedition has also carried oyt exact ohseryations on the ice conditions,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 809

distinguishing the floating ice into three categories: (1) Drift-ice, low broken
blocks, often evidently broken-off parts of glaciers; (2) Pack-ice, composed of
greenish stratified masses of frozen sea-water; and (3) Icebergs. The icebergs
observed in the western part of the Valdivia’s route, z.c. in the neighbourhood of
Bouvet Island, were much water-worn and varied in outline, having evidently
been afloat for a long time, while in the eastern part, near Enderby Land, they
were fresh, tabular, and regular in form, and had a height of from 100 to 180 feet
above the surface.

Amongst the meteorological work that accomplished in the far south can alone
be mentioned. The expedition saw nothing of the ‘brave west winds’ south of
55° S., but only light winds (though often storms) from E., N.E., and N., with
frequent calms and a quiet sea with fog on many occasions. In spite of the
frequency of east winds the barometer showed no sign of rising towards the south,
as the existence of an Antarctic anticyclone would seem to imply, but fell steadily.

i)

On the Mean Temperature of the Surface Waters of the Sea round the
British Coasts, and its Relation to that of the Air. By H. N.
Dickson, F.2.S.L.

The mean monthly and annual temperatures of the surface waters of the sea
during the period 1880-97 are shown for sixty-five stations distributed round the
coasts of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The average for the year at the entrance
to the English Channel is nearly 54° F., it falls as the Channel narrows to 52°
between the Start and Cape la Hague, and remains steady to beyond the
Straits of Dover, at least as far as the Hast Goodwin light vessel. On the south-
west coast of Ireland the annual mean is about 52°, falling to 51° in St. George’s
Channel, and 50° in the Irish Sea. A slow fall from 52° to 50° takes place on the
west coast of Ireland until the N.W. corner is reached. The mean of 49° per-
sists along the north coast of Ireland to the North Channel, and along the whole
of the west coast of Scotland to Stornoway. On the east coast temperature falls
very quickly, as soon as we get out of range of the Straits of Dover, to 50° off
Suttolk and Norfolk, and then there is a gradual fall as we go northwards, to 48°
off the coast of Northumberland, 473° off Aberdeenshire, and 47° at the Orkneys
and Shetlands. The effect of the tidal streams in mixing the waters is exceedingly
well marked. The annual minimum of temperature rarely occurs in March, most
frequently in January, especially at stations open to the Atlantic. The annual
maximum occurs almost everywhere in August.

Mean temperatures of the surface water are compared with the forty-year
averages for the air, recently published by Buchan. A comparison shows that the
mean annual difference has hitherto been somewhat over-estimated, especially on
the western coast ; in no case is the mean excess of sea over air greater than 2° F.
The maximum difference occurs everywhere in November and December, and is
greatest on the south coast of England between Portland Bill and the Straits of
Dover,

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18,
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Bathymetrical Survey of the Scottish Fresh-water Lochs.
By Sir Joun Murray, X.C.B., and F. P. Puvar.

810 REPORT—-1899,

2. The Distribution of Nitrogen and Ammonia in Ocean Water.
By Sir Joun Murray, 4.C.B., and Ropert Irvine.

3. Temperature and Salinity of the Surface Water of the North Atlantic
during 1896 and 1897. By H. N. Dickson.

The completed series of forty-eight monthly charts of surface temperature and
salinity, the mode of construction of which was described in a paper read before
the Section last year, is exhibited, and along with it, maps showing the departures
from the mean distribution of air pressure and temperature during the same period.
A number of new features in the movements of surface waters are disclosed,
notably in connection with the distribution of polar waters from the western
Atlantic.

4. On the Terminology of the Forms of Suboceanic Relief.
By Hucw Roserr Mitt, D.Se., FRS.L.

The Royal Geographical Society is at present engaged in the investigation of
the whole great subject of the terminology of geography, and at the approaching
International Geographical Congress at Berlin the question of the terminology
and nomenclature of the forms of the floor of the ocean is to be discussed by
representatives of different countries. The fact that the forms of the ocean floor
cannot be seen, but only felt out by soundings, makes their study one of peculiar
difficulty. Some distinguished authorities believe that our present knowledge of
the deep sea is too slight to justify any systematic nomenclature. Meanwhile
each investigator introduces a set of names of his own, for the most part based on
analogies with land forms visible to the eye.

It is obvious that there are two great classes of forms, elevations above and
depressions below the general level of the ocean floor; but the question is how
many subdivisions of each can be recognised as distinctive and deserving of generic
names. I am inclined to put forward tentatively the following general scheme of
terminology, premising that no attempt be made to localise any precise type of
form unless a considerable number of soundings exists to define it :—

Depression.—The general term for any sub-oceanic hollow.

Basin.—A relatively wide depression, with comparatively gently sloping sides.

Caldron.—A_ relatively wide depression, with comparatively steeply sloping
sides.

Furrow.—A relatively narrow depression with comparatively gently sloping
sides.

Trough.—A relatively narrow depression with comparatively steeply sloping
sides.

Wall.—Any submarine slope comparable in steepness to a precipice on land.

Floor.—Any very gentle submarine slope or nearly level surface.

Elevation —Any inequality above the general level of the ocean floor.

Rise.—A relatively narrow elevation.

Bank,—A relatively wide elevation.

Shoal.—An elevation coming within five fathoms of the surface, so as to be a
danger to shipping.

Shelf —A. nearly horizontal bank attached to the land and bordered seaward
by a much more abrupt downward slope.

Any suggestions as to the forms which are really typical and the terms which
ere most appropriate for their designation will be carefully considered,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 811

5. Twelve Years’ Work of the Ordnance Survey.
By Colonel Sir Joun Farquuarson, £.C.B.

In October 1887 I was ordered to take up at Southampton, where the head-
quarters of the Survey are established, the duties of Executive Officer, or second in
command, of the Ordnance Survey. Sir Charles Wilson was then Director-
General; and in March 1894 I succeeded him in the latter position, which I
retained until March of this year, when, on the expiry of my five years’ term of
office, [ handed over the duties to Colonel Duncan A. Johnston, R.E., the present
Director-General. [I propose in this paper to give a short summary of the work
done by the Ordnance Survey Department in the period of nearly twelve years,
from October 1887 to March 1899, during which I was either Executive Officer or
Director-General, and during which, in one or other of those capacities, the whole
of the work of the Survey passed through my hands.

During those twelve years there have been probably more changes made in the
character of the work done by the Survey than in any other equal period of its
history ; and, as regards the areas covered by its operations, they have been largely
in excess of the areas covered during any previous equal period. ‘This is, of course,
due to the fact that Revisions have now largely taken the place of original Surveys,

I propose first to deal with the progress made, from 1887 to 1899, in the
following branches of the work:

The progress (to completion in 1890) of the original Cadastral Survey of Eng-
land and Wales, including the 6-inch surveys of uncultivated districts.

The progress made on Re-surveys for the larger scales of various counties of
England and Scotland which had been originally surveyed for the 6-inch scale
only; and the progress made on the Revision of the original Cadastral Surveys of
England and Scotland, whether on the 25-inch or 6-inch scale.

The progress made on the Re-survey of Ireland for the 34, or 25-inch scale.

The progress made on the completion of the original new series engraved l-inch
maps of Great Britain and Ireland, both in outline and with hills.

The progress made on the Revision of the new series l-inch engraved outline
maps of Great Britain and Ireland, and the commencement of the issue for Scotland
and the North of England (and for Ireland ultimately) of the same revised l-inch
map with hills in brown by double printing.

The progress made with coloured 1-inch maps of the South of England.

The progress made with maps on scales smaller than 1 inch to a mile.

Tke simplest, and probably the clearest method of showing the work done under
the above heads will be by diagrams, which have been prepared.

A short account is given of the nature, causes, and results of any changes
made since 1887 in the system of carrying out the Survey, some of which may be
due to the reports of Committees, or suggestions from the general public, while
others have been necessitated by the changes which have taken place in the cha-
racter of the work done by the Department.

Observations are made as to the style and quality of the maps on all scales,
both old and new. But as specimens of these maps are provided for inspection
by members of the Association, these observations are very brief. Specimens of
foreign maps, so far as available, are also provided for inspection by members, and
comparison with the English maps.

The Ordnance Survey Department, in 1887, published town maps at the cost of
the State, on the scales of 10 feet (;4;) and 5 feet (;;4,;) to a mile. It does so
no longer.

The sales of the Ordnance Survey maps were in 1887 in the hands of the
Eerionery Office : they are now in the hands of the Ordnance Survey Department
itself.

Some remarks are also made as to the organisation and superintendence of
the Department and of its work ; as to the use or otherwise made of the Ordnance
Survey maps by other departments of the State and by the public generally ; and
as to the important work which still remains to be done by the Ordnance Survey,

813 REPORT—1899"

6. On Sand-Dunes bordering the Delta of the Nile.
Ly Vaucuan Cornisy, J.Sc., F.R.G.S., FCS.

The author visited Egypt in April-May, 1899, in continuation of his work
upon Sand-dunes (see ‘ Geographical Journal, March 1897, the first of a series of
papers upon ‘Kumatology’). Observations of sand-dunes and allied phenomena
were made upon twenty-three days along the line of the Suez Canal between Port
Said and Serapeum, on the Syrian route from Kantara, in the neighbourhood of
Ismailia, and on the line from Ismailia to Abu Hammad, between Cairo and
Terieh, on the western margin of the Delta, and in the neighbourhood of Helwan
and Sakara. About fifty photographs and eight drawings, suitable for reproduc-
tion, were obtained of sand-dunes, wind-erosion structures, and of tree-planting
directed against the encroachment of sand. The photographs of dunes include
both Barchanes (or Medanos) and the curious hollows which, in Arabia, are called
Fuljes, as well as gently undulating surfaces, covering the country like a mantle
of snow, with no sharp ridge or slipping lee cliff. Measurements of ripples and
dunes were made, and samples of sand were taken, from which (two only at
present) micro-photographs have been prepared.

Ripples—The author had previously measured twelve wind-formed ripples in
the blown sea sand on the Dorset coast.. The average ratio of length to height

was ‘ft = 184. The least height was ‘06 inch, and the greatest ‘34 inch. These

measurements were, for the most part, of one or two individual ripples. Mr. E.
A. Floyer measured six of the largest kind of ripples on the El Arish route, and

obtained Pai ‘7 with H from 6 to 10°6 inches. The author measured thirty-
seven consecutive ripples to leeward of a sand-dune near Ismailia. The ripples
had an average height of 1°43 inches, and the average ze was 16:57. The appear-_

ance of these was intermediate between that of ripples where accumulation is rapid
(which never grow large), and the large and nearly symmetrical ripples (? analogous
to sastrugi), as much as 11] feet in wave-length, the formation of which 1s
apparently accompanied by a considerable lowering of the general level.

Dunes.—A tract of a few hundred acres of small, but true, dunes (not ripples)
on a sandy foreland, exposed during the fall of the Nile, afforded an opportunity
for similar measurements.

Higher and lower dunes succeeded one another, and viewed transversely, the
ridges were strongly undulating. Nevertheless, a line having been marked out in
the up-and-down-wind direction, the average za for twenty-four consecutive dunes
was found to be 18:04, average height 20 inches. Another set of measurements

taken near the same line on the succeeding day, gave s 17:89 for twenty-three

consecutive dunes. Apparently the ridges are formed of the nearly uniform e =18)

shape, and lateral inequalities are subsequently developed in the manner explained
in the ‘ Geographical Journal,’ June 1898, pp. 637-9, but these do not affect the

average x The author hopes to make similar measurements of trains of larger
dunes.

The straight, slipping lee cliff of dunes is caused by the undercutting of the
eddy. In the dunes near Ismailia a progressive development of the profile form
was observed. At first both windward and lee slopes are very gentle, and the
highest point is near the middle. Thesummit apparently moves to leeward, and the
lee slope becomes steeper; a slipping cliff is formed on the upper part of the lee
slope. This pushes back towards the summit, and the windward slope grows
steeper. Finally, windward and average leeward slope become of nearly equal
steepness, and the top of the cliff coincides with the summit of the dyne,

RANSACTIONS OF SECTION &. 813

Dune Tracts.—The condition for formation of a dune tract in 4 sandy district
is that the rate of travel of the sand should be localiy diminished without a corre-
sponding diminution in the supply of sand. The persistence of such condition may
cause a stationary dune massif without fixation, ;

In the sandy district visited by the author the formation of a dune tract or
dune massif appears to be chiefly determined by the presence of ground moisture,
which gives coherence to the sand. Thus the boundaries of these massifs frequently
appear inexplicable when an explanation is sought in the wind. Within the
bounds of the massif, however, the modelling of the surface is explicable by the
action of the winds.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.

1. Phe Anthropogeography of certain Places in British New Guinea
and Sarawak, By A. C. Havpon, D.Sc., P.R.S.

2. A Visit to the Karch-Chal Mountains, Transcaucasia.
Ly W. Rickmer Rickmers.

In the summer of 1895, accompanied by Dr. A. Hacker, of Vienna, I visited the
Karch-Chal Mountains, in Transcaucasia, This group is S.E. of Batum, and, in a
straight line, about 30 miles distant from that port. The route taken was along
the Chorokh River, through a well-wooded valley rich in copper ore. A carriage
road can be used as far as the village Borchkha, where one leaves the river and
ascends by one of the side valleys. These are fairly well cultivated, containing
numerous villages inhabited by Ajars or Lazes, a people speaking a dialect pro-
duced by the mixture of Georgian and Osmanli. They were originally Georgian
Christians, and ruined churches can be found in several places, even at a height of
4,000 ft. Now the country is thoroughly Mohammedanised. Maize and tobacco
are the chief produce.

After leaving the region of the picturesquely situated villages, with their brown
wooden houses, the ascent leads through a forest of magnificent beeches and other
leaf-trees. In the midst of this luxuriant vegetation, at a height of 5,000 ft., a hot

spring has given birth to a primitive watering-place called Otingo, consisting of
three sheds, and chiefly frequented by Armenians from Artwin. Above this comes
a, zone of dense fir-woods, with an impenetrable undergrowth of laurel and rhodo-
dendron, the abode of numerous bears. At a level of ca. 7,000 ft. one steps forth
on to the undulating Alpine pastures where the cattle are sent to graze during two
summer months. The Yailas, corresponding to the Sennhiitten of the Aips, are
almost exactly like their European counterparts. In one of the huts we lived for
many weeks, save when, for a change, we passed the nights in a cave 3,000 ft.
higher or on the summit of a mountain.

The principal peaks of the group are on an average 12,000 ft. high, and sur-
round a plateau about 11,000 ft. high. Light peaks were climbed, some proving
fairly difficult. Photographs were taken, and a collection of Alpine plants made,
which has thrown light on the mountain flora of these regions. Large mammals,
such as ibex or chamois, were not observed, but eagles and vultures were plentiful.

Three days and nights were spent on the top of the highest summits in order to
obtain a series of barometrical and thermometrical observations. Mr. Hacker
sketched a panorama of the range from this point,

A small and very steep glacier was also discovered; it feeds a beautiful little
green lake. Towards the end of August snowy weather alternated with days of
sunshine, and once we were obliged to wait a whole fortnight in one of the huts
for the fog to lift.

814 REPORT—1899.

On the return journey a visit was paid to the town of Artwin, otie of the most
important Armenian settlements in these parts. It dominates a beautiful gorge of,
the Chorokh, and offers many interesting aspects of native life.

3. A Journey in King Menelek’s Dominions. By Captain M. 8S. WEtzBy.

The Paper deals with the following subjects :—

Reference to the capital of Abyssinia—Travelling with King Menelek’s army—
Breakfast with his Imperial Majesty—Present and future character of the Abyssi-
nian people—Abyssinian power and conquests—Effect of different foods on the
human body—Bottego, the Italian explorer—A chain of lakes and an independent
tribe—Effect on the tribes of King Menelek’s rule—The devils of Walamo—Reli-
gious beliefs of the Asilli tribes—The outflow of the river Womo (Omo)—A
voleano—Lake Gallop: waves in tropical Africa—The unknown land between
Gallop and the Nile Valley—An advanced post in the Sudan—My Abyssinian
followers.

4, The Discovery of Australia. By Epwarp Heawoop, JfA.

The first authenticated voyage to Australia was made by a Dutch vessel in
1606, but it has been thought by many, from indications on maps of a much earlier
date, that voyages had been made by the navigators of some other European nation,
early in the previous century. These maps are of the Dieppe school of carto-
graphy, and are all—as regards this part of the world—based on one prototype, |
the earliest known to us dating from about 1536. They show a continental land
to the south-east of Java, bearing the name Jave la Grande, ‘the Greater Java,’ in
distinction from Java proper. The fairly full nomenclature round the coasts has
been thought to imply an actual discovery, and as Australia is the only large land
in this quarter of the globe, the land delineated has been supposed to represent
Australia. 4

A comparison of the outlines of these maps with those of Australia shows little
real resemblance, while other considerations would rather lead to the conclusion
that Jave la Grande really represents a reduplication of Java proper in a greatly
exaggerated form. The influence of the old writers, especially Marco Polo, was
still very great at the beginning of the sixteenth century. That traveller spoke of
Java as Java Major, with a circuit of 3,000 miles, and his nomenclature was
followed by a large number of map makers. The native charts in use before the
advent of the Portuguese gave Java an inclination to the south-east, such as is
shown by the coast-line on the French maps, while the earliest Portuguese map of
the Archipelago presents a somewhat similar reduplication of Java. The charts of
Rodriguez, partly based on native material, are a proof that large-scale representa-
tions of Java were in existence at the time, while the extent of coast-line definitely
shown on the earliest of the French maps is absolutely identical with that of the
Javan coasts known to the Portuguese about 1519. The correspondence of the
outline is fairly satisfactory, especially in the south-west, while the scanty indica-
tions of the nomenclature point to Java at least as much as to Australia.

Finally, the hypothetical nature of other details in these maps as regards the
Far East should make us hesitate to base the assumption of a discovery of Australia
in the fifteenth century on their unsupported testimony.

5. A Journey to Wilezek Land and the Problem of Arctic Exploration.
- By Waiter WELLMAN.

es

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 815

6, The Relations of Christmas Island to the Neighbouring Lands.
By C. W, Anprews, B.Sc., F.GS,

The author points out that in Christmas Island there is a long series of Ter-
tiary deposits, ranging, probably, from the Upper Eocene at least to the end of
the Miocene, and that these rocks are closely similar to deposits of the same age in
Java and the neighbouring islands.

The relations of the present fauna and flora are considered, and it is shown
that they most nearly resemble those of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, but that in
certain cases the species are the same as some found in Ceylon, &c. Some of the
means by which the various plants and animals may have reached the island are
referred to,

816 REPORT--1890,

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS,

PRESIDENT OF THE SectIonN—Henry Hiaes, LL.B., F-.S.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The President delivered the following Address :—

THE prime concern of the economist and of the statistician is the condition of
the people. Other matters which engage their attention—particular problems,
questions of history, discussions of method, developments of theory—all derive their
ultimate importance from their bearing upon this centralsubject. The statistician
measures the changing phenomena of the production, distribution, and consumption
of wealth, which to a large extent reflect and determine the material condition of
the people. The economist analyses the motives of these phenomena, and
endeavours to trace the connection between cause and effect. He is unable to
push his analysis far without a firm mastery of the theory of value, the perfecting of
which has been the chief stride made by economic science in the nineteenth century.
When we read the ‘ Wealth of Nations’ we are forced to admit that in sheer
sagacity Adam Smith is unsurpassed by any of his successors. It is only when we
come to his imperfect and unconnected views upon value that we feel the power
of increased knowledge. J. 8. Mill supposed in 1848 that the last word had been
said on the theory of value. In his third book he writes: ‘ In a state of society
in which the industrial system is entirely founded on purchase and sale .. . the
question of value is fundamental. Almost every speculation respecting the
economical interests of a society thus constituted implies some theory of value:
the smallest error cn this subject infects with corresponding error all our other
conclusions, and anything vague or misty in our conception of it creates confusion
and uncertainty in everything else.’ And he adds: ‘ Happily, there is nothing in
the laws of value which remains for the present or any future writer to clear up ;
the theory of the subject is complete.’

We know now that he was wrong. Thanks in the main to economists still
alive, and especially to the mathematical economists, we have at length a theory
of value so formally exact that, whatever may be added to it in the future, time
can take nothing from it, while it is sufficiently flexible to lend itself as well to a
régime of monopoly as to one of competition. Yet our confidence in this instrument
of analysis is far from inspiring us with the assurance which has done so much to
discredit economics by provoking its professors to dogmatise upon problems with
the whole facts of which they were imperfectly acquainted. Given certain conditions
of supply and certain conditions of demand, the economist should have no doubt
as to the resulting determination of value; but he is more than ever alert to make
sure that he has all the material factors of the case before him ; that he understands
the facts and their mutual relation before he ventures to pronounce an opinicn
upon any mixed question. He must have the facts before he can analyse them.
A small array of syllogisms, which, as Bacon says, ‘master the assent and not the
subject,’ are not an adequate equipment for him. He sees more and more the need

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 819

for careful and industrious investigation, and prominent among the subjects
which await his trained observation are the condition of the people and the
related subject of the consumption of wealth. ‘Training is, indeed, indispensable.
Every social question has its purely economic elements for the skilled economist
to unravel, and when this part of his task has been achieved, he is at an advantage
in approaching the other parts of it, while his habit of mind helps him to know
what to look out for and what to expect.

It is a curious paradox that, busying ourselves as we do with the condition of
the people, we are lamentably lacking in precision in our knowledge of the
economic life and state of the British people in the present day. Political economy
has, however, followed the lines of development of political power. At one time
it was, as the Germans say, cameralistic—an affair of the council chamber, a
question of the power and resources of the king. Taking a wider but still
restricted view of society, it became capitalistic, identifying the economic interests
of the community to a too great extent with those of the capitalist class. It has
at length become frankly democratic, looking consciously and directly to the
prosperity of the people at large.

Thus, then, we have at once a more accurate theory, a livelier sense of caution
as to its limitations in practice, and the widest possible field of study. So far as
most of us are concerned, we might as well spend our time in verifying the ready
reckoner as in tracing and retracing the lines of pure theory. These tools are
made for use. Economic science is likely to make the most satisfactory progress
if we watch the social forces that surround us, detecting the operation of economic
law in all its manifestations, and in observing, co-ordinating, and recording the
facts of economic life. It is not enough, to borrow the language of the biologist
(part of which he himself borrowed from the old economists), to talk of the
struggle for existence, the survival of the fittest, and of evolution. We want,
above all, his spirit and his method—the careful, minute, systematic observation of
life as affected by environment, heredity, and habit. Different problems are
brought to the front by different circumstances and appeal to different minds; but
at all times and to all economists the condition of the people is of chief interest,
and the consumption of wealth is so closely connected with it that it might seem
superfluous to plead for its study. Yet some such plea is necessary. The arts of
production improve apace. The victories of science are rapidly utilised by manu-
facturers anxious to make a fortune. Even here the descriptive study of the
subject is hampered by the trade secrets involved in many processes, and by a
feeling that production may safely be left to the unresting intelligence of captains
of industry, so that the onlooker is chiefly concerned in this branch of the subject
with solicitude for the health and safety of the workmen employed. The depart-
ments of distribution and exchange appeal especially to the pride of intellect. The
delicate theorems of value in all their branches—wages, rent, interest, profits, the
problems of taxation, the alluring study of currency, the mechanism of banking
and exchange—have attracted the greatest share of the economist’s attention. On
the practical side of distribution the growth of trade unions, the spread of educa-
tion, the improved standard of living, have increased the bargaining power of the
working classes and combined with other causes to effect a gratifying improvement
in the distribution of wealth, so that they receive a growing share of the growing
national dividend. The practical and the speculative aspects alike of the con-
sumption of wealth have received less consideration. Nobody sees his way to a
fortune through the spread of more knowledge of domestic economy in workmen’s
homes; and the scientific observer has curbed his curiosity before what might
seem an inquisitorial investigation into the question, What becomes of wages?
Economists long ago discovered the necessity of distinguishing between money
wages and real wages. It is now necessary for us to distinguish between real
wages and utilities—not to stop at the fact that so many shillings a week might
procure such and such necessaries, comforts, or luxuries, but to ascertain how they
are expended, From the first we can deduce what the economic condition of the

_ people might be; from the second we shall know what it is. And when we know

what it is we shall see more clearly what with more wisdom it might become.

1899, 3G

818 REPORT—1899.

Wealth, after all, is a means to anend. It is not enough to maximise wealth,
we must strive to maximise utilities. And we can no more judge of the condition
of a people from its receipts alone, than we can judge of the financial condition of a
nation from a mere statement of its reyenues.

The condition of the people has, of course, improved, and is improving.
Public hygiene has made great progress, and houses are better and more sanitary,
though for this and other reasons rents have risen, Wages are higher. Commo-
dities are cheaper. Co-operation and the better organisation of retail business,
giving no credit, have saved some of the profits of middlemen for the benefit of
the consumer, while authority fights without ceasing against frauds in weights
and measures, and adulteration. Free libraries, museums, picture galleries, parks,
public gardens and promenades have multiplied, and it is almost sufficient to
observe that no one seems to be too poor to command the use ofa bicycle. But
with all this progress it is to be feared that housekeeping is no better understood
than it was two centuries ago—perhaps even not so well. In the interval it has
become enormously simplified. The complete housewife is no ionger a brewer, a
baker, a dyer, a tailor, and a host of other specialists rolled into one. But among the
working classes the advent of the factory system has increased the employment of
women and girls away from home to such an extent that many of them now marry
with a minimum of domestic experience, and are with the best intentions the
innocent agents of inefficiency and waste, even in this simplified household.

If we were suddenly swallowed up by the ocean, it appears probable that the
foreign student would find it easier to describe from existing documents the life and
home of the British craftsman in the middle ages than of his descendant of to-day.
In part, no doubt, our fiscal system, with its few taxes upon articles of food and its
light pressure on the working classes, is responsible for this neglect. During the Napo-
leonic war Pitt sent for Arthur Young to ask him what were the ordinary and neces-
sary expenses of a workman’s family, and the question would again become one of
practical politics if any large addition were required in the proceeds of indirect taxa-
tion. Taxation has the one advantage of providing us with statistics. We know
tolerably well the facts in the mass about the consumption of tea and coffee, dried
fruits and tobacco, and of alcohol, while the income tax (aided in the near future
by returns of the death duties) may give us some idea of the stratification of the
wealthier classes. But the details of consumption are still obscure. It has
already been suggested that some restraint may arise from the sentiment that
individuals are likely to resent what they may regard as a prying into their affairs.
But when we travel abroad we are curious to notice, and do notice without giving
offence, the dress, the habits, and the food of peasants and workmen; and it is
difficult to resist the conclusion that we are less observant at home because these
common and trivial details appear to us unworthy of attention. In his ‘ Principles
of Economics’ Professor Marshall says: ‘ Perhaps 100,000,000/. annually are
spent even by the working classes, and 400,000,000/. by the rest of the population
of England, in ways that do little or nothing towards making life nobler or truly
happier.’ And, again, speaking before the Royal Statistical Society in 1893:
‘Something like the whole imperial revenue, say 100 millions a year, might be
saved if a sufficient number of able women went about the country and induced
the other women to manage their households as they did themselves.’ These
figures show, at any rate, the possibilities of greatness in the economic progress
which may result from attention to the humblest details of domestic life.

Economics, like other sciences, lies under a great debt of obligation to French
pioneers. The Physiocrats, or économistes, of the eighteenth century were the first
school of writers to make it worthy of the name of a science. In Cournot France
gave us a giant of originality in pure theory. In Comte we have a philosopher
truitful in suggestion to the narrower economist. In Le Play we have a writer as
yet little known in England, but to whom recognition and respect are gradually
coming for his early perception of the importance of ascertaining the facts of con-
sumption, and itis to Le Play’s ‘family budgets,’ the receipts and expenses of

——

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 819

workmen’s families, that I desire especially to call attention. I have given else-
where an account of his life and work.!' Broadly speaking, he set himself by the
comparative study of workmen’s families in different countries of Europe to arrive at
the causes of well-being and of misery among the labouring classes. The subject
was too large to lead him in many directions to very precise conclusions. We are
reminded in reading him of an incident at a dinner of the Political Economy Club
in 1876, when Mr. Robert Lowe propounded the question, ‘What are the more
important results which have followed from the publication of the “ Wealth of
Nations” just one hundred years ago?’ Some of the most enthusiastic admirers of
Adam Smith were present, Mr. Gladstone and M. Léon Say among the number ;
and Mr. Lowe trenchantly declared that it all came to this: ‘ The causes of wealth
are two, industry and thrift; the causes of poverty are two, idleness and waste.’
It was left to Mr. W. E. Forster to make the rugged remark, ‘ You don’t want
to go to Adam Smith for that—you can get that out of the Proverbs of Solomon.’
And Le Play’s conclusions frequently go still further back, to the Decalogue.
There are, however, many observations, suggestive and original, upon the material
facts, the economic life, of the families he brought under review. And we are
now concerned rather with his method than with his conclusions. Given half a
dozen Le Plays applying their minds to the study of the consumption of wealth
among the working classes of England, we might expect soon to see a greater
advance in comfort, a greater rise in the standard of life, than improved arts of
production alone are likely to yield in a generation. Certain English writers had,
indeed, prepared family budgets before Le Play arose. But their method was
usually incomplete, except for the specific purpose they had before them. David
Davies and Sir F. Eden were chiefly concerned with the poor law, Arthur Young
and Cobbett with agricultural politics, Dudley Baxter and Leone Levi with taxa-
tion, Le Play may fairly be called the father of the scientific family budget.
His studies of four English families* are the most complete economic pictures
of English popular life to be found in literature. With the aid of some local
authority he chose what was thought a fairly typical family, and then, frankly
explaining his scientific object and securing confidence, he set himself to study it.
Nothing of economic interest is too unimportant for him to record. A minute
inventory and valuation of clothes, furniture, and household goods; a detailed
account, item by item, of income from all sources and of expenditure upon all
objects for a year, with the quantities and prices of foods, &e.; a description of the
family, member by member, their past history, their environment, how they came
to be where they are and to earn their living as they do; their resources in the
present, their provision for the future; their meals, hygiene, and recreations ;
their social, moral, political, and religious observances—nothing escapes him. And
the whole is organised, classified, fitted into a framework identical for all cases,
with the painstaking and methodical industry of the naturalist Contrasted with
this the realism of novelists, the occasional excursions of journalists, the observa-
tions of professed economists, are pitiably incomplete. As early as 1857 Le Play
found one ardent admirer in England, Mr. W. L. Sargant, whose ‘Economy of
the Labouring Classes,’ avowedly inspired by Le Play, is a valuable and interesting
piece of work. Since then, however, with the magnificent exception of Mr.
Charles Booth, little has been done to throw light upon the mode of life of the
wage-earners of England. The Board of Trade heralded the formation of its
Labour Department by issuing a Blue Book—unhappily without sequel—entitled
‘ Returns of Expenditure by Working Men,’ 1889, and the Economic Club has
published a useful collection of studies in ‘ Family Budgets,’ 1896. But we shall
probably still depend very much upon foreign observers for fuller knowledge of
the subject. M. René Lavollée, an adherent who may almost be called a col-
league of Le Play, has devoted to England a whole volume of his important work
‘ Les Classes Ouvriéres en Europe: études sur leur situation matérielle et morale.’ *

1 Harvard Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. iv.1890; Journal of Royal Statis-

tical Society, March 1893; Palgrave’s Dictionary of Political Economy, s.v. Le Play, 1896

2 Les Owriers Européens, Paris, folio, 1855.
8 Paris, 1896, tom. iii. 656 pp., large 8vo.,
3@2

820 REPoRT—1899,

M. Urbain Guérin, atiother member of the Société d’Economie Sociale founded
by Le Play to carry on his work, has recently added a study of a tanner’s
family in Nottingham to Le Play’s gallery of portraits: and some of the young
members of the Musée Social and the Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques have
come among us animated with the same scientific curiosity. A vivid (and, so far
as Newcastle is concerned, a trustworthy) sketch by a German miner, ‘ How the
English Workman lives,’ just translated into English, is our latest debt to foreign
observers. It may be hoped that the British Association, largely attended as it is
by persons who would shrink from more ambitious scientific labours, will furnish
some workers ready to do their country the very real service of recording such
facts as they can collect about the economic habits of our own people, and so
helping us to know ourselves.

Consider, for a moment, the consumption of food. To the ordinary English
workman life would seem unendurable without white wheaten bread. Other forms
of bread he knows there are, but he has unreasoning prejudices against wholemeal
bread—the food of workhouses and prisons—and against rye bread or other kinds
of bread, the food of foreigners. But in many parts of Europe the working
classes have no bread. Cereals of some sort, prepared in some way, they of course
employ. Wheat, oats, rye, barley, maize, buckwheat, even chestnuts, are used
indifferently in different places, and rice and potatoes are among the substitutes.
What is the relative value of these as food-stutfs, and what is the best mode of
preparing them? The reasons which induced men in the middle ages to consume
the cereals of their own neighbourhood have been so much weakened by the
cheapening of transport and the international specialisation of industries, that the
conservatism of food habits is brought into strong relief when we find neighbour-
ing peoples abandoning, first in town and then in country, marked distinctions of
national costumes, but clinging everywhere to national differences of food. We
are perhaps on the eve of considerable changes here. Two years agoan American
economist told me in Boston that fruit had been the great ally of the workmen in a
recent severe strike. There had been an exceptionally large crop of bananas, which
were sold at one cent apiece, and the strikers had sustained themselves and their
families almost entirely upon bananas at a trifling cost—very greatly below their
usual expense for food. Returning to London I found bananas on sale in the
streets for a halfpenny. No doubt they were consumed here in addition to, and
not in substitution for, ordinary food; but they illustrate the fact that the foods
of other latitudes are no longer the sole luxury of the rich, but are brought within
the reach of all classes, and that our popular food habits need no longer be made
to conform to the narrow range of former days, but may be put upon a wider
rational basis. The vegetarians, largely dependent upon other countries, have
recognised this. The chemist and the physiologist might give us great assistance
in these matters. Most of the calculations which I have seen as to the constituents
of foods, their heat-giving and nutritive properties, appear to ignore the greater or
less facility with which the different foods are assimilated. It is surprising that
rice, in some respects the most economical of all grains, needing no milling,
easily cooked and easily digested, is not more largely consumed by the poorer
families in this country.

The effect upon our food habits of the introduction of railways and the supply
of comparatively cheap fuel to every household is almost incalculable. But for
this the consumption of tea, perhaps even of potatoes where there is no peat, would
be very small. ‘The preference of the French for liquid, and of the English for
solid, food has been attributed to the greater relative facilities which the French
once enjoyed for making a fire, though the persistence (if not the origin) of our
popular habits in this respect probably lies rather in the fact that a Frenchwoman’s
cookery makes greater demands upon her time and attention. One result of this
preference is that the essential juices of meat preserved by the French in soups
and ragouts are with us toa large extent absolutely wasted. Owners of small
house properties complain that, however well trapped their sinks may be, the pipes
are constantly choked, and that the mysterious mischief is almost invariably cured
by liberal doses of boiling water which melt the solidified fats cast away ina state

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 821

of solution. The number of persons who died of starvation in the administrative
county of London in 1898, or whose death was accelerated by privation, amounted
to 48; and we shall be pretty safe in estimating the total number in the United
Kingdom at something less than 500. The common and inevitable reflection is
that they might have been easily relieved from the superfluities of the rich; but
it is true also that their sufficient sustenance was destroyed many times over
through the ignorance of the poor. It would be difficult to find an English
cookery book which a workman’s wife would not reject as too fanciful and ambi-
tious to be practical, A little French treatise, La parfaite Cuisiniére, ou Art
d@utiliser ies Restes, strikes in its title at any rate the keynote of the popular
domesiic economy of which we stand much in need in England. Housekeeping,
even the humblest, is a skilled business. To know what to buy, how to use it,
and how to utilise waste does not come by the light of nature. If more knowledge
and more imagination were devoted to the teaching of cookery in our Board
schools, the family meal might be made more varied, more appetising, more
attractive, and more economical, leaving a larger margin for the comforts,
culture, and recreations which help to develop the best social qualities. A
happy family is a family of good citizens. It would be discourteous to another
Section of this Association to quote without reserve the mot of Brillat-Savarin :
‘He who discovers a new dish does more for the happiness of mankind than he
who discovers a new planet.’ We must stipulate that the new dish effects an im-
provement in the economy of the working classes.

Take, again, the consumption of coal. Mr. Sargant says: ‘It is impossible to
say how much of the superiority of English health and longevity is owing to the
use of open fireplaces; probably a considerable part is owing to it. We all know
how close and stifling is the atmosphere of a room heated by a stove, and how
much more difficult it is to keep a room perfectly ventilated in summer than it is
in winter, when the fire is constantly changing the air. It may be true that three-
fourths of the heat of our fireplaces passes up the chimney and is lost to us; but
we gain far more advantage by the fresh air constantly introduced into the room.’
Now with improved grates and improved fireplaces we may retain all the
advantages of the open fire without so great a waste either of the substance of the
consumer or of the national stock of coal; and attention is already being devoted
to this fact in middle-class households, but some time must yet elapse before the
advantage is reaped by the working classes. At a former meeting of this Associa~
tion Mr. Edward Atkinson exhibited a portable oven or cooking-stove, which was
a marvel of simplicity and economy. He has described it at length in his ‘ Science
of Nutrition, 1892. He argues that the attempts to combine cooking with the
warming of a room or house are absurdly wasteful; that almost the whole of the
fuel used in cooking is wasted; and that nine-tenths of the time devoted to
watching the process of cooking is wasted; and he estimates the waste of food
from bad cooking in the United States at 1,000,000,000 dollars a year. I have
not, however, heard of his oven being at all extensively used.

Upon the thorny subject of dress it is perilous to venture; but it is impossible
to be in the neighbourhood of a London park on a Sunday afternoon without
feeling that the efforts of domestic servants to follow the rapidly changing vagaries
of fashion are carried to a pernicious degree of waste. The blouse of the French
workman and the bare head of the Parisian factory-girl or flower-girl are infinitely
more pleasing than the soiled and frowsy woollens or the dowdy hats of their
English fellows, nor does the difference of climate afford an adequate explanation
of the difference of habit. We must perhaps admit a greater dislike in England
to any external indication of a difference in wealth by a costume different in kind.
M. Lavollée, after referring to the low price of the ready-made suits which the
Knglish factories ‘ fling by the million on the markets of the world, including their
own,’ adds: ‘This extraordinary cheapness is, however, not always without,
inconvenience to the consumer. If the clothes he buys cost little, they are not
lasting, and their renewal becomes in the long run very burdensome. This
renewal is, too, the more frequent in that the wife of the English workman is in
general far from skilful in sewing and mending, Whether she lacks inclination,

822 REPORT—1899.

or the necessary training, or whether the fatigues of a too frequent maternity make
her réle as a housewife too difficult for her to support, the woman of the people is
generally, on the other side of the Channel, a rather poor cook, an indifferent needle-
woman, aud a still more indifferent hand at repairs.” Asa consequence, he says, the
English workman has often no alternative but to wear his garments in holes or to
replace them by others. Given an equal income, there is probably no doubt that
a French working-class family will be better fed and better clad than a corre-
sponding English family dealing in the same market, and will lay up a larger
stock of the household goods, and especially linen, which are the pride of the
French peasant.

The waste resulting from the immoderate use of alcohol and from the wide-
spread habit of betting, serious as they are, need not detain me, as I wish to confine
myself more particularly to waste which can hardly be called intentional. It is
not suggested that every man should confine his expenditure to what is strictly
necessary to maintain his social position. The great German writer on finance,
Professor Wagner, is accustomed to say that ‘parsimony is not a principle.’ It is
sometimes, indeed, a bad policy and a wasteful policy ; and life would be a very
dull business if its monotony were not relieved by amusement and variety even at
the occasional expense of thrift. Le Play refers to tobacco as ‘the most economical
of all recreations.’ How else, he asks, could the Hartz miner ‘give himself an
agreeable sensation’ a thousand times in a year at so low acost as 10 francs?
But nobody would wish to see a free man using his tobacco like the Russian
prisoners described to me by Prince Kropotkin, as chewing it, drying and smoking
it, and finally snuffing the ashes! Nor should we desire to eradicate from society
the impulses of hospitality, and even of a certain measure of display. An austere
and selfish avarice, if generally diffused, may strike at the very existence of a
nation.

Another respect in which French example may be profitable to us is the muni-
cipal management of funerals (pompes funébres). Many a struggling family of
the working classes has been seriously crippled by launching out into exaggerated
expenses at the death of one of its members, and especially of a bread-winner.
The French system, while preserving the highest respect for the dead, has some
respect for the living, who are frequently unable and unwilling at a time of
bereavement to resist any suggestion for expensive display which seems to them
a last token of affection as well as a proof of self-respect.

As regards housing, the English cottage or artisan’s house is regarded on the
Continent rather as a model for imitation than as a subject for criticism; but the
pressure of population upon space in our large cities, jommed with a love of life in
the town, may possibly prove too strong for the individualist’s desire for a house
to himself. If we should be driven to what Mrs. Leonard Courtney has proposed
to call Associated Homes, the famillistére founded by M. Godin at Guise, and
rooted in the idea of Fourier’s phalanstére, will show us what has already been
achieved in this direction. Dissociated from industrial enterprise it might easily
become popular in England. Somé of its collective economies are certainly de-
serving of imitation, and the experience not only of the Continent, but also of
America, may soon bring us face to face with the question whether the prepara-
tion of dinners, in large towns, should not—at least for the working classes—be
left to the outside specialist like the old home industries of taking and brewing.
An excellent example of scientific observation is ‘Les Maisons types’ by M. de
Foville, the well-known master of the French Mint. He describes in detail
the various forms of huts, cottages, and houses scattered over France in such
a fashion that it is said the traveller in a railway train may tell, by reading
the book, through what part of the country he is passing; and he gives the reasons,
founded upon history or local circumstances, for the peculiarities in architecture to
be observed. The book is a useful warning against rash generalisations as to the
best type of house for a working man.

A well-informed writer shows, in an article in the ‘Times’ of the 28th ult.,
that not less than fifty million gallons of water a day might be saved in London
‘without withdrawing a drop from any legitimate purpose, public or private, including

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 823

the watering of plants.’ He says: ‘The detection of waste is carried out by means
of meters placed on the mains, which record automatically the quantity of water
passing hour by hour throughout the day and night. The whole area served by a
given water supply is mapped out into small districts, each of which is controlled
by one of these detective meters. The chart traced by the apparatus shows pre-
cisely how much water is used in each of the twenty-four hours. It records in a
grephic form and with singular fidelity the daily life of the people. It shows when
they get up in the morning, when they go to bed at night, when they wash the tea-
things, the children, and the clothes; it shows in a suburban district when the
head of the household comes home from the city and starts watering his flowers ;
it shows when the watering-cart goesround; but, above all, it shows when the
water is running away to waste and how much.’

I quote this not to multiply examples of the waste of wealth, but to illustrate
the insight which a few figures, such as those recorded by this meter, give us into
the lives of the people. How much more does the account-hook, a detective meter
of every economic action, give us an animated photograph of the family life!
Nothing is so calculated to stimulate social sympathy or to suggest questions for
consideration. Like a doctor's notes of his patients the facts are not for publication
in any form which wil] reveal the identity of the subject; but when we have
enough of them they will be of the highest scientific value. We have at present
too few to offer any useful generalisations. All that can be done is to serve as a
finger-post to point the road along which there is work to be done.

If nothing has been said about the waste and extravagance of the wealthier
classes, it is because economy is with them of less moment. They suffer little or
no privation from extravagance, and derive less advantage from checking it than
those to whom every little isa help. And so far as much of this waste is con
cerned, they sin against the light. It is one thing to point out a more excellent
way to the unwary, another to preach to those who, seeing the better, follow the
worse.

But the expenditure of the working classes is also, from a scientific point of
view, vastly more important. Their expenses are more uniform, less disturbed by
fantasy, or hospitality, or expensive travel, and will give us more insight into the
hitherto inscrutable laws of demand. The time is far removed when any reduc-
tion in the cost of living could be successfully made the pretext for a reduction in
the rate of wages. The Committee on the Aged Deserving Poor recommends
under certain conditions pensions varying with the ‘cost of living in the locality.’
The same factor, we are told, enters into the adjustment of postmen’s wages as
between town and town. How are we to know the comparative cost of living
without these details of expenditure ? How else can we measure wi'h any exact-
ness the progress of civilisation itself? How else can we discover the cohesive
force of the family in holding together the structure of society, the mutual succour
of young and old, the strong and the infirm or sick, the well-to-do and the victim
of accident or ill-luck ? To what department soever of economic life we turn our
eyes we find live men and women, born into families, living in families, their social
happiness and efficiency largely dependent on their family lives, and when we
consider how greatly our knowledge and insight into society will be increased by
a more intimate acquaintance with the economies of the family, we may well
cherish the highest hopes for the future progress of our science. The theory of this
subject, at any rate, is not ‘complete.’ It has not even been begun.

Upon certain aspects of the spending or using of wealth as opposed to the get-
ting of wealth, like the expenditure of central and local governments, it would hardly
be proper for me to enlarge. The first is subject to the watchful control of the
taxpayer, of Parliament, and of a highly trained civil service ; the second to the

jealous criticism of the ratepayer and his representative. But there is some social

expenditure, like the scandalous multiplication of advertisements (which by a refine-
ment of cruelty give us no rest night or day), which is wicked to a degree. In all
these matters of the consumption of wealth, individually and collectively, we
are as yet, it must be again repeated, too ignorant of the facts. An unimagi-
native people as we are, we are fortunately fond enough of travel to have sugges-

824 REPORT—1899.

tions constantly forced upon us by the different experiences and habits of foreign
countries. And we are happy in a neighbour like France, with her literary and
social charms and graces, her scientific lucidity and inventiveness, and the contrasts
of her social genius to inspire comparisons, and in many respects to set us examples.
I have singled out one of her many writers for attention, precisely because of this
quality of suggestiveness. Other investigators have, of course, attacked the sub-
ject. In Belgium and Switzerland, Germany, Italy and Austria, and the United
States, governments and individuals have recently undertaken the preparation of
family budgets; but in many respects Le Play’s monographs are the first and
greatest of all. They yield excellent material, upon which Science, in its various
branches, has yet to do work which will benefit mankind in general ; and promises
especially to benefit the people of this country. The cosmopolitan attitude of
the older economists was largely due to their centring their attention upon
the problems of exchange. To them the globe was peopled by men like our-
selves, producing the fruits of the earth, anxious to exchange them to the greatest
mutual advantage, but hindered from doing so by the perversity of national
governments, The facts of consumption, at any rate, are local. They are often
determined by geology, geography, climate, and occupation; and, however fully
we may admit the economic solidarity of the world, and the advantage which
one part of it derives from the prosperity of another, yet we may be easily forgiven
for thinking that our first duty lies to our own brethren; that our natural
work is that which lies at our own doors; that, as the old proverb says, ‘ the skin is
nearer than the shirt.’ And we may fairly be excused if we attempt to make our
contribution to the welfare of the human family through the improvement of the
consumption of wealth and the cundition of the people in our own land.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Mercantile System of Laisser Faire. By Erne. R. Faranay, M.A.

The English Jaisser faire school, originally founded on a cosmopolitan theory
of economics, occupies at present a position as purely nationalist as that of the
mercantile school which it succeeded. This is the effect of a dogmatic insistence
on the economic ideal as stated by Cobden, and a resulting indifference towards
five recent developments of economic thought: the separation of the science from
the art of economics, the detinition of the science and of its subject wealth, the
humanist philosophy, the imperial idea, and the theory of relativity. The early
free-traders, sharing the confusion prevalent fifty years ago between the economic
science and art, exaggerated the functions of liberty in both, and were led in
consequence to an uncritical identification of individual and cosmopolitan with
national interests, They inherited Adam Smith’s inclination to confine the idea
of wealth to material goods; and by over-estimating, not the importance of mate-
rial interests, but their influence, exposed themselves to the charge of materialism
and selfishness, both individual and national. Cobden himself was not a mate-
rialist, and never lost sight of the human element in economics; but his followers
have neglected this aspect of his teaching, and have laid a disproportionate stress
on those points which circumstances had already obliged him to assert with
exceptional force. They have moreover imitated his undiscriminating dislike for
imperialism, and, while constantly sacrificing cosmopolitan theory to nationalist
practice, have ignored the possibilities of the empire as an economic unit satisfying
both nationalist and cosmopolitan ideals. The Jaisser faire school have never
advanced beyond the mercantile theory of colonies, and their policy if unchecked
would have led, as that of their predecessors did, to disintegration. Their neglect
of the imperial idea, as illustrated by their recent insensibility to the injuries
inflicted, by a policy of non-interference, on India and the West Indies, may be
further explained by their refusal to admit the principle of relativity into the
application of economic laws. But the safety and utility of economic, as of other
truths, depend on the acknowledgment of their relativity,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 825

2. On Geometrical Illustrations of the Theory of Rent.
By Professor J. D. Evererr, 2S.

If 2 denote outlay, inclusive of interest, and y the return which it brings, then
y—x will be the surplus which governsrent, Let 2 stand for y—., and let the curve
whose co-ordinates are wv, z be plotted, also the curve whose co-ordinates are 2, y,
the axis of a being in both cases horizontal.

The cultivator aims at making the surplus profit = a maximum. The condition
for this is ie 0, or Bh ; in other words, that a very small increment (positive
or negative) of x brings an equal increment of y and leaves z unchanged. For that
value of 2 which makes z a maximum, the tangent to the 2, < curve is horizontal,
and the tangent to the z, y curve slopes at 45°. For smaller values the tangent
to the 2, y curve is steeper, and for larger values less steep than 45°, The received
theory asserts that the actual rent as settled by competition will be the maximum
value of s. More precisely, in view of the practical impossibility of foreseeing
what outlay will in a given year be most remunerative, the rent may be taken to
be that value of z which makes as near an approach to the maximum as a fairly
skilful cultivator will usually attain.

The ordinary mode of graphically illustrating rent is by a curve in which the
abscissa wv represents outlay, and the ordinate 7 is such that the integral of nda,
from 2=0 to any specified value of the outlay 2, represents the return for that
outlay. The rent is represented by that portion of the area which lies above a
horizontal line drawn through the top of the last ordinate, the last ordinate being
that which corresponds to the limit of profitable cultivation. This mode of repre-
sentation is less simple than either of the two above employed. It also invoives
the inconvenience of assigning a shape to the early part of the curve—a part which
has no definite shape—and the further drawback of representing two comparable
things, outlay and return, by two magnitudes which are not comparable, length
and area,

3. On the Use of Galtonian and other Curves to represent Statistics.
By Professor F. Y. EpGrwortu.

Comparing different modes of representing statistics of frequency, such as the
returns which specify the number of persons in a country having each amount of
income, the author gives the preference to those formule which not only fit the
data, but also are recommended by an a priori reason. Such a reason is commonly
afforded by the phenomena of organic and social life: where a great number of
independently varying influences go to the formation of a result, the quantity of
that result is apt to vary according to the normal law of ‘error’ or frequency.
The symmetrical curve which is often employed to express that law is but a first
approximation, the normal curve of frequency is in general somewhat unsymme-
trical. A very unsymmetrical group, indeed such as that which the frequency of
incomes of different sizes constitutes, cannot be represented by a normal curve, but
it may often be connected therewith by the hypothesis that each observation,
though not identical with or proportional to, is yet dependent on a function of
some attribute which fluctuates according to the normal law.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Some Aspects of American Municipal Finance.
By J. H. Houianper, Ph.D., Johns Hopkins University.

The fiscal activities of cities of the United States of 50,000 or more inhabitants
have been characterised in the main by, (1) Progressive expenditure, (2) inelastic
revenue, (3) increasing funded indebtedness, (4) crude budgetary procedure.

' Published in the Jowrnal of the Royal Statistical Society, December 1899,

826 REPORT—1899.

The problem of expenditure is that of the modern industrial city. Urban
growth involves an improvement in the quality, and in, up to a certain point, a more
than proportionate increase in the cost of municipal service. It is not only a
question of paving and lighting more streets, but of substituting asphalt for rough
stones, and electric light for oil lamps.

The essential source of municipal income in the United States has been the
general property tax. Inefficiency of administrative machinery and the escape of
intangible wealth have combined to render this tax an increasingly rigid form of
revenue. Save in the case of cities still undergoing rapid expansion, the taxable
basis increases slowly, and increased expenditure necessitates an addition to a
burdensome and, not infrequently, an oppressive local rate.

These two conditions—urgency of municipal expenditure and inelasticity of
municipal income—have heightened the natural tendency of the American city to
the use of large funded loans for the extension of the municipal plant. Stimulated
by the high favour of municipal securities as a form of private investment and by
the easier terms upon which municipal loans can be negotiated, American cities
have shown no hesitation in borrowing upon long time the funds required for
desirable improvements properly chargeable to current expenditure, but for which
there existed no likelihood of an ordinary budgetary provision.

The budgetary procedure of the American city has been a crude adjustment of
a local tax rate to the anticipated expenditure by a variously constituted ways
and means committee of the municipal council. The utility of a low tax rate as
political capital has commonly resulted in an impossible reduction of departmental
estimates (subsequently corrected by extra-budgetary appropriations), or by a
deliberate over-estimate of municipal income—with the common result of a floating
debt, ultimately funded as a permanent deficit.

The probable tendencies of American municipal finance in the several par-
ticulars indicated are: (1) Continued progressive increase in expenditure; (2) a
more efficient administration of the general property tax; (8) longer use of sources
of local revenue, other than district taxation; (4) relative stability in funded in-
debtedness ; (5) systematisation of budgetary procedure.

2. Municipal Trading and Profits. By Rosert DonaLp.

There should be no reason to object to Municipal trading, from a commercial
point of view, as the figures in a recent Government return show that the average
annual profit on Municipal water, gas, and electricity works, markets, tramways,
and workmen’s dwellings amounts to 43 per cent. on the capital invested.

The chief opposition to Municipal trading last Session of Parliament arose with
electricity supply. It will be found that Municipalities produce electricity at a lower
cost and supply it at lower prices than do companies. A comparison between
twenty-one Municipal and twenty-one company undertakings, including in the
latter the large London concerns and the companies of Birmingham, Leeds, and
Sheffield, where the supply has been recently Municipalised, gives the following
result :—

Cost of production per unit—Municipalities, 1:87d.; Companies, 2:71d.
Average price per unit to consumer—Companies, 53d.; Municipalities, 43d.
Profit on mean capital—Companies, 73 per cent.; Municipalities, 7} per cent.

Thus municipalities produce electricity at ?d. less per unit than companies, sell
it at 1d. less per unit, and earn only + per cent. less profit.

Municipalities as a rule supply gas of a higher illuminating power than
companies and at a lower price. A comparison between a representative number
of Municipal and privately managed Gas Works shows that the average price of
the Municipal gas is less by 8d. per 1,000 cubic feet, the candle power is higher,
and the average profit on capital employed only 1 per cent. less than that obtained
by companies.

The direct operation of tramways by Corporations has been done under easy
conditions as regards capital expenditure, and has at once led to increased traffic,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 827

There has been a readier response to public demands, a reduction of fares, and
better treatment of employés—all of which have combined to make Municipal
tramways very successful from a business point of view.

Municipal trading compares well with private enterprise. But itis not enough
to show profits from Municipal trading, as it is suggested that Municipalities have
no business to make profits. These are chiefly the people who would like the
profits for themselves. But there are other reasons, based on economical grounds,
why the aim of Municipalities should be to provide the cheapest services at cost
price rather than seek profit. The system of relieving general local taxation out
of the surplus revenues of gas, water, and tramway and other undertakings has
been necessary in order to demonstrate the business capacity of Municipal bodies ;
but the policy is not one which best serves a community. When a town draws
profit from gas, water, or electricity supplies, it is simply levying so much direct
taxation on the users of these commodities for the benefit of the general community.
The consumers might justly say that since the Municipality became the sole
providers of gas and electricity, it deprived them of the advantages of competition,
and should supply the cheapest possible article.

Whether municipalities should make a profit is left largely to their own
discretion. It is becoming the practice not to make trading profits from water
supply, and only a small margin of profit is sought on artisans’ and labourers’
dwellings and lodging houses. The practice of Parliament tends towards restrict-
ing profits. Profit from electricity supply works, for instance, is limited to
5 per cent. All surplus above that should be devoted to reducing charges. In
Scotland, profit-making in connection with water or gas supplies is rendered
impossible by the General Acts, which provide that surpluses go to reduce charges.
No town has advanced so far in Municipal organisation as Glasgow, and no town
stands higher for the efficiency of its administration or the civic spirit of its
citizens ; and nowhere else, taken all round, are charges for Municipal services so
low; nor has any other town carried out so systematically the policy of little

rofit.
j It will be found that in the towns where the civic spirit isthe keenest and
healthiest, where Municipal institutions are most largely developed, there the
profit sought is least and the administration is the best.

3. The Single Tax. By WiviiaAM Smart, I.A., LL.D., Adam Smith Pro-
fessor of Political Economy in the University of Glasgow.!

In the universal division and co-operation of industry by which the national
dividend is produced and distributed, as ‘ at once the net product of and the sole
source of payment for all the instruments of production within the country,’ the
economic position of the Government is this. The Government services, imperial
and local, are a part of this dividend, purveyed by a certain class of the citizens
just as ordinary guods and services are purveyed by other classes; they are paid
for partly by fees, but principally by taxation. This is disguised by the definition
of a tax as a ‘compulsory contribution ;’ but, on analysis, the compulsory contri-
bution is seen to be nothing else than a payment for definite services rendered to
the citizens generally, the price paid by the individual citizen being, not a com-
petitive price, but an equality of sacrifice price.

The Single Tax, on the other hand, is an outcome of Henry George's theory
that the cause of poverty in progressive societies is private property in land. Of
the two alternatives, to formally confiscate the land without any compensation or
to confiscate its rent, he chose the latter. This would, of course, give the Govern-
ment an immense revenue, and taxation would be unnecessary.

Evidently this is not a rival system of taxation to ours, as the Impét Unique
might have been, but an alternative plan of confiscation. Instead of the old
constitutional connection, by which every citizen has a stake and a voice in the

} The paper was published in egtenso in the Glasgow Herald, September 16.

828 REPORT—1899.

economy and good management of the Government revenue because he pays
annually his due share of it, we have in the Single Tax a method by which the
Government acquires an estate of its own by confiscating the property of one class.

4, The State as Investor. By Epwin Cannan, IA.

If an indebted individual has more capital than he is able to use in his particu-
lar business, the general rule is that his best investment is repayment of his debts.
The same rule applies to a state. So till within recent years it was never doubted
that the proper investment of the National Sinking Fund and the Post Office
Savings Bank deposits was in the redemption, or (what comes to the same thing)
the purchase of Government obligations. But under the conversion scheme of
1888, consols became irredeemable till 1923, and there is now no portion of the
funded debt which can be redeemed before 1905. The effect of this, combined
with the fallin the market rate of interest, which began not long after 1888, and con-
tinued till last year, has been to keep consols and other portions of the funded debt
at prices considerably above par. When a stock is temporarily irredeemable and
meanwhile above par, the general rule that repayment of debt is the best invest-
ment of surplus capital need not be applicable. Whether it is the best or not
depends on the magnitude of the premium.

Supposing the premium to be high enough to drive the State to other invest-
ments, we have in the obligations of local authorities an excellent security entirely
under the control of the State. It has been objected that municipal and county
stocks could not be bought by the million without raising the price to a prohibi-
tive height, and this is true. But no such objection applies to lending new capital
when it is required, This has already been done to the extent of forty millions,
and it might be done to a much larger extent if the minimum rate of interest were
slightly reduced and the scale under which hicher rates are charged for loans of
longer duration were altogether abolished. The scale is defended on the ground
that it is desirable to discourage loans for long periods. But as a matter of fact it
is not desirable to discourage loans properly authorised for long periods, and the
scale does not discourage them.

5. The Mercantile System. By Professor G. J. Stokes.

The policy of Free-trade receives no support from the analogy either of the
individual or of the family. At first sight the collective national expenditure seems
more in need of systematic guidance than individual expenditure.

The principles of the Mercantile System may be considered in relation to (1) the
end in view; (2) the means employed.

The end in view was the accumulation of money or of the precious metals.
Mill’s criticisms on the doctrine that the wealth of a country consists in money °
err in two respects, in the sense in which he regards money as a part of wealth
and in that in which he regards other articles of wealth as distinguishable from
money. Mill really shares the error of the Mercantile doctrines. The Mercantile
doctrine was relatively justified in its aim of creating a reserve of purchasing power
inacountry. The means employed were attention to the balance of trade. The
real citadel of the Free-trade argument consists in the effect on prices of an
artificial enlargement of the currency. In consequence of this the Mercantile
System defeated itself in seeking to control the balance of trade. If, however,
we substitute the policy of accumulating Immaterial Imports for that of the Mer-
cantile System, the arguments in favour of Protection acquire a new significance.
In so far as the interest on foreign securities is not accumulated, it is desirable that it
should be paid in certain kinds of products. The financial needs of the state fix
a lower limit for the accumulation of immaterial imports, The larger the area em-
braced under our political and financial polity the better is it for the nation and
for mankind,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 829

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following papers were read :—

1. Agricultural Wages in the United Kingdom from 1770 to 1895.
By A. L. Bowzey, 1/.A., £.S.S.

The paper completes an investigation of which the preliminary results have
been published in the ‘Statistical Journal.’ The first question dealt with is the
relation between nominal weekly wages and annual earnings. The following
imaginary budget of receipts shows the nature of the question and is typical :

8. £7 8:
Winter wages . : ; . 9 for 30 weeks . 13 10
Summer wages ‘ 5 Seige LOE: 8 5
Hay Harvest . 2 3 eels yh tgee os eye 6
Corn Harvest . ‘ 3 Ry edt aed ee? le ; " Pyne eget
Task work makes up for time lost in bad weather and yields in
addition . ' 3 : : : . 5 : - pene La (8)
Cheap rent, free beer, and smaller perquisites; general average
6d. per week . c = ‘ : ; : @ - 6
AnnnalIncome ., . : 4 : . 3O 12
Equivalent to 11s. 9d. per week.
Average of summer and winter weekly rates. 3 : F 10

Excess of weekly earnings over wages, 1s. 9d. or 17 per cent.

There seems no good reason for holding that this resulting difference of 17 per
cent. has altered much in the period.

The method of interpolating figures for dates as to which no direct calculations
are available is illustrated by diagram,

The general result is shown in the following tables:

Annual Earnings of Agricultural Labourers.

England and Wales Scotland Treland United Kingdom.
£ £ £ £
1770 a ‘ AW) 9 9 3
1810 : 3 eae | 28 10 34
1830 5 ‘ a0 19 8 17
1860 3 : . 84 36 10 27
1892 c 5 . 40 49 25 37

2. Note sur la situation agricole d’un canton du Pas-de-Calais. Par
un Membre de la Société d’Economie Sociale de France.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Census, 1901. By Miss C. E. Cotter

2. The Course of Average Wages between 1790 and 1860,
By Grorcz Hy. Woon, /.S.S.

The object of this paper is to measure the course of wages, both real and
hominal, betwee: 1790 and 1860, Mr, Bowley has measured wages between 1840

830 REPORT—1899.

and 1891, and the present investigation is in part complementary to Mr. Bowley's
work, The method of arrangement, however, is different from his, as he measured
wages in industries, whereas wages are in this instance measured in towns, The
year 1840 has been taken as 100, and the averages are simple arithmetical averages
of the figures collected. Twenty-three towns are selected, and the wages for at
least thirty-five separate industries are to be found in the tables on which the
calculations are based. The index number so obtained is as follows :—

1790 | 1795 | 1800 | 1805 1810 | 1816 | 1820 1824 | 1831 | 1840 | 18 | 1880 | 3855 | 1860

72 82 93 | 104 122 115 109 112 103 | 100 | 99 | 102 116 | 116

To solve the problem of real wages it is necessary to have an index number of
retail prices, and one has been calculated, being the average course of retail prices
in ten large towns corrected by the average cost of articles composing a typical
workman’s budget of the period 1831. The index number of retail prices and
Jevons’s Index number of wholesale prices for the same period are :—

|

a al 1800/1805 1810)1816)1820/1824|1831)1840/1845|1850)1855|1860

|
Index number—Retail prices . | 74 | 101) 130|134/140|121/ 117] 102] 96 |{QQ/ 93 | 92 | 102] 99
Jevons’s number — Wholesale | |
prices Oey ee ny thy ete 2 140 | 163} 105 | 116 | 101} 94 100, 85 | 73 | 92 | 91

With these numbers as the basis of the calculation, the variations of real
wages over the period are :—

| |

}
Se 1790 1795)1800 1805)1810/1816 1820\1824 1831 ie4olis4s 1850/1855)1860

ER AES 1 (A PS BI PE BINS ng Ss

1 by Index number of retail

prices » + 6 « . | 96} 81] 71 | 77 | 87 | 94 | 92 | 108} 108/4QQ) 106 | 110} 114} 116
2 by Jevons’s number of wholesale |
prices ° 2 tein bE . | 72 | 61] 57 | 74 | 75 |109| 94 | 111 110)100) 116 | 137 | 126 | 127

The figures obtained by using Jevons’s number are given to show what would
have been the variations in purchasing power of wages if prices paid by the wage-
earner varied directly with the course of wholesale prices, as compared with what
were the actual variations as shown by the index number denoting the course of
retail prices. Over the whole period the net gain in real wages was 20 per cent.,
but the gain denoted by use of Jevons’s number is 76 per cent., showing that the
use of wholesale price index numbers when calculating real wages, or variations
on purchasing power of money wages, is not justifiable, as it does not represent
the actual variations on prices paid by the consumer.

3. The Regulation of Wages by Lists in the Spinning Industry.
By 8. J. Cuapman.

The Paper dealt briefly with the following subjects :—

1. The origin and development of lists in the spinning industry.

2. The difference in the structure of the various lists in use, and in the results
given by each.

3. The mode of applying the lists.

4. The scope of the lists, possibilities of further development, and the proposed
universal list.

5. The adoption of the system of lists in other branches of the cotton industry.

The object of the Paper was to supplement the information about spinning lists
already given in the British Association Report on the subject in 1887,

1 Report, 1898, p. 970.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Ff, 831

4. The Teaching University of London and its Faculty of Economics.
By Sir Pump Maanus.

Types of British Universities—Statistics of University Education in Britain
and Germany compared—Numbers of Students in several British and German
Universities—London and Berlin compared as to population and numbers of
University Students—Number of Students for whom London University should
provide on basis of population—Difficulties of organising University Education in
London—The necessity of a compromise and an Ideal—Graduate and Post
Graduate Study—Concentration of teaching effort for advanced study and re-
search—The faculties of the reorganised University—The two new Faculties of
Engineering and Economics—Reasons for and against establishing a separate
Faculty of Engineering—Meaning of ‘Faculty’—The Faculty of Economics—
Need of further organisation in the Teaching of Economics—The work of the
Faculty—The present School of Economics—The deficiencies of the School as a
High School including Commerce—How deficiencies may be supplemented—
Suggestions for High School of Economics including Commerce, under directions
of University in Imperial Institute—Connection between work of Imperial
Institute and of Faculty of Economics—The Economic Faculties of American
Universities and what they teach—In what sense the London University should
be Local and in what sense Imperial on its teaching side—The classes of Students
for whom it should provide—The import of the two new Faculties in connection
with University and Professional Teaching—The association of Teaching Insti-
tutions with the University—Advantages of its new site.

Statistics of numbers of Day Students receiving University Education in all
Faculties (including Medicine) and of Population in Great Britain and Germany,

ENGLAND.

Students, Students.
Oxford University . ; » 38,402 Victoria (3 Colleges). ; ss LORS
Cambridge University . . 3,019
Of whom about 300 are women.

Durham (Newcastle). : : : . » 300

Colleges. Students. Colleges. Students.
Birmingham (Mason University) 195 Nottingham (University) . . 248
Bristol (University) . F . 209 Sheffield (University) . : shame ant OCG

Of whom about 150 are women.
Male Students. Male Students.
London (University College) . 704 London (Central Technical
» (King’s College) . ean866 College) - . 230
op (Royal College’ of 55 Hospitals (about) . 2,250
Science) . : - 200

Of whom about 530 are preparing for a London Degree.

Watrs— University of, consisting of Colleges at

L Students. Students,
Aberystwith . . . 400 Cardiff. 4 . . . . 459
Bangor : ° . 315

Of whom about 400 are women.
ScorLanp— Universities.
Students. Students.
Aberdeen. . . « . 484 Glasgow . . : : ~ 1,953
Edinburgh “ . 3 « 2;776 St.Andrew’s(including Dundee) 300

Some of whom are women. *

832 REPORT—1899.

Population of England and Wales in 1891. - . . 29,002,525
‘8 », scotland LSoe 5 4,025,647
re Sondall aah pete 4,433,018

The numbers of Students are taken in nearly all cases from Returns furnished
in August last by Registrars of several Colleges, and have been brought into agree-
ment with one another, as far as possible, by reference to Returns in Education

Departments’ ‘ Reports from University Colleges, 1898.’

German Emprre— Universities (Session 1896-7),

Students. Students.

Berlin : : " * . 4,705 Kiel . : 764
Bonn ; 5 : : mL OoZ Konigsberg 683
Breslau . : ' : weap Le Leipzig 3,126
Erlangen . : 5 é . 1,153 Marburg . 1,049
Freiburg . . : ; . 1,544 Munich 3,706
Giessen . : : : : 667 Rostock ; : 509
Gottingen . . : ‘ eel, LOD Strassburg ? : 1,098
Greifswald ; F . . 8884 Tiibingen . 1,310
Halle : : : ‘ . 1,635 Wiirzburg. 1,443
Heidelberg ; : : . 1,322
Jena. ; § ‘ i : Sess 31,004

Technical Universities (Technische Hochschulen).

Students, Students.
Aachen . : : ; 2 OS Karlsruhe. 996
Berlin. . - 3 . 2,954 Munich 1,378
Brunswick - ; : . 368 Stuttgart . 910
Darmstadt : . A ee Las) ss
Dresden . : ’ cs : 905 9,856
Hanover . : : “ by Ue
Population of German Empire . : . 52,246,589 (1891)
43 Berlin . : : ; oe 1577 3,003,059,
Population of males between the ages of 15 and 25 (1891) :—
England and Wales . : A AAAs VAI
Germany . : 4 3 : . 4,497,153

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.

The following Papers were read :

1. Increase in Local Rates in England and Wales, 1891-

By Miss Hewarr.

1891-2 1896-7

£ £
Metropolitan rates fs : . 8,316,298 10,289,755
Urban, Extra-Metropolitan rates . 10,108,490 15,721,511
Urban and rural rates . 5 . 8,209,943 11,025,130
Rural rates . . . : . 1,809,388 2,431,909

Total Rates . . . . » 28,444,119 37,468,305

2 to 1896-7.

Increase
£
1,973,457
8,613,021
2,815,187
622,521
9,024,186

eo

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. $3

Average rate in £.

1891-2 1896-7

Bd. & dd.
Metropolitan . - : é D OS™) Gg
County boroughs, municipal iL ) 2:98 Tie eS
Non-County boroughs, municipal 8-6 10°7
County boroughs, Urban Sanitary 2 66 11
Non-County boroughs, Urban Sanitary 2 62, 2 94
Other urban sanitary districts : 2 45 2 102
Rural district councils U7) 30
Total rural . 8 11-4

Urban Extra-Metropolitan Rates

1891-2 1896-7
£ £
Boroughs, municipal authorities . . 1,426,994 1,990,074
Boroughs, school boards . 5 2 - 1,021,993 1,651,941
Urban sanitary authorities . A . 7,658,916 10,079,084
Commissioners of baths, &c. . : J 587 412

2. Bank Reserves. By Georce H. Pownatt.

System of payment by cheque and clearing an incalculable benefit to our
commerce, but needs to be based on ample cash reserves. Total deposits, banks
United Kingdom, 810,000,000 to 820,000,000/; offices open, 5,800; cash on hand
and money at call and short notice, 227,000,000/. Vital distinction between
‘cash’ and ‘money at call,’ and division necessary. Tables 3 and 4 enable us to
make division. Fund from which ‘cash on hand and money at Bank of England’
cannot exceed 77,000,000Z; ‘money at call and short notice,’ 100,000,0007. But
after deductions and adjustments, figures probably are: Total cash resources,
English banks, 52,000,0007; money at call and short notice, or market credits,
125,000,0002. Therefore 52,000,0007 cash total provision for meeting urgent
liabilities. But the 52,000,0007 not all free money. Money needed for clearing
balances, London, and provincial is necessary till money. Amount needed to
meet London clearing balances, 10,000,0007; amount needed for provincial
clearings unknown. British trade conducted by cheque, clearing, transfer, set off,
but ability to pay in gold remains.

Bankers’ balances needed for clearing cannot be withdrawn, Bank of England
has acted on this knowledge in times of crisis by lending all her cash reserves in
support of trade while still holding large bankers’ balances, needed for clearing.
London bankers, agents for country bankers who look to them in time of crisis
for cash to fill tills. Times of internal panic—bankers uneasy because their own
cash provision insufficient. Bank of England keeps the only large store
unemployed cash in British Isles. Times of crisis or panic, impossible to with-
draw money from short loan market or Stock Exchange; pressure falls immedi-
ately on Bank of England.

Internal panic means protecting credit at 5,800 points, and foreign with-
drawals of gold also to be satisfied.

Preparation for danger by withdrawals from short loan market would produce
disaster. Our methods refined to too great an extent, Suspension of Bank Act
might satisfy internal panic, but not foreign drain.

Short loan and Stock Exchange markets part of our system of finance—
markets permanent, could not be disorganised without creating panic. Position
assigned to ‘call and short money’ in balance-sheets of banks not a prudent one.
Two pivots, money market, ‘short money,’ and Stock Exchange. If cash basis,
national finance reasonably broad, fear of serious panic minimised—want of

1 Published in the Zeonomie Journal, September 1899, p. 394,
1899. 3H

834. REPORT—1899.

sufficient basis makes bankers helpless under panic conditions. Cash not
habitually used in England except for wages. England greatest money market
world, slenderest gold basis. ‘Short money’ not reserve, but means of employ-
ment of funds. Crisis 1890, this point recognised by Chancellor of Exchequer
as vital. Solidarity of action (1890) induced by Bank of England saved situa-
tion. Clearing system masterpiece mechanism, needs cash basis. Bank amalga-
mations—rise few great institutions—banking on Imperial scale means Imperial
responsibilities. London banks hold vast sums, country bankers’ money, at ‘ call
and short notice.’ Decline of agency system—London office head great system
branches takes place of agent, Savings banks no reserves—Government policy a
mistaken one—and an additional source of danger to Bank of England and
national finance. Do we need larger stock of goldP If so, where should central
stock be kept, and do bankers keep a sufficient percentage of loose cash P

England the free gold market—effect of foreign demand on—danger from
foreign interference with. Responsibilities England unique—preparation to
meet responsibilities quite inadequate. Relative position great foreign states.
Bank of England and Bank of France in 1890. Danger foreign squeeze. No
State bank in England—must adjust our insular system to meet responsibilities
by legislation if need be. Varying views of bankers as to responsibility. Suggest
the habitual holding of a percentage of deposits, say 15 per cent. in Bank of
England notes. At present English banks only hold 7 per cent. Suggestions as
to form of bank balance-sheets. London bankers’ movement ve cash reserves—
committee should include Bank of England. Question of bankers’ balances at
Bank of England. Effect of the withdrawal of those balances. Costly nature of
scheme to work without Bank of England. Competition of Bank of England
with other banks—possible State bank. Bank of England agent of Government.
Vital point holding of larger percentage of cash, and voluntarily may escape
legislation. Suggestions for compulsory publication of balance-sheets in special
form, penalties for not keeping cash, new habit needs forming. Practical con-—
siderations suggest Bank of England notes as reserve, because they are legal
tenders—public understand them. Reserves thus kept would: show central stock
of gold in ‘Issue Department’ Bank of England—this of international importance,
and preserves individuality of banks. Results in millions of such a scheme for
establishing central stock of gold and adequate bank reserves. Effect on money
market of larger reserves—greater steadiness in rates. Possibilities of our
present position of ‘ unpreparedness,’ and points to be aimed at in any measures
of reform of present methods. To keep adequate cash reserves is a duty to the
State.

3. Indian Currency after the Report of the Commission.
By HERMANN ScHMIDT.

The monetary enactments passed a few days ago in India may be considered
the evolution of the policy adopted in 1893. This policy intended to substitute
gold for silver as the money of India. It was adopted on the report of the First
Indian Currency Committee of 1892-3. But the Indian Coinage and Paper
Currency Act of 1893 was essentially a provisional measure. It left the settlement
of a permanent rate of exchange between gold and the silver rupee in abeyance.
Gold was not yet made legal tender. This defect has now been remedied upon
another exhaustive investigation by a new Currency Committee. India has now a
zold standard in the sense that a parity has been fixed between gold ard silver,
and that the mints are open to the coinage of gold and closed to the coinage of
silver. But the success of the year’s work is still as much in doubt as was that of
the measures of 1898,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 835

4, The Silver Question in relation to British Trade.
By Joun M. Macponatp.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 20.

The following Papers were read :~

1. The Results of Recent Poor Law Reform.
Sy Haroutp E. Moors, F.S.1.

Within the last ten years, various experiments have been made by different
Boards of Guardians with approval of the Local Government Board, the object
in view being either (a) to secure better results to the persons helped, or (5) to
effect economy in cost of poor relief.

Four of these experiments, the results of which seem worthy of notice, are
(az) attempts at classification of workhouse inmates; (+) improvements in the
treatment of children who are dependent upon the Poor Rate for support, educa-
tion and training; (c) the working of land by Boards of Guardians; and (d) con-
tributing from Poor Law Funds to organisations under the control of voluntary
committees, who, on such sums being contributed, receive those who have been
able-bodied inmates of workhouses into the institutions under their control. In
summing up the results gained by these various experiments, it is suggested as to
(a), that classification is difficult, and not likely to be capable of great extension in
existing workhouses ; as to (6), that the treatment of children by ‘village com-
munities,’ ‘boarding out,’ or ‘scattered homes’ has shown beneficial results in
comparison with retaining them in workhouses or barrack schools, the ‘scattered
home’ system having proved most desirable under usual conditions ; as to (ec), that
the working of farms, as shown by the results at Sheffield and elsewhere, has
been found distinctly profitable and beneficial where proper conditions have been
observed in choice and management of property; as to (d), that much good has
been effected where the institutions so assisted have been farm labour colonies, of
such a character as those now in operation at Lingfield in Surrey, under the
control of the Christian Union for Social Service, near Dumfries in Scotland, at
Hadleigh in Essex, and elsewhere. It would seem that by reason of such farms
oh only has the cost of poor relief been lessened, but men restarted in an indepen-

ent life.

Having regard to these results, it is suggested that the principle of the Bill
submitted to Parliament last Session for creation of Aged People’s Homes by Poor
Law authorities should be supported, as affording a most desirable means ot
classification; anc that further extension of the system of contributing towards
the support of Farm Labour Colonies, under the control of voluntary committees,
should be encouraged.

2. Old Age Pensions in Denmark : their Influence on Thrift and Pau perism.
By Professor A. W. Friux, IA.

The paper deals with some of the results of the establishment of a system of
Old Age Relief in Denmark. The allegation that the line between pauper and
pensioner would become indistinguishable is contradicted by experience. The
statement that deposits in the savings banks are falling off since the establishment
of the pension system (in 1891) is not supported by the figures of deposits. These
increased by 25:4 per cent. between 1882 and 1887; by 21°8 per cent. between
1887 and 1892, and by 25:0 per cent. between 1892 and 1897.

3H 2

836 REPORT—1899.

With reference to pauperism, the followivg figures illustrate its progress in

Copenhagen :

Average number of 1886 1892 1898
Indoor Paupers 2,820 2,631 2,304
Outdoor Paupers F 5,194 6,889 5,905
Boarded-out Children . 80L 768 RTL
Pauper Lunatics . - 6 : 638 729 794
Hospital Patients at the public

expense - c C 580 549 526
Total . 10,033 11,566 10,306

Cost of pauperism £90,443 £109,175 £108,478

The cost to Copenhagen of Old Age Relief was 25,720/. in 1898, and at the
end of that year there were 5,838 pensioners with 1,378 dependents. The popula-
tion was estimated at 349,000 in the middle of the year.

Self-help is now directed to maintaining the qualifying independence of the
poor-law for ten years, rather than vanishing. The undesirable results which have
mavifested themselves are almost all traceable to the lack of fixity in the amount

of relief granted.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 837

Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Sir W. H. Waits, K.C.B., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The President delivered the following Address :—

In this Address it is proposed to review briefly the characteristic features of the
progress made in steam navigation; to glance at the principal causes of advance
in the speeds of steamships and in the lengths of the voyages on which such vessels
can be successfully employed ; and to indicate how the experience and achieve-
ment of the last sixty years bear upon the prospects of further advance.

There is reason to hope that this choice of subject is not inappropriate. From
the beginning of steam navigation the British Association in its corporate capacity,
by the appointment of Special Committees, and by the action of individual members,
has greatly assisted the scientific treatment of steamship design. Valuable con-
tributions bearing on the resistance offered by water to the motion of ships, the
conduct and analysis of the results of steamship trials, the efficiency of propellers,
and cognate subjects have been published in the Reports of the Association. Many
of these have largely influenced practice, and most of them may be claimed as the
work of this Section.

On this occasion no attempt will be made either to summarise or appraise the
work that has been done. It must suffice to mention the names of three men to
whom naval architects are deeply indebted, and whose labours are ended—Scott
Russell, Rankine, and William Froude. Each of them did good work, but to
Froude we owe the device and application of the method of model experiment
with ships and propellers, by means of which the design of vessels of novel types
and unprecedented speeds can now be undertaken with greater confidence than
heretofore.

As speeds incréase, each succeeding step in the ascending scale becomes more
difficult, and the rate of increase in the power to be developed rapidly augments.
Looking back on what has been achieved, it is impossible to overrate the courage
and skill displayed by the pioneers of steam navigation, who had at first to face
the unknown, and always to depend almost entirely on experience gained with
actual ships, when they undertook the production of swifter vessels. Their suc-
cessors of the present day have equal need to make a thorough study of the
performances of steamships both in smooth water and at sea. In many ways they
have to face greater difficulties than their predecessors, as ships increase in size
and speed. On the other hand, they have the accumulated experience of sixty
years to draw upon, the benefit of improved methods of trials of steamships, the
advantage of scientific procedure in the record and analysis of such trials, and the
assistance of model experiments.

838 REPORT—1899.

Steamship design to be successful must always be based on experiment and
experience as well as on scientific principles and processes. It involves problems
of endless variety and great complexity. The services to be performed by steam-
ships differ in character, and demand the production of many distinct types of
ships and propelling apparatus. In all these types, however, there is one common
requirement—the attainment of a specified speed. And in all types there has been
a continuous demand for higher speed.

Stated broadly, the task set before the naval architect in the design of any
steamship is to fulfil certain conditions of speed in a ship which shall not merely
carry fuel sufficient to traverse a specified distance at that speed, but which shall
carry a specified load on a limited draught of water. Speed, load, power, and fuel
supply are all related; the two last have to be determined in each case. In
some instances other limiting conditions are imposed affecting length, breadth, or
depth. In all cases there are three separate efficiencies to be considered: those of
the ship, as influenced by her form; of the propelling apparatus, including the
generation of steam in the boilers and its utilisation in the engines; and of the
propellers. Besides these considerations, the designer has to take account of the
materials and structural arrangements which will best secure the association of
lightness with strength in the hull of the vessel. He must select those types of
engines and boilers best adapted for the service proposed. Here the choice must
be influenced by the length of the voyage, as well as the exposure it may involve
to storm and stress. Obviously the conditions to be fulfilled in an ocean-going
passenger steamer of the highest speed, and in a cross-Channel steamer designed
to make short runs at high speed in comparatively sheltered waters, must be
radically different. And so must be the conditions in a swift sea-going cruiser of
large size and great coal endurance, from those best adapted for a torpedo boat or
destroyer. There is, in fact, no general rule applicable to all classes of steamships :
each must be considered and dealt with independently, in the light of the latest
experience and improvements. For merchant ships there is always the commercial
consideration— Will it pay? For warships there is the corresponding inquiry—
Will the cost be justified by the fighting power and efficiency F

.

Characteristics of Progress in Steam Navigation.

Looking at the results so far attained, it may be said that progress in steam
navigation has been marked by the following characteristics :—

1. Growth in dimensions and weights of ships, and large increase in engine-
power, as speeds have been raised.

2. Improvements in marine engineering accompanying increase of steam
pressure. Economy of fuel and reduction in the weight of propelling apparatus
in proportion to the power developed.

3. Improvements in the materials used in shipbuilding; better structural
arrangements ; relatively lighter hulls and larger carrying power.

4, Improvements in form, leading to diminished resistance and economy of
power expended in propulsion.

These general statements represent well-known facts—so familiar, indeed, that
their full significance is often overlooked. It would be easy to multiply illustra-
tions, but only a few representative cases will be taken.

Transatlantic Passenger Steamers.

The Transatlantic service naturally comes first. It is a simple case, in that
the distance to be covered has remained practically the same, and that for most of
the swift passenger steamers cargo-carrying capacity is not a very important factor
in the design.

In 1840 the Cunard steamship Britannia, built of wood, propelled by paddle-
wheels, maintained a sea-speed of about 84 knots. Hersteam pressure was 12 lbs.
per square inch. She was 207 feet long, about 2,000 tons in displacement, her

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 839

engines developed about 750-horse power, and her coal consumption was about
40 tons per day, nearly 5 Ibs. of coal per indicated horse-power per hour. She
had a full spread of sail.

In 1871 the White Star steamship Oceanic (first of that name) occupied a lead-
ing position. She was iron-built, propelled by a screw, and maintained a sea-speed
of about 144 knots. The steam pressure was 65 lbs. per square inch, and the
engines were on the compound principle. She was 420 feet long, about 7,200 tons
in displacement, her engines developed 3,000-horse power, and she burnt about
65 tons of coal per day, or about 2 lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour. She
carried a considerable spread cf sail.

In 1889 the White Star steamer Textonic appeared, propelled by twin screws
and practically with no sail-power. She is steel-built, and maintains a
sea-speed of about 20 knots. The steam pressure is 180 lbs. per square inch,
and the engines are on the triple expansion principle. She is about 565 feet
long, 16,000 tons displacement, 17,000-horse power indicated, with a coal con-
sumption of about 300 tons a day, or from 1‘6 to 1-7 lbs. per indicated horse-
power per hour.

In 1894 the Cunard steamship Campania began her service, with triple expan-
sion engines, twin screws, and no sail-power. She is about 600 feet long, 20,000
tons displacement, develops about 28,000-horse power at full speed of 22 knots,
and burns about 500 tons of coal per day.

The new Oceanic, of the White Star Line, is just beginning her work. She is
of still larger dimensions, being 685 feet in length and over 25,000 tons displace-
ment. From the authoritative statements made, it appears that she is not intended
to exceed 22 knots in speed, and that the increase in size is to be largely utilised
in additional carrying power.

The latest German steamers for the Transatlantic service are also notable. A
speed of 224 knots has been maintained by the Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, which
is 25 feet longer than the Campania. Two still larger steamers are now building.
The Deutschland is 660 feet long and 23,000 tons displacement ; her engines are
to be of 33,000-horse power, and it is estimated she will average 23 knots. The
other vessel is said to be 700 feet long, and her engines are to develop 36,000-
horse power, giving an estimated speed of 23} knots. All these vessels have steel
hulls and twin screws. It will be noted that to gain about three knots an hour
nearly 50 per cent. will have been added to the displacement of the Teutonic, the
engine-power and coal consumption will be doubled, and the cost increased pro-
portionately.

Sixty years of continuous effort and strenuous competition on this great ‘ocean
ferry’ may be summarised in the following statement. Speed has been increased
from 84 to 224 knots: the time on the voyage has been reduced to about 38 per
cent. of what it was in 1840. Ships have been more than trebled in length, about
doubled in breadth, and increased tenfold in displacement. The number of
passengers carried by a steamship has been increased from about 100 to nearly
2,000. The engine-power has been made forty times as great. The ratio of
horse-power to the weight driven has been increased fourfold. The rate of coal
consumption (measured per horse-power per hour) is now only about one-third
what it was in 1840. To drive 2,000 tons weight across ihe Atlantic at a speed
of 84 knots, about 550 tons of coal were then burnt: now, to drive 20,000 tons
across at 22 knots, about 3,000 tons of coal are burnt. With the low pressure of
steam and heavy slow-moving paddle-engines of 1840, each ton weight of
machinery, boilers, &c., produced only about 2-horse power for continuous working
at sea. With modern twin-screw engines and high steam pressure, each ton
weight of propelling apparatus produces from 6- to 7-horse power. Had the
old rate of coal consumption continued, instead of 3,000 tons of coal, 9,000 tons
would have been required for a voyage at 22 knots. Had the engines been pro-
portionately as heavy as those in use sixty years ago, they would have weighed
about 14,000 tons. In other words, machinery, boilers, and coals would have
exceeded in weight the total weight of the Campania as she floats to-day. There
could not be a more striking illustration than this of the close relation between

840 REPORT—1899,

improvements in marine engineering and the development of steam navigation at
high speeds.

Equally true is it that this development could not have been accomplished but
for the use of improved materials and ‘structural arrangements. Wood, as the
principal material for the hulls of high-powered swift steamers, imposed limits
upon dimensions, proportions, and powers which would have been a bar to progress.
‘The use of iron, and later of steel, removed those limits. The percentage of the
total displacement devoted to hull in a modern Atlantic liner of the largest size
is not much greater than was the corresponding percentage in the wood-built
Britannia of 1840, of one-third the length and one-tenth the total weight.

Nor must it be overlooked that with increase in dimensions have come con-
siderable improvements in form, favouring economy in propulsion. This is distinct
from the economy resulting from increase in size, which Brunel appreciated
thoroughly half a century ago when he designed the Great Britain and the Great
Eastern. The importance of a due relation between the lengths of the ‘entrance
and run’ of steamships and their intended maximum speeds, and the advantages of
greater length and fineness of form as speeds are increased, were strongly insisted
upon by Scott Russell and Froude. Naval architects, as a matter of course, now
act upon the principle, so far as other conditions permit. For it must never be
forgotten that economy of propulsion is only one of many desiderata which must
be kept in view in steamship design. Structural weight and strength, seaworthi-
ness and stability, all claim attention, and may necessitate modifications in dimen-
sions and form which do not favour the maximum economy of propulsion.

Swift Passenger Steamers for Long Voyages.

Changes similar to those described for the Transatlantic service have been
in progress on all the great lines of ocean traffic. In many instances increase in
size has been due not only to increase in speed, but to enlarged carrying power
and the extension of the lengths of voyages. No distance is now found too great
for the successful working of steamships, and the sailing fleet is rapidly diminish-
ing in importance. So far as long-distance steaming is concerned, the most potent
factor has undoubtedly been the marvellous economy of fuel that has resulted from
higher steam pressures and greater expansion. In all cases, however, advances
have been made possible not merely by economy of fuel, but by improvements in
form, structure, and propelling apparatus, and by increased dimensions.

Did time permit, this might be illustrated by many interesting facts drawn
from the records of the great steamship companies which perform the services to
the Far East, Australia, South America, and the Pacific. As this is not possible,
I must be content with a brief statement regarding the development of the fleet of
the Peninsular and Oriental Company.

The paddle steamer William Fawcett of 1829 was about 75 feet long, 200 tons
displacement, of 60 nominal horse-power (probably about 120 indicated horse-
power), and in favourable weather steamed at a speed of 8 knots. Her hull was
of wood, and, like all the steamers of that date, she had considerable sail-power.

In 1858 the Himalaya iron-built screw steamer of this line was described as
‘ of larger dimensions than any then afloat, and of extraordinary speed.’ She was
about 340 feet long, over 4,000 tons load displacement, 2,000 indicated horse-
power on trial, with an average sea-speed of about 12 knots. The steam pressure
was 14 lbs. per square inch, and the daily coal consumption about 70 tons. This
vessel was transferred to the Royal Navy aud did good service as a troopship for
forty years.

In 1893 another Himalaya was added to the company’s fleet. She was steel-
built, nearly 470 feet long and 12,000 tons load displacement, with over 8,000
indicated horse-power and a capability to sustain 17 to 18 knots at sea, on a daily
consumption of about 140 tons of coal. The steam pressure is 160 lbs. per square
inch, and the engines are of the triple expansion type.

Comparing the two Himalayas, it will be seen that in forty years the length
has been increased about 40 per cent., displacement trebled, horse-power qua-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 841

drupled, and speed increased about 50 per cent. The proportion of horse-power to
displacement has only been increased as three to four, enlarged dimensions having
secured relative economy in propulsion. The rate of coal consumption has been
probably reduced to about one-third of that in the earlier ship.

The latest steamers of the line are of still larger dimensions, being 500 feet
long and of proportionately greater displacement. It is stated that the Himalaya
of 1853 cost 132,000/. complete for sea ; the corresponding outlay on her successors
is not published, but it is probably twice as great.

On the service to the Cape similar developments have taken place. Forty
years ago vessels less than 200 feet long and about 7 knots performed the service,
whereas the latest additions to the fleets exceed 500 feet in length, and can, if
required, be driven at 17 to 18 knots, ranking in size and power next to the great
Transatlantic liners,

Commercial considerations necessarily regulate what is undertaken in the
construction of merchant steamers, including the swift vessels employed in the
conveyance of passengers and mails. The investment of 600,000/. to 700,0002. in
a single vessel like a great Transatlantic liner is obviously a serious matter for
private owners ; and even the investment of half that amount in a steamer of less
dimensions and speed is not to be lightly undertaken. It is a significant fact that,
whereas fifteen years ago nearly all the largest and swiftest ocean steamers were
British built and owned, at the present time there is serious competition in this
class by German, American, and French companies. It is alleged that this change
has resulted from the relatively large subsidies paid by foreign Governments to the
owners of swift steamers; and that British owners, being handicapped in this way,
cannot continue the competition in size and speed on equal terms unless similarly
assisted. This is not the place to enter into any discussion of such matters, but
they obviously involve greater considerations than the profit of shipowners, and
have a bearing on the naval defence of the Empire. In 1887 the Government
recognised this fact, and made arrangements for the subvention and armament of
a number of the best mercantile steamships for use as auxiliary cruisers. Since
then other nations have adopted the policy, and given such encouragement to their
shipowners that the numbers of swift steamers suitable for employment as cruisers
have been largely increased. Not long since the First Lord of the Admiralty
announced to Parliament that the whole subject was again under consideration.

Cargo and Passenger Steamers.

Cargo steamers, no less than passenger steamers, have been affected by the
improvements mentioned. Remarkable developments have occurred recently not
merely in the purely cargo-carrier, but in the construction of vessels of large size
and good speed carrying very great weights of cargo and considerable numbers of
passengers. The much-decried ‘ocean tramp’ of the present day exceeds in speed
the passenger and mail steamer of fifty years ago. Within ten years vessels
in which cargo-carrying is the chief element of commercial success have been
increased in length from 300 or 400 feet to 500 or 600 feet; in gross register
tonnage from 5,000 to over 13,000 tons; and in speed from 10 or 12 knots to 15
or 16 knots. Vessels are now building for the Atlantic service which can carry
12,000 to 15,000 tons deadweight, in addition to passengers, while possessing a
sea-speed as high as that of the swiftest mail steamers afloat in 1880. Other
vessels of large carrying power and good speed are running on much longer
voyages, such as to the Cape and Australia. In order to work these ships success-
fully very complete organisation is necessary for the collection, embarcation, and
discharge of cargo. The enterprise and skill of shipowners have proved equal to
this new departure, as they have in all other developments of steamships.

How much further progress will be made in the sizes and speeds of these
mixed cargo and passenger steamers cannot be foreseen. The limits will be fixed
by commercial considerations, and not by the capability of the shipbuilder.

In passing, it may be noted that while the lengths and breadths of steamships
have been greatly increased, there has been but a moderate increase in draught.

842 REPORT—1899.

Draught of water is, of course, practically determined by the depths available in
the ports and docks frequented, or in the Suez Canal for vessels trading to the
East. From the naval architect’s point of view, increase in draught is most desi-
rable as favouring increase of carrying power and economy of propulsion. This
fact has been strongly represented by shipowners and ship-designers, and not with-
out result. The responsible authorities of many of the principal ports and of the
Suez Canal have taken action towards giving greater depth.

Other changes have become necessary on the part of dock and port authorities
in consequence of the progress made in shipbuilding. Docks and dock-entrances
have had to be increased in size, more powerful litting appliances provided, and
large expenditure incurred, There is no escape from these changes if the trade of
a port is to be maintained. The chief lesson to be learnt from past experience is
that when works of this character are planned it is wise to provide a large margin
beyond the requirements of existing ships.

Cross-Channel Steamers.

The conditions to be fulfilled in vessels designed to steam at high speed
for limited periods differ essentially from those holding good in ocean-going
steamers. None the less interest attaches, however, to cross-Channel steamers, and
in no class has more notable progress been made. It is much to be desired that at
this meeting some competent authority should have presented to the Association
an epitome of the history of the steam packet service between Dover and the
Continent. I cannot attempt it. So far as I am informed, the first steamer was
placed on this route in 1821, was of 90 tons burden, 30-horse power nominal, and
maintained a speed of 7 to 8 knots. She was built by Denny of Dumbarton,
engined by David Napier, and named the Rod Roy. It is interesting to note that
the lineal successors of the builder of this pioneer vessel have produced some of
the most recent and swiftest additions to the cross-Channel service.

In 1861-2 a notable advance was made by the building of vessels which were
then remarkable for structure and speed, although small and slow when compared
with vessels now running. Their designers realised that lightness of hull was of
supreme importance, and with great trouble and expense obtained steel of suitable
quality. The machinery was of special design and relatively light for the power
developed. A small weight of coal and cargo had to be carried, and the draught
of water was kept to about 7 feet. Under then existing conditions it was a
veritable triumph to attain speeds of 15 to 16 knots in vessels only 190 feet long,
less than 25 feet broad, and under 350 tons in displacement. To raise the trial
speed to 20 or 21 knots in later vessels performing the same service, whose design
includes the improvements of a quarter of a century, it has been found necessary
to adopt lengths exceeding 320 feet and breadths of about 35 feet, with engines
developing 4,500 to 6,000 indicated horse-power, and with very great increase in
coal consumption and cost. On other cross-Channel services between Dover and
the Continent still larger and more powerful paddle-steamers are employed.

Another interesting contrast is to be found in the comparison of the steamers
running between Holyhead and Kingstown in 1860 and at the present time. The
Leinster of 1860 was 328 feet lung, 35 feet broad, and rather less than 18 feet draught.
Her trial displacement was under 2,000 tons, and with 4,750 horse-power she made
173 knots. She had a steam pressure of 25 lbs. per square inch; and was propelled
by paddle wheels driven by slow-moving engines of long stroke. Her successor of
1896 is about 30 feet greater length, 63 feet greater breadth, and about 10 per
cent. greater displacement. The steam pressure is 170 lbs. per square inch. Forced
draught is used in the stokeholds. Twin screws are adopted, driven by quick-
running vertical engines of the triple expansion type. Very great economy of
coal consumption is thus secured as compared with the earlier vessel, and much
lighter propelling apparatus in proportion to the power, which is from 8,000- to9,000-
horse power at the full speed of 23 knots. The hullis built of steel, and is propor-
tionately lighter.

This is a typical case, and illustrates the effect of improvements in shipbuilding

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 845

and engineering in thirty-five years. The later ship probably requires to carry no
greater load of coal than, if so great as, her predecessor, although her engine-

ower is nearly double. The weight devoted to propelling machinery and boilers
is probably not so great. Thanks to the use of steel instead of iron, and to
improved structural arrangements, the weight of hull is reduced in comparison
with dimensions, and a longer ship is produced better adapted to the higher speed.
Messrs. Laird of Birkenhead, who built three of the Leinster class forty years ago,
and have built all the new vessels, are to be congratulated on their complete
success,

Between such vessels designed for short runs at high speed and requiring
therefore to carry little coal, while the load carried exclusive of coal is trifling, and
an ocean-going steamer of the same average speed designed to make passages of
3,000 miles, there can obviously be little m common. But equal technical skill is
required to secure the efficient performance of both services. In the cross-Channel
vessel, running from port to port, and under constant observation, conditions of
working in engine and boiler rooms, as well as relative lightness in scantlings of
hull, can be accepted, which would be impossible of application in a sea-going ship.
These circumstances in association with the small load carried explain the apparent
gain in speed of the smaller vessel in relation to her dimensions.

Increase in Size and Speed of Warships.

Turning from sea-going ships of the mercantile marine to warships, one finds
equally notable facts in regard to increase in speed, associated with enlargement
in dimensions and advance in propelling apparatus, materials of construction,
structural arrangements, and form.

Up to 1860 a measured-mile speed of 12 to 13 knots was considered sufficient
for battleships and the largest classes of cruisers. Ati these vessels possessed good
sail-power and used it freely as an auxiliary to steam, or as an alternative when
cruising or making passages.

When armoured battleships were built (1859) the speeds on measured-mile
trials were raised to 14 or 14} knots, and so remained for about twenty years.
Since 1880 the speeds of battleships have been gradually increased, and in the
latest types the measured-mile speed required is 1 knots.

Up to 1870 the corresponding speeds in cruisers ranged from 15 to 16 knots.
Ten years later the maximum speeds were 18 to 18} lmots in a few vessels.
Since then trial speeds of 20 to 283 knots have been attained or are contemplated.

There is, of course, a radical distinction between these measured-mile perform-
ances of warships and the average sea-speeds of merchant steamers above described.
But for purposes of comparison between warships of different dates, measured
mile trials may fairly be taken as the standard. For long-distance steaming the
power developed would necessarily be much below that obtained for short periods,
and with everything at its best. This is frankly recognised by all who are con-
versant with the warship design, and fully allowed for in estimates of sea-speeds.
On the other hand, it is possible to point to sea trials made with recent types
where relatively high speeds have been maintained for long periods. For example,
the battleship Royal Sovereign has maintained an average speed of 15 knots from
Plymouth to Gibraltar, and the Renown has maintained an equal speed from
Bermuda to Spithead. As instances of good steaming by cruisers, reference may
be made to 60-hour trials with the Terrible when she averaged over 20 knots, and
to the run home from Gibraltar to the Nore by the Diadem when she exceeded
19 knots. Vessels of the Pelorus class of only 2,100 tons displacement have made
long runs at sea averaging over 17 knots, Results such as these represent a sub-
stantial advance in speed of Her Majesty’s ships in recent years.

Similar progress has been made in foreign warships built abroad as well as in this
country. It isnot proposed to give any facts for these vessels, or to compare
them with results obtained by similar classes of ships in the Royal Navy. Apart
from full knowledge of the conditions under which speed trials are made, a
‘mere statement of speeds attained is of no service, One requires to be informed

84.4. REPORT—1899,

accurately respecting the duration of the trial, the manner in which engines and
boilers are worked, the extent to which boilers are ‘forced,’ or the proportion
of heating surface to power indicated, the care taken to eliminate the influence of
tide or current, the mode in which the observations of speed are made, and other
details, before any fair or exact comparison is possible between ships. For present
purposes, therefore, it is preferable to confine the illustrations of increase in speed
in warships to results obtained under Admiralty conditions, and which are fairly
comparable.

A great increase in size has accompanied this increase in speed, but it has
resulted from other changes in modern types, as well as from the rise in speed.
Modern battleships are of 13,000 to 15,000 tons, and modern cruisers of 10,000 to
14,000 tons, not merely because they are faster than their predecessors, but because
they have greater powers of offence and defence and possess greater coal endurance.
Only a detailed analysis, which cannot now be attempted, could show what is the
actual influence of these several changes upon size and cost, and how greatly the
improvements made in marine engineering and shipbuilding have tended to keep
down the growth in dimensions consequent on increase in load carried, speed
attained, and distance traversed.

It will be noted also that, large as are the dimensions of many classes of modern
warships, they are all smaller in length and displacement than the largest mercan-
tile steamers above described. There is no doubt a popular belief that the con-
trary is true, and that warships exceed merchant ships in tonnage This arises
from the fact that merchant ships are ordinarily described not by their displace-
ment tonnage, but by their ‘registered tonnage,’ which is far less than their dis-
placement. As a matter of fact, the largest battleships are only of about two-thirds
the displacement of the largest passenger steamers, and from 200 to 800 feet
shorter. The largest cruisers are from 100 to 200 feet shorter than the largest
passenger steamers, and about 60 per cent. of their displacement. In breadth the
warships exceed the largest merchant steamers by 5 to 10 feet. This difference in
form and proportions is the result of radical differences in the vertical distribution
of weights carried, and is essential to the proper stability of the warships. Here
we find an illustration of the general principle underlying all ship-designing. In
selecting the forms and proportions of a new ship, considerations of economical
propulsion cannot stand alone. They must be associated with other considerations,
such as stability, protection, and manceuvring power, and in the final result
eccnomy of propulsion may have to be sacrificed, to some extent, in order to secure
other essential qualities,

Advantages of Increased Dimensions.

Before passing on, it may be interesting to illustrate the gain in economy of
propulsion resulting from increase in dimensions by means of the following table,
which gives particulars of a number of typical cruisers, all of comparatively recent
design :—

— No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5

Leastaneety psy) ee amieey 4) | B80 300 360 435 500
Breadthn(Feck) Meuse 0 ey | BB 43 60 69 71
Mean draught (feet) . : ~ 13 163 233 244 263

Displacement (tons) . ‘ . | 1,800 3,400 7,400 |11,000 | 14,200
Indicated horse-power for 20 knots | 6,000 9,000 {11,000 | 14,000 | 15,500
Indicated horse-power per ton of

displacement . : a 5 3°33 2°65 1:48 1:27 1:09

The figures given are the results of actual trials, and embody therefore the
efficiencies of propelling machinery, propellers, and forms of the individual ships.
Even so they are instructive. Comparing the first and last, for example, it will
be seen that, while the displacement is increased nearly eightfold, the power for

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 845

20 knots is only increased about 2°6 times. If the same types of engines and
boilers had been adopted in these two vessels—which was not the case, of course—
the weights of propelling apparatus and coal for a given distance would have been
proportional to the respective powers ; that is to say, the larger vessel would have
been equipped with only 2°6 times the weight carried by the smaller. On the
other hand, roughly speaking, the disposable weights, after providing for hulls and
fittings in these two vessels, might be considered to be proportional to their dis-
placements. As a matter of fact, this assumption is distinctly in favour of the
smaller ship. Adopting it, the larger vessel would have about eight times the
disposable weight of the smaller; while the demand for propelling apparatus and
fuel would be only 2°6 times that of the smaller vessel. There would therefore be
an enormous margin of carrying power in comparison with displacement in the
larger vessel. This might be devoted, and in fact was devoted, partly to the attain-
ment of a speed considerably exceeding 20 knots (which was a maximum for the
smaller vessel), partly to increased coal endurance, and partly to protection and
armament.

Another interesting comparison may be made between vessels Nos. 4 and 5 in
the preceding table, by tracing the growth in power necessary to drive the vessels
at speeds ranging from 10 knots up to 22 mots.

_ No. 4 No. 5
10 knots. : - : 1,500-horse-power 1,800-horse-power
B35 : ‘ : ; 25004 f.5s o SOO 4%; 5
10 en - : } : 4,000 ,, = 5,000 _ ,, ‘
‘a ae at ae tak sie! 6,000 ,, es BHOO! 45 i
Ue ae é : : 9,000 5 a LO0ON 3 +
Ces : : : : 14,000, i 15,500 ,, “3
ers as : : ‘ : 23,000 ., cr 23,000 _ i, PR

It will be noted that up to the speed of 18 knots there is a fairly constant
ratio between the powers required to drive the two ships. As the speeds are
increased the larger ship gains, and at 22 knots the same power is required in both
ships. The smaller vessel, as a matter of fact, was designed for a maximum speed
of 203 knots, and the larger for 22 knots. Unless other qualities had been
sacrificed, neither space nor weight could have been found in the smaller vessel for
machinery and coals corresponding to 22 knots, The figures are interesting,
however, as illustrations of the principle that economy of propulsion is favoured
by increase in dimensions as speeds are raised.

Going a step further, it may be assumed that in unsheathed cruisers of this
class about 40 per cent. of the displacement will be required for the hull and
fittings, so that the balance or ‘disposable weight ’ would he about 60 per cent. ;
say 6,€00 tons for the smaller vessel, and 8,500 tons for the larger, a gain of
nearly 2,000 tons for the latter. If the speed of 22 kmots were secured in koth
ships, with machinery and boilers of the same type, the larger ship would
therefore have about 2,000 tons greater weight available for coals, armament,
armour, and equipment.

These illustrations of well-known principles have been given simply for the
assistance of those not familiar with the subject, and they need not be carried
further. More general treatment of the subject, based on experimental and
theoretical investigation, will be found in text-books of naval architecture, but
would be out of place in this Address.

Swift Torpedo Vessels.

Torpedo flotillas are comparatively recent additions to war fleets. The first
torpedo boat was built by Mr. Thornycroft for the Norwegian Navy in 1873, and
the same gentleman built the first torpedo boat for the Royal Navy in 1877. The
construction of the larger class, known as ‘torpedo-boat destroyers,’ dates from
1898. These various classes furnish some of the most notable examples extant of

846 REPORT—1899.

the attainment of extraordinarily high speeds, for short periods and in smooth
water, by vessels of small dimensions. Their qualities and performances, therefore,
merit examination.

Mr. Thornycroft may justly be considered the pioneer in this class of work.
Greatly impressed by the combination of lightness and power embodied in railway
locomotives, Mr. Thornycroft applied similar principles to the propulsion of small
boats, and obtained remarkably high speeds. His work became more widely
known when the results were published of a series of trials, conducted in 1872 by
Sir Frederick Bramwell on a small vessel named the Miranda. She was only
45 feet long and weighed 4 tons, yet she exceeded 16 knots on trial. The
Norwegian torpedo boat built in 1873 was 57 feet long, 7} tons, and of
15 knots; the first English torpedo boat of 1877 was 81 feet long, 29 tons, and
attained 18} Imots.

Mr. Yarrow also undertook the construction of small swift vessels at a very
early date, and has greatly distinguished himself throughout the development of
the torpedo flotilla. Messrs. White, of Cowes, previously well known as builders
of steamboats fur use on board ships, extended their operations to the construction
of torpedo boats. These three firms for a considerable time practically monopolised
this special class of work in this country. Abroad they kad able competitors in
Normand in France, Schichau in Germany, and Herreshoff in the United States.
Keen competition led to successive improvements and rapid rise in speed. During
the last six years the demand for a fleet of about 100 destroyers, to be built
in the shortest possible time, involved the necessity for increasing the sources.
of supply. At the invitation of the Admiralty, a considerable number of the
leading shipbuilding and engineering firms have undertaken and successfully
carried through the construction of destroyers varying from 26 to 33 knots in
speed, although the work was necessarily of a novel character, involving many
difficulties.

As the speeds of torpedo vessels have risen, so have their dimensions increased.
Within the class the law shown to hold good in larger vessels applies equally.
In 1877 a first-class torpedo boat was 81 feet long, under 30 tons weight, developed
400 horse-power, and steamed 18} knots. Ten years later the corresponding class
of boat was 135 feet long, 125 tons weight, developed 1,500 horse-power, and
steamed 23 knots. In 1897 it had grown to 1650 feet in length, 140 to 150 tons,
2,000 horse-power, and 26 knots.

Destroyers are not yet of seven years’ standing, but they come under the rule.
The first examples (1893) were 180 feet long, 240 tons, 4,000 horse-power, and
26 to 27 Imots. .They were followed by 30-knot vessels, 200 to 210 feet long, 280
to 800 tons, 5,500 to 6,000 horse-power. Vessels now in construction are to
attain 52 to 33 knots, their lengths being about 230 feet, displacements 360 to 380
tons, and engine-power 8,000 to 10,000 horse-power.

Cost has gone up with size and power, and the limit of progress in this direction
will probably be fixed by financial considerations, rather than by constructive
difficulties, great as these become as speeds rise.

It may be interesting to summarise the distinctive features of torpedo-vessel
design.

1. The propelling apparatus is excessively light in proportion to the maximum
power developed. Water-tube boilers are now universally adopted, and on speed
trials they are ‘forced’ to a considerable extent. High steam pressures are used.
The engines are run at a high rate of revolution—often at 400 revolutions per
minute. Great care is taken in every detail to economise weight. Speed trials at
maximum power only extend over three hours. Onsuch trials in a destroyer each
ton weight of propelling apparatus produces about 45 indicated horse-power.
Seme idea of the relative lightness of the destroyer’s machinery and boilers will be
obtained when it is stated that in a large modern cruiser with water-tube boilers,
high steam pressure, and quick-runniug engines, the maximum power obtained on an
eight hours’ trial corresponds to about 12 indicated horse-power per ton of engines,
boilers, &c. That is to say, the proportion of power to weight of propelling
esate is from three and a half to four times as great in the destroyer as it is in
the cruiser,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 84.7

2. A very large percentage of the total weight (or displacement) of a torpedo
vessel is assigned to propelling apparatus. In a destroyer of 30 knots trial-speed,
nearly one-half the total weight is devoted to machinery, boilers, &c. In the
swiftest cruisers of large size the corresponding allocation of weight is less than
20 per cent. of the displacement, and in the largest and fastest mail steamers it is
about 20 to 25 per cent.

3. The torpedo vessel carries a relatively small load of fuel, equipment, &c.
Taking a 30-lnot destroyer, for example, the speed trials are made with a load not
exceeding 12 to 14 per cent. of the displacement. In a swift cruiser the corre~
sponding load would be from 40 to 45 per cent., or proportionately more than
three times as great. What this difference means may be illustrated by two
statements. If the load in a destroyer were trebled and the vessel correspondingly
increased in draught and weight, the speed attained with the same maximum
power would be about three knots less. If, on the other hand, the vessel were
designed to attain 30 knots on trial with the heavier load, her displacement
would probably be increased about 70 to 80 per cent.

4, The hull and fittings of the torpedo vessel are exceedingly licht in relation
to the dimensions and engine-power. For many parts of the structure steel of
high teusile strength is used. Throughout, the utmost care is taken to economise
weight. In small vessels, for special service, many conditions can be accepted
which would be inadmissible in larger sea-going vessels. The result of all this
care is the production of hull-structures having ample general strength for their
special service. Lightness of scantling, of course, involves small Jocal strength
against collision, grounding, and other accident. Experience proves, however,
that this involves no serious risk or difficulty.

These conditions are essential to the attainment of very high speeds for short
periods. They resemble the conditions ruling the design of cross-Channel steamers,
so far as relative lightness of propelling apparatus, small load, and light scantlings
are concerned. The essential differences lie in the requirements for passenger
accommodation as compared with the requirements for armament of the torpedo
vessel. No one has yet proposed to extend the torpedo-vessel system to sea-going
ships of large dimensions. Very similar conditions for the propelling apparatus
have been accepted in a few cruisers of considerable dimensions, wherein high
speeds for short periods were required. It is, however, unquestionable that in
many ways, and particularly in regard to machinery design, the construction of
torpedo vessels has greatly influenced that of larger ships.

One important consideration must not be overlooked. For short-distance
steaming at high speeds economy in coal consumption is of little practical
importance, and it is all-important to secure lightness of propelling apparatus in
relation to power. For long-distance steaming, on the contrary, economy in coal
consumption is of primary importance; and savings in weight of propelling
apparatus, even of considerable amount, may be undesirable if they involve
increased coal consumption. Differences of opinion prevail as to the real economy
of fuel obtainable with boilers and engines such as are fitted in torpedo vessels.
Claims are made for some vessels which represent remarkable economy. Only
enlarged experience can settle these questions.

Endurance is also an important quality in sea-going ships of large size, not
merely in structures, but in propelling apparatus. The extreme lightness essential
in torpedo vessels obviously does not favour endurance if high powers are frequently
or continuously required. Still, it cannot be denied that the results obtained in
torpedo vessels show such a wide departure from those usual in sea-going ships as
to suggest the possibility of some intermediate type of propelling apparatus
applicable to large sea-going ships and securing sufficient durability and economy
of fuel in association with further savings of weight.

The Parsons Turbo-Motor.

~ The steam turbo-motor introduced by Mr. Charles Parsons is to’ be described
by the inventor during these meetings ; but it is impossible for me to pass it over

848 REPORT—1899.

in this review without a brief notice, This rotary engine, with its very high rate
of revolution, reduces the weights of machinery, shafting, and propellers greatly
below the weight required in the quickest-running engines cf the reciprocating
type. This reduction in the proportion of weight to power carries with it, of
course, the possibility of higher speed in a vessel of given dimensions; and when
large powers are employed the absolute gain is very great. An illustration of this
has been given by Mr. Parsons in the Twrbinia. That remarkable vessel is
100 feet long and of 443 tons displacement, but she has attained 33 to 34 knots in
short runs. There are three shafts, each carrying three screw propellers, each
shaft driven by a steam turbine making over 2,000 revolutions at full speed, when
more than 2,000 horse-power is developed. A water-tube boiler of special design
supplies steam of 175 lbs. pressure, and is exceptionally light for the steam
produced, being highly forced. The whole weight of machinery and boilers is
22 tons: in other words, about 100 horse-power (indicated) is produced for each
ton weight of propelling apparatus. This is rather more than twice the proportion
of power to weight as compared with the lightest machinery and boilers fitted in
torpedo boats and destroyers. It will be noted that in the Twrbinia,as in the
destroyers, about half the total weight is devoted to propelling apparatus; and in
both instances the load carried is relatively small. The secret of the extra-
ordinary speed is to be found in the extreme lightness of propelling apparatus, and
small load.

No doubt in the 7zbinia lightness has been pushed further than it would be in
vessels of larger size and greater power. In such vessels a lower rate of revolution
would probably be accepted, additional motors would be fitted for manceuvring
and going astern, boilers of relatively greater weight would be adopted, and
other changes made. But, after making ample allowance for all such increases in
weight, it is unquestionable that considerable economies must be possible with
rotary engines. Two other vessels of the destroyer type with turbo-motors (one
for the Royal Navy) are now approaching completion. Their trials will be of
great interest, as they will furnish a direct comparison with vessels of similar size
and form, fitted with similar boilers and driven by reciprocating engines.

On the side of coal consumption Mr. Parsons claims at least equality with the
best triple expansion engines. Into the other advantages attending the use of
rotary engines it is not necessary now to enter,

Reference must be made, however, to one matter in which Mr. Parsons has
done valuable and original work. In torpedo vessels of high speed the choice of
the most efficient propellers has always been a matter of difficulty, and the solution
' of the problem has in many instances involved extensive experimental trials. By
means of alterations in propellers alone, very large increases in speed have been
effected; and even now there are difliculties to be faced. When Mr. Parsons
adopted the extraordinary speed of revolution just named for the Turbinia, he
went far beyond all experience and precedent and had to face unknown conditions.
He has found the solution, after much patient and original investigation, in the
use of multiple screws of small diameter. His results in this direction are of
general interest to all who have to deal with screw propulsion.

Such radical changes in propelling machinery as are involved in the adoption
of turbo-motors must necessarily be subjected to thorough test before they will be
widely adopted. The experiment which the Admiralty are making is not on a
small scale as regards power. AJthough it is made in a destroyer, about 10,000-
horse-power will probably be developed and a correspondingly high speed
attained. It may well happen that from this experiment very far-reaching effects
may follow. Mr. Parsons himself has prepared many designs illustrating various
applications of the system to sea-going, cross-Channel, and special service vessels.
Where shallowness of draught is unavoidable the small diameter of the screws
possible with the quick-running turbines is clearly an important matter.

Comparisons between Large and Small Vessels.

It has been shown that the attainment of very high speeds by vessels of small
size invelves many conditions not applicable to large sea-going steamships. But

{RANSACTIONS Of SECTION G, 849

it is equally true that in many ways the trials of small swift vessels constitute
model experiments from which interesting information may be obtained as to what
would be involved in driving ships of large size at speeds much exceeding any of
which we have experience. When the progressive steam-trials of such small
vessels can be studied side by side with experiments made on models to determine
their resistance at various speeds, then the fullest information is obtained and the
best guide to progress secured. This advantage, as has been said, we owe to
William Froude.

His contributions to the Reports of the British Association are classics in’the
literature of the resistance and propulsion of ships. In 1874 he practically
exhausted the subject of frictional resistance so far as it is known; and his
Presidential Address to this Section in 1875 dealt fully and lucidly with the
modern or stream-line theory of resistance. No doubt there would be advantage
in extending Froude’s experiments on frictional resistance to greater lengths and
to ship-shaped forms. It is probable also that dynamometric determinations of the
resistance experienced by ships of modern forms and considerable size when towed
at various speeds would be of value if they could be conducted. These extensions
of what Froude accomplished are not easily carried out; and in this country the
pressure of work on shipbuilding for the Royal Navy has, for many years past,
taxed to the utmost limits the capacity of the Admiralty experimental establish-
ment so ably superintended by Mr. R. EH. Froude, allowing little scope for purely
scientific investigations, and making it difficult to deal with the numerous experi-
ments incidental to the designs of actual ships. Now that Holland, Russia, Italy,
and the United States have equipped experimental establishments, while Germany
and France are taking steps in that direction, we may hope for extensions of purely
scientific work and additions to our knowledge. In this direction, however, I am
bound to say that much might be done if experimental establishments capable of
dealing with questions of a general nature relating to resistance and propulsion
were added to the equipment of some of our universities and colleges. Engineer-
ing laboratories have been multiplied, but there is as yet no example of a model
experimental tank, devoted to instruction and research.

It is impossible, and possibly is unnecessary, to attempt in this Address any
account of Froude’s ‘scale of comparison’ between ships and models at ‘ correspond-
ing speeds.’ But it may be of interest to give a few illustrations of the working
of this method, in the form of a contrast between a destroyer of 300 tons, 212 feet
long, capable of steaming 30 knots an hour, and a vessel of similar form enlarged
to 765 feet in length and 14,100 tons. The ratio of dimensions is here about
3°61: 1; the ratio of displacements is 47 : 1; and the ratio of corresponding speeds
is 1:9: 1.

To 12 kmots in the small vessel would correspond 22:8 knots in the large
vessel ; and the resistance experienced by the large vessel at 22'8 knots (neglecting
a correction for friction) should be forty-seven times that of the small vessel at
12 knots. By experiment, this resistance for the small vessel was found to be
18 tons. Hence, for the large vessel at 22°8 knots the resistance should be
84'6 tons. This would correspond to an ‘ effective horse-power’ of over 13,000, or
to about 26,000 indicated horse-power. The frictional correction would reduce
this to about 25,000 horse-power, or about 1:8 horse-power per ton. Now turning
to the destroyer, it is found experimentally that at 22°8 knots she experiences a
resistance of about 11 tons, corresponding to an effective horse-power of over
1,700, and an indicated horse-power of about 3,000: say 10 horse-power per ton,
or nearly five and a half times the power per ton required in the larger vessel.
This illustrates tae economy of propulsion arising from increased dimensions,

Applying the same process to a speed of 30 knots in the large ship, the corre-
sponding speed in the small ship is 15°8 knots. Her resistance at that speed is
experimentally determined to be 3'5 tons, and the resistance of the large ship at
30 knots (neglecting frictional correction) is about 165 tons. The effective horse-
power of the large ship at 30 knots is, therefore, about 34,000, corresponding
to 68,090 horse-power indicated. Allowing for the frictional correction, this would
drop to about 62,000 horse-power, or 44 horse-power per ton. Vor the destroyer

1899 31

850 REPORT—1899,

at 30 knots the resistance is about 174 tons; the effective horse-power is 3,600,
and the indicated horse-power about 6,000, or 20 horse-power per ton, nearly five
times as great as the corresponding power for the large ship. But while the
destroyer under her trial conditions actually reaches 30 knots, it is certain that
in the large ship neither weight nor space could be found for machinery and
boilers of the power required for 30 knots, and of the types usually adopted in large
cruisers, in association with an adequate supply of fuel. The explanation of the
methods by which the high speed is reached in the destroyer has already been
given. Her propelling apparatus is about one-fourth as heavy in relation to its
maximum power, and her load is only about one-third as great in relation to the
displacement, when compared with the corresponding features in a swift modern
cruiser. j

It will, of course, be understood that in practice, under existing conditions,
a cruiser of 14,000 tons would not be made 765 feet long, but probably about
500 feet. The hypothetical cruiser has been introduced simply for purposes of
comparison with the destroyer.

The earlier theories of resistance assumed that the resistance experienced by
ships varied as the square of the speed. We now know that the frictional resist-
ances of clean-painted surfaces of considerable length vary as the 1:83 power of the
speed. This seems a small difference, but it is sensible in its effects, causing a
reduction of 32 per cent. at 10 knots, nearly 40 per cent. at 20 knots, and 42 per
cent. at 25 knots. On the other hand, it is now known that the laws of variation
of the residual or wave-making resistance may depart very widely from the law of
the square of the speed, and it may be interesting to trace for the typical destroyer
how the resistance actually varies.

Take first the total resistance. Up to 11 lmots it varies nearly as the square of
the speed; at 16 knots it has reached the cube; from 18 to 20 knots it varies as
the 3°3 power. Then the index begins to diminish: at 22 lmots it is 2:7; at 25
knots it has fallen to the square, and from thence to 30 knots it varies, practically,
as does the frictional resistance.

The residual resistance varies as the square of the speed up to 1] knots, as the
cube at 12} to 13 knots, as the fourth power about 143 knots, and at a higher rate
than the fifth power at 18 knots. Then the index begins to fall, reaching the
square at 24 Imots, and falling still lower at higher speeds.

It will be seen, therefore, that when this small vessel has been driven up to 24
or 25 knots by a large relative expenditure of power, further increments of speed
are obtained with less proportionate additions to the power.

Passing from the destroyer to the cruiser of similar form but of 14,100 tons,
and once more applying the ‘ scale of comparison,’ it will be seen that to 25 knots
in the destroyer corresponds a speed of 473 knots in the large vessel. In other
words, the cruiser would not reach the condition where further increments of speed
are obtained with comparatively moderate additions of power until she exceeded
47 knots, which is an impossible speed for such a vessel under existing conditions.
The highest speeds that could be reached by the cruiser with propelling apparatus
of the lightest type yet fitted in large sea-going ships would correspond to speeds
in the destroyer, for which the resistance is varying as the highest power of the
speed. These are suggestive facts.

Frictional resistance, as is well known, is a most important matter in all classes
of ships and at all speeds. Even in the typical destroyer this is so. At 12 knots
the friction with clean-painted bottom represents 80 per cent. of the total resist-
ance; at 16 knots 70 per cent.; at 20 knots a little less than 50 per cent. ; and at
30 knots 45 percent. If the coefficient of friction were doubled and the maximum
power developed with equal efficiency, a loss of speed of fully 4 knots would result.

In the cruiser of similar form the friction represents 90 per cent. at 12 knots,
85 per cent. at 16 knots, nearly 80 per cent. at 20 knots, and over 70 per cent. at
23 knots. If the coefficient of friction were doubled at 23 knots and the corre-
spanding power developed with equal efficiency, the loss of speed would approximate
to 4 knots.

These illustrations only confirm general experience that clean bottoms are

~

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G, 55]

essential to economical propulsion and the maintenance of speed, and that frequent
docking is necessary in yessels with bare iron or steel skins, which foul in a com-~
paratively short time.

Possibilities of further Increase in Speed.

From the facts above mentioned it is obvious that the increase in speed which
has been effected is the result of many improvements, and has been accompanied
by large additions to size, engine-power, and cost. These facts do not discourage
the ‘inventor,’ who finds a favourite field of operation in schemes for attaining
speeds of 50 to 60 knots at sea in vessels of moderate size. Sometimes the key to
this remarkable advance is found in devices for reducing surface-friction by the use
of wonderful lubricants to be applied to the wetted surfaces of ships, or by inter-
posing a layer of air between the skins of ships and the surrounding water, or
other departures from ordinary practice. If these gentlemen would ‘ condescend
to figures,’ their estimates, or guesses, would be less sanguine. In many cases the
proposals made would fail to produce any sensible reduction in resistance ; in others
they would increase resistance. ‘

Other proposals rest upon the idea that resistance may be largely reduced by
adopting novel forms, departing widely from ordinary ship shapes. Very often
small-scale experiments, made in an unscientific and inaccurate manner, are adduced
as proofs of the advantages claimed. In other instances mere assertion is thought
sufficient. Ordinarily no regard is had to other considerations, such as internal
capacity, structural weight and strength, stability and seaworthiness. Most of
these proposals do not merit serious consideration. Any which seem worth inves-
tigation can be dealt with simply and effectively by the method of model experi-
ments. A striking example of this method will be found in the unusual form of a
Parliamentary Paper (No. 313, of 1873), containing a Report made by Mr. William
Froude to the Admiralty. Those interested in the subject will find therein much
matter of special interest in connection with the conditions attending abnormally
high speeds. It must sutlice now to say that ship-shaped forms are not likely to
be superseded at present.

The most prolific ‘ inventions’ are those connected with supposed improvements
in propellers. One constantly meets with schemes guaranteed by the proposers to
give largely increased efficiency and corresponding additions to speed. Variations
in the numbers and forms of screws or paddles, the use of jets of water or air
expelled by special apparatus through suitable openings, the employment of explo-
sives, imitations of the fins of fishes, and numberless other departures from esta-
blished practice are constantly being proposed. As a rule the ‘inventors’ have no
intimate knowledge of the subject they treat, which is confessedly one of great
difficulty. When experiments are adduced in support of proposals they are almost
always found to be inconclusive and iwaccurate. More or less mathematical
demonstrations find favour with other inventors, but they are not more satisfactory
than theexperiments. An air of great precision commonly pervades the statements

_made as to possible increase in efficiency or speed. I have known cases where

probable speeds with novel propellers have been estimated (or guessed) to the
third place of decimals. In one such instance a trial was made with the new pro-
peller, with the result that instead of a gain in efficiency there was a serious loss
of speed, Very few of the proposals made have merit enough to be subjected to
trial. None of them can possibly give the benefits claimed.

It need hardly be added that in speaking thus of so-called ‘inventors’ there is
no suggestion that improvement has reached its limit, or that further discovery is
not to be made. On the contrary, in regard to the forms of ships and propellers
continuous investigation is proceeding and successive advances are being made.
From the nature of the case, however, the difficulties to be surmounted increase as
speeds rise ; and a thorough mastery of the past history and present condition of
the problems of steamship design and propulsion is required as a preparation for
fruitful work in the nature of further advance.

It would be idle to attempt any prediction as to the characteristic features of

312

852 . RiPoRT—1899,

ocean navigation sixty years hence. Radical changes may well be made within
that period. Confining attention to the immediate future, it seems probable that
the lines of advance which I have endeavoured to indicate will remain in use.
Further reductions may be anticipated in the weight of propelling apparatus and
fuel in proportion to the power developed; further sayings in the weight of the
hulls, arising from the use of stronger materials and improved structural arrange-
ments; improvements in form; and enlargement in dimensions. If greater draughts
of water can be made possible, so much the better for carrying power and speed.
For merchant vessels commercial considerations must govern the final decision; tor
warships the needs of naval warfare will prevail. It is certain that scientific
methods of procedure and the use of model experiments on ships and propellers
will become of increased importance.

Already avenues for further progress are being opened. For example, the use
of water-tube boilers in recent cruisers and batileships of the Royal Navy has
resulted in saving one-third of the weight necessary with cylindrical boilers of the
ordinary type to obtain the same power, with natural draught in the stokeholds.
Differences of opinion prevail, no doubt, as to the policy of adopting particular
types of water-tube boilers; but the weight of opinion is distinctly in favour of
some type of water-tubé boiler in association with the high steam pressures now in
use. Greater safety, quicker steam-raising and other advantages, as well as
economy of weight, can thus be secured. Some types of water-tube boilers would
give greater saving in weight than the particular type used in the foregoing com-
parison with cylindrical boilers.

Differences of opinion prevail also as to the upper limit of steam pressure which
can with advantage be used, taking into account all the conditions in both engines
and boilers, From the nature of the case, increases in pressure beyond the 16U to
180 lbs. per square inch commonly reached with cylindrical boilers cannot have
anything like the same effect upon economy of fuel as the corresponding increases
have had, starting from a lower pressure. Some authorities do not favour any
excess above 250 lbs. per square inch on the boilers; others would go as high as
300 Ibs., and some still higher.

Passing to the engine-rooms, the use of higher steam-pressures and greater
tates of revolution may, and probably will, produce reductions in weight com-
pared with power. The use of stronger materials, improved designs, better balance
of the moving parts, and close attention to details have tended in the same direc-
tion without sacrifice of strength. Necessarily there must be a sufficient margin
to secure both strength and endurance in the motive power of steamships. Existing
arrangements are the outgrowth of large experience, and new departures must be
carefully scrutinised.

The use of rotary engines, of which Mr. Parsons’s turbo-motor is the leading
example at present, gives the prospect of still further economies of weight. Mr.
Parsons is disposed to think that he could about halve the weights now required
for the engines, shafting, and propellers of an Atlantic liner while securing proper
strength and durability. If this could be done in association with the use of
water-tube boilers, it would effect a revolution in the design of this class of vessel,
permitting higher speeds to be reached without exceeding the dimensions of existing
ships.

It does not appear probable that, with coal as the fuel, water-tube boilers will
surpass in economy the cylindrical boilers now in use; and skilled stoking seems
essential if water-tube boilers are to be equal to the other type in rate of coal
consumption, The general principle holds good that as more perfect mechanical
appliances are introduced, so more skilled and disciplined management is required
in order that the full benefits may be obtained. In all steamship performance the
“human factor’ is of great importance, but its importance increases as the appli-
ances become more complex. In engine-rooms the fact has been recognised and
the want met, There is no reason why it should not be similarly dealt with in
the hoiler-rooms.

Liquid fuel is already substituted for coal in many steamships. When suffi-
cient quantities can be obtained it has many obvious advantages over coal,
reducing greatly manual lahour in embarking supplies, conveying it to the boilers

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G, 853

and using it as fuel. Possibly its advocates have claimed for it greater econonical
advantages over coal than can be supported by the results of extended experiment.
fiven if the saving in weight for equal evaporation is put as low as 30 per cent. of
the corresponding weight of coal, it would amount to 1,000 tons on a first-class
Atlantic liner. ‘This saving might be utilised in greater power and higher speed,
or in increased load. There would be a substantial saving on the stokehold staff,
At present it does not appear that adequate supplies of liquid fuel are available.
Competent authorities here and abroad are giving attention to this question, and to
the development of supplies. If the want can be met at prices justifying the use
of liquid fuel, there will undoubtedly be a movement in that direction.

Stronger materials for the construction of hulls are already available, They
are, however, as yet but little used, except for special classes of vessels. Mild
steel has taken the place of iron, and effected considerable savings of weight.
Alloys of steel with nickel and other metals are now made which give strength
and rigidity much superior to mild steel, in association with ample ductility. For
destroyers and torpedo boats this stronger material is now largely used. It has
also been adopted for certain important parts of the structures of recent ships in
the Royal Navy. Of course the stronger material is more costly, but its use
enables sensible economies of weight to be made. It has been estimated, for
example, that in an Atlantic liner of 20 knots average speed about 1,000 tons
could be saved by using nickel steel instead of mild steel. This saving would
suffice to raise the average speed more than a knot, without varying the dimensions
of the ship.

Alloys of aluminium have also been used for the hulls or portions of the hulls
of yachts, torpedo-boats, and small vessels. Considerable savings in weight have
thus been effected. On the other hand, these alloys have been seriously corroded
when exposed to the action of sea-water, and on that account are not likely to be
extensively used. Other alloys will probably be found which will be free from
this defect, and yet unite lightness with strength to a remarkable degree.

Other examples might be given of the fact that the metallurgist has by no
means exhausted his resources, and that the shipbuilder may look to him for
continued help in the struggle to reduce the weights of floating structures.

It is unnecessary to amplify what has already been said as to possible increase
in the efficiency and types of propellers. With limited draught, as speeds increase
and greater powers have to be utilised, multiple propellers will probably come
into use. Mr. Parsons has shown how such problems may be dealt with; and
other investigators have done valuable work in the same direction.

In view of what has happened and is still happening, it is practically certain
that the dimensions of steamships have not yet attained a maximum.

Thanks to mechanical appliances, the largest ships built or to be built can be
readily steered and worked. In this particular, difficulties have diminished in
recent years, notwithstanding the great growth in dimensions.

Increase in length and weight favours the better maintenance of speed at sea.
The tendency, therefore, will be to even greater regularity of service than at
present. Quicker passages will to some extent diminish risks, and the chance of
breakdown will be lessened if multiple propellers are used. Even now, with twin
screws, the risk of total breakdown is extremely small.

Whatever may be the size and power of steamships, there must come times at
sea wuen they must slow down and wait for better weather. But the larger and
longer the vessel, the fewer wiil be the occasions when this precaution need be
exercised.

It must never be forgotten that as ships grow in size, speed, and cost, so the
responsibilities of those in charge increase. The captain of a modern steamship
needs remarkable qualities to perform his multifarious duties efficiently. The
chief engineer must have great powers of organisation, as well as good technical
knowledge, to control and utilise most advantageously the men and machinery in
his charge. Apart from the ceaseless care, watchfulness, and skill of officers and
men, the finest ships and most perfect machinery are of little avail. The ‘human
factor’ is often forgotten, but is all-important. Let us hope that in the future as
jn the past, as responsibijlities increase so will the men be found to bear them,

854 REPORT—1899,

The following Papers were read :—

1, The Dover Harbour Works. By J.C. Coonz, MInst.C.E., and
W. Martuews, M.Inst.C.#. See Reports, p. 479,

[Ordered to be printed in extenso.]

2. On Non-Flammable Wood and its Use on Warships.
By HK. Marswauy Fox.

The one serious defect of wood as a material of construction is the danger from
fire that always attends its use. Efforts to eliminate this danger have repeatedly
been made. Faraday demonstrated that many chemicals possessed the property,
when impregnated into the pores of the wood, of reducing the inflammability of
the same.

Among the fire-proofing chemicals used from time to time have been: tung-
state of soda, boracic acid, sulphate of ammonia, sulphate of magnesia, chloride of
zine.

Fire as an element of naval warfare is traceable as far back as 190 B.c., when,
according to Livy, the Rhodians made use of fireships, or vessels filled with com-
bustibles, set adrift among the hostile fleet. Repeatedly since that early date
fireships have played a not unimportant part in naval warfare.

With the advent of ironclads the utility of fireships passed away, but the
naval battles of the Chinese and Japanese War in 1894 showed conclusively that
in a new form fire was still a serious factor in naval engagements, three Chinese
warships being burned to the water’s edge owing to their woodwork being set
ablaze trom the shot and shell of the attacking fleet. It was this object lesson
that induced the naval authorities of the United States in 1895 to look about for
a remedy to prevent the wood of their warships from burning. Experiments with
wood impregnated with fire-proofing chemicals were made by the Government
of that country, with the result that two cruisers and two battleships then
under construction were fitted out with non-flammable wood. After some sixteen
months of service trial, a re-examination of the subject was officially ordered,
owing to reports that the treated wood corroded metals, absorbed moisture, and
failed to properly retain paint. The examination resulted in the continuance of
its use and extension to other American warships.

In 1897, H.M. Admiralty commenced the investigation of non-flammable
wood, and after various tests specified it for the new royal yacht, the new battle-
ships, cruisers, and torpedo-hoat destroyers now being constructed.

The process by which wood is rendered non-inflammable consists in placing it
in cylinders of steel, closing the same tightly, and submitting to alternate appli-
cations of heat and steam, after which the air is exhausted and the fire-prooting
solution—one of the ingredients of which is phosphate of ammonia—admitted.
Pressure pumps are then applied, forcing the liquid into the pores of the wood.
The degrees of steaming, vacuum, and pressure vary according to the character
of the wood, All kinds of wood are not amenable to the process—some because
of the large quantity of resin or oil they contain, and irregular fibres resist thorough
impregnation. Teak, Austrian oak, Norway spruce, and American pitch-pine,
are particularly resistent, while yellow deal, white pine, mahogany, ash, elm,
birch, cherry, and English oak lend themselves readily to the treatment. In
the softer woods timber from three to four inches in thickness has been im-
pregnated successfully, but in the harder woods rarely more than two inches
can be impregnated throughout. For all practical purposes, it has been found
that impregnation for one inch all round renders the wood non-flammable
throughout. The amount of solution taken up by the softer woods is greater
than that absorbed by the harder woods. White pine takes more than twice
its original weight, while mahogany, oak, and teak only take up about 75 per
cent. of original weight. After the wood has become thoroughly impregnated
the next step is to evaporate the aqueous portion of the solution from the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 855

wood, leaving the resultant crystals deposited in the pores. The wood is then
dried in a kiln at an even temperature not exceeding 120° F., having a free circu-
lation of dry air. The time required for proper drying varies from three to seven
weeks, depending upon the thickness of the wood. After the woad is thoroughly
dry it is ready for use, and will be found to be flaue- and fire-resisting, merely
carbonising at the point of contact with fire.

The resistance of treated wood to the passage of electricity is decreased, while
the heat-resisting properties are increased. A piece of yellow pine an inch thick
placed over the flame of a Bunsen burner, having on its upper surface some grains
of gunpowder, will not impart in four hours sufficient heat through the wood

to ignite the gunpowder.
Experience has shown that care must be taken to have the treated wood

thoroughly dry befcre paint is applied.

The wisdom of the American Government in having the woodwork of its
ships of war made non-flammable was well exemplified during their recent war
with Spain, when, as is well known, several of the Spanish ships at Manilla and
Santiago de Cuba were burnt to the water’s edge by the woodwork of the same
being set on fire from the bursting of the American shell, while more than one
American ship, having non-flammable wood on board, although shot through and

through, received no injury from fire.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15,
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report on Small Screw Gauges.—See Reports, p. 464.

2. A Short History of the Engineering Works of the Suez Canal to the
Present Time. By Sir Cuartes Hartiey, X.C.1.G4.

3. Fast Cross-Channel Steamers driven by Steam Turbines.
By Hon, C, A. Parsons, 7.R.S.

4, The Niclausse Water-Tube Boiler.
By Mark Rostinson, M.Inst.0.£.

5. On the Discharge of Torpedoes below Water.
By Captain E. W. Luoyp, of Elswick.

Torpedoes have not in actual warfare, up to the present, had any direct
influence, but they are retained as part of the armament of large ships, as no
Government likes to take the initiative in discarding them. As recent wars have
shown that torpedoes fired from above-water apparatus are a source of great
danger to their possessors, the necessity for discharge below the water has become
apparent. ‘This necessity has been well met by the introduction of the Elswick
Submerged Torpedo Tube. This tube has been designed with a view to firing
torpedoes from the broadside of a ship travelling at high speeds. Discharge is

referably done by means of cordite, and it is only necessary to press a firing key
in the conning tower for the shield to be run out, the torpedo ejected, and the
shield returned. During the discharge, the ship travelling at a speed of 17 knots,
the torpedo is subjected to a total pressure of about 5:2 tons, and the shield or spoon
of the torpedo tube has to be made strong enough to support it against this strain.

856 REPORT—1899).

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Paper was read ;—

1. Erection of the New Alexander III. Bridge in Paris,
By M. A. Ausy, of Paris.
[Ordered to be printed in eatenso. |
See Reports p, 469,

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Electrical Machinery on Board Ship.
By A. Siemens, Jf Jnst.C.£.

Lo

On the Electric Conductivity and Magnetic Properties of an Extengive
Series of Alloys of Iron, prepared by R. A. Haprieup. By Professor
W. F. Barrett, /.2.8S., and W. Brown, B.Sc.

During the last five years the authors have been engaged in the determination of
the physical properties of upwards of 100 alloys of iron, many of them entirely
new, and some of them presenting remarkable physical characteristics. This
splendid series of alloys or ‘steels’ has been prepared at considerable expenditure
by the liberality of Mr. Hadfield, M.I.C.E., Managing Director of the Hecla Steel
Works, Sheffield, whose researches on the mechanical properties of many of these
alloys are well known. Myr. Hadfield has also had a chemical analysis of the
alloys made in the laboratcry attached to his works; the paper may therefore be
said to be a joint contribution by three authors.

The jirst part of the paper deals with the electric conductivity of these alloys.
For the purposes of measurement the specimens were rolled into rods rather over
a metre long and about half a centimetre diameter, and after their conductivity
was measured in the unannealed condition they were then carefully annealed and
re-determined. Annealing was found to increase the conductivity in the case of
all the alloys. The potential method of measurement of conductivity was
employed, a comparison being made with a standard rod of pure copper, of known
conductivity, and also with a standard rod of the purest commercial iron, Full
details of the method of measurement and the results obtained will be found in
the forthcoming volume of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Dublin.

In all the specimens the conductivity decreases as the percentage of the added
element increases, at first rapidly and then very slowly. But the effect of
different elements on the conductivity of the alloy varies largely. The addition of
even small quantities of carbon, silicon, manganese, chromium, or aluminium

lowers the conductivity of iron considerably, whereas corresponding quantities of

nickel, copper, and tungsten have a much less effect. The conductivity of the
aluminium steels is extremely low, a particular specimen having 5} per cent. of
aluminium (with only 0:2 of carbon and the same amount of silicon) had a con-
ductivity of only 2:16, pure copper being taken as 100, or a specific resistance of
75 microhms per c.c., the specimen had also the low temperature coefficient of
0:063 per cent. per degree Cent. It was a beautiful alloy and very ductile. But
the highest resistance was found among the nickel manganese steels. Onespecimen
having 25 per cent. of nickel and 5 per cent. of manganese with 1 per cent, of
carbon, was found to have the extraordinary specific resistance of 97$ microhms
per c.c. at 15° C, and a temperature coefficient of 0-085 per cent. per degree Cent.
This alloy also was easily worked and drawn into wire, but was harder and less
dyctile than the aluminium alloy just mentioned,

he

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 857

The second part of the paper deals with the magnetic properties of the alloys ;
complete B and Hf curves were made in the case of a large number of the speci-
mens. The magnetometric method of measurement was employed, each specimen
being taken through a magnetic cycle, with a maximum magnetising force of
45 C.G.S. units. The induction, the retentivity and coercivity of each specimen
are shown by the curves, and the permeability for a given magnetising force was
estimated in each case. Mr. R. L. Wills, who, with Mr. R. G. Allen, assisted in the
experiments, has also measured the areas enclosed by the curves, and thus deter-
mined the energy dissipated per cycle in ergs per cubic cent. Some elements
were found to affect the hysteresis very differently to others and to very different
extents, depending upon the percentage of the element present. Annealing in
the case of some of the nickel and of the chromium-nickel and chromium-
manganese alloys converted a practically non-magnetic alloy into a strongly
magnetic one. For magnetising forces up to about 8 COGS. units, the addition
of 24 per cent. of aluminium actually increases the permeability of iron; very
small percentages of nickel also have the same effect for lower magnetising forces.
As the percentage of nickel increases, the induction and permeability rapidly
decrease and the hysteresis increases, but between 243 and 314 per cent. of
nickel in the alloy the hysteresis falls, owing to the rapid decrease in coercive
force between these percentages. The 31 percent. nickel steel had in fact an
exceptionally low coercive force, and a permeability greater than the best iron for
very low magnetising forces. Mechanical tests, made by Mr. Hadfield, show a
similar result, the curve representing the tensile strength of nickel steels rising
rapidly from 7 to a 12 per cent. nickel steel, then remaining nearly stationary
till 20 per cent. is reached, after which it falls rapidly to the highest per cent.
nickel steel tried, viz. 314 per cent. This is exactly analogous to the curve
representing the coercive force of nickel steels, These interesting results were
obtained independently. Still more remarkable was the magnetic effect produced
by silicon when alloyed with iron and steel; this is now under investigation.

3. Some Recent Applications of Electro-Metallurgy to Mechanical Engineer-

ing. By Suerarp Cowrer-Coues, Assoc.MInst.C.£., M1IM.L.,
MIELE.

The author commenced by pointing out the prominent position electro-metal-
lurgy is now taking in many workshops, and enumerated the uses to which electro-
metallurgy is being applied. He then proceeded to give a description of an
electro-galvanising plant as used for coating the tubes of water-tube boilers
and the plates of torpedo-boat destroyers, and also gave details of the anode and
cathode bars used for suspending the electrodes, and information as to the thick-
ness of zinc applied and the current density and voltage employed. Estimates
were given as to the cost and output of various-sized plants, and the advantages of
electro-galvanising over hot galvanising were compared. The regenerative or
recuperative process and methods of circulation were also described.

Particulars were then given of various electro-chemical processes for cleaning
iron and removing magnetic oxide and scale, and a model was shown of a mag-
netic scale collector for collecting the scale from the acid solution after its removal
from the iron or steel, so as to prevent the further unnecessary waste of acid.
Experiments made in this direction tended to show that a considerable proportion
of the acid is consumed by dissolving the scale after it has left the iron or steel.

An electrolytic process for the manufacture of reflectors was then described,
suitable for making parabolic reflectors for search-lights. The various steps of the
process were given in detail. Briefly, the process consists in using a glass convex
mould on which is chemically deposited a coating of metallic silver, and then
polished so as to ensure the copper backing being adherent to the silver. The
mould thus prepared is placed in a suitable ring and frame and immersed in an
electrolyte of copper sulphate, the mould being rotated in a horizontal
position, the number of revolutions being about fifteen per minute. The

858 REPORT—1899,

copper adheres firmly to the silver, and together they form the reflector,
which is subsequently separated from the glass mould by placing the whole
in cold or lukewarm water, and then gradually raising the temperature of
the water to 120° F., when the metal reflector will leave the glass mould, due to
the unequal expansion of the two. The concave surface of the reflector obtained
is an exact reproduction of the surface of the mould and has the same brilliant
polish, and requires no further treatment to answer all the purposes of a reflector
with the exception that it must be coated with a film of some suitable metal to
prevent it tarnishing. Palladium is found to answer this purpose best, as a bright
coating can be deposited rapidly to any desired thickness. Palladium resists tar-
nishing and the heat of an arc to a wonderful degree.

4, Signalling without Contact, a New System of Railway Signalling.
By Witrrep 8. Boutrt, Assoc. MInst.C.£.

5. Our Lighthouses of the English Channel in 1899.
By J. Kenwarp, C.2., PSA,

This Paper dealt with the Sea Lights and Lightships of the English Channel ;
enumerated them from West to East; described their origin, characteristics, and
intensities; referred incidentally to certain French Lights on the opposite coast ;
reviewed the various illuminants of gas, oil, and electricity, as also sound-signals ;
and suggested the probable condition of lighthouses in the near future,

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19,

The following Papers were read :—

1. Recent Experiences with Steam on Common Roads.
By Joun I. Toornycrort, £.#.8.

Introduction. Hancock’s vehicles; difficulties of early builders; revival of
interest during past few years; the Locomotives on Highways Act, 1896; objec-
tions to the present tare limits; current French practice; the Lancashire lurries;
suggested amendment in the law as to tare limits; case of a vehicle transporting
ten tons net; House of Commons Committee, 1832, extract from Report; expe-
rience on Russian railways; motor vehicles with trailers.

The Thornycroft Vehicles.—(1) One-ton steam van; description; the air con-
denser; advantages and disadvantages of air condensers; air condensers with
radiating gills and circulating fun. (2) The Chiswick dust carts; description ; the
boiler; engine; gearing; steering; air condenser. (3) The steel tip-wagon; con-
struction; annular boiler; engine; speed of vehicle; availability for different
services; wheels; steel disc wheels; latest practice in wheels; felloe drive.
(4) The passenger carriage; belt differential gear; action of belt gear; belt adhe-
sion to pulleys; further experiments. (5) The brewer's dray; performance in
actual service ; cost of running; controlling arrangements; boiler; engine; feed-
heater; superheater. (6) The chainless steam wagons; traction engine practice
in transmission gearing; description of the chainless drive; the spring drive;
speed ; hill-climbing power; two-speed gear; free engine.

Summary of leading features in latest designs.—Vhe motor vehicle; boiler ;
engine; feed-pump; injector; steering-gear; variety of service; choice of fuel ;
the driver ; the repair shed; table of results ; comments on table of results; con-
cluding remarks, :

| a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G, 859

2. The Dymchurch Wall and Reclamation of Romney Marsh.
By Epwarp Case, Assoc. M.Inst.C.£., FRG.

Commencing from the time of the Romans, the author traced the history of
the reclamation and protection of Romney Marsh down to the reign of Henry III.,
when the charter was first granted, and thence to the year 1562, during which
period the charter was repeatedly confirmed.

Originally the sea was retained within its limits by a shingle beach; but in
course of time this natural means of protection failed, and the breaches, which
occurred in places, had to be closed up by earth banks. As the shores gradually
wasted these artificial banks had to be extended, until at last they became the one
continuous embankment, known as the Dymchurch Wall.

Romney Marsh, depending, as it does, on the Dymchurch Wall for immunity
from inundation by the sea, lies from 4 to 10 feet below the level of ordinary
spring tides. Including the adjoining marshes, it consists of some 60,000 acres of
very valuable arable and pasture land. The problem of sea defence, thus presented,
is doubtless the most important one that has ever arisen in the British Isles,

The Dymchurch Wall, as it now stands, is about four miles in length. Its
top, 20 feet wide, stands 10 to 18 feet above ordinary spring tides. On its inland
side is an earth slope of 1} to 1; on the seaward side a curved stone parapet,
6 feet deep, and thence down to the shore level an apron, graded 5 tol and 7 to 1,
and comprising about 40 acres of stone pitching. Since the early part of the
eighteenth century it has been persistently threatened by the sea; and on
numerous occasions it has been subjected to damage, entailing the expenditure of
vast sums of money on restoration.

The encroachment of the sea was attributed by the author to the denudation of
the shore near high water-mark, due to the growth of Dungeness Point, which
caused the silting up of the bay and destroyed the uniform inclination of the fore-
shore. ‘The commonly received opinion, that the travel of shore material is
arrested by promontories, was not accepted by him. He further showed that this
denudation was hastened by the form of the pitched apron, and by the
existence of high groynes. The author had arrived at the conclusion, from
numerous sections, that the natural inclination of a foreshore is elliptical, and
maintained that this should be kept in view in designing and constructing sea
defence works. The author’s low groynes at Dymchurch, which have been in
course of erection during the past five years, are based on this principle. Unlike
high groynes, they have no scouring effect on the shore, but on the contrary are
the instruments by which the destructive forces of the sea have been utilised for
the accumulation of material. The foot of the apron is now protected by a
covering of sand, a natural inclination of repose exists in the shore, and both
erosion and encroachment have ceased.

The author illustrated his paper by a map of the coast-line and three cross
sections of the shore,

3. An Instrument for Gauging the Circularity of Boiler Furnaces and
Cylinders, producing a Diagram. By T. Messencer, A.MI.C.EL.

‘Hitherto furnaces have generally been gauged for distortion by a diameter
gauge, which is not so satisfactory as gauging radially, z.c. from a fixed point.
The Author having this object in view :—

Firstly, designed that part of the instrument for fixing a pin as nearly in the
centre of furnace as possible by arranging three telescopic legs at equal angles
apart, viz. 120°, the points of these legs being caused to radiate outwards or
inwards simultaneously from the centre pin; so that when the points of these three
legs rest on the inner surface, and are locked there, the centre pin will always be in
the centre of these points. To do this in a suitable frame, a centre wheel is
mounted on the pin, which gears into three other wheels, or segments of wheels,

860 REPORT—1899,

and similar segments on the spindles of these gear into racks on the three telescopic
legs, thus compelling them to radiate outwards or inwards simultaneously,

Secondly, the centre pin is arranged to receive a small drawing board to attach
a sheet of paper to.

Thirdly, this centre pin also forms a pivot on which to mount a telescopic
pencil arm, having a roller at its outer end, the pencil being near its inner end.
This arm being moved round on the pivot, the roller will move inwards or outwards
if the furnace is deformed, and the pencil, following the movements of the roller,
and describing a small circle, will also move inwards or outwards, thus delineating
on the paper the deformities full size, but, as these are shown on the small circle,
they will apparently be greatly magnified, and so may easily be read by the eye,
thus enabling the commencement of deformities to be easily detected long before
it would be otherwise observed; for if the roundness of a furnace is once
destroyed, the defect accentuates itself under ordinary working conditions. The
possibility of the gradual, but at last probably excessive, if not also dangerous,
distortion of furnaces might be guarded against, and the cause removed, if only
the first sign of the circularity of the furnace being defective were discovered.

The diagram will completely delineate the actual shape of the furnace around
the whole of its circumference, and so enable the boilermaker, when setting a
furnace into truth, to know exactly where to deal with these defects.

These diagrams should be taken when furnaces are new, before and after the
hydraulic test is put on, and retained for future reference when furnaces are from
time to time examined with this gauge.

The instrument itself was shown.

4. Experiments on the Thrust and Power of Air-Propellers,
By Witut1am Greorce Watker, JIE, A.M.

The first set of experiments were made with air-propellers of 2, 3, and 4 feet
in diameter. The following laws were proved for top speeds up to 15,000 feet
per minute.

The thrust varies as the square of the number of revolutions, also as the area.
The horse-power varies as the cube of the revolutions, and for small angles as the
square of the angle of pitch. In the case of the four-foot diameter air-propeller,
a thrust of 15 lbs. per horse-power, at a top speed of 15,000 feet per minute, was
obtained.

Experiments were then carried out on air-propellers of 30 feet in diameter.
They were made as light as possible, and weighed about. 150 Ibs. each, designed
for giving a thrust of 1,000 lbs. The area of the four blades was 360 square feet.
At forty revolutions per minute, a thrust of 120 lbs. was obtained with about four
horse-power. A Mangin type of propeller was employed, the blades being fixed
one behind the other, and connected together by diagonal struts and ties; the
object in placing a blade immediately behind avother one is to increase the
strength and stiffness of the blades. The blades are made of solid drawn steel
tubes, and of diameters varying from inch to 1 inch.

The 30-foot air-propeller was tried at progressive revolutions, varying from
10 to 100 revolutions; also at different angles, varying from 4° to 20°,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 861

Srotion H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

PRESIDENT oF THE SEct1oN—C. H, Reap, F.S.A.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The President delivered the following Address:

Tux difficulties that beset the President of this Section in prepariny an address are
chiefly such as arise from the great breadth of our subject. It is thought by some,
on the one hand, to comprehend every phase of human activity, so that if
a communication does not fall within the scope of any other of the Sections into
which the British Association is divided, it must of necessity belong to that of
anthropology. On the other hand, there are many men, wanting neither in intelli-
gence nor education, who seem incapable of grasping its general extent, but, mistaking
a part for the whole, are fully content with the conclusions that naturally result
from such a parochial method of reasoning. The Oxford don who stated, a year or
two ago, his belief that authropology rested on a foundation of romance can only
have arrived at this opinion by some such inadequate process, and the conclusion
necessarily fails to carry conviction. The statement was, however, singularly ill-
advised, for anthropology gives way to no other branch of science in its reliance
upon facts for its existence and its conclusions. Had the reproach been that the
facts were often of a dry and repellent character we might have pleaded
extenuating circumstances, but I fear it must have been admitted that there was
some justice in the complaint, though we could fairly point to instances where
master minds had made even the dry bones of anthropology live, and that without
trenching upon the domain of romance.

It is not, however, my purpose to-day to enter upon a general defence of
anthropology as a branch of science. It has taken far too firm a hold upon the
popular mind to need any svch help. I intend rather to treat of one or two special
subjects with which I am in daily relation, in order to see whether some practical
means cannot be found to bring about a state of things more satisfactory than that
at present existing.

The first of these branches is that of the prehistoric antiquities of our own
country. It will not be denied that there can be no more legiumate subject of
study than the remains of the inhabitants of our islands from the earliest appear-
ance of man up to the time when written history comes to the aid of the
archeologist. There is no civilised nation which has not devoted some part of its
energies to such studies, and many of them under far less favourable cireumstances
than ours. The chiefest of our advantages is to be found in the small extent of
the area to be explored—an area ridiculously small when compared with that of
most of the Continental nations, or with the resources at our command for its
exploration. The natural attractions of our islands, moreover, have also had a great
influence on our Continental neighbours, so that their incursions have not been few,
and no small number of them decided to remain in a country where the necessaries

862 REPoRT—1899.

of life were obtainable under such agreeable conditions. The effect of these
incursions, so far as our present subject is concerned, is that there is to be found
in the British Islands a greater variety of prehistoric and later remains than is
seen in most European countries, a fact which should add considerably to the
interest of their exploration. At the same time also it must be borne in mind that
it is by such researches alone that we can arrive at any true understanding of the
conditions of life, the habits and religious beliefs, or the physical characters of the
varied races who inhabited Britain in early times.

It may seem unnecessary to urge, in face of these facts, that all such memorials
of the past should be, in the first place, preserved ; and, in the second, that any
examination of them should be undertaken only by properly qualified persons.
Unfortunately, however, it has never been more necessary than it is at the present
time to insist upon both points, and the fact that these prehistoric remains are
scattered impartially over the whole country, with the exception, perhaps, of the
sites of ancient forests, makes it almost impossible to devise any special measures
for their preservation. An additional difficulty is to be found in the fact that many
ancient remains, such as the barrows of the early Bronze Age, are altogether
unrecognised as such, and in the process of cultivation have been ploughed down
almost to the level of the surrounding surface, until at last the plough scatters the
bones and other relics unnoted over the field, and one more document is gone that
might have served in the task of reconstructing the history of early man in
Britain.

Such accidental and casual destruction is, however, probably unavoidable, and,
being so, it is scarcely profitable to dwell upon it. We can, perhaps, with more
advantage protest against wilful destruction, whether it be wanton mischief or
misplaced archeological zeal. An enlightened public opinion is our only protec-
tion against the first of these, and will avail against the second also, but we are
surely entitled to look for more active measures in preventing the destruction of
archeological monuments in the name of archeology itself. It is a far more
common occurrence than is generally realised for a tumulus to be opened by
persons totally unqualified for the task either by experience orreading. An account
may then be printed in the local journal or newspaper. When such accounts do
appear it is often painfully obvious that an accidental and later burial has been
mistaken for the principal interment, while the latter has been altogether over-
looked, and no useful record has been kept of the relative positions of the various
objects found. The loss that science has suffered by this indiscriminate and ill-
judged exploration is difficult to estimate, for it should be borne in mind that an
ancient burial, once explored, is destroyed for future searchers—no second exami-
nation can produce results of any value, though individual objects overlooked by
chance may repay the energy of the latercomers. So much varied knowledge is, in
fact, required for the proper elucidation of the ordinary contents of a British
barrow that it is almost impossible for any single person to perform the task
unaided. A wide experience in physical anthropology must be combined with an
acquaintance fully as wide with the ordinary conditions of such interments and
the nature, material, and relative positions of the accompanying relics, all of
which must be brought to bear, with discriminating judgment, on the facts laid
bare by the digger’s spade. Added to this, the greatest precaution is needed that
nothing of value be overlooked. In some soils, such as a stiff clay, it is almost
impossible to guard against such a casualty, especially when the barrow is of
large size and vast masses of earth have to be moved. The amount of profitable
care that may be bestowed on scientific work of this character can nowhere be
better seen, I am glad to say, than in our own country, in the handsome volumes
produced by General Pitt-Rivers as a record of his investigations in the history
of the early inhabitants of Dorsetshire. The memoirs contained in them are
unsurpassed for scientific thoroughness, and they will probably long stand as the
model of what archeological investigation skould be. It is very seldom, however.
that circumstances conspire so favourably towards a desired end as in the case of
General Pitt-Rivers, where a scientific training is joined to the love of research,
and finally ample means give full scope for its practice under entirely fayour-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION HE, 563

able conditions. While it is, perhaps, too much to expect that all explorations
of this character should be carried through with the same minute attention to
detail that characterises General Pitt-Ltivers’s diggings, yet his memoirs should
be thoroughly studied before any work of the same kind is entered upon, and
should be kept before the mind as the ideal to be attained. It is not too much to
say that a diligent study of the works of the two foremost explorers of pre-
historic remains in this country—Canon Greenwell and General Pitt-Rivers—will
of itself suffice to qualify any intelligent -antiquary to conduct the exploration of
any like remains. At the same time, it must not be forgotten that exploration is
one thing and a useful record of it is another, and here the explorer would do well
to invite the co-operation of specialists if he would get the full value out of his
work, and there is generally little difficulty in getting such help.

I have ventured to point out, in moderate terms, the dangers to which a large
number of our prehistoric sites are liable, and to state under what conditions they
should be investigated. It is not unreasonable to expect, if the danger is so
obyious, that a remedy should be forthcoming to meet it. In most of the Con-
tinental States it would be easy to institute a scheme of State control by which
such sites would vest in the Government to just such an extent as would be

_necessary to prevent their being destroyed, and such a scheme might be cheerfully
accepted and applied with success in any country but our own. Here, however
we are so accustomed to rely upon individual influence and exertion in matters of
this kind that an appeal to the Government is scarcely thought of ; while, on the
other hand, the rights of property are fortunately so safeguarded by our tradition
and law that nothing but a futile Act of Parliament would have the least chance
of passing. Moreover, experience teaches us that it is not to State control that
we must look, The Ancient Monuments Bill, which was intended to protect a
special class of monuments, and was framed with a full regard to the rights of
owners, still stands in the Statute Book, but for years past it has had no effective
value whatever. That being so, we must look to private organisations, and
preferably to those already in existence, for some effectual moral influence and con-
trol, and, in my judgment, the appeal could best be made to the local scientific
societies. Many of these are very active in their operations, and could well bear
an addition to their labours ; others, less active, might become more energetic if they
had a definite programme. The plan I would propose is this :—Each society should
record on the large scale Ordnance map every tumulus or earthwork within the
county, and at the same time keep a register of the sites with numbers referring to the
map, and in this register should be noted the names of the owner and tenant of the
property, as well as any details which would be of use in exploring thetumuli. Iam
well aware that a survey of this kind has been begun by the Society of Antiquaries of
London, and is still in progress; but this is of a far more comprehensive character,
and is, moreover, primarily intended for publication. The more limited survey I
now advocate would in no way interfere with it, but, on the contrary, would provide
material for the other larger scheme. Once the local society is in possession of
the necessary information just referred to, it would be the duty of its executive to
exercise a beneficent control over any operations affecting the tumuli, and it may
safely be said that such control could in no way be brought to bear so easily and
effectively as through a local society.

Some of the arguments in favour of some such protection for our unconsidered
ancient monuments have been already briefly stated, and, in conclusion, I would
only urge this in their favour, that while the more beauti‘ul monuments of later and
historic times are but little likely to want defenders, the less attractive early
remains are apt to disappear not so much from want of appreciation as from want
of knowledge, and I would repeat that it is from them alone that we can reconsti-
tute the life-story of those ho lived in what we may, with truth, call our dark
ages.

2 I will now ask you to turn your attention to another matter in which it seems
to me that this country has opportunities of an unusually favourable kind. I reter
to the collection of anthropological material from races which still remain in a
fairly primitive state. It is somewhat trite to allude to the extent of our Empire

864 REPORT—1899,

' and the vast number of races either subject to out rule o¥ who look to us for

guidance and protection. The number may be variously computed according to
the bias, philological or physical, of the observer, but it will not be contested that
our opportunities are without precedent in history, nor that they greatly exceed
those of any existing nation. That being so, it may not be useless to see how far
these opportunities are utilised, While it will not be denied that the Indian
Government and the Governments of some of our colonies have done excellent
work in the direction of anthropological research and publication, and that
exhaustive reports from our colonial officials are frequently received and after-

wards entombed in parliamentary papers, yet if is equally clear that work of this

kind is not a part of our administrative system, but rather the protest of the intelli-
gent official mind against the monotony of routine. The material, the opportunity,
as well as the intelligence and will to use both, are already in existence, and all
that is now wanted is that the last should be encouraged and the work be done on
a systematic plan, and, as far as may be, focussed on some centre where it may be

_available for present and future use. It was for this end that I ventured to bring

before the British Association at the Liverpool meeting a scheme for the establish-

ment of a central Bureau of Ethnology for Greater Britain. Frequent appeals

had been made to me by officials of all kinds in distant parts of the Empire to tell
them what kind of research work they could most usefully undertake, and it
seemed a pity not to reduce so much energy and goodwill into a system. Hence
the Bureau of Ethnology. The Council of the Association, on the recommenda-
tion of the Committee, invited the Trustees of the British Museum to undertake
the working of the Bureau; this they have accepted, with the result that if the

_ Treasury will grant the small yearly outlay it will be under my own supervision.

If I had foreseen this ending I might have hesitated before starting a hare the
chasing of which will be no sinecure.

It was considered necessary, before attempting to begin the work of the Bureau
by communicating with commissioners and other officials in the various Colonies
and Protectorates, to lay the matter before Lord Salisbury and to invite his
approval of the scheme. The whole correspondence will appear in the Report of
the present meeting, but I may be pardoned for quoting one paragraph of the
circular letter from the Foreign Office to the several African Protectorates, It is
as follows: ‘ Lord Salisbury is of opinion that Her Majesty’s officers should be
encouraged to furnish any information desired by the Bureau, so far as their duties
will allow of their doing so, and I am to request you to inform the officers under
your administration accordingly.’ When it is remembered that this is strictly
official phraseology, its tenor may be considered entirely satisfactory, and there can
be little doubt that other departments of the Government will recognise the utility
of the Bureau in the same liberal spirit. Thus we shall have within a short time
an organisation which will systematically gather the records of the many races
which are either disappearing before the advancing white man, or, what is equally
fatal from the anthropological point of view, are rapidly adopting the white man’s
habits and forgetting their own.

The Bureau of Ethnology, however, will only perform a part of the task that
has to be done. While there is no doubt of the value of knowledge as to the
religious beliefs and customs of existing savages, it is surely of equal importance
that anthropological and ethnological collections should be gathered together with
the same energy. The spear of the savage is, in fact, far more likely to be
replaced by the rifle than is his religion to give way to ours. Thus the spear
will disappear long before the religion is forgotten. It may be said that we have
collections of this kind in plenty, and it is true that in the British Museum, at
Oxford, Cambridge, Liverpool, and Salisbury, there are indeed excellent
collections of ethnology, while at the College of Surgeons and the Natural History
Museum there are illustrations of physical anthropology in great quantity.
Whatever might be the result if all these were brought together, there can be no
question that no one of them meets the requirements of thetime. Here also there
is a want of a system that shall at once be worthy of our Empire and so devised
as to serve the ends of the student. Where, if not in England, should be found

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 865

the completest collections of all the races of the Empire? It must be admittel,
however, not only that we have no national collection of the kind, but that other
nations are ahead of us in this matter. This could be readily understood if their
sources of supply were at all comparable to ours. But this is, of course, very far
from being the case. The sources are oursingreat part, and if we stand inactive
it is not unlikely that some will be exhausted when we do come to draw upon them.
It is, perhaps, better to give here a case in point rather than to rely on general
statements./ In the summer of last year I arranged, with the approval of the}
Trustees, that Mr. Dalton, one of the officers of my department, should make a
tour of inspection of the ethnographical museums of Germany,/with a definite
object in view, but at the same time that he should make a general survey
of their system and resources as compared with our own. The report which he
drew up on his return was printed and has recently been communicated to the
newspapers ; it is therefore not necessary to allude to it now, except to quote one
instance confirming my statement that it is to a great extent from our colonies
that material is being drawn../ Mr. Dalton says: ‘On a moderate estimate the
Berlin collections are six or seven times as extensive as ours. To mention
a single point, the British province of Assam is represented in Berlin by a
whole room and in London by a single case.’ But even this, forcible though it is,
does not adequately represent the vast difference between the material at the
disposal of the two countries. For it is the habit of the collectors for the German
museums to procure duplicates or triplicates of every object, for the purposes of
exchange or study. It is thus not unlikely that the whole room referred to
represents only a part of the Berlin collection from the British province of Assam.
In making these observations, I should be sorry if it were thought that I wish to
advocate a dog-in-the-manger policy, or that I consider it either desirable or
olitic to place any restriction upon scientific work in our colonial possessions, even
if such restrictions were possible. IL jwould prefer to look at the matter from an
entirely different point of view. If the German people, who are admittedly
practical and businesslike, think it worth whils, with their limited colonies, to
spend so much time and money on the establishment of a royal museum of
ethnography, how much more is it our duty to establish and maintain one, and
on a scale that shall bear some relation to the magnitude of our Empire. The
value of such museums is by no means confined to the scientific inquirer, but they
may equally be made to serve the purpose of the trader and the public at large.

How can we best obtain such a museum? Thatis the question that we have
to answer. It is scarcely profitable to expect that the Government will be stirred to
emulation by the description of the size and resources of the Museum fiir Volker-
kunde in Berlin. In the British Museum there is at the present time only the
most limited accommodation even for the collections already housed there, and I
am well aware that these form a very inadequate representation of the subject.

It may be thought that the solution of this difficulty is easy. It is well known
that the Government has purchased the rest of the block of land on which the
British Museum stands, and it may seem that such a liberal extension as this
will form should be enough for, at any rate, a generation or two, and that a little
additional building would meet immediate wants, and enable the collections, now
so painfully crowded, to be set out in an instructive and interesting way. I admit
that if the whole of the contemplated buildings were at this moment complete, and
at least double as much space given to the ethnographical collections as they occupy at
present, the difficulty would be much simplified. The collections could at any rate be
then displayed far more worthily and usefully. Even this, however, would hardly
meet the case, even if there were a certainty of the buildings being immediately
begun. Such works as these, however, can only be executed in sections during the
course of each financial year. Thus, even if a Chancellor of the Exchequer could be
found to fall in entirely with the views of the Trustees, it would still be an appre-
ciable number of years before the completion of the entire range of galleries that is
contemplated. For this reason alone I do not look forward to obtaining the space
that is even now urgently wanted for some time. Meanwhile the natural and
legitimate increase of the collections at the rate of about 1 to 2 per cent. per annum

1899, 3K

866 REPORT—1899.

still goes on, and the original difficulty of want of room would still face us, though
in a lesser degree. This estimate of the rate of increase may seem a high one; but
it should not be forgotten that the science is new, and that it is only within the
last few years that such collections have been made on scientific lines, instead of being
governed only by the attractive character or rarity of the object. The gaps that
exist in such a series as that of the British Museum, made in great part on the old
lines, are relatively more numerous than would be the case in museums more
recently founded. Another reason, equally cogent, for allowing far more room than
is required for the mere exhibition of the objects is that, in my judgment, ethno-
graphical collections, to be of real value, need elucidation by means of models,
maps, and explanatory descriptions, to a far greater extent than do works of art,
which to the trained eye speak eloquently for themselves, Such helps to under-
standing necessitate a considerable amount of space, though the outlay is fully
justified by their obvious utility, and in any general scheme of rearrangement of
the national collection they should be considered an essential feature.

There is yet another factor to be considered. It has been the fashion in this
country to consider remains illustrating the physical characters of man to belong
to natural history, while the productions of primitive and uncultured races gene-
rally find a place on the antiquarian side. Thus the skull of a Maori will be found
at the natural history branch of the British Museum, while all the productions of
the Maori are three miles distant in Bloomsbury. Such an arrangement can per-
haps be defended on logical grounds, but its practical working leaves much to
desire, and the arguments for a fusion of the two are undoubtedly strong. For
instance, the student of one branch would be unlikely to study it alone without
acquiring a knowledge of the other, while the explorers to whom we look for
collections usually give their attention to both classes of anthropological material.
Here again, in such a case, there would be a call for still more space at
Bloomsbury.

If I may be permitted to add one more to the requirements of what should be ~

an attainable ideal, I should like to say that courses of lectures on anthropology
delivered in the same building that contains the collections would form a fitting
crown to such a scheme for a really Imperial museum of anthropology as I have
endeavoured to sketch. There is but one chair of anthropology in this country,
and admirably as that is filled by Professor Tylor, he would himself be the first to
admit that there is ample room and ample material to justify the creation of a
second professorship.

It will be admitted that if my premisses are well founded the conclusion must
necessarily be that we cannot look to the British Museum to furnish us eventually
with the needful area and other resources for the installation of a worthy museum
of anthropology. The difficulties are far too great for the Trustees to overcome,
unless by the aid of such an exhibition of popular enthusiasm as I fear our branch
of science cannot at present command. Failing the British Museum, which may
be called the natural home of such a collection, we must look elsewhere for the
necessary conditions, and J think they are to be found, although it is possible that,
however favourable these conditions may seem from our point of view, difficulties
may already exist or arise later.

It is not the first time that a scheme has been thought out for the establish-
ment of a museum or kindred institution which should represent our colonies and
India. In the year 1877 the Royal Colonial Institute made a vigorous effort in

this direction, and, in combination with the various chambers of commerce through-
| out the country, advocated the building of an ‘Imperial Museum for the Colonies
; and India’ on the Thames Embankment, with the then existing India Museum asa
| nucleus. The arguments then brought forward were in the main commercial, but
_ they are, if anything, more forcible now than they were twenty yearsago. The

competition with foreign countries has become keener on the one hand, while the
bonds between the colonies and the parent country are notoriously closer and more
firm than at any previous time. No moment could thus be more opportune than

| the present for the foundation of a really Imperial Institution to represent our vast
_ Colonial Empire.

_—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 867

The last sentence has, perhaps, given an indication of my solution of the
question. The Imperial Institute at South Kensington has now been in existence
for some time, and has passed through various phases. But its most enthusiastic
supporters will scarcely claim for it entire success in its mission. Whatever may
be the underlying causes, it must be admitted that such popular support as it
possesses is scarcely founded on the performance of its functions as an Imperial
Institute. It would seem, therefore, that something more is wanted—a more
definite raison d’étre—than it has at present, and this [ think it will find in being
converted into such a museum of anthropology as [ have indicated, but, of course,
as a Government institution I am by no means an advocate of the creation of
new institutions, if the old ones can adequately do their work, nor do I think that
anything but ill would result from a general partition of the contents of the British
Museum. The separation of the natural history from the other collections was

ainful, though inevitable, and no such severe operation can be performed without
oss in some direction. But the removal of the ethnographical and anthropological
collections from the British Museum to the galleries of the Imperial Institute
would possess so many manifest advantages that the disadvantages need scarcely
be considered. The Government has already taken over a portion of the building
for the benefit of the University of London. The remaining portion would provide
ample accommodation for the anthropological museum, as well as for the com-
mercial side, that might properly and usefully be continued ; its proximity to the
natural history branch of the British Museum would render control by the trustees
easy ; the Indian collections, which formed so important a feature in the scheme
of 1877, are at this moment under the same roof; and finally the University of
London has but to found a chair of anthropology, and the whole of the necessary
conditions of success are fulfilled.

I have but little doubt that, wherever it might be placed, the creation of a
distinct department of anthropology would of itself tend to the enrichment of the
collections. It must be remembered that it is only since 1883, when the Christy
collection was removed to the British Museum, that the ethnographical collections
there can claim any kind of completeness. Until then one small room contained
the few important objects of this kind that had survived from the voyages of
Cook, Wallis, and the other early voyagers. The public did not expect to find
ethnography in the British Museum, and it is, in fact, only within the last few
years that it has been generally realised that a gallery of ethnography exists there.
If it were placed in such a building as the Imperial Institute, it would still remain
part of the British Museum, and be under the guardianship of its Trustees; but it
would obviously command more attention and support from the public than can
be expected while it remains an integral part of a large institution which has as
many aims as it has departments.

I began this address by stating that it would have a practical application. I
trust that to others it may seem that what I have ventured to suggest is not only
possible of achievement, but would also be beneficial to the branch of science
that we represent. I should like to add that, as far as possible, I have tried to
state the case as it would appear to one who regarded the situation from an
entirely independent standpoint, and wishing only to discover the most practical
solution of what must be admitted to be a difficult question. My allegiance to
the British Museum, however, may well have tinged my views, unnoticed by
myself. There are many other subjects that might well have formed the subject
of an address at the present time. On such occasions as these, however, it is, I
think, advisable to select a subject with especial reference to the needs of the
time, and I know of nothing that is at the present moment more urgent. in this
particular direction, and in my judgment it will tend greatly towards the true
advancement of science, the object we all have at heart.

868 REPORT—1899.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1, Report on the New Edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries.’ !

2, Report on Photographs of Anthropological Interest.
See Reports, p. 592.

3. The Presidential Address was delivered. See p. 861.

4, The Personal Equation in Anthropometry. By Dr. J. G. Garson.

5. Finger Prints of Young Children. By Francis Gatton, D.C.L., FBS.

At the times when I published my book on ‘ Finger Prints,’ and subsequent
works on the same subject, no material existed for determining the age at which the
patterns of the ridges on the fingers and their numerous details became first
established. The ridges were known to be traceable in some degree long before
birth, but it was not known whether they had acquired, even in early childhood,
that strange complexity of distribution which I showed to be permanent from
youth upwards. The wish to complete my work by investigating this interesting
physiological point was sharpened by a request for an opinion on the following
case. The police authorities in (I will not say what country) received informa-
tion that a baby who was heir to a great title and estate might be kidnapped for the
sake of extorting ransom. Such cases have occurred in history, and it is needless
to ipsist on the miserable doubts and legal difficulties that would arise if a stolen
infant should be restored after the lapse of some time without satisfactory identi-
fication. I was asked whether prints of the fingers of a baby would serve for
ever afterwards to identify him, and to prove that he was not a changeling.

An American lady —Mrs. John Gardiner, of Boulder, Colorado—kindly volun-
teered to collect finger prints of infants for me. The following remarks are
confined to those of her own child Dorothy, whose fingers she printed every day
after that of her birth for a short time, then less frequently, and afterwards yearly, the
child being now 44 years old. By selecting the best of the numerous specimens of the
earlier dates, I compiled three sets of all the ten fingers. In the first set the age
of the child lay between 9 days and a month. In the second, between ] month
and 6 weeks; in the third, between 5 and 7 months. In addition, I have a fcurth
set taken at 17 months, a fifth at 24 years, and a sixth at 44 years.

It is easy to those who have learnt the art, and who have the necessary
materials, to print with sharpness the fingers of children who have attained six years
of age or upwards; but it is exceedingly difficult to print the tingers of babies.
Far more delicate printing is needed on account of the low relief of the ridges and
the minuteness of the pattern. At the same time, babies are most difficult to deal
with, the persistent closing of their fists being not the least of the difficulties.
The result is that many undecipherable blurs are made before one moderate success
is attained, and, at the best, the print is made by a mere dab of the finger, rolled
impressions being practically impossible. Consequently the first four sets are all
more or less blotted, and none show more than a small part of that surface which
it is desirable to print.

The fifth and sixth sets are clear though pale, for it was necessary to spread
the ink very thinly to avoid blots; otherwise they are perfectly suited for com-
parisons. The two sets agree in every detail, and show the same order of
complexity that is found in the ridges of adult persons; so, subject to the possi-
bility of some minute after change, I should infer that the print of a child’s fingers
at the age of 2} years would serve to identify him ever after. It will be interesting

1 The book was published in November.

{RANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 869

after the lapse of some years to ascertain whether this is the case with Miss
Dorothy Gardiner.

The first four sets are much more difficult to deal with. I have scrutinised
them, and compared them several times with the last two setsand with one another,
and my conclusions are as follows :—

(1) The type of the pattern is never doubtful to a practised eye. To an
unpractised eye the result of a slight twist of the finger at the moment of printing,
which gives a specious air of circularity, might convey the false impression of a
whorl to what was really an arch or a loop. (2) The character of the core
is defined within narrow limits, but not always accurately. Thus in one in-
stance, the core of a loop in the 2} and 4} year sets was a clear ‘staple.’ At
17 months the staple was connected to the curve next above it by a small
isthmus; in babyhood the staple and the ridge were joined—whether by a blot or in
reality I cannot say. (3) A similar absence of distinction between ridges that are
afterwards clearly separated is often found nearthe V point. It is thus impossible
to count the number of ridges with accuracy that lie between the core and the V,
and the entry has often to take such a form at 9+ ? the P proving to be any number
between one and perhaps eight ridges. It is, however, a great point to be assured
that the real number is ot Jess than 9. (4) The doubt (as I pointed out in my
book) which is always attached to the exact way in which a new ridge arises is
greatly increased in these prints. No weight should be assigned to the character
of the junction or ending, but only to the fact that somehow a new ridge has
become interpolated.

The study of these prints is an excellent discipline in the art of decipherment.
I have counted sixty-eight details in the prints of these ten fingers that can be
identified throughout all six sets, unless obliterated in some one of them by a blot.
In the majority of cases the identity is unquestionable; in the others it may be
trusted within narrow limits. I have therefore little doubt that the prints of
all ten fingers of a baby, if taken as clearly as those I have dealt with, would suffice
for after identification by an expert, but by an expert only.

It should be added that I have had as yet no opportunity of taking finger
prints from infants who are two or even more months younger than babies ordi-
narily are at the time of their births—I mean such as are now successfully reared
in warmed glass cases. These premature infants are passive, and in that respect
easy to deal with, but they are tiny creatures who require great tenderness in
handling. I think that the impressions most likely to succeed would be those that
their greasy fingers might leave on a highly polished metal plate, to be afterwards
photographed under suitable illumination.

6. Finger Prints and the Detection of Crime in India, describing the System
of classifying Finger Prints and how all the great Departments in
India have brought Finger Prints into use. By E. R. Henry, C.S.L.,
Inspector-General of Police, Bengal Civil Service.

The author refers to the importance of fixing human personality so that no
efforts made to confuse it subsequently may prove availing. Of this problem the
Bertillon system offered first scientific solution. But experience has shown that
the ‘Personal Equation’ error of measures predominates so much as to vitiate
seriously the correctness of the recorded results under that system. Finger prints,
on the other hand, being absolute impressions taken from body under conditions
which eliminate error in transcribing or recording, the ‘Personal Equation’ error
is reduced to a minimum, Taking the impressions of all ten digits occupies only
a fraction of the time required for measuring, while search is more exhaustive and
many times more rapid. This new system has been introduced on a most exten-
sive scale throughout British India, where the Postal, Survey, Registration,
Medical, Pensions, Emigration, Police, Opium, and other great Departments have
adopted it, and the Legislature has recognised it by passing, with the strong

870 REPORT—1899,

approval ot all representative bodies consulted, an Act to amend the Law of
Evidence so as to make relevant the testimony of Finger-print Experts.

The main difficulty hitherto experienced had been that of providing an effective
system of classification. But this difficulty has been overcome. A thin film of
printer’s ink is spread over a piece of flat tin, and each finger in turn is pressed on
the film, and after being thus inked is pressed on paper where aclear, sharp im-
pression is left. Fingers are impressed in their natural order of thumb, index,
middle, ring, and little, those of the right hand being above, and the corresponding
digit of the left hand below them.

All impressions must be either arches, loops, whorls, or composites—there is a
great preponderance of loops and whorls. In primary classification arches are
included under loops, and composites under whorls, and therefore, for purposes of
primary classification, an impression must be either a loop or whorl. The digits
are taken in the following pairs: (1) right thumb and right index ; (2) right middle
and right ring; (8) right little and left thumb ; (4) left index and left middle; (5)
left ring and left little finger. Taking first pair and denoting loop by L and
whorl by W, we get the following arrangements. Right thumb may be L and
right index L; right thumb may be L and right index W; right thumb may be
W and right index L; and right thumb may be W and right index W. So there
are four, and not more than four, arrangements possible. Similarly, in second pair,
there are fuur such arrangements, which, taken with those of the first pair, yield
16 combinations; taking the third pair we get 64 combinations, and by adding
the fourth and fifth pairs, this number rises to 256 and 1,024, Now 1,024 equals
32 squared; in other words, a cabinet containing 32 sets of 82 pigeon-holes
arranged vertically would provide all the locations required. A diagram shows
how this works in practice. But the following rule is very simple. The first of
each pair is shown as numerator, the second of each pair as denominator, yielding

i 1 he followi ly, We re
for the five sets of pairs some such formula as the following: +; TL ww.
A whorl in the first pair counts 16, in the second pair 8, in the third 4, in the
fourth 2, in the fifth 1. No numerical value is given to a loop. Substituting
these values in the formula we get 9;; §; 9; #; 2=12. Add 1 to both nume-
rator and denominator and invert the fraction which becomes 29, and this is the
Primary classification number, and represents that the card containing these im-
pressions will be found on the twentieth pigeon-hole of the eleventh vertical row.
The Secondary classification required to break up accumulations is equally simple,
and the search formula or legend for each card can be prepared rapidly without
any key and brings search down to groups of very small volume.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on the Expedition to Torres Straits and New Guinea,
See Reports, p. 585,

2. The Linguistic Results of the Cambridge Expedition to Torres Straits
and New Guinea. By Sipnsy H. Ray.—See Reports, p. 598.

3. Notes on Savage Music. By C. 8. Myrrs.—See Reports, p. 591.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 871

4, Seclusion of Girls at Mabuiag, Torres Straits. By C. G. SELIGMANN.
See Reports, p. 590.

5, Notes on the Club Houses and Dubus of British New Guinea.
By C, G. Serigmann.—See Reports, p. 591.

6. Notes on the Otati Tribe, North Queensland. By C.G. SELIGMANN.

7. Contributions to Comparative Psychology from Torres Straits and
New Guinea.—See Reports, p. 586.

8, Professor Happon exhibited Photographs from Torres Straits
and British New Guinea.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Some New Observations and a Suggestion on Stonehenge.
By Aurrep Eppowss, J/D., MR.C.P.

The author believes that the thirty large upright stones, with their intervals,
indicate that the circle was divided into sixty equal parts ; that the Grooved Stone
(which is the best selected, worked, and preserved stone in the whole ruin, but has
never hitherto received the attention it deserved) was used for supporting a pole in
a definite and permanent manner; and that the signs of wear at the mouth of the
groove, together with the two worn horizontal hollows or waists, and the dimples
on the convex back of the stone, indicate not only where, but how, this pole was
fixed. Such a pole would form the pointer of a sun-dial for daily observation, or—
what was more important—an indicator of the time of year, by the length of its
shadow.- The levelled avenue (along which the sun’s shadow would fall about
3 P.M.) and the flat ‘slaughter-stone’ with its arrow-head marking, seem to the
author to support his view.

2. Interim Report on Investigations of the Age of Stone Circles.

3. Notes on the Discovery of Stone Implements in Pitcairn’s Island.
By J. AutEN-Brown, £.G.S., L.B.GS.

The implements were obtained in Pitcairn Island by Lieutenant Gerald Pike,
R.N., during the cruise of H.M.S. Comus in 1897-8, and the greater part of them
are in his possession.

They are made of the compact volcanic reck of the island, and were discovered
about a foot below the surface.

One class consists of small celts chipped and partially ground, with the sides
worked to a ridge, and resemble those discovered at Tahiti and in some other
islands of the Pacific. Another class consists of large chipped and ground axes
with long narrow shank and widespread cutting edge. Other forms again are a
long clublike chisel, well smoothed and shaped as if for a handle grip at the butt-
end, and a'plain cylindrical club, such as might be used for beating Tapu cloth,
though the modern Tapu clubs are of wood, and square in section.

872 REPORT—1899.

4. On the Occurrence of ‘ Celtic’ Types of Fibula of the Hallstatt and
La Tene Periods in Tunisia and Eastern Algeria. By Artuur J.
Evans, Jf.A., F.S.A.

In the course of a recent journey through Tunisia and Eastern Algeria, the
author found repeated evidence that a form of ‘ Late Celtic’ fibula, answering to a
well-known ‘ Middle La Téne’ type of continental archeologists, was in use among
the ancient Numidians. Three examples of this were described; two from near
Constantine (the ancient Cirta), and one from a dolmen near El-Kef (Sicca
Venerea). The author traced the origin of this type in the lands about the head
of the Adriatic, and its subsequent diffusion on EKuropean soil. Attention was
called to the new materials for the chronology of this and other allied forms,
supplied by Bianchetti’s excavations in the Gaulish cemeteries of Ornavasso near
the Lago Maggiore, where a large series of tombs were approximately dated by
the presence of coins,

The author also described some examples of earlier fibule found at Carthage,
and in a dolmen near Guyotville in Algeria. Two of the forms are parallel to
those found in the early cemetery of Fusco near Syracuse, and may have been due
to the same Corinthian influence which during the sixth, seventh, and eighth
centuries seems to have been predominant at Carthage itself. Another Cartha-
ginian fibula is identical with a Hallstatt type, and is the prototype of the ‘ cross-
bow’ form so widely distributed throughout the north, when it gave birth toa
long succession of derivative forms reaching down in Gothland and elsewhere to
medizval times. In the case of both the earlier and later African examples there
is thus an indication pointing to the ancient course of the amber trade by the
Adriatic coast. The appearance of Celtic types of fibula among the Numidians
finds its complement in the discovery of large hoards of Carthaginian and
Numidian coins on the transit line of this commerce between the Save and the
Adriatic. Attention was further called to the appearance of ‘ Late Celtic’ forms
of Fibula in the Carthaginian Dominion of Western Sicily.

5. On Irish Copper Celts. By GEorGE CoFFEY.

Celts, apparently of unalloyed copper, though rare compared with those of
bronze, have been found in considerable numbers in Ireland. Thirty specimens
are described or mentioned in the Catalogue of the Museum of the Royal Irish
Academy, published in 1861, The Academy’s Collection (now in the National
Museum, Dublin) at present numbers eighty-two examples.

Copper celts are not confined to any particular district : examples are recorded
from the counties of Donegal, Londonderry, Antrim, Cavan, Mayo, Galway, Louth,
Tipperary, Waterford, Cork—localities embracing the extreme north and south,
and east and west of the island.

One specimen was analysed by J. W. Mallet in 1855: it gave copper, 98°74;
tin, 1:09.1

During the present year Mr. J. Holmes Pollok, Royal College of Science,
Dublin, kindly analysed for me eight additional specimens as shown on next

age.

s ° The analyses are fairly in line with analyses of copper celts from other
parts of Europe, with the exception of W. 10. This celt is one of the best
tinished copper celts in the collection; the metal is, however, very soft and hardly
serviceable. It is remarkable for the almost total absence of tin (0:05) and the
high percentage of lead (2:74). There is not evidence to show whether the
presence of the lead is intentional or accidental. It was found at Tramore,
county Waterford, a rich copper district. Numerous lodes of copper and lead are
exposed in the clitis of this locality, and extensive remains of ancient workings
have been found in a promontory near Tramore.

1 Trans. R.I_A. vol. xxii.

Reference

Copper
Arsenic

) Total .

Density .

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

{

rae — Cork | Galway | Tyrone — Bae —
W. 3 |W. 17/ 1881/1386 | 1874/38 |1897/112 | 1896/7 | W. 10| 1875/20 |
8833 | 8-698 8430 8:749 8°862 8811 | 8:987 8°705 |
98°43 | 96°75 98°73 97 68 97°25 97:17 | 96°46 98:24
‘76 | 1°35 ‘18 76 1:56 1:86 | Trace 13
Trace 60 10 ‘79 51 27 05 83
25 14 13 “18 "26 sy! —_ ‘07
05 46 ‘07 —_ ‘17 17 | 2-74 12
ei fa 44 andl ae ss
a9 = i = ae = 21 Ries
—_ 07 — —_— 10 —- "25 -—
99-49 | 99:27 99°21 99°85 99°84 99°58 | 99-71 99°39

The classification of the copper celts by metal is confirmed by type divisions.
The copper celts are invariably of the plain flat type, without ornament, and in no
instance showing even rudimentary stop ridges. Ten specimens closely resemble

common forms of Irish small stone celts.
ingots, but in four instances they have been ground to an edge for use.

Some of these might be regarded as

The

examples of developed metal form are in general ruder and heavier than bronze
celts. In some cases the rough surface marks of casting have not been removed,
but in many instances these celts show traces of having been rubbed down over

the body of the celt, after the manner of stone celts.

copper torm can be classified under two main types.

1. More or less V-shaped ; flare of cutting edge wide compared with length of
celt, leading to plain bronze celt of type (Evans, tig. 28, and Wilde, fig. 247).

z. Cutting edge narrow compared with length, and in some instances nearly
semicircular ; sides more or less parallel, leading to long, slender, plain bronze celt
of type (Evans, fig. 33). In several instances types 1 and 2 cross. In both types
the butt end, in the majority of examples, is thick and squared off, showing a

quadrangular section.

off of the butt end is noticeable.
The copper celts appear, therefore, to represent, apart from metal, a transition
from stone to bronze types, and can be arranged in series showing development of
form from stone to bronze.
‘From the preceding facts it would appear reasonable to conclude that, prior to
a knowledge of bronze, copper was known and used for cutting implements in

Treland.

Celts of the developed

As the types approach those of the bronze celts a thinning

_This statement is supported by a find of three copper celts, a copper tanged
knife, and three copper awls, all found together at Kilbannon, county Galway
(Academy Oollection). One of the celts is included in the eight analysed by

Mr. Pollok, 1874: 38.

} All these objects seem to be copper, and agree most
closely in the appearance of the metal, as if made from the same piece. The awls
are of early type, pointed at both ends and without shoulders, and the knife also
appears to be of an early type.

6. Stone Moulds for New Types of Implements from Ireland.
By G. Correy.

874 REPORT—1899;

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Final Report on the Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom.
See Reports, p. 493.

2. On Recent Hthnographical Work in Scotland.
By J. Gray, BSc.

Preliminary observations on the physical characteristics of the people of East
Aberdeenshire, begun in 1895 by the Buchan Field Club, were summarised in a
paper at the Ipswich Meeting of this Association (1895, p. 831), and published more
fully in the ‘ T'ransactions’ of the Buchan Field Club.

A pigmentation survey of the whole of the school-children of East Aberdeen-
shire has since been completed, chiefly through the organising ability of Mr.
Tocher, the Secretary of the Buchan Field Club, and the generous and gratuitous
co-operation of the school teachers. Returns were received between October
1895 and November 1897, from over ninety schools, comprising nearly 14,000
children.

The scheme of colours for hair and eyes was practically the same as that of
Dr. Beddoe; but his two darkest classes for hair were amalgamated into one.
Comparison with Dr. Virchow’s survey of German school children would, however,
have been facilitated if blue eyes had been separated from other light eyes.

The Pigmentation of the school children (with that of adults added for com-
parison) is shown in the following table of average results :—

Hair Eyes
Fair Red Brown | Dark Light | Medium| Dark
| EE ee es) es eee
Children, total | 25:3 7:0 465 21:2 41:0 35:0 24:0
54 Boys...| 23:6 68 48-2 21:4 416 35°8 22°6
» Girls. | 26°9 73 44-7 21:1 40°6 33'8 25°6
Adults, total . 9°5 57 64:1 20°7 25°4 48°6 26:0
» Males. 9°5 5°6 66:2 18:7 26°3 50°7 22°8
» Females . 9°8 6:4 54:°8 29:0 21°6 39:0 39°4

A study of this table reveals several noteworthy facts :—

(1) About 155 per cent. of the fair-haired children become brown-haired
adults—almost exactly the same percentage that Virchow found to become
brunette in Germany, and about 15 per cent. light-eyed become medium or
dark-eyed.

(2) Between boys and girls the percentage of dark hair is practically equal,
and the girls have only 3 per cent. excess of dark eyes; but adult females have
11 per cent. more dark hair than adult males, and 163 per cent. more dark eyes.
The darkening of the females is therefore post-natal. Ripley points out the same
excessive pigmentation of the females among the Jews, and also in regions like
Alsace, where a blonde race has invaded a brunette country.

A comparison with the continental districts whence, according to tradition and
history, we have derived a large element in our population, namely, Schleswig-
Holstein, Liineberg, and Mecklenburg-Schwerin, the reputed original seats of the
Angles and Saxons, is shown in the following table : 1—

* The Aberdeenshire ‘ blonde-type’ (including fair hair with light grey eyes, as
well as with blue) is rather larger than Virchow’s (which includes only the blue
eyes), but the ‘ brunette types’ are practically the same.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 875

Brunette} Blonde || Blonde | Brown | Light Brown
oT _ type type hair hair eyes eyes
Upper Bavaria. : 24 ANG 51 48 25°7 3
Schleswig-Holstein ° 7 43 82 18 50 16
Liineburg . : ° 7 44 83 17 49 18
Mecklenburg-Schwerin . 10 42 77 23 49 21
East Aberdeenshire 5 20°4 16°2 || 25:3 67°7 41 24

The three North German districts are clearly much more blonde than East
Aberdeenshire. Germany, as Virchow’s survey has shown, gets more brunette
and less blonde from north to south; but we must go to its extreme southern
frontier—z.e. to Upper Bavaria—before we find a district approximating in
pigmentation to East Aberdeenshire.

It is noteworthy that whereas in Germany (especially in North Germany) there
is always more blonde hair than blue eyes, in Aberdeenshire the reverse is the
case. Of this, two explanations are possible: (1) that the immigrants from Ger-
many were not pure blondes, but of a mixed variety with brown hair and blue
eyes; or (2) that pure blonde immigrants found here a population with brown
eyes, and hair so black as to resist depigmentation longer than the brown eyes.

The maps of different elements show blonde areas on the accessible parts of the
coast, and brunette areas on the inaccessible parts.

The Stature of 169 persons measured at Mintlaw in 1895 averaged 5 feet
8} inches (which is about the average for Scotland), with three distinct peaks of
maximum frequency at 5 feet 7} inches, 5 feet 9 inches, and 5 feet 114 inches.
Of thirteen persons of 5 feet 114 inches in height, nine were dark, three brown, and
one fair-haired, the other two heights comprise equal numbers of fair and dark.

The Head Measurements show cephalic indices lying almost entirely between
74 and 84, with peaks of maximum frequency at 77 and 79. These indices do not
give a satisfactory analysis into race groups; but on plotting the head-measure-
ments on a chart with the length and breadth as co-ordinates, the people are
separated into three groups, coinciding very closely with Beddoe’s average dimen-
sions plotted on the same chart; of (1) Italians and Row-grave-men; (2) Danes;
(8) Hanoverians. The Danish group is the most numerous, the Italian coming
next, and the Hanoverian last. Mixed groups also appear on the chart, having
the length of one typical group, and the breadth of another.

3. Report on the Mental and Physical Condition of Children in
Elementary Schools. See Reports, p. 489.

4. On Recent Anthropometrical Work in Egypt.
By D. MaclIver, B.A.

The author gives examples of the ways in which anthropometry may aid
archeological investigation, and points out the unusually favourable conditions for
such anthropometrical work which exist in Egypt. He gives a summary of the
series of Egyptian measurements at present available, of the difficulties which have
arisen in their interpretation, and of some new methods of publishing measurements
specially designed to meet them.

Details are given of three important series of specimens from Egypt, viz. :

(1) Prehistoric Series ; from the excavations of 1898-9.
(2) VI. to XII. Dynasties ; from the excavations of 1898.
(8) XII. to XVI. or XVII. Dynasties ; from the excavations of 1898-9.

These series are considered (a) separately, with the object of ascertaining the
race type represented in each; (6) in comparison with one another, to show their
affinities and differences. The paper concludes with a note on the light which
‘such comparison throws on Egyptian history.

876 REPORT—1899.

5. Notes on a Collection of 1,000 Egyptian Crania.
By Professor A. MacatistEr, £.R.S.

6. On a Pre-basi-occipital Bone in a New Hebridean Skull, and an
anomalous Atlanto-occipital Joint in a Moriori. By Professor A.
Macatister, /.R.S.

7. Notes on Colour Selection in Man. By Dr. J. Benvos, F.R.S.

The author notes the prevalence of light colours of eyes and hair in those who
follow occupations which have to do with animals, eg. butchers, grooms, and
carters, and the opposite in some sedentary occupations ; and seeks an explanation.

8. Report on the Lake Village of Glastonbury. See Reports, p. 594.

9. Sequences of Prehistoric Remains.
By Professor W. M. Furnpers Perris.

In written history the value of chronology lies almost entirely in its defining the
Sequence of events; and if the order of changes in a civilisation can be fixed, the
reference to a scale of years is but a secondary matter.

Hitherto, only very vague and general terms, covering large periods, have been
used in naming prehistoric remains ; and those terms referring to places and not to
age. The very incomplete records of discoveries make such terms the best that can
be usually attained.

But if we possessed a perfect record of an unlimited number of contemporary
grcups of objects (as from tombs), all of which objects have had a time of
invention, popularity, and decay, and in use overlapped each other, it is clear
that with patience it would be possible to arrange all the series of groups in their
order of time, and so establish definite sequences among the varions objects. Such
a task would be like that of reconstructing the order of an alphabet from torn-up
fragments which contained only two or three letters each, or settling the sequence
of scattered geological beds from the remains found in each.

If then a sequence can be established, a scale of notation is needed. Asa scale
of years is impossible, a scale of equal activities is the most reasonable. This may
be reached by placing all the available material in order (from tombs, houses, &c.)
and then dividing it into a scale of equal parts. Such a scale, though not equal in
time, will yet give a fair unit for measuring a civilisation.

From the records of the excavations that my party have made in Egypt, we
lave the contents of some thousands of prehistoric tombs exactly known. Every
type of vase, of stone or pottery, is defined in a corpus containing over a thousand
forms, so that merely a letter anda number defines precisely what was found.
Thus, all the complexity of variations can be dealt with rigorously in a workable
condition.

The practical process for dealing with this material is by writing out the con-
tents of each grave on one slip of card; and then sorting the cards into such order
that there shall be the minimum dispersion of each type number.

The methods of sorting the cards into the original order of the graves (as nearly
as possible), depend on various principles.

1. Any certain superposition of graves, one later than another,

2. Any clear and unquestionable series of changes of form or of manufacture,
(These two principles serve to fix the order of our scale, whether going forward or
backward in time.)

3. Statistical methods; sorting graves by the relative proportions of types in

e
z

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 877

common with ages before or after them. This is the way to place a large quantity
of material roughly in order.

4, Method of style, serves to group in sequence the forms which are clearly
intermediate between’ others, after their approximate place is already fixed by
statistics.

5. Method of compression. The earliest and latest examples of each type to be
examined, to see if it be possible to concentrate them. Such inquiry always results
in revealing a tension between two or more types; either one must be earlier or
another later than in other cases, proved by their occurring together on one slip.
The range of similar types helps to decide this.

Practically a range in prehistoric Egypt of perhaps athousand years (may be
half or double of that) is broken up into a scale of fifty parts of equal activities ;
and we can define the age of every type of object found in that scale, as 38 to 41,
53 to 65, &c.; these numbers may be termed sequence dates, or 8.D.

Pottery is the best material for study. But all other forms in stone, metal,
ivory, &c., are useful evidence, though more liable to transmission and to copying.

We reach thus a system for the exact definition of all that we can learn on
prehistoric times: a system which can be applied to all countries where enough
material can be studied, and which will enable us to exactly state any correlation
discovered between the civilisation of diferent lands, when a sequence date of one
country can be proved equal to a given sequence date elsewhere.

10. On the Sources of the Alphabet.
By Professor W. M. Fuinpers Petrie.

The large series of signs used in Egypt about 2500 B.c. is now shown—by
such signs existing as far back as 5000 B.c.—to be independent of the hieroglyphic
system or any derivatives of that. Similar signs in Crete show this system to
have extended to the Mediterranean by about 20U0 B.c.

On looking at the more extended forms of the Greek alphabet found in Karia
and Spain, about 60 signs are seen in use, representing about 43 sounds. Three-
quarters of these signs are common to the system found in Egypt and Crete.

The only conclusion at present seems to be that signs were in use from
5000 3.c. onward, aud developed by 2500 B.c. to over 100 in Egypt, of which half
survived in the fuller alphabets of Karia and Spain. The compression and
systematising of these signs were due to 27 of them being adopted for a numerical
system by the Pheenicians, and thus the alpha beta order was enforced by com-
merce on all the Mediterranean. This accounts in the only satisfactory way for
the confusion of the early Greek alphabets, and is a view forced on us by the
prevalence of these same signs long before Phoenician commerce.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.

1. Notes on the Yaraikanna Tribe, Cape York, North Queensland.
By Dr. A. C. Havpon, F.2.S.—See Reports, p. 585.

2. Report on the Ethnological Survey of Canada.—See Reports, p. 497.

3. Primitive Rites of Disposal of the Dead, as illustrated by Survivals
im Modern India. By Witu1am Crooxe, B.A.
The author discussed—

(a) Customs connected with the preservation of the corpse, such as various
forms of mummification; (4) platform burial; (c) direct exposure of the dead to

878 REPORT—1899.

beasts of prey; (2) general exposure of the dead; (e) the question of the priority
of burial to cremation; (f) transitions from burial to cremation, and wice versd ;
(g) disposal of those dying in a state of taboo; () shelf or niche burial;
(2) crouched or sitting burial; (7) disinterment of the cofpse; (4) jar or urn
burial ; and (2) dismemberment of the corpse.

4, Pre-animistie Religion. By R. R. Marert, IA.

General Thesis—The term Religion denotes a state of mind embracing
emotional and ideal constituents, whereof the former constitute the universal and
constant, the latter the particular and variant element. Self-interpretation in
ideal terms on the part of the religious emotion of the savage has found most
complete and definite expression in Animism, the ‘Belief in Spiritual Beings.’
Animism, however, as compared with ‘Supernaturalism,’ namely, that state of
feeling almost uncoloured by ideas which is the primary form taken by man’s
Awe of the Supernatural (or extraordinary), is but as the strongest sapling in a
thicket of heterogeneous growths, which, in the struggle for existence, has come to
overshadow the rest and give a character tothe whole. The vagueness of primitive
‘ supernaturalistic’ utterance is illustrated by, e.g., andriamanitra (Malagasy), ngat
(Masai), mana (Melanesians), wakan (North American Indians), kalow (Fijians).
A ‘pre-animistic’ validity as manifestations of religion thus attaches to a variety
of special observances and cults; and it may therefore be interesting in the case
of some of the more important of these to distinguish between the original basis
of ‘ supernaturalistic’ veneration and the animistic interpretation that as the result
of successful competition with other modes of explanatory conception (notably
‘ Animatism,’ namely, the attribution of life and will, but not of soul or spirit, to
material objects and forces) is thereon superimposed in accordance with the
tendency of the religious consciousness towards doctrinal uniformity. The author
illustrates his thesis as follows :—

A. In regard to the Inanimate—(1) Selected instances show the transition
through ‘ Animatism ’ and ‘animatistic’ mythology to Animism in the interpreta-
tion of the religious awe felt in relation to extraordinary manifestations on the
part of Nature-Powers ; (2) the cult of the Bull-roarer displays an almost complete
absence of animistic conceptions in regard to the veneration of Daramulun, Mungun-
ngaur, Turndun, Baiamat (Kurnai, Murrings, Kamilaroi, &c.); (8) in Stone-
worship; sympathetic magic in connection with the use of ‘ guardian stones, &c.,
generates explanatory conceptions tending towards an animistic form.

B. Inregard to the Subanimate and Animate.—(1) Plant and Animal Worships
show how Totemistic Magic and, apart from Totemism, the desire for magical
communion with extraordinary animals, invite explanations which need not be
animistic, though they tend to become so. (2) Among observances connected with
the phenomena of human life: (a) dream and trance are the special parent-soil of
Animism ; (4) awe of the Dead Body, as such, is due to the instinct of self-preserva-
tion, an influence which cooperates with the theory of the self-existent soul to
bring about the ascription of the ‘potency’ of human remains to that of the
surviving spirit; (c) Diseases taking the form of seizure, and those of a convulsive
nature, lend themselves almost directly to animistic interpretation ; those ascribable
to Witchcraft are not necessarily so explained, though the idea of Infection tends
this way ; the awe of Blood, notably of an issue of blood, is analogous to the awe
of the Dead Body, and a crucial proof that ‘ supernaturalistic’ veneration may, in
regard to certain maladies, assert itself strongly in the absence of animistic
colouring.

5. The Thirty-seven Nats (or Spirits) of the Burmese.
By Colonel R. C. Tempre, C.L.Z.

The belief in the Nats, or supernatural beings who interfere in the affairs of
mankind, is universal among all the native inhabitants of Burma of every race and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 879

religion. Every writer about the Burmese and their customs mentions the Nats.
The subject is, however, still but vaguely understood. The Nats are of three
distinct kinds: (1) the supernatural beings due to the Buddhist cosmogony ; (2) the
supernatural beings familiar to the creatures, objects, and places with which man
is concerned due to the prehistoric animistic beliefs of the people; (3) the super-
natural beings who are ghosts and spirits of the notorious dead. Of the many
orders of Nats thus created, that of the Thirty-seven Nats is by far the best known
among the people. These are the ghosts of the departed royalties of fame, and
their connections. About them nothing seems to have been previously published
in England, and this paper is a preliminary attempt at an adequate representation
of them, and of the history, real or supposed, connected with them during life.
The paper was illustrated by a map in order to explain the relative position of the

laces chiefly connected with the very complicated political history of Burma and
its numerous dynasties, so far as these are concerned with the stories related of the
Thirty-seven Nats. The paper was further illustrated by a lantern slide of an image
of each of the Thirty-seven Nats from the unique and authentic collection of large
carvings of them in teak wood by Burmese artists in the possession of the author.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 20.

The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on recent Excavations in the Roman City of Silchester.
See Reports, p. 495.

2. Two New Departures in Anthropological Method.1
By W. H. BR. Rivers, /.D.

When in Torres Straits with the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, two
methods were employed to record the colour of the skin quantitatively. Numerous
records were taken with Lovibond’s Tintometer, and these were fairly satisfactory,
although the dark skins of the natives were found to be difficult objects to match
exactly. More satisfactory matches were made with the colour top, but this
method is open to the objection that the coloured paper discs used on the top are
liable to fade, while the glasses used in the Tintometer have the advantage of
being constant. Records were taken of the colour of various Melanesians and
Polynesians, as well as of the two races of Torres Straits. The following match
of the skin of the Mamus (chief) of Murray Island is given as an example:

15:0° Orange + 6:0° Yellow + 7:0° White + 332-0° Black.

The second contribution to anthropological method is the collection of social and
vital statistics by means of genealogies. In Murray Island and in Mabuiag
genealogies going back for three to five generations were compiled which included
nearly all the present inhabitants of these islands. In working out these genealo-
gies, the only terms of relationship used were father, mother, child, husband, and
wife, and care was taken to limit them to their English sense. The trustworthi-
ness of the genealogies was guaranteed by the fact that nearly every detail was
derived independently from two or more sources. It was found that these
genealogies afforded material for the exact study of numerous sociological questions ;
thus the system of kinship can be worked out very thoroughly by finding the
native terms which any individual applies to the other members of his family, ze.
the subject can be investigated entirely by concrete examples, and abstract terms
of relationship derived from European sources entirely avoided. The genealogies

1 The methods and their results will be published iz extenso in the Report of the
Expedition.

880 REPORT—1899.

also provide a large amount of material for the study of totemism, marriage
customs, naming customs, &c.

By this method, also, vital statistics can be collected of the past as well as of
the present. The genealogies collected in Torres Straits supply data for the study
of the size of families, the proportion of the sexes, the fertility of mixed marriages,
&c. The method has the further advantage of bringing out incidentally many
facts in the recent history of the people, and of giving insight into their views on
various subjects. It is also eminently adapted to bring one into sympathy and
friendly relations with natives.

A small amount of work on these lines was also done with natives of Tanna and
Lifu living on Mabuiag; enough was done to show that the method is readily
applicable to other Melanesian populations, and it is hoped that it may be found
to be capable of wide application.

3. The ‘ Cero’ of St. Ubaldino: The Relic of a Pagan Spring Festival
at Gubbio in Umbria. By D. Maclver.

4, Exhibition of Ethnographical Specimens from Somali, Galla,
and Shangalla. By Dr. R. Korrruirz.

5. The Ethnography of the Lake Region of Uganda.
By Lieut.-Colonel J. R. L. Macponatp, ££.

6. Notes on some West African Tribes north of the Benue.
By Lieut. H. Pope Hennessy.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 881

Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY, including ExpertmentaL Patnonocy
and EXPERIMENTAL PsycHOLOGyY.

PRESIDENT oF THE Section—J. N. Lanewny, D.Sc., F.R.S.

The President delivered the following Address on Friday, September 15 :—

OnE might suppose that Physiology, dealing as it does for the most part with
structures—such as nerves, and muscles, and glands—which every one has and has
heard of, would be eminently a science the newer aspects of which every one could
readily understand. And in this supposition one would be encouraged by the
frequency of the references in English literature to some part of our inner
mechanism. More than a century and a quarter ago we find: ‘If ’tis wrote
against anything, ’tis wrote an’ please your worships against the spleen, in order
by a more frequent and more convulsive elevation and depression of the diaphragm,
and the succussations of the intercostal and abdominal muscles in laughter, to drive
the gall and other bitter juices from the gall-bladder, liver, and sweetbread of
his Majesty’s subjects, with all the inimicitious passions which belong to them,
down into their duodenums.’

It must, however, be recognised that many subjects which are most interesting
to the physiologist either involve so much special knowledge, or are so beset with
technical terms, that it is difficult to make clear to others even their general drift.

IT am not without uneasiness that my subject to-day may be found to fall
within this category. I propose to consider some relations of the nerves which
pass from the brain and spinal cord, and convey impulses to the other tissues of the
body—the motor or efferent nerves; and in especial the relations of those efferent
nerves which run to the tissues over which we have little or no voluntary control.
It is as well to say at once that none of the general conclusions which I lay before
you are encrusted with universal acceptance. One or two have been subjects of
controversy for the last fifty years; others are too young to have met even with
contradiction. Ido not propose to give you an account of the various theories
which have been put forward on the questions I touch upon, nor do I propose to
point out how far the views I advocate are due to others. I am concerned only
to state what seems to me to be the most probable view with regard to certain
problems which have been emerging from obscurity in recent years.

Limitations in the Control of the Nervous System over the Tissues of the Body.—
In view of the conspicuous manner in which nervous impulses affect every-day
life, we are perhaps apt to over-estimate the character and range of the influence
exercised directly by the nervous system.

From the early part of this century one way of regarding the body has been
to consider it as made up of tissues grouped together in varying number and
amount. Lach tissue has its characteristic features under the microscope. Wea
need not enter into the question as to which of the commonly recognised tissues
of the body are to be regarded as forming a class by themselves, and which are to

1899. 3L

882 REPORT—1899.

be regarded as subdivisions of a class. The point I wish to lay stress on is that
in any broad classification not more than two tissues are known to be supplied
with approximate completeness with efferent nerve-fibres. The striated muscular
tissue, which forms, amongst other parts of the body, the muscles of the limbs and
trunk, receives in all regions nerve-fibres from the brain or spinal cord. , And the
unstriated muscular tissue, which forms, amongst other parts of the body, the
contractile part of the alimentary canal and of the blood-vessels, is in nearly, and
possibly in all, regions similarly supplied.

The glandular division of epithelial tissue in some parts responds promptly and
strikingly to nervous impulses, but in some parts the response is feeble, and in
others no nervous impulse has been shown to reach the tissue. The connective
tissue which exists all over the body, and which in its varied forms of connective
tissue proper—cartilage, bone, teeth, epithelioid cells—makes so considerable part of
it, is in mammals, so far as we know, destitute of efferent nerve-fibres. The
epidermic cells, which form a covering for the body, the ciliated cells, the repro-
ductive cells, do not visibly respond to any nerve stimulus. And the myriads of
blood corpuscles, which in different ways are in incessant action for the general
welfare, are naturally out of range of nervous impulses. According to our present
state of knowledge, large portions of the organism live their own lives uninfluenced,
except indirectly, by the storms and stresses of the central nervous system. No
neryous impulse can pass to them to make them contract or to make them secrete,
or to quicken or slacken their inherent activity. The nervous system can only
influence them through the medium of some other tissue by changing the quantity
or quality of the surrounding fluid.

Regarding, then, the body from the point of view of the control exercised by
the nervous system on the other constituents, we have first to recognise that this
control is in considerable part indirect only, that the several tissues are in varying
degree under direct control, and that different parts of one tissue may be influenced
by the nervous system to different extents.

Limitation in the Control of the Nervous System over the different Activities of
the Cell,—Even when nervous impulses can strikingly affect the vital activity of a
tissue, their action is limited. They cannot modify the activity in all the various
ways in which it is modified by the inherent nature of the tissue and the character
of the surrounding fluid. Thus the submaxillary gland which pours saliva into
the mouth is in life ceaselessly taking in oxygen and giving out carbonic acid ; it
does this without pouring forth any secretion. So far as we know no nervous
impulse can hasten or retard this customary life of the gland by a direct action
upon it without producing other changes. The nervous system can only do this
indirectly by modifying the blcod supply The nervous impulse which reaches
the gland cells causes them to secrete, to take up fluid on one side and to pour it out
on the other, and it does not, and so far as we know it cannot, confine its influence
to those changes ordinarily going on in the gland cells. The essential effect of a
nerve impulse appears to be to modify the amount of energy set free as work;
usually it causes work to be done, asin the contraction of a muscle, or in the
secretion of fluid by a gland; sometimes it diminishes the work done, as in the
cessation of a heart-beat, or the decrease of contraction of a blood-vessel. Other
changes often go on side by side with this setting free of energy as work, but
there is no unimpeachable instance in which these other changes take place by
themselves as the result of nervous excitation. Physiologists have sought for long
years in all parts of the body for nerves—calorific or frigorific nerves—which
cause simply an increase or decrease of the heat set free by a tissue ; and for nerves
—trophic nerves—which cause simply chemical changes in the tissue associated
with a setting free of heat or not. Probable as the existence of such nerves seems
to be, the search for them cannot, I think, be said to have been successful.

Somatic or Voluntary Tissues—When we look at the question of nervous
control subjectively, and consider in ourselves what tissues are at our beck and
call, we find that we have immediate and prompt governance over one tissue only,
the one which, as we have already geen, is most universally supplied with efferent
nerve-fibres—namoly, the (fibrous) striated muscular tissue, The parts ef the body

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 883

composed of this muscular tissue we move, as we say, at will. We exercise a
control over it that we cannot exercise over any other tissue. The tissue is
supplied with a special system of nerves. In other vertebrates there is a tissue of
similar microscopical characters, and having a similar system of nerves. And we
can be certain that in all vertebrates the fibrous striated muscle and the nervous
system belonging to it form a definite portion of the body which can be properly
placed in a class apart from the other tissues of the body. The tissues in this class
are spoken of as ‘somatic’ tissues, or sometimes, in view of our own sensations, as
‘voluntary.’ ‘ Voluntary’ is not a word which physiologists care much to use in
this context, because it readily gives rise to misconceptions. It will serve, how-
ever, if we bear in mind that the primary distinguishing characters of the system
are microscopical, anatomical, and developmental; that other tissues than
‘voluntary ’ can be put in action by the will, though in a different fashion; and
that ‘voluntary’ tissues are also put in action involuntarily. That is to say, the
word will serve if we rob it of much of its ordinary meaning.

The somatic or voluntary nervous system has in its essential features long
been Inown. We may leave it and pass on to a more obscure field.

Autonomic or Involuntary Tisswes—In putting on one side the voluntary
system, you will notice that we have disposed of one only of the several tissues,
differing microscopically from one another, which go to make up the various organs
of the body. Of the rest some, as we have said, either do not receive nerve-fibres
from the brain and spinal cord, or, if they do, practically nothing is known about
them in our own class of vertebrates—the mammalia. These I shall say a word or
two about later. For the present we must confine our attention to the tissues
which are known to be supplied not too illiberally with nerve-fibres. These are
unstriated muscle, and its allied cardiac muscle, and certain glands. Since the
voluntary striated muscle has a nervous system of its own, it might be imagined
that the unstriated tissue and the glandular tissue, differing as they do, would also
have separate nervous systems. This, however, is not the case. The nervous
supply of these two tissues has common features and belongs to the same system.
There is, unfortunately, no satisfactory term by which to designate it. On the
whole the term ‘ autonomic’ seems to me best adapted for scientific use. But it
is not of the first importance for our present purpose to insist upon a proper
nomenclature, so that I think I shall not do much harm if I use the familiar
‘involuntary’ for the unknown, or nearly unknown, ‘ autonomic.’

I need hardly point out how widespread are both the glandular and the unstriated
muscular tissues. In man practically the whole surface of the skin is supplied with
sweat-glands, lachrymal glands lie hid behind the eye, small glands are thick in
the respiratory tract from the nose to the smaller bronchial tubes, and glands stretch
along the whole of the digestive tract. Most of these can be set in action by
‘nerve-fibres. There are a number of others in which such action has not been
shown, so that they do not concern us at present. Unstriated muscle, forming, as it
does, part of the walls of the arteries and veins, penetrates to every part of the
body. It formsa large part of the coats of the stomach and intestines ; it is present
in the spleen and in parts of the lymphatic vessels; it is present in the iris and in
other parts of the eye; it occurs in greater or less amount in different animals in
the deeper layers of the skin.

Consider some of the ways in which these tissues in the several organs or
structures affect the working of the body. The heart contracts and supplies the
driving force for the circulation of the blood; the arteries contract less or more,
here or there, and regulate the amount of the blood to each region; the digestive
tract secretes solvent and disintegrating fluids in the food, churns it to pulp,
absorbs some and rejects the reat; the skin-glands pour out their tiny beads of
perspiration, and so aid in regulating the temperature of the body; the iris com-
mands the aperture of the pupil and determines the amount of light falling on the
retina ; the ciliary muscle, by its varying contraction, brings about the focussing
necessary for distinct vision, ; ; yowles or.

.. But the involuntary tissues do not confine themselyes to actions of such flagrant
utility ae those just. mentioned, ‘The contraction of small bundles of -unstriated

aya

884. REPORT—1899.

muscles in the skin will cause the flesh to creep; other similar small muscles are
attached to the hairs; ’tis these will make

‘Thy knotted and combinéd locks to part,
And each particular hair to stand on end,
Like quills upon the fretful porpentine.’

The involuntary tissues, although not under the prompt and immediate control
of the will, are under the control of the higher centres of the brain. They are
particularly responsive to the emotions ; and in so far as we can call up emotions,
we can play upon them at will. The ease with which nervous impulses pass along
given tracts depends, amongst other things, upon use. And so it appears that our
great-grandfathers wept and our great-grandmothers fainted with an ease which
we should require assiduous practice to attain.

Further, you may note that the contraction of involuntary muscle caused by
an emotion may in its turn set up nervous impulses, which pass back to the brain
and give rise to vague and curious feelings, feelings often lending themselves to
effective literary expression :—

‘Where our heart does but relent, his melts; where our eye pities, his bowells yearn.

I must ask your forgiveness for mentioning so many well-known facts in the
sketch which I have just given of the involuntary tissues. But I hope it will take
from you all excuse for not understanding the rest of what I have to say.

The arrangement of the involuntary nervous system presents some peculiar
characters. The most distinctive of these is that the nerves, after they leave the brain
or spinal cord, do not run interruptedly to the periphery; they end in nerve-cells,
and the nerve-cells send off the fibres which run to the periphery. The most direct
proof of this lies in the fact that a certain amount of nicotine prevents the central

nervous system from having any influence on the peripheral structures—i.e. the -

line is somewhere blocked ; it can be shown, speaking generally, that there is no
block on either side of the ganglia, so that it must be in them. The actual point
of attack of the nicotine appears to be the connections made by the central nerve-
fibres with the peripheral nerve-cells. Thus all nerve-impulses, which pass from
the brain or spinal cord to unstriated muscle or glandular tissue, pass through an
intermediate station on their way. In this, as in some other respects, the arrange-
ment of the involuntary nervous system is more complex than that of the voluntary
nervous sytem ; in the latter the motor nerve-fibres run direct to the tissue and
have no nerve-cells on their course. The nerve-cells which form the intermediate
stations for the involuntary nerve-fibres are grouped together into ganglia; and so
we may call the nerve-fibres which run from the brain or spinal cord to the nerve-
cells pre-ganglionic fibres, and the nerve-fibres which run from the ganglia to the
peripheral tissues post-ganglionic nerve-fibres.

The involuntary nervous system is divided into at least two subdivisions.
The most extensive of these is what is called the sympathetic nervous system. The
pre-ganglionic fibres of the sympathetic arise from a limited portion of the spinal
cord. They arise from that part of the spinal cord which is in the region of the
chest and the small of the back—z.e. roughly from the part which lies between the
origin of the voluntary nerves for the arms and the origin of the voluntary nerves
for the legs. he fibres given off by the ganglia of this system—i.e. the post-
ganglionic fibres—run to the involuntary tissue in all parts of the body.

The Cranial and Sacral Systems.—The second division of the involuntary
nervous system consists of two parts; one part—the cranial—arises from the
brain—z.e. above the origin of the sympathetic; the other—the sacral—arises
irom the end of the spinal cord —z.c. below the origin of the sympathetic.

Each supplies a limited and different part of the involuntary tissue of the body,
but both together supply a portion only of it. Taking the distribution broadly,
they supply the muscular coats of the alimentary canal and certain structures
connected developmentally with the anterior and posterior portions of it. They are
especially connected with these terminal portions ; they send numerous nerve-fibres
to them; whereas they send but few to tne intérvening portion, and none at all to

|

ag
rays)

oD

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I,

its blood-vessels. Thus parts of the involuntary tissue of the body receive a
double supply of nerve-fibres, whilst parts receive a single supply only. Amongst
the latter are all the involuntary tissues of the skin, the blood-vessels of the limbs
and trunk, and of most of the viscera.

The cranial and sacral divisions of the involuntary nervous system are con-
sidered by some observers to be simply portions of the sympathetic system separated
from it by the development of the nerve-centres for the arms and for the legs. I
may give one reason why I do not take this view. The middle portion of the
spinal cord, which is the region that sends fibres to the sympathetic, always sends
fibres to a given spot by more than one nerve, and usually by four or five. The
fibres passing by the several spinal nerves never differ in the kind of effect they
produce, but only in the degree of effect ; the difference is in quantity and never
in quality. If, then, regions above and below were mere separated parts of this
sympathetic region, we should expect that when one of these regions and the
sympathetic region sent nerves to the same spot, the effect produced by both sets
of nerves would be the same in kind, though it might differ in extent. But this
is often not the case. Thus certain blood-vessels may receive nerve-fibres from
four spival nerves in the sympathetic region and from three spinal rerves in the
sacral region ; all the former cause contraction of the blood-vessels, all the latter
cause dilation. And thus it seems to me probable that in the evolution of mam-
mals the sympathetic nerves have developed at one time, and the cranial and
sacral involuntary nerves have developed at another time.

Inhibition. A. striking feature of the involuntary nervous system is its posses-
sion of nerve-fibres, which, when excited, stop some action at the time going on.
The most striking example is perhaps the cessation of the heart-beats brought
about by excitation of the vagus nerve. Such nerve-fibres are called inhibitory
nerve-fibres, and the stopping of the action is called inhibition.

So far as has been definitely proved inhibitory nerve-fibres only run to
involuntary muscle and to nerve-cells, and to these, so far as has been certainly
shown, only in particular cases. It is true that when fear or other emotion causes
the tongue to cleave to the roof of the mouth, there is a cessation of the customary
flow from certain glands, but this flow is itself the result of nervous impulses
passing in ever rising and falling intensity from the central nerve-cells, and its
cessation is due to inhibition of nerve-cells and not to inhibition of glandular cells.

The inhibition of nerve-cells has only been proved to take place in the central
nervous system. When a group of nerve-cells of the central nervous system is
engaged in sending out nervous impulses, other nervous impulses reaching them
by way of other nerve-cells may diminish or stop their activity. The theory which
is commonly advocated now to explain this inhibition makes the activity of the
nerve-cells depend upon their receiving stimuli from the minute endings of other
nerve-cells, and the cessation of the activity to depend upon these minute endings,
either withdrawing themselves out of range, or having something interposed be-
tween them and the nerve-cells, so that the impulses can no longer pass. This
theory I do not wish to discuss to-day ; it is sufficient to say that if it is true, the
inhibition of nerve-cells is an entirely different process from that of the inhibition
of involuntary muscle.

Turning to the inhibition of involuntary muscle, there is a source of confusion
which we must first guard against. Nearly all the unstriated muscle in the body
is kept in a state of greater or less tone, or contraction, by the central nervous
system. A diminution or cessation of this contraction may then be caused by a
diminution or cessation of the activity of the central nervous system. This cessa-
tion of contraction is, of course, not what we mean by an inhibition of the
unstriated muscle. It is usually spoken of as an inhibition of the nervous centre.
The inhibition we mean is that which is caused by stimulating the peripheral end
of a nerve outside the spinal cord.

I have said that this inhibition can only be obtained in certain cases, and it is
not easy to find anything in common with regard to these cases. But on the
whole it appears that the more a tissue is able to work by itself, the more likely it
is to be under the control of inhibitory fibres, The heart, stomach, and the

886 . kRePor'tT—1899.

intestines work when no longer connected with the central nervous system, and
these are especially liable to inhibition.

There has been a marked tendency amongst physiologists, in considering the
question of inhibitory nerve-fibres, to take what may be called the view of the
equal endowment of the tissues. Because some arteries have inhibitory nerve-
fibres, therefore it is to be held as in the highest degree probable that all have.
And many would go farther and say that it is therefore in the highest degree
probable that all unstriated muscle, and glands, and even the voluntary muscles
have such fibres. This view seems to me a mistaken one. There is hardly room
for doubt that the motor fibres are supplied in most unequal measure to the
unstriated muscle and glands of the body. ‘There are veins in the body
containing unstriated muscle, which show no visible contraction from any nerve
stimulation, And there are a number of glands which no nerve—so far as we
know—excites to secretion. Since, in the course of the evolution of the organism,
a universal development of motor fibres has not occurred, it is, I think, to be
expected that the development of inhibitory fibres should be still less universal.
For up to a certain point the results of inhibition can be obtained in most cases
without inhibitory nerve-fibres, by a simple diminution in the impulses travelling
down the motor fibres. The only, and the final, test is of course experiment.
But not all experiments are decisive, and theory inevitably colours interpretation.
This theory of the equal endowment of the tissues has, it seems to me, caused a
number of quite inconclusive experiments to be accepted as offering satisfactory
evidence for the existence of inhibitory nerve-fibres.

Passing from this question, we may consider briefly how far we can get on the
way to understand what occurs during inhibition. The external characteristic
feature of inhibition is that a certain state of activity ceases ; a muscle contracting
at short intervals ceases to contract, or a muscle in a steady state of contraction ~
loses this state. The tissue in either case hecomes flabby.

The activity of a tissue may obviously be due to its receiving some stimuli from
the nervous system or to its own inherent qualities. In the former case, ifthe tissue
were only active when receiving nervous impulses, we should naturally look to some
interference with these impulses as being the cause of inhibition. The blood-
vessels of the submaxillary gland appear to me to offer sufficiently clear evidence
with regard to the inhibition of blood-vessels. The superior cervical ganglion is
the local centre from which the nerve-fibres bringing about contraction run to the
blood-vessels of the gland. When this ganglion has been removed and the nerve-
fibres from it have degenerated, the vessels receive no nervous impulses causing
them to contract. But stimulation of the inhibitory nerve will still cause dila-
tion—i.e. inhibition ef the blood-vessels. The inhibition must then be due toa
direct action on the tissue, and not to an interference with other nerve-impulses.
The evidence with regard to the inhibition of the beat of the heart and of the tone
or peristalsis of the alimentary canal is more complex, but there is good reason to
believe that the contraction is in both cases due to their inherent qualities. And
if this be granted, it follows that here also inhibition must be due to a direct
action upon the tissue.

The contraction of a muscle is due to a chemical changeinit. In this chemical
change some energy is set free as work—shown by the contraction of the muscle—
and some as heat. It is conceivable that tlhe nervous stimulus which cuases inhi-
bition should cause all the energy set free by the chemical change to take the form of
heat. In that case the inhibitory nerve would bea calorific nerve. The amount of
chemical change is indicated by the amount of carbonic acid given off to the blood.
No experiments have been made as to the amount of carbonic acid given off to the
blood by an inhibited tissue, but it appears very unlikely that the amount is increased,
and we may take this view of the action of an inhibitory nerve as improbable.

If the nervous impulse does not act in this way it must in some way stop the
particular chemical change associated with contraction from taking place. It does
not stop all chemical change, for blood passing through an inhibited tissue loses
some of its oxygen. The simplest way for a nervous impulse to prevent a
particular chemical change is to induce a different one. We have seen that the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 887

tissues which are inhibited have a great tendency to contract of themselyes—that
is, they form certain very unstable substances. In closely related tissues which are
not inhibited this tendency exists but little or not at all. The proximate cause
of inhibition might then be that the nervous stimulus causes certain molecules of
the tissue to form more stable combinations. This need not be associated with any
general assimilation ; it would simply make the muscle adopt for a time a mode of
life more like that of other closely related muscle.

Number of Relay Stations—I have already mentioned that the nerve-fibres
which pass from the central nervous system to the involuntary tissues do not run
to it direct, but end in groups of nerve-cells or ganglia from which fresh nerve-
fibres are given off. Now, in most cases, there are anatomically several ganglia on
a nerve in its course from the spinal cord to the periphery. For example, the
nerve-fibres which cause the hairs of a cat’s tail to stand on end, giving the tail the
appearance of a bottle brush, leave the spinal cord in the lower part of the back,
and enter a nerye-strand which is beaded with ganglia. They leave this strand
near the root of the tail. Between the point where the nerve-tibres enter and the
point where they leave the strand there are seven or eight ganglia. The fact
offers us a problem of some difficulty. With how many of these ganglia are the
nerve-fibres connected ? Or, in other words, how many relay stations are there ;
eight or one, or some intermediate number? Further, do all kinds of involuntary

Fia. 1.

nerve-fibres in all parts of the body have the same number of relay stations, or do
some have one, some two, some three, and so on? It would take too long to
discuss this question here. But the experimental evidence is, I think, fairly
decisive in favour of the simple view that the nerve-impulse passes through one
relay station only. There is, however, evidence that the nerve-fibres which pass
from the spinal cord branch, so that we may take the element by reduplication of
sig — involuntary nervous system is built up to be diagrammatically as
in fig. 1.

Reflewes,—Another point of view is given by a comparison of the groups of
nerve-cells of the peripheral ganglia with the groups of nerve-cells of the brain
and spinal cord. The proper working of the body depends upon an agile response
by the central nervous system to what is going on in the periphery. Now the
peripheral ganglia are made up of nerve-cells and nerve-fibres which differ less in
general characters from some of the cells of the central nervous system than these
differ from one another. The nerve-cells of the spinal cord can receive impulses
from many groups of nerve-cells both near and remote; they do not simply receive
impulses from one quarter alone—say, the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres—
but from many quarters, and notably direct from the periphery. Hence it has
been supposed that the peripheral ganglia have similar wide connections, that they

888 REPORT—1899.

receive impulses direct from the periphery, that each is connected with other
ganglia, and that impulses received from the periphery, or elsewhere, bring separate
ganglia into co-ordinate action. And this view, which has been taken on general
grounds, has been supported by microscopical observations.

The evidence against this view is of two kinds. In the first place, it can be
shown that in a number of individual cases the nerve-cells of one ganglion have
no connection with the nerve-cells of another ganglion, so that anything like a
universal scheme of connection is out of the question. And, secondly, it can be
shown that whenever an action occurs, which might be referred to such connection,
it is an action which is bound to occur in consequence of some other known
arrangement, and that therefore it is unnecessary to seek for a further cause.

The evidence of the first kind we need not enter into; the evidence of the
second kind we may hastily touch on. If we accept the conclusion stated above,
that the pre-ganglionic nerve-fibres branch and the branches run to different nerve-
cells, it follows that a stimulus applied to one branch will stimulate a number of
nerve-cells; this follows since a nerve-impulse set up in any part of a nerve
travels over the whole of it. ‘Thus actions, resembling reflex actions, will inevitably
be obtained whenever nerve-fibres are stimulated which send branches to different

Fia. 2. Fie. 3. Fig. 4.

ganglia. The mechanism in this case is confined to motor nerve-fibres and nerve-
cells. The action, for lack of a convenient term, was spoken of by Dr. Anderson
and myself simply as a reflex action. It is perhaps better to call it a psewdo-
reflex action.

Regarded from the customary point of view, a pseudo-reflex differs widely from
a reflex action. The one is brought about by stimulating an efferent or motor
fibre, and the other by stimulating an afferent or sensory fibre.

But suppose we compare them from another point of view. Fig. 2 is
a diagrammatic representation of a pseudo-reflex. A nervous impulse passes
up one branch a of a cell A, passes to another branch a’, so excites a cell B and
its nerve-fibre B.

Fig. 4 is a diagrammatic representation of a simple true reflex in the voluntary
muscle. A nervous impulse passes up one branch a of a cell A, passes to
another branch a’, so excites a cell B and its nerve-fibre f.

You see the two can be described in exactly the same terms, and both are
reducible to the diagram of fig. 8. It is true that the cells A and B are not
similarly situated in the two cases; in the pseudo-reflex A is in the spinal cord,
and B is outside it in a peripheral ganglion; whereas in the true reflex A is out-
side the spinal cord, in a spinal ganglion, and B is inside thecord. But thenno one
has even suggested that the position of a nerve-cell determines whether an action in

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 889

which it takes part is a reflex or no. So that this point is irrelevant. And so it
might be urged that the one action has as good a title to be called a reflex as the
other. I do not, however, wish to insist too much on this comparison. I am
inclined to say, after Touchstone, ‘ An ill-favoured thing, sir, but mine own.’

If, as some think is the case, the spinal ganglion cell receives the nerve-impulse
conveyed by the peripheral nerve process, and modities it before passing it on to
the central process, this establishes a distinguishing character for the true reflex.
It would be probably an axon plus dendron reflex, the pseudo-reflex being simply
an axon reflex. The important known functional difference between the reflex
and the pseudo-reflex is that in the former case the nerve-endings of the primarily
affected nerve-fibre are specially differentiated for receiving nerve-impulses, and
in the latter case these endings are specially differentiated for imparting nerve-
impulses, And, on the whole, it is probable that the pseudo-reflex is not a normal
part of the working of the body, but comes into play only as it were by accident.
T do not, however, regard this as quite certain.

The pseudo-reflex I have spoken of is caused by the excitation of nerve-fibres
before they reach the ganglia—z.c. of pre-ganglionic fibres. But the fibres which are
given off by the ganglia also branch, so that it appears inevitable that we should
have in certain circumstances an action related to a reflex caused by a stimulation
set up in one of these branches spreading to the rest—z.e, a spreading out of im-
ne in post-ganglionic fibres similar to that which occurs in pre-ganglionic fibres.

urning to the diagram, fig. 1, a nervous impulse set up in one branch—possibly
by a contraction of muscle-cells to which it rans—would spread to other branches
and cause contraction of the muscle-cells in connection with them. You will
notice that this spreading out of impulses does not necessarily involve the stimula-
tion of any nerve-cell ; it might perhaps be distinguished as ¢rradiation. It would,
probably, be very local in action, unless there were overlapping of the districts
supplied by the several nerve-cel]s, in which case a not inconsiderable spreading
out of a local contraction might take place, giving rise to a peristaltic wave.

It must be pointed out that it has been assumed that in the sympathetic nervous
system an impulse cannot pass from a motor fibre through the nerve-cell from
which the fibre arises and affect any other nerve-fibre or nerve-cell. There is good
ground for this assumption, but the experimental evidence might certainly be more
complete.

o return to our main line of argument, we have good evidence that nervous
impulses set up in one spot may affect regions more or less remote by a mechanism
which does not involve the presence in the sympathetic system of special sensory
nerve-cells with peripheral sensory nerve-endings. And so far as investigation has
gone at present, I think that all the apparent reflex actions can be explained with-
out reference to such sensory apparatus. And so I take the analogy of the peri-
pheral ganglia with the central nervous system to be misleading, and consider that
all the nerve-cells of which we have been speaking are motor nerye-cells, and
that they all conform to the simple plan shown in fig. 1. Thus the whole consists
of a duplication of one type; a cell in the spinal cord which branches, each branch
ending in a single cell; each of these cells sends off a nerve-fibre which branches,
the branches ending in a group of involuntary muscle or gland cells.

That I regard as the real working mechanism, but there are two reservations
to make. All the tissues of the body may be looked upon as engaged in a life-
long process of carrying out experiments, and I am prepared to believe that there
are in the body what may be spoken of as the residues of these natural physiological
experiments, either the beginnings of experiments which have not succeeded, or
the melancholy ends of those which once partially successful have failed later.
Such possibly may be the nerve-cells which have been described in sympathetic
ganglia as sending their nerve-fibres to other nerve-cells.

Secondly, in this account I have not included the nerve-cells which exist in the
wall of the alimentary canal, and the cells of Auerbach’s and Meissner’s plexuses,
These ‘ enteric’ nerve-cells belong, I hold, to a system different from that of the
other peripheral nerve-cells. With regard to their connections I do not think
anything can be said with certainty,

890 REPORT—1899.

Regeneration, Specific Nerve Energy.—One other problem presented by this
involuntary system we may say a few words about. You know that when a nerve
in the hand or arm is cut the nerve will in proper conditions grow again; and
the lost feeling and the lost power over the muscles will return, The recovery is
brought about by the part of the nerve which is attached to the spinal cord growing
along its old track and spreading out as before in the muscle, skin, and other tissue.
At any rate that is the method for which there is most evidence. You may know
also that when the nerve-fibresin the spinal cord are similarly injured, they do not
recover function. Regeneration in the latter case implies that the nerve-fibres
have to form fresh endings in connection with nerve-cells, If this were more
difficult than the formation of nerve-endings in muscle and other non-nervous
tissues, the difference which exists as regards recovery of function between the
nerve-fibres of the limb, and nerve-fibres of the spinal cord, would be readily ex-
plainable. But recent experiments show that the nerve-fibres which run from the
spinal cord to the peripheral ganglia—z.e. pre-ganglionic fibres—re-form with ease their
connection with nerve-cells, so that we may probably seek in mechanical condi-
tions for the reason of the absence of regeneration of the fibres in the spinal cord.
Possibly some way may be found of improving the mechanical conditions, and so
obtaining regeneration. That question, however, we need not enter into.

The regeneration of the pre-ganglionic nerves presents some very remarkable
features. The nerve-fibres which end in a sympathetic ganglion are rarely, if ever,
all of one kind—that is to say, they do not all produce the same effects. Thus, of
those which run to the ganglion in the upper part of the neck, some cause the eye-
lids to move apart, some cause the pupil to dilate, some cause the face to become
pale, some cause the glands of the mouth or skin to secrete, and others have other
effects. These different kinds of nerve-fibres run, in large part at any rate, to
different nerve-cells in the ganglion. There are in the ganglion several thousands
of nerve-cells closely packed together. And it would seem hopeless for each kind
of nerve-fibre as it grows again into the ganglion during regeneration to find its
proper kind of nerve-cell. Nevertheless, nearly all of them succeed in doing this.
The nerve-fibres which normally cause separation of the eyelids, or dilatation of
the pupil, or pallor of the face, or secretion from the glands, produce the same
effects after several inches of their peripheral ends have formed anew.

The fact offers at first sight a striking proof of a specific difference between the
different classes of nerve-fibres and different classes of nerve-cells. Through the
matted mass formed by the delicate interlacing arms of the nerve-cells, the
ingrowing fibres pursue their tortuous course, passing between and about hundreds
of near relations until they find their immediate stock, whom they clasp with a
spray of greeting tendrils and so come to rest.

Absolute laws seem unfitted for a workaday world, For closer observation
shows that the fibres have not always this marked preference for their own stock.
The nerve-fibres of the cervical sympathetic, the nerve I have spoken of above, do
not often go astray, at any rate so far as is known. But they do sometimes; thus
it may happen that some nerve-fibres which ought to find their home with nerve-
cells governing the blood-vessels, take up with nerve-cells governing the dilator
structures of the pupil.

And if we turn to other nerves, greater aberrations are found. We have seen
that the nerves running from the central nervous system to involuntary structures
may be divided into two sets: the sympathetic nerves on the one hand, and the
cranial and sacral nerves on the other. An important cranial nerve is the vagus;
it causes, when in action, cessation of the heart-beat, contraction of the cesophagus,
contraction or inhibition of the stomach, and various other effects. It does not
send nerve-fibres to any of those structures of the head which we have seen the
sympathetic ganglion at the top of the neck—the superior cervical ganglion—so
liberally supplies. And yet the vagus nerve, if it has a proper opportunity of
growing into the superior cervical ganglion, will do so, and there establish connec-
tions with the nerve-cells. Thus the nerve which properly exercises control over
certain viscera in the thorax and abdomen is capable of exercising control over
structures in the head, such as the iris, the blood-vessels, and the glands. The

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 891

details of the process, with which I will not trouble you, do not afford any clear
evidence that the nerve-fibres of the vagus pick and choose amongst the nerve-
cells of the superior cervical ganglion; the fibres appear rather to form their
terminal branches around any kind of nerve-cell, so that, in fact, the action which
the nerve-fibre will in future bring about depends not on any intrinsic character
of its own, but upon the nature of the action carried on by the nerve-cell. The
nerve-cell may cause secretion from a gland, or contraction of a blood-vessel, or
dilation of the pupil, or movement of hairs; whichever action it causes the nerve-
fibre which joins it from the vagus nerve can cause for the future, and it can cause
no other. In this case, then, we arrive at results which are hopelessly at variance
with the view that the nerve-fibres and nerve-cells of the involuntary nervous
system are divided into classes which are fundamentally different. In other words,
that theory which is spoken of as the theory of specific nerve energy does not
apply here.

But if this is so, how are we to account for the selective power shown by the
sympathetic nerve-fibres which I have mentioned earlier? ‘That the diiferent classes
of nerve-fibres and nerve-cells with which we are dealing have not those deep and
inherent differences which are required by the theory of specific nerve-energy is,
it seems to me, certain. Nevertheless, there may be some differences of a com-
paratively superficial nature which suffice to explain the selective activity observed.
‘We may suppose that a re-growing nerve-fibre will in favourable circumstances
join a nerve-cell, the function of which is the same as that of its original cell, but
that if there are hindrances in the way of this return to normal action, and if the
conditions are favourable for joining a nerve-cell acting on some other tissue, why
then it will join this. It is as ifit had a preference, but did not care overmuch.
We might perhaps express the facts by saying that there are different varieties of
pre-ganglionic fibres, but no species.

We have been speaking so far of the nerve-fibres which run from the brain
and spinal cord to the peripheral nerve-cells. The nerve-fibres which run from

‘the peripheral nerve-cells have also, there is reason to believe, a large measure of
indifference as to the kind of work they perform, The limits of this indifference
have yet to be investigated.

I have said earlier that in mammalia nerve-fibres are not known to run to
connective-tissue cells or to epidermic cells. But in some lower vertebrates certain
connective-tissue cells are under the control of the central nervous system. Thus
in the frog the pigmented connective-tissue cells, which play a large part in deter-
mining the colour of the skin, can be made to contract or to rearrange their pig-
ment granules—and so change the colour of the skin—by excitation of certain
nerves, In all probability the motor nerve-fibres to the pigment-cells belong to
the same class as the nerve-fibres which run to the arteries and to the glands—c.e.
they belong to the autonomic system. We have seen that unstriated muscle-
cells and gland-cells in different parts of the body are by no means equally supplied
with motor nerve-fibres, and it may be that in mammals there are certain con-
nective-tissue cells which receive motor nerve-tibres. Further, if it is true, as it
well may be, that nerve-fibres which run to a gland are capable in favourable
conditions of making connections with a blood-vessel, it is not beyond hope that
either kind of nerve-fibre may experimentally, by offering it favourable conditions,
be induced to join connective-tissue cells.

The factors which determine whether a particular tissue or part of a tissue is
eventually supplied with nerve-endings, and the degree of development of these,
are the factors which determine evolution in general. In the individual it is
exercise of function which leads to the development of particular parts; in the
race it is the utility of this development which leads to their preservation. And so
it is conceivable that in some lower vertebrate at some time, the autonomic nervous
system may have developed especially in connection with those tissues which appear
in ourselves to be wholly unprovided with motor nerve-fibres.

I am tempted, before ending, to make a slight digression. Those who have
occasion to enter into the depths of what is oddly, if generously, called the litera-
ture of a scientific subject, alone know the difficulty of emerging with an unsoured

892 REPORT—1899.

disposition. The multitudinous facts presented by each corner of Nature form in
large part the scientific man’s burden to-day, and restrict him more and more, willy-
nilly, to a narrower and narrower specialism, But that is not the whole of his
burden. Much that he is forced to read consists of records of defective experi-
ments, confused statement of results, wearisome description of detail, and
unnecessarily protracted discussion of unnecessary hypotheses. The publication of
such matter is a serious injury to the man of science; it absorbs the scanty funds
of his libraries, and steals away his poor hours of leisure.

Here I bring my remarks to a close. I have endeavoured to give as clearly as
possible what seem to me to be the conclusions which logically follow from certain
data, but I would not have you believe that I regard them as representing more
than the immediate point of view. As the wise man said: ‘Hardly do we guess
aright at things that are upon earth, and with labour do we find the things that
are before us.’

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER l4.

The following Reports were read :—

1. Report on the Influence of Drugs upon the Vascular System.
See Reports, p. 608.

2. Report on the Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors when
introduced into the Circulation.—See Reports, p. 605.

3. Report on the Electrical Changes accompanying the Discharge
of the Respiratory Centre.—See Reports, p. 599.

4, Report on the Comparative Histology of the Cerebral Cortea.
See Reports, p. 603.

5. Interim Report on the Histological Changes in the Nerve Cells.
6. Report on the Micro-chemistry of Cells.—See Reports, p. 609.

7. Interim Report on the Histology of the Suprarenal Capsules.
See Reports, p. 598.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 165.

The President’s Address was delivered.—See p. 881.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Autointoxication as the Cause of Pancreatic Diabetes.
By Ivor L. Tucxerr, IA.

In all my experiments I have estimated the reducing power of the blood and
urine, reckoned as glucose ; so that when the degree of hyperglycaemia or glycosuria

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 895

is mentioned, all that is meant by the expression is that the blood or urine respec-
tively contains so much reducing material, estimated as glucose. My method in
extracting the sugar from the blood has consisted in boiling with sodium sulphate,
as described by Pavy in his book on ‘ The Physiology of the Carbohydrates.” The
reducing power of the blood and urine I have estimated by the ammoniated
Fehling’s solution recommended by Pavy, and described in the same book. I
have convinced myself of its accuracy, as in the estimation of standard solutions
of sugar I have always obtained a value correct to the first two places of
decimals.
I have obtained the following results :—

1, That if the thoracic lymph from a dog which has been starved a day is
injected into the portal system of a cat, no glycosuria results, nor is there any
hyperglyceemia beyond the degree which sometimes results from the use of
anesthetics, that is from about *2 per cent. to -28 per cent.

2. That if the thoracic lymph from a digesting dog is injected into the portal
system of a cat, glycosuria of a degree varying from 1 per cent. to 9 per cent. and
hyperglycemia of a degree varying from ‘3 per cent. to ‘9 per cent. result.

3. That if thoracic lymph from a digesting dog be injected into the systemic
circulation of a cat, hyperglycemia and glycosuria again result, though not in as
high a degree as after portal injections; that is, hyperglycemia of a degree from
‘3 per cent. to ‘5 per cent., and glycosuria of a degree from 1 to 3:75 per cent.

4, That if the thoracic lymph from a digesting cat be injected into its own

splenic vein, hyperglyczemia and glycosuria result.
’ 5, That the mere injection of a few bubbles of air with a little normal salt
solution into the portal system of a cat is followed by glycosuria; while the
injection of salt solution or of serum from dog’s blood is followed by no glyco-
ps and by no hyperglyczemia, beyond the slight degree due to the anesthetics
employed.

%G That, as Biedl proved, the mere formation of a fistula of the thoracic duct
in a dog is followed by glycosuria ; and whereas he only experimented on the dog,
and usually obtained glycosuria of a degree not above 2 per cent. and never
more than 5'8 per cent , I have also obtained this result in the cat; and in a dog
which had been starved thirty-six hours I obtained glycosuria of a degree of
10°52 per cent.

My explanation of these various results is that the internal secretion of the
pancreas’ passes into the blood chiefly wd the thoracic lymph, while some toxie
substance, formed probably in the intestine, is present in the thoracic lymph
during digestion, but is absent therefrom during starvation, though it probably is
present also in the portal blood both during digestion and starvation. This toxic
body and the internal secretion of the pancreas are antagonistic to one another
In the absence of the internal secretion of the pancreas, this substance has a toxic
action on the glycogenic tissues of the body whereby they cannot, to the same
extent as normal, form glycogen out of sugar, and probably are stimulated to
convert glycogen into sugar.

Thus the injection of thoracic lymph from a digesting dog causes glycosuria
because it contains the toxic substance. On the other hand, leading the thoracic
lymph away from a fasting dog is followed by glycosuria, because, the internal
secretion of the pancreas being thus removed, the toxic substance in the blood is
given free play.

I attribute the glycosuria following the mere injection of a few bubbles of air
into the portal circulation of a cat to the fact that this air very largely accumu-
lates in the veins of the pancreas; as a result of which the pancreas is probably
crippled in forming its internal secretion.

Though the above explanation is nothing more than a supposition, yet it has
very great probability in its favour, because it harmonises the glycosuria caused
by interference with the thoracic duct with the glycosuria following excision of
the pancreas; and thus gets rid of the necessity of our calling the former ‘a new
form of experimental diabetes,’ as was done by Bied].

894: REPORT—1899.

It further explains all my results and, as far as I can see, is not opposed to
any of the numerous observations recorded in the literature of diabetes, which is
very extensive.

Pancreatic diabetes thus consists, in my view, of the balance between this
toxic substance and the internal secretion of the pancreas being upset; and I
should be inclined to explain the majority of cases of human diabetes similarly,
seeing that several observers have proved that the internal secretion of the
pancreas is under nervous influences.

What this toxic substance is, I do not know. How exactly it exerts its
action is also uncertain; but my experiments tend to show, that if the liver con-
tains no glycogen, not only is excision of the pancreas not followed by glycosuria,
but also injection of thoracic lymph from a digesting dog causes no glycosuria.

2. The Physiological Effects of Extracts of the Pituitary Body.
Sy Professor E. A. ScHirer and SwaLE VINCENT.

1. Extracts of the pituitary body, when intravenously injected, have a marked
effect upon the blood-pressure, producing, according to the nature of the extract,
either a marked rise or a marked fall. The pituitary body contains, therefore, two
active substances, one pressor and the other depressor. Of these the pressor
substance is soluble in salt solution and insoluble in absolute alchol and ether:
the depressor substance is soluble in salt solution, in absolute alcohol, and in
ether. The active substances are not destroyed by boiling, and are dialysable.

2. The pressor substance produces its action both upon the heart and upon
the peripheral arteries (confirmatory of Oliver and Schiifer); the depressor sub-
stance probably mainly on the arterioles. The action of the pressor substance is

a prolonged one (confirmatory of Oliver and Schiifer), and during the period of |

its action a second dose is inactive or nearly so (confirmatory of Howell). The
action of the depressor substance is evanescent, and can be repeated at short
intervals.

3. The pressor effect of the extract may be accompanied by cardiac slowing.
This is probably in large part incidental to the contraction of arterioles and rise
of aortic pressure, but is in part due to direct action upon the peripheral cardiac
mechanism (confirmatory of Oliver and Schiifer, Howell, and Cleghorn),

4, The active substances are contained only in the infundibular, not in the
hypophysial part of the pituitary body (confirmatory of Howell).

5. Subcutaneous injection of the extracts in small mammals causes paralytic
symptoms similar to those obtained by injecting suprarenal extract.

6. The characteristic effects produced by extracts of the infundibular body are
probably not due to the grey nervous matter of which this is largely composed
(confirmatory of Howell).

3. On the Theory of Hearing. By A. A. GRay.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Resonance of Nerve and Muscle. By Dr. F. C. Busca.
| [From the Physiological Institute of the University of Bern).

It is known and shown in the work of N. Wedensky,’ that the pitch of an
artificial muscle tone (Helmholtz) corresponds to the frequency of the stimuli
which are given to the nerve or to the muscle directly. ;

1 A more extended account will be found in the Journ, of Physiol, vol, xz. p. 1,
® Du Bois-Reymond’s Arch, 1883, p, 313; 4 . 7 ETE: |

—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 895

Bernstein and Schoenlein as well as Wedensky, who used Kronecker’s tone-
inductorium, found that when the frequency of stimuli exceeded 1,000 per
second, the muscle tone no longer corresponded with the frequency of stimuli,
but a lower tone was given out.

It seems to H. Kronecker, that the tone of the interruptor governing a
moderate frequency of stimuli, would not only be reproduced in the muscle with the
same pitch, but also with the same timbre and quality.

We desired to know, whether the tones from two interruptors vibrating at
different rates could be heard in the doubly stimulated muscle.

The gastrocnemius muscle of the rabbit, irritated directly or through the sciatic
nerve, was used for stimulation with opening induction shocks of different frequen-
cies, in some cases of 60 and 100 per second, and in others of 100 and 200 per
second.

With the same intensity of current from both interruptors, in most instances,
the high tone was heard in the muscle by means of a solid stethoscope, at first
stronger than the lower tone; but the low tone remained audible longer than the
high tone.

In several instances, however, the low tone became inaudible before the higher
tone.

The same result followed if the nerve was clamped in two pairs of electrodes,
the one proximal and the other distal.

When the nerve was stimulated through the proximal electrodes, the tone was
weaker than when it was stimulated through the distal electrodes, although the
intensity of the current, and the frequency of the stimuli remained the same in
both places.

When the cerebrum of the rabbit had been eliminated, and the cervical cord
stimulated with induction shocks of different frequencies, there could be heard for
several seconds the deep natural muscle tone.

Stimulation of the lumbar cord gave, in consequence of the spreading of
derived currents to the nerve roots, the artificial muscle tone.

In another similar experiment, we heard the deep natural muscle tone for
several seconds only, When a frequency of 100 stimuli per second was used
alone, and with the same intensity of current as before, namely 10,000 units
(with three Daniell cells, the position of the secondary coil on a convenient scale
of induction machine), a strong and increasing tetanus followed, and a loud and
distinct tone was heard which increased in strength as long as the stimulus
lasted. This note was one tone higher than that of the tuning-fork interruptor.
The same was heard when the lumbar cord, and when the muscle itself was
stimulated.

In the dog whose cervical cord was stimulated we heard the deep natural
muscle tone, as well with 100 stimuli per second as with 60.

When the ‘action currents’ of the muscle stimulated by different frequencies were
made audible with the aid of the telephone, the same results were obtained as
when we listened to the muscle directly.

The higher tone became inaudible before the lower tone.

2. The Propagation of Impulses in the Rabbit's Heart. By H. KRONECKER
and Dr. F.C. Busca. [From the Physiological Institute at Bern.]

W. His, jun., has cited only one fact in support of the myogene nature of the
adult heart pulse.

At the Third Physiological Congress in Bern ' he communicated the observation
that simple muscle fascicles could be demonstrated between the septum atriorum
and the septum ventriculorum of rabbits’ hearts, and that through these fascicles,
impulses were conducted from the auricles to the ventricles.

_ We have, in a number of rabbits, cut through the septum atriorum near the
septum of the ventricles, from the dorsal side of the heart where His and Romberg

1 Centratblatt f. Physiologie, ix. p 469

896 REPORT—1899.

have placed their conducting fibres. After this lesion the auricles and ventricles
continued to beat in coordination as before. After cutting most of the apex
away from the base, but still leaving a large number of connecting fibres, the apex
ceased to beat while the base continued to pulsate.

If now the septum ventriculorum of the base was incised in several places, the
base either ceased to beat entirely or the bases of the two ventricles pulsated
incoordinately.

These facts cannot be explained by the theory of the myogene nature of the
heart pulsation.

Also, we cannot understand, however slow the conduction ina muscle may be,
how the pause between the contraction of the auricles and the ventricles can be
thus explained.

It is also impossible to explain by the myogene theory the fibrillation of the dog’s
heart after a mechanical lesion of a very small region in the septum ventriculorum,
where we must place the vasomotor centre of the coronary arteries.

3. Concerning Fibrillation and Pulsation of the Dog’s Heart. By Dr.
F. C. Buscu. [from the Physiological Institute of the University of
Bern.]

Dr. Busch observed the excised dog’s heart, which was still beating weakly
after being cut out, to pulsate when perfused through the large descending branch
of the left coronary artery with a mixture of equal parts of defibrinated dog’s
blood and 0°6 per cent. salt solution at 38°C.

The contractions were at first irrerular and weak, but became regular, stronger,
and more frequent as the perfusion continued.

When the muscle was tetanised, it fibrillated only during the excitation.

This result agrees with observations made by Porter.

In other cases we found that the part of the dog’s heart which was perfused
with a mixture of equal parts of defibrinated calves’ blood and 0-6 per cent. salt
solution, fibrillated for twenty minutes, and then pulsated for seven to forty minutes,
at first irregularly, then regularly, then at long intervals, and finally only upon
stimulation. If, however, the ventricle was fed through a coronary artery in a
normal manner with normal dog’s blood, by means of uniting the coronary directly
with the femoral or carotid of another dog, the pulsations continued only so long
as the coordination apparatus was not disturbed.

As soon as the vasomotor centre in the septum ventriculorum was stimulated
either through a stab or through electrical excitation, the ventricle began to
fibrillate and continued without recovery.

If, after the circulation of normal blood, various abnormal mixtures were used,
the same heart began, in most cases, to pulsate, more or less regularly.

In one instance we saw the dog's heart which was being perfused with normal
blood, fibrillate for twenty-three minutes, and then, upon perfusing with equal parts
of warmed defibrinated blood from the same dog and 0°6 per cent. salt solution, to
continue fibrillation for fifty-eight minutes more.

Perfusion with simple normal salt solution failed to preserve either fibrillation
or pulsation. The parts perfused became cedematous, and failed to beat, while
neighbouring parts, not supplied with salt solution, continued to contract.

A flap of the left ventricle which had been dissected away from the rest of the
wall so as to remain connected only by muscle at its base, and by its artery and
veins, pulsated with a slower rhythm than the rest of the heart.

After the vessels supplying this flap had been tied, the ventricle was caused
caused to fibrillate ; the flap continued to pulsate as before.

In another case the flap fibrillated with the ventricle, but resumed pulsations
after the ligature of its vessels.

In the third similar experiment, the flap continued to fibrillate after the ligature
of its vessels.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 897

4. On the Effects of Successive Stimulation of the Visceromotor and
Vasomotor Nerves of the Intestine. By J. L. Buncu, D.Sc., MD.

When the contractions of the circular and longitudinal coats of the same
segment of small intestine are recorded together, stimulation either of the vagus
or of the splanchnic produces the same effect on both coats, but when the con-
tractions of two different segments are recorded, the circular coat of one and the
longitudinal coat of the other, the result of stimulation is not necessarily the same
on both. Successive stimulation of the vagus and splanchnic nerves with the
same strength of current shows some differences according to the order in which
the two nerves are stimulated. Though the effect produced by a preliminary
stimulation of the splanchnic can be modified or even overcome by subsequent
excitation of the vagus, when such excitation normally gives rise to an effect
opposed to that brought about by the splanchnic, a reversal of the order of
stimulation does not give rise to a similar result, and a secondary stimulation of
the splanchnic cannot, as a rule, equally modify the effect produced by preliminary
vagus excitation.

The vasomotor effects which Francois Franck and Hallion have ascribed to the
vagus, I have, ina somewhat prolonged series of experiments, been unable to
confirm.

5. On Stimulation and Hacitability of the Anemic Brain. By Wiu11aM
J. Gres. [Lrom the Physiological Institute of the University of
Bern. |

The research indicated by this subject was conducted in the Physiological.
Institute at Bern, upon the suggestion and under the constant direction of Pro-
fessor Kronecker. Our aim was to determine definitely the sequence of events
during perfusion of various so-called indifferent solutions through the brain, the
data thus obtained to afford a starting-point for future research with such liquids
as may be found to exert specific and characteristic influences.

In this report I shall present only the briefest outline of the experiments and
the results obtained.

The animals employed were toads, frogs, rabbits, and dogs.

The solutions used were various strengths of pure sodium chloride, Ringer's
solution and Howell’s modification of it; Schiicking’s solution, both of calcium and
sodium saccharate, and serum.

The perfusion in the cold-blooded animals was conducted with the least possible
pressure through the abdominal vein. All of the various solutions already
enumerated, except the serum, were used. We made thirteen experiments (seven
with toads and six with frogs), each of which continued for a period of two to
eight hours, with a total transfusate of 250 to 1,600 c.c.

During the period of perfusion the following functions gradually weakened and
then usually disappeared in this order: (#) Respiration; (0) Skin reflex; (c) Lid
reflex ; (d) Nose reflex; (e) Heart beat.

The time of disappearances of these functions varied with the total length of
the experiments, and apparently also with the amount of fluid transfused.

Convulsive extension of the limbs occurred in all of the experiments in the
earlier stages, but toward the close of each, and before the reflex movements of
the eyelids ceased, no such manifestations could be induced.

In passing it should be noted that:

(a) All of the animals became edematous; even those in which perfusion took
place at the lowest possible pressures and for the shortest periods.

(b) Also, that it was impossible to entirely remove the blood corpuscles, even
when the perfusion continued uninterruptedly for eight hours, and as much as
1,600 c.c. of fluid had slowly passed through the body. In all cases the fluid
flowing from the canula, and particularly that pressed from the heart and brain,
contained quite an appreciable number of red and white corpuscles,

1899. 3M

898 REPORT—18Y9.

.

We carried out fourteen experiments with rabbits and three with dogs, all of
the previously mentioned fluids having been used.

Ligaturing, either in the neck or in the chest, the arteries to the brain, before,
or simultaneously with, the beginning of the perfusion, brought on convulsions
immediately. Even when the perfusion had been begun shortly before the arterial
blood was completely shut off, it remained impossible to prevent convulsions and
quickly ensuing death.

Finally, instead of closing the arteries to the brain, the abdominal aorta, vena
cava and vena porta were tied off and the heart’s action utilised to pump the liquid
through the brain, the perfused fluid going into the heart by one jugular and from
the brain through the other. By this method anzemia could also be induced, con-
vulsions entirely prevented, and life considerably prolonged.

As in the experiments with the cold-blooded animals, there was in these also a
fairly regular disappearance of functions, the intervals appearing to vary with the
total time of perfusion. With all of the solutions, including serum, both in the
rabbits and in the dogs, the order of cessation usually was: (a) Respiration ;
(6) Lid reflex; (c) Nose reflex; (d) Heart beat.

In some of the experiments, it should be noted, the nose and lid reflexes ceased
at practically the same instant. In a few, also, it was impossible to determine the
sequence of termination of these two and respiration.

In a single special experiment with a small dog (5 kilos), 200 c.c. of blood was
taken, and an equal quantity of horse serum immediately afterwards was trans-
fused to take its place. This process was repeated three times at intervals of half
an hour. After the fourth withdrawal of fluid, the dog ceased to breathe, and
did not recover when the serum was transfused. Aside from variations in heart
action and respiration, there were no special functional changes until the end,
when respiration suddenly ceased, and the other functions quickly disappeared in
the order of the other experiments. Death was neither preceded nor accompanied
by convulsions.

The more important conclusions of this preliminary research are :

1. When the brain is subjected to acute anzemia produced by the ligature of
its arteries or by the transfusion of indifferent solutions such as physiological
saline, Ringer's, Schiicking’s and also serum, its functions are not maintained (and
convulsions ensue, but may be prevented by producing gradual instead of acute
angemia).

2. In gradual anemia of the brain, as induced in these experiments, the
following functions cease, usually in this order: (a) Respiration; (6) Lid reflex ;
(c) Nose reflex ; (¢) Heart beat.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Innervation of the Thoracic and Abdominal Parts of the
Gsophagus. By W. Munzere, of Cincinnati. [From the Physio-
logical Institute of the University of Bern. |

The course and function of the branches of the superior laryngeal nerve which
are distributed to the cervical part of the cesophagus are already well known from
the researches of Liischer. The distribution of the vagi in the thoracic part has,
so far as we are aware, not been hitherto investigated.

I have previously shown by dissection the mode of branching of the vagi on
the cesophagus of the dog and rabbit.

The functions of these nerves have now been investigated by me in conjunction
with Professor Kronecker on etherised curarised animals. The following is

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 899
summary of the results obtained regarding the action of the parts concerned under
these conditions :—

1. Water placed in the mouth does not give rise to swallowing movements.

2. Stimulation of the superior laryngeal (central end) produces no movements
of the pharynx and upper part of the cesophagus, but the larynx is sometimes
slightly elevated. During the stimulation the thoracic and cesophageal parts of
the gullet are slightly drawn up. About two seconds after stimulation contraction
of the cardia occurs—often quite a strong one.

3. Similar phenomena attend stimulation of the central end of either vagus.

4, Stimulation of the peripheral end of the vagus also frequently causes con-
traction of the same parts, but only after eight to ten seconds,

5. Direct stimulation of the cardia causes it to contract. During this observa-
tion the artificial respiration was suspended in order the better to observe the
movements of the cardia. If this suspension of respiration was long continued the
slight automatic movements of the cardia became increased in amount.

6. With vagus stimulation there was contraction of the pylorus without any
inhibition,

2. Observations, Physiological and Pharmacological, on the Intestinal Move-
ments of a Dog with a Vella Fistula. By J. E. Essrumont. [From
the Physiological Institute of the University of Bern. |

Physiological Observations.

I. The rhythm of the ‘pendulum movements’ (Bayliss and Starling) was
extremely regular, the frequency of ten to twelve per minute being preserved in
the fasting and feeding animal, with or without peristalsis. Occasionally the
frequency rose to eighteen and twenty per minute. The movements were then
irregular, and suggested the interference of two distinct sets of waves.

The great variation in size of these pendulum movements, which occurred from
time to time, did not correspond to variations in the rate of peristalsis. With the
most rapid peristalsis the waves were small, probably masked by the tonic
intestinal contraction around the balloon sound used for recording purposes.

II. Peristalsis, under different conditions, varied from 0 to 224 cm. per
minute. The normal average rate, twelve to twenty hours after food, was about
3 em, per minute, but wide variations occurred from hour to hour and day to day.

Antiperistalsis was never observed. Transient increase of peristalsis appeared
after deglutition. After a full meal peristalsis remained depressed for three to six
hours or more.

After slight exercise a transient well-marked increase of peristalsis occurred.
More prolonged exercise had, as a rule, no further effect than that following slight
exercise. When pushed to the point of moderate fatigue, some retardation of the
movements occurred. After emotion a marked increase constantly occurred, but
lasted for only a few minutes. Light sleep seemed to have no decided effect on
the movements.

Pharmacological Observations.

When certain purgatives, chiefly derivatives of aloe (kindly furnished to me,
and their chemical properties determined by Professor Tschirsch) were given to the
dog, by mouth, the doses required to produce purgation were approximately the
same as those required for a man of ten times the dog’s weight.

A phase of increased peristalsis in the fistulous loop usually preceded the
onset of purgation by several hours.

The substances investigated were barbaloin, its three derivatives—aloe-emodin,
alochrysin, alonigrin—and also, nataloin and chrysophanic acid.

The experiments went to show that barbaloin, with its derivatives, and chryso-
phanic acid, which probably all agree chemically in possessing the anthracene
nucleus in their molecules, agree also pharmacologically in possessing marked

3M 2

900 REPORT—1899.

purgative properties. Nataloin, whose molecule does not possess the anthracene
nucleus, is inactive for man, and has but very slight action in the dog.

The most active were aloe-emodin and alochrysin, either when given by the
fistula or by the mouth, while barbaloin itself, although freely soluble, appeared to
be active only when given by the mouth, and not when given through the fistula
direct. It apparently requires to be split up under the action of the alkaline
intestinal juice.

[A detailed account of the physiological experiments will appear in the
‘Zeitschrift fiir Biologie,’ and of the pharmacological, in the ‘Archiv fiir
experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie.’]

8. On Respiration on Mountains. By Dr. Emit Bure.
[From the Physiological Institute of the University of Bern.|

At Professor Kronecker’s advice, Dr. Burgi has continued the investigations on
the above subject, the earlier results of which were communicated to the Physio-
logical Congress in Cambridge, 1898. In these experiments he found that, for
equal amounts of work performed at the foot and on the top of the Brienzer Roth-
horn, the CO, output was greater in the latter case. After seven days’ training on
the mountain this difference disappeared.

This year Dr. Burgi has repeated this experiment on the Gornergrat railway,
since the experiments could here be carried out at a height (3,035 metres) at which
‘mountain sickness’ is frequently observed.

The CO, outputs by rest and work at the foot of the Brienzer Rothhorn (650 m.)
were compared with the output under similar conditions on the top of the Gorner-
grat (about 3,000 m.),

He expired, at rest, during 12 minutes at 650m. 31 gm. CO,
* A 3 Ax at 3,000 m. 34 gm. CO,
After training ,, a . at 650m. 29 gm. CO,
at 3,000 m. 30 gm, CO,

” ” ” ”

He then repeated the experiments previously carried out on the Brienzer
Rothhorn, but with varying steepness, and therefore severity of work.

The work done is shown in the following table :—

Dr. Burgi weighed (with pack) 108 kgm. The distance traversed in each case
was 270 metres.

Inclination. Height traversed. Work done.

17:29 per cent. : - 46:0005 m. - . 4968-0 kgm.

19:0 oA - - 50°3984m. 2 . 54432 ,,

19:3 ms , . 51°1638 m. i . /po2bcoeees

25 * : . 655m. ; . 70740 ,,
The CO, output per 1,000 kgm. work was found to be as follows :—
Inclination. Output

(gm. CO).

17-29 per cent. (at 650m.) 608.
19:0 3 5 5°14) The work here was accomplished by trayers-
19°3 ‘i (at 3,000 m.) 5°78 ing 135 metres évice.
19°3 9 6°66
25:0 = aes 546 (after training).
19°3 i s 5:09 P Traversing 135 metres twice.
190 » (at 650m.) 5:01
193 » (at3,000m.) 5:45 es
1729 ,, (at 650m.) 5°30

These experiments give therefore an average excretion per 1,000 kgm. work of
5:6 gm, CO, in the untrained, and 5:0 gm. CO, in the trained subject.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 901

4. On Protamines, the Simplest Proteids. By Professor A. Kosserr.

5. Protamines and their Oleavage Products: their Physiological Effects.
By Professor W. H. Tuompson.

6. The Vascular Mechanism of the Testis.
By Wauter E. Dixon, M.D., B.Sc. London.

The method adopted was the Plethysmographic, both testes being rapidly
shelled out, and, after incising or removing the tunica vaginalis, enclosing them
in a gutta-percha oncometer. The animals used were mainly dogs and cats,
although rabbits and goats were occasionally employed. By this method it was
shown that the testis undergoes changes in volume passively as a result of altera-
tions in blood pressure, and active changes due to vasomotor nerves.

The following were the main conclusions which were drawn :—

1. Operations involving the testis are usually followed by some vascular disturb-
ance, the blood pressure falling and the heart beating more feebly.

2, The sympathetic filaments in the spermatic cord may be divided into three
groups according to the effect produced on the testis whilst stimulating their
peripheral end, viz.: (a) vaso-constrictors ; () vaso-dilators ; (c) those producing
no alteration in volume, these probably being afferent fibres associated with
testicular sensation.

3. The vaso-constrictor nerves to the testis were traced and shown to pass
mainly through the anterior roots of the thirteenth dorsal and first and second
lumbar nerves in the dog. There is still some doubt with regard to the position
of the vaso-dilators.

4, Injections of testicular extract produce a different effect in different animals ;
in the cat there is a fall of blood-pressure with marked inhibition, whilst in the
goat there is a considerable rise without the inhibition. The chief active con-
stituent is nucleo-proteid. In every case the ultimate effect on the testis is one of
dilatation.

5. The substances having the most marked effect on testicular volume were the
following :—

(a) Gold Chloride—In small doses there is comparatively little effect on
blood pressure. The testis first contracts and then gradually dilates, the dilated
condition being considerable and permanent.

(b) Cantharidin.—In very small doses (‘001 gramme to an animal of three or
four kilos) there is first a rise in pressure with slowing, followed by a very insignifi-
cant fall ; the intestinal area is dilated, and the testes and kidneys undergo marked
constriction. This active testicular constriction is greater and more prolonged
than that which could be produced with any other substance, and is followed by a
stage of very considerable dilatation.

(c) Valerian.—A concentrated infusion in medicinal doses produces ultimately
a passive slight testicular dilatation.

(d) Anhalonnine produces an entirely passive dilatation of testis as a result of
rise in blood pressure.

(e) Other substances.—The following substances all produced some testicular
, generally insignificant: strychnine, cannabis indica, amyl nitrite, ergot,
alcohol.

902 REPORT—1899,

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Dependence of the Tonus of the Muscles of the Bladder in Rabbits on
the Spinal Cord. By Joun P. Arnowp, Philadelphia. [From the
Physiological Institute of the University of Bern.|

I. The tonus of the Sphincter is normally greater than that of the Detrusor.

1. The Sphincter may be so strongly contracted as to withstand, at first, a water
pressure of 68°2cm. In other cases it may only withstand a pressure of 17 cm.

2. The Detrusor tonus in a moderately filled bladder, soon after catheterisation,
may be as high as 31'4 em. water pressure. On the other hand the tonus of the
Detrusor in a moderately filled bladder may be as low as 3°5 cm.

3. Normally the Sphincter tonus remains tolerably constant between 25 cm.
and 30 cm., but may vary between 31 cm. and 38:2 cm., as observed in one
rabbit, or between 17 cm. and 24 cm. as observed in another.

4. The tonus of the moderately filled bladder is normally between 4 cm. and
5 ecm. water pressure. The tension rises in proportion to the fulness.

5. Under high pressure both the Sphincter and the Detrusor make rhythmic
contractions at irregular intervals.

II, After shutting off the blood supply from the lower part of the spinal cord
by compression or ligation of the abdominal aorta, the tonus of the Sphincter and
of the Detrusor sinks rapidly.

1. The tonus of the Sphincter falls at once very rapidly, quite low, then
gradually, until all tonus is lost. In one animal the tonus of the Sphineter did
not begin to fall until twelve minutes after ligation of the aorta. In this case the
aorta was ligated just above its division.

2. The Sphincter may still retain a small degree of tonus as long as 14 hour
after death.

3. The tonus of the Detrusor falls more slowly than that of the Sphincter.

4. In one experiment we observed, after swallowing movements produced by
stimulation of both superior laryngeal nerves, a rapid sinking of the Sphincter
tonus.

5. Physical disturbances, such as loud noises, lower the tonus of the Sphincter.

In our experiments normal salt solution, kept at a constant temperature between
39° and 41° C., was used in the bladder. Before passing the catheter the penis
was rendered anesthetic by a 5 per cent. solution of cocain.

Animals which were killed by bleeding or by section between the medulla
and cerebellum gave similar results to those observed after ligation or compression
of the aorta. After section above the medulla artificial respiration was used.
During this period the Sphincter tonus fell more slowly.

2. Observations on Visual Acuity from Torres Straits.
By Dr. W. H. R. Rivers.—See Reports, p. 586.

3. Observations on Visual Acuity from New Guinea.
By C. G. SELIGMANN.

4. On a New Instrument for measuring the duration of Persistence of
Vision on the Human Retina. By Eric Sruart Bruce, M.A.Ozxon.,
F.R.Met.Soc.

The aerial graphoscope devised by the author for measuring the duration of
persistence of vision on the retina consists of a lath of wood 76 centimetres long

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 903

and 5 centimetres broad, painted white in front with a grey centre gradually
diminishing in shade to white towards the extremities, This is revolved at its
centre by an electric motor provided with a means of counting its revolutions, and
worked by means of a five-cell electric storage battery. The lath is placed 1
metre 14 centimetres from the nozzle of a projection lantern, in which there is a
lantern slide representing a statue or other definite figure. On the lath at rest a
small portion of the lantern image is projected and focussed. When the lath is
revolved rapidly at about 318 revolutions per half-minute, the whole picture appears
standing out boldly in space and in relief, and at this rate of revolutions is steady.
The persistent image, however, is visible, though not steady, at much lower rates
of revolution, the lowest rate being a matter of individual capacity. By ascer-
taining the rate of revolutions of which each person can just see persistence his
particular capacity is calculated.

Tables containing the results of a hundred tests with 67 persons were shown.
One of these gave a group of 25 tests with persons of both sexes and various ages
and classes. The low rate of 27 revolutions per halfminute was taken as the
lowest limit for the tests.

Another table of special interest gave tests of 26 schoolboys before and after
the bodily fatigue produced by running. The persistence of every subject was
altered by running, except one, who registered the same in each case. The record
of seven was lowered, but that of nineteen was heightened, showing that bodily
oe tends to prolong persistence of vision, which seems to be the tendency of
illness.

A third table showed tests under the light of different colours ; the rays from the
Jantern passing through red, green, and violet glasses. It also showed tests of
three persons before and after retinal rest.

The question of persistence of vision in relation to its duration in different
individuals and in the same individual under different circumstances, appears to
have an important bearing on modern rapid visual signalling. In reading the
signals the signaller has to discriminate between real and incidental images, and
his sharp reading of dots and dashes will depend upon the persisting capacity of
his retina. A good signaller is likely to be one whose persistence of vision is
abnormally low, a bad signaller one whose persistence of vision is abnormally
high. The aerial graphoscope affords a means of testing signallers as to their
capacities of persistence of vision, and of selecting the fittest. For this purpose
it has lately been installed in the school of signalling at Aldershct.

904 REPORT—1899.

Section K.—BOTANY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTIoN—Sir Gzorce Kine, K.C.LE., LL.D., M.B., F.R.S:

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The President deliyered the following Address:—

A Sketch of the History of Indian Botany.

Tue earliest references in literature to Indian plants are, of course, those which
occur in the Sanskrit classics. These are, however, for the most part vague and
obscure. The interest which these references have, great as it may be, is not
scientific, and they may therefore be omitted from consideration on the present
occasion. The Portuguese, who were the first Europeans to appear in India as
conquerors and settlers, did practically nothing in the way of describing the plants.
of their Eastern possessions. And the first contribution to the knowledge of the
Botany of what is now British India was made by the Dutch in the shape of the
‘Hortus Malabaricus,’ which was undertaken at the instance of Van Rheede,

governor of the territory of Malabar, which during the latter half of the seven--

teenth century had become a possession of Holland. This book, which is in
twelve folio volumes and is illustrated by 794 plates, was published at Amsterdam
between the years 1686 and 1703, under the editorship of the distinguished
Botanist Commelyn. Van Rheede was himself only a Botanical amateur, but he
had a great love of plants and most enlightened ideas as to the value of a correct
and scientific knowledge of them. The ‘Hortus Malabaricus’ was based on speci-
mens collected by Brahmins, on drawings of many of the species made by Matheus,
a Carmelite missionary at Cochin, and on descriptions originally drawn up in the
vernacular language of Malabar, which were afterwards translated into Portuguese:
by Corneiro, a Portuguese official in Cochin, and from that language finally done
into Latin by Van Douet. The whole of these operations were carried on under
the general superintendence of Casearius, a missionary at Cochin. Of this most
interesting work the plates are the best part; in fact, some of these are so good
that there is no difficulty in identifying them with the species which they are
intended to represent. ‘The next important contribution to the Botanical literature
of Tropical Asia deals rather with the plants of Dutch than of British India. It
was the work of George Everhard Rumph (a native of Hanover), a physician and
merchant, who for some time was Dutch consul at Amboina. The materials for
this book were collected mainly by Rumphius himself, and the Latin descriptions
and the drawings (of which there are over one thousand) were his own work.
The book was completed in 1690, but it remained unpublished during the author's
lifetime. Rumph died at Amboina in 1706, and his manuscript, after lying for
thirty years in the hands of the Dutch East India Company, was rescued from

a a a LE

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 905

oblivion by Professor John Burman, of Amsterdam (commonly known as the
elder Burman), and was published under the title of ‘ Herbarium Amboinense,’
in seven folio volumes, between the years 1741 and 1755. The illustrations of
this work cover over a thousand species, but they are printed on 696 plates.
These illustrations are as much inferior to those of Van Rheede’s book as the de-
scriptions are superior to those of the latter. The works of Plukenet, published
in London between 1696 and 1705, in quarto, contain figures of a number of
Indian plants which, although small in size, are generally good portraits, and
therefore deserve mention in an enumeration of botanical books connected with
British India. An account of the plants of Ceylon, under the name ‘Thesaurus
Zeylanicus,’ was published in 1737 by John Burman (the elder Burman), and in this
work many of the plants which are common to that island and to Peninsular India
are described. Burman’s book was founded on the collections of Paul Hermann,
who spent seven years (from 1670 to 1677) exploring the Flora of Ceylon at the
expense of the Dutch East India Company. The nomenclature of the five books
already mentioned is all uni-nominal.

Hermann’s Cingalese collection fell, however, sixty years after the publication
of Burman’s account of it, into the hands of Linnzeus, and that great systematist
published in 1747 an account of such of the species as were adequately represented
by specimens, under the title ‘Flora Zeylanica.’ This Hermann Herbarium, con-
sisting of 600 species, may still be consulted at the British Museum, by the
trustees of which institution it was acquired, along with many of the other treasures
possessed by Sir Joseph Banks. Linnzeus’s ‘Flora Zeylanica’ was followed in
1768 by the ‘ Flora Indica’ of Nicholas Burman (the younger Burman)—an inferior
production, in which about 1,500 species are described. The Herbarium on which
this ‘ Flora Indica’ was founded now forms part of the great Herbarium Deles-
sert at Geneva.

The active study of Botany on the binominal system of nomenclature invented
by Linnzeus was initiated in India itself by Koenig,a pupil of that great reformer
and systematist. It will be convenient to divide the subsequent history of Botanic
science in India into two periods, the first extending from Koenig’s arrival in
India in 1768 to Sir Joseph Hooker's arrival in 1848 ; and the second from the latter

ate to the present day.

The pioneer John Gerard Koenig was a native of the Baltic province of Courland.
He was a correspondent of Linnzeus, whose pupil he had formerly been. Koenig went
out to the Danish Settlement at Tranquebar (150 miles south of Madras) in 1768,
and at once began the study of Botany with all the fervour of an enthusiasm which
he succeeded in imparting to various correspondents who were then settled near
him in Southern India. These friends formed themselves into a society under the:
name of ‘The United Brothers,’ the chief object of their union being the promotion
of Botanical study. Three of these brothers, viz. Heyne, Klein, and Rottler, were
missionaries located near Tranquebar. Gradually the circle widened, and before
the century closed, the enthusiasm for Botanic research had spread to the younger
Presidency of Bengal, and the number of workers had increased to about twelve,
among whom may be mentioned Fleming, Hunter, Anderson, Berry, John, Rox--
burgh, Buchanan (afterwards Buchanan-Hamilton), and Sir William Jones, so well
known as an Oriental scholar. At first it was the custom of this brotherhood
merely to exchange specimens, but gradually names began to be given, and speci-
mens, both named and unnamed, began to be sent to Botanists of established
reputation in Europe. Many plants of Indian origin came thus to be described by
Retz, Roth, Schrader, Willdenow, Vahl,andSmith. Rottler was the only member
of the band who himself published in Europe descriptions of any of the new species
of his own collecting, and these appeared in the ‘Nova Acta Acad. Nat. Curio-
sorum’ of Berlin, A little later Sonnerat and other Botanists of the French Settle-
ment at Pondicherry sent large collections of plantsto Paris, and these were followed
at a considerably later date by the collections of Leschenhault. These French col-
lections were described chiefly by Lamarck and Poiret. Hitherto Botanical work in
India had been more or less desultory, and it was not until the establishment in 1787
of the Botanic Garden at Calcutta that a recognised centre of Botanical activity was.

906 REPORT—1899.

established in British India. Robert Kyd, the founder of that Garden, was more of
a gardener thana Botanist. He was, however, a man of much energy and shrewd-
ness. The East India Company was still in 1787 a trading company, and a large
part of their most profitable business was derived from the nutmegs and other
spices exported from their settlements in Penang, Malacca, Amboina, Sumatra, and
other islands of the Malayan Archipelago. The Company were also in those days
the owners of a fine fleet of sailing vessels, and the teak of which these ships were
built had to be obtaimed from sources outside the Company’s possessions. The
proposal to found a Botanic Garden near Calcutta was thus recommended to the
Governor of the Company’s settlements in Bengal on the ground that, by its means,
the cultivation of teak and of the Malayan spices might be introduced into a
province near one of the Company’s chief Indian centres. Kyd, as a Lieutenant-
Colonel of the Company’s engineers and as Secretary to the Military Board at
Calcutta, occupied a position of considerable influence, and his suggestion evidently
fell on no unwilling ears; for the Government of Bengal, with the promptitude to
accept and to act on good advice in scientific and semi-scientific matters which has
characterised them from the day of Kyd until now, lost no time in taking steps to
find a site for the proposed garden. Colonel Kyd’s official proposal was dated
June 1, 1786, and, in a despatch dated August 2, the Calcutta Government recom-
mended Kyd’s proposal to the Court of Directors in London. Posts were slow and
infrequent in those days, and the Calcutta Government were impatient. They did
not wait for a reply from Leadenhall Street, but in the following July they boldly
secured the site recommended by Colonel Kyd. This site covered an area of
300 acres, and the whole of it, with the exception of thirty acres which were sub-
sequently given up to Bishop Middleton for an English college, still continues
under cultivation as a Botanic Garden. Kyd died in 1793,and in the same year his
place as Superintendent of the Garden was taken by Dr. William Roxburgh, a young

Botanical enthusiast, and one of Koenig’s ‘United Brotherhood.’ Roxburgh had .

studied Botany in Edinburgh, where he was a favourite pupil of Dr. Hope. Desirous
of seeing something of foreign countries, he made several voyages to Madras in
ships belonging to the Honourable East India Company. In 1776 he accepted an
appointment in the Company’s Medical Establishment, and was posted to the
town of Madras, where he very soon made the acquaintance of Koenig. Roxburgh
was shortly after transferred to a remote district, a good deal to the north of
Madras, then named the Northern Circars. The station of Samulcotta, which
formed Roxburgh’s headquarters during his sojourn in the Circars, stands on the
edge of ahilly region possessing a very interesting Flora, and this Flora he explored
with the greatest ardour; and as part of the result of his labours an account of
some of the most interesting of its plants was published in London, at the Hast
India Company’s expense, in three large folio volumes under the title ‘The Plants
of the Coast of Coromandel.’ This was Roxburgh’s earliest publication on a large
scale. ‘The first part of this book appeared in 1795, and the last not until 1819,
ze. five years after the author’s death. The increased facilities afforded to
Roxburgh after his transfer to a comparatively well-equipped institution like that
at Calcutta induced him at once to begin the preparation of descriptions of all the
plants indigenous to British India of which he could procure specimens. And so
diligently did he work that, when he was finally driven from India by ill-health in
1813, he left complete and ready for publication the manuscripts of his
‘Flora Indica’ and of his ‘ Hortus Bengalensis’ (the latter being an enumeration of
the plants in cultivation in the Calcutta Garden). He also left admirable coloured
drawings (mostly of natural size) of 2,533 species of plants indigenous to India.
Seldom have twenty years yielded so rich a Botanical harvest! Dr. Roxburgh was
thus the first Botanist who attempted to draw upa systematic account of the
plants of India, and his book, which is on the Linnean system, is the basis of all
subsequent works on Indian Botany ; and until the publication of Sir Joseph
Hooker’s monumental ‘ Flora of British India’ it remained the only single book
through which a knowledge of Indian plants could be acquired. Roxburgh was
immediately succeeded in the Calcutta Garden by Dr. Buchanan-Hamilton, a man
of many accomplishments, who had travelled from Nepal in the North to Ava and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 907

Mysore in the South, accumulating materials for a Gazetteer of the Honourable
Company’s possessions. Dr. Buchanan wasa Zoologist as well as a Botanist. He
had published a valuable account of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, and had collected
materials for a work on the Fishes of India, besides having accumulated a large
Herbarium, part of which may now be consulted at the University of Edinburgh.
Prior to his death Buchanan-Hamilton had begun to write a learned commentary
on Van Rheede’s ‘ Hortus Malabaricus.’ Many of his Nepalese collections were de-
seribed in 1825 (a few years before his own death) by Don in bis ‘ Prodromus Flore
Nepalensis.’ Buchanan-Hamilton remained only one year at Calcutta, and in
1815 he was succeeded by Nathaniel Wallich, a native of Copenhagen, who, prior
to bis appointment to the Calcutta Garden, had been attached as surgeon to the
Danish settlement at Serampore, twenty miles higher up the Hooghly. Wallich
remained Superintendent of the Calcutta Garden for thirty years. In 1846 he went
to England, and in 1854 he died. During his tenure of office in the Calcutta Garden,
Wallich organised collecting expeditions to the then little-known regions of
Kamaon and Nepal (in the Himalaya), to Oudh, Rohilcund, Sylhet, Tenasserim,
Penang, and Singapore. He personally undertook in fact a botanical survey of a
large part of the Company’s possessions in India. The vast materials thus collected
under his own immediate direction, and the various contributions made by others,
were taken to London by him in 1828. With these were subsequently incorporated
the collections of Russell, Klein, Heyne, Rottler, Buchanan-Hamilton, and Rox-
burgh. And by the help of a band of distinguished European Botanists, among
whom may be named De Candolle, Kunth, Lindley, Meissner, Nees von Esenbeck,
Von Martius, and Bentham (the latter in a very special manner), this vast mass
of material was classified and named specifically. A catalogue of the collection
was prepared by Wallich himself (largely aided by Bentham), and sets of the
named specimens were distributed to the leading Botanical institutions in Europe,
every example of each species bearing the same number. No description of the
whole collection was ever attempted, but many of the plants belonging to it were
subsequently described in various places and at various times, So extensive was
the Wallichian distribution that, amongst the names and synonyms of tropical
Asiatic plants, no citation is more frequent in Botanical hooks than that of
tle contraction ‘ Wall. Cat.’ Besides the naming and distribution of this gigantic
collection, Wallich prepared and published, at the expense of the same liberal
and enlightened East India Company, his ‘Plante Asiaticee Rariores,’ in three
folio volumes with 300 coloured plates. He also contributed to an edition of
Roxburgh’s ‘Flora Indica,’ which was begun by the celebrated Dr. Carey of
Serampore, descriptions of many plants of his own collecting. But the task of
publishing his discoveries in this way proved beyond his powers, as it would have
proved beyond those of any one who had only 366 days to his year, and less than a
hundred years as his term of lite! Carey and Wallich’s edition of Roxburgh’s
‘Flora Indica’ was brought to an untimely conclusion at the end of the Pentan-
dria Monogynia of Linneus. Wallich also began an illustrated account of the
Flora of Nepal under the title ‘Tentamen Florz Nepalensis.’ But this also came
to a premature end with the publication of its second part.

During much ofthe time that Wallich was labouring in Northern India, Robert
Wight, a botanist of remarkable sagacity and of boundless energy, was labouring
in Southern India, chiefly in parts of the Peninsula different from those in which
Koenig and his band had worked. Wight was never liberally supported by the
Government of Madras, and it was mostly by his own efforts and from his own
resources that his collections were made, and that his Botanical works were pub-
lished. The chief of the latter is his ‘Icones Plantarum.’ This book consists of
figures with descriptions of more than two thousand Indian species. A good
many of the plates are indeed copies from the suite of drawings already referred to
as having been made at Calcutta by Dr. Roxburgh. The rest are from drawings
made by native artists under his personal supervision. Ample evidence of the
extraordinary energy of Dr. Wight is afforded by the facts that, although
he had to teach the native artists whom he employed both to draw and
to lithograph, the two thousand Icones which he published and described were

908 REPORT—1899.

issued during the short period of thirteen years, and that during the whole
of this time he performed his official duties.

Besides this magnum opus Wight published his Spicilegiuwm Nilghirense in
two vols. quarto, with 200 coloured plates. And between 1840 and 1850 he
issued in two vols. quarto, with 200 plates, another book named ‘ Illustrations of
Indian Botany,’ the object of which was to give figures and fuller descriptions of
some of the chief species described in a systematic book of the highest Botanical
merit, which he prepared conjointly with Dr. G. A. Walker-Arnot, Professor of
Botany in the University of Glasgow, and which was published under the title
‘Prodromus Florz Peninsule Indice.’ The ‘ Prodromus’ was the first attempt
at a Flora of any part of India in which the natural system of classification was
followed. Owing to various causes, this work was never completed, and this
splendid fragment of a Flora of Peninsular India ends with the natural order
Dipsacee.

The next great Indian botanist whose labours demand our attention is
William Griffith. Born in 1810, sixteen years after Wight, and twenty-four years
later than Wallich, Griffith died before either. But the labours even of such
devotees to science as were these two are quite eclipsed by those of this most
remarkable man. Griffith’s Botanical career in India was begun in Tenasserim.
From thence he made Botanical expeditions to the Assam valley, exploring the
Mishmi, Khasia, and Naga ranges. From the latter he passed by a route never
since traversed by a Botanist, through the Hookung valley down the Irrawadi to
Rangoon. Having been appointed, soon after his arrival in Rangoon, surgeon to
Pemberton’s Embassy to Bhotan, he explored part of that country, and also sent
collectors into the neighbouring one of Sikkim. At the conclusion of this explora-
tion he was transferred to the opposite extremity of the Northern frontier, and was
posted to the Army of the Indus. After the subjugation of Cabul, he penetrated to
Khorassau. Subsequently he visited the portion of the Himalaya of which Simla is
now the best-known spot. He then made a run down the Nerbudda valley in Central
India, and finally appeared in Malacca as Civil Surgeon of that Settlement. At
the latter place he soon died of an abscess of the liver brought on by the hardships
he had undergone on his various travels, which were made under conditions most
inimical to health, in countries then absolutely unvisited by Europeans. No
Botanist ever made such extensive explorations, nor himself collected so many
species (9,000), as Griflith did during the brief thirteen years of his Indian career :
none ever made so many field notes or wrote so many descriptions of plants from
living specimens. His Botanical predecessors and contemporaries were men of
ability and of devotion. Griffith was a man of genius. He did not confine him-
self to the study of flowering plants, nor to the study of them from the point of
view of their place in any system of classification. He also studied their morpho-
logy. The difficult problems in the latter naturally had most attraction for him,
and we find him publishing, in the ‘ Linnean Transactions,’ the results of his
researches on the ovule in Santalum, Loranthus, Viscum, and Cycas. Griffith
was also a cryptogamist. He collected, studied, and wrote much on Mosses,
Liverworts, Marsiliacee, and Lycopods, and he made hundreds of drawings to
illustrate his microscopic observations. Wherever he travelled he made sketches of
the most striking features in the scenery. His habit of making notes was inyete-
rate; and his itinerary diaries are full of information not only on the Botany, but
also on the zoology, physical geography, geology, meteorology, archeology, and
agriculture of the countries through which he passed. His manuscripts and
drawings, although left in rather a chaotic state, were published after his death
under the editorship of Dr. McClelland, at the expense of the enlightened and
ever-liberal East India Company. They occupy six volumes in octavo, four in
quarto, and one (a ‘ Monograph of Palms’) in folio.

Another Botanist-of much fame, who died prematurely in 1822, after an Indian
career of only nine years, was Dr. William Jack. In 1814-15 Jack accompanied
Ochterlony’s army to the Nepal terai. He was transferred in 1818 to the Company’s
Settlement in Sumatra under Sir Stamford Raffles, and during the four years of
his residence in Sumatra he contributed to Botanical literature descriptions of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 909

many new genera and species which were published in his ‘ Malayan Miscellanies.’
His collections, unfortunately, were for the most part lost by an accident, but those
which were saved are now in the Herbarium Delessert in Geneva.

Somewhat similar to Griffith in temperament and versatility was the brilliant
Victor Jacquemont, a French Botanist who, at the instance of the Paris Natural
History Museum, travelled in India for three years from 1829 to 1832, During
this period Jacquemont collected largely in the Gangetic plain. He then entered
the North-West Himalaya at Mussourie, explored Gharwal and Sirmur, ascended
the Sutlej to Kanawer and Piti (at that time unexplored), visited Cashmir, and
returning to the plains, crossed Northern Rajputana to Malwa and the Deccan.
He finally reached Bombay with the intention of returning to France. But at
Bombay he succumbed to disease of the liver, brought on by hard work and
exposure. His remains, after having lain in the cemetery there for fifty years,
were, with that tender regard for the personality of her famous sons which
France has always shown, exhumed in 1881, and conveyed in a French frigate to
find a permanent resting-place in the place of Jacquemont’s birth. Jacquemont’s
collections were transmitted to Paris, and his plants were described by
Cambessedes and Decaisne, while his non-botanical collections were elaborated
by workers in the branches of science to which they respectively appertained, the
whole being published in four volumes quarto, at the expense of the French
Government.

The roll of eminent Botanists who worked in India during the first half of the
century closes with the name of Thomas Thomson, who collected plants extensively
between 1842 and 1847 in Rohilkund and the Punjab, and again still more exten-
sively during a Government mission to the North-West Himalaya and Tibet
which was continued from 1847 to 1849. During this period Dr. Thomson
explored Simla, Kanawar, Piti, Cashmir, Ladak, and part of the Karakoram.
His collections, which were large and important, were transmitted to the Botanic
Garden at Calcutta, and thence in part to Kew. ‘They formed no insignificant
part of the materials on which the ‘ Flora Indica’ and ‘ Flora of British India’ were
founded. Dr. Thomson also published an account of his travels—an admirable
book, though now jostled out of memory by the quantities of subsequently issued
books of Himalayan travel and adventure.

About the year 1820 a second centre of Botanical enterprise was established at
Seharunpore, in the North-West Provinces. A large old garden near that impor-
tant town, which had been originally founded by some Mohammedan nobles of the
Delhi Court, was taken over by the Honourable Company, and was gradually put
upon a scientific basis by Dr. George Govan, who was appointed its first superinten-
dent. Dr. Govan was in 1823 succeeded by Dr. J. Forbes Royle, and he in 1832 by
Dr. Hugh Falconer. Dr. Royle made collections in the Jumno-Gangetic plain, in the
Lower Gharwal Himalaya, and in Cashmir. He was distinguished in the field of
Economic rather than in that of Systematic Botany, his chief contribution to the
latter having beena folio volume entitled ‘Illustrations of the Botany of the Himalaya
Mountains.’ His valuable labours as an Economic Botanist will be noticed later on.
Hugh Falconer was an accomplished palontologist who devoted but little of his
splendid talents to Botany. His great contribution to paleontology, the value of
which it is almost impossible to over-estimate, consisted of his exploration and
classification of the tertiary fossils of the Sewalik range. Falconer was transferred
to the Calcutta Garden in 1842. He was succeeded at Seharunpore by Dr. W.
Jameson, who explored the Botany of Gharwal, Kamaon, and Cashmir, but who
published nothing Botanical, his chief energies having been devoted to the useful
work of introducing the cultivation of the China tea plant into British India, and
this he did (as will afterwards be mentioned) with triumphant success.

During the first half of the century, a considerable amount of excellent Botanic
work was done in Western India by Graham, Law, Nimmo, Gibson, Stocks, and
Dalzell, the results of whose labours culminated in the preparation by Graham of
a List of the Plants of Bombay, which was not, however, published until 1839 (after
his death); in the publication by Stocks of various papers on the Botany of Scinde ;
and in the publication by Dalzell and Gibson in 1861 of his ‘ Floraof Bombay.’ Itis

910 REPORT—1899.

impossible in a brief review like the present to mention the names of all the workers
who, in various parts of the gradually extending Indian Empire, added to our know-
ledge of its Botanical wealth. It must suffice to mention the names of a few of
the chief, such as Hardwicke, Madden, Munro, Edgeworth, Lance, and Vicary,
who collected and observed in Northern India, and who all, except the two
last mentioned, also published Botanical papers and pamphlets of more or less
importance; Jenkins, Masters, Mack, Simons, and Oldham, who all collected exten-
sively in Assam; Hofmeister, who accompanied Prince Waldemar of Prussia, and
whose collections form the basis of the fine work by Klotzsch and Garcke (Reis. Pr.
Wald.); Norris, Prince, Lobb, and Cuming, whose labours were in Penang
and Malacea; and last, but not least, Strachey and Winterbottom, whose large
and valuable collections, amounting to about 2,000 species, were made during 1848
to 1850 in the higher ranges of the Kamaon and Gharwal Himalaya, and in the
adjacent parts of Tibet. In referring to the latter classic Herbarium, Sir Joseph
Hooker remarks that it is ‘the most valuable for its size that has ever been distri-
buted from India.’ General Strachey is the only one who survives of the splendid
band of collectors whom I have mentioned. I cannot conclude this brief account of
the Botanical labours of our first period without mentioning one more book, and
that is the ‘ Hortus Calcuttensis’ of Voigt. Under the form of a list, this excellent
work, published in 1845, contains a great deal of information about the plants
growing near Calcutta, either wild or in fields and gardens, It is strong in
vernacular names and vegetable economics.

The second period of our history begins with the arrival in India in 1848 of
Sir (then Dr.) Joseph Hooker. This distinguished Botanist came out in the suite
of Lord Dalhousie, who had been appointed Governor-General of India. The
province to the exploration of which Sir Joseph directed his chief attention was
that of Sikkim in the Hastern Himalaya, the higher and inner ranges of which had
never previously been visited by a Botanist, for Griffith’s explorations had been

confined to the lower and outer spurs. The results of Sir Joseph’s labours in—

Sikkim were enormous. ‘l'owards the end of his exploration of Sikkim he was
joined by Dr. Thomas Thomson, and the two friends subsequently explored the
Khasia Hills (one of the richest collecting grounds in the world), and also to some
extent the districts of Sylhet, Cachar, and Chittagong. Dr. Thomson subsequently
amalgamated the collections made by himself in the Western Himalaya with those
made in Sikkim by Sir Joseph individually, and by them both conjointly in Eastern
India ; and a distribution of the duplicates after the fashion of the Wallichian issue,
and second only to it in importance, was subsequently made from Kew. The number
of species thus issued amounted to from 6,000 to 7,000, and the individuals were
much more numerous than those of the Wallichian collection. The immediate literary
results of Sir Joseph Hooker’s visit to Sikkim were, (1) his superbly illustrated
monograph of the new and magnificent species of Rhododendron which he had
discovered ; (2) a similar splendid volume illustrated by plates founded on drawings
of certain other prominent plants of the Eastern Himalaya which had been made
for Mr. Cathcart, a member of the Civil Service of India, and (8) his classic
‘ Himalayan Journals ’—a book which remains until this day the richest repertory
of information concerning the botany, geography, and anthropology of the Hastern
Himalaya. A remoter result was the appearance in 1855 of the first volume of a
‘Flora Indica,’ projected by himself and his friend Dr. Thomson. Thefirst half of
this volume is occupied by a masterly introductory essay on Indian Botany, of
which it is hardly possible to overrate the importance. This remarkable essay
contains by far the most important contribution to the Physico-Geographical
Botany of India that has ever been made, and it abounds in sagacious observations
on the limitation of species and on hybridisation, besides containing much informa-
tion on the history of Indian Botanical collections and collectors. The taxonomic
part of the book was cast in a large mould, and the descriptions were written in
Latin. Unfortunately the condition of Dr. Thomson’s health and the pressure of
Sir Joseph’s official duties at Kew made it impossible that the book should be
continued on the magnificent scale on which it had been conceived. After a period
of about twelve years Sir Joseph, however, returned to the task of preparing, with

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 911

the aid of other Botanists, a Flora of the Indian Empire, conceived on a smaller
scale and written in the English language. His proposals for this work were
accepted and officially sanctioned by the Duke of Argyll while he was Secretary
of State for India. ‘The first part of this great work was published in 1872 and
the last in 1897. In the execution of this great undertaking Sir Joseph had the
assistance of Mr. C. B. Clarke, who elaborated various natural orders ; of Mr. J. G.
Baker, who worked out Leguminose and Scitaminee, and of Sir W. Thiselton Dyer,
Messrs. A. W. Bennett, Anderson, Edgeworth, Hiern, Lawson, Maxwell Masters,
Stapf, and Gamble. The greater proportion, however, of the book is Sir Joseph’s
own work, and a noble monument it forms of his devotion and genius.

Since the date of Sir Joseph Hooker’s visit to India, by far the most important
Botanical work done in India has been that of My. C. B. Clarke. Rather than
attempt to give any appreciation of my own of Mr. Clarke’s labours (which
would be more or less of an impertinence), I may be allowed to quote from the
preface to the concluding volume of the ‘Flora of British India,’ Sir Joseph
Hoolker’s estimate of them. Referring to all the collections received at Kew
since the preparation of the ‘ Flora’ was begun, Sir Joseph writes: ‘The first in
importance amongst them are Mr. C. B. Clarke’s, whether for their extent, the
knowledge and judgment with which the specimens were selected, ticketed, and
preserved, and for the valuable observations which accompany them.’ Mr. Clarke
has published numerous papers on Indian Botanical subjects in the Journals of the
Linnean and other societies. He has issued as independent books monographs of
Indian Composite and Cyrtandracce, the former in octavo, the latter in folio, and
illustrated by many plates; and he is now engaged on his opus maximum, viz. a
monograph of the Cyperacee, not only of India, but of the whole world; and to
the completion and publication of this every systematic Botanist is looking forward
with eager anxiety.

During this second half of the century Dr. Thomas Anderson, who was for ten
years superintendent of the Calcutta Garden, collected much; and he had just
entered on what promised to be a brilliant career of Botanical authorship when his
life was cut short by disease of the liver, contracted during his labours to establish
the cultivation in British India of the quinine-yielding species of cinchona.
Dr. Anderson was also the earliest Conservator of Forests in Bengal. Sulpiz
Kurz, for many years Curator of the Calcutta Herbarium, also collected largely in
Burma, and besides many excellent papers which he contributed to the ‘ Journal
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ he prepared for Government an excellent
manual entitled ‘ The Forest Flora of Burma.’ This was published in two volumes
in 1877. Other collectors in Burma were Colonel Eyre (in Pegu), Mr. Burness
(at Ava), and the Rev. Mr. Parish, to whom horticulturists are indebted for
the introduction to Europe of the beautiful orchids of this rich province.
And in this connection must be mentioned Mr. E. H. Man, C.I.E., who,
although not himself a Botanist, has given for many years past the greatest
possible help in the Botanical exploration of the Andaman and Nicobar groups
of islands, our first knowledge of which was, by the way, derived from the
collections made by the naturalists of the Austrian and Danish exploring expedi-
tions. A large book on Burma, which contains a good deal of Botany, was
published by an American missionary named Mason, who resided for the greater
part of his working life in that country. General Sir Henry Collett, who com-
manded a brigade during the last Burmese war, also made most interesting collec-
tions in that country, the novelties of which were described by himself in
collaboration with Mr. W. Botting Hemsley, of the Kew Herbarium, in the
Linnean Society’s ‘Journal’ some years ago. Sir Henry Collett also collected
much in the Khasia and Naga hills, and in the portion of the North-Western
Himalaya of which Simla is the capital, and on these latter collections, together
with the materials in Kew Herbarium, Sir Henry is now elaborating a local
Flora of Simla. The preparation of a local Flora for an Indian district is
en entirely new departure, and the publication of Sir Henry’s book, which is
to be well illustrated, is looked forward to with. much interest. At rather
an earlier period, Dr. Aitchieson, O.I.E., wasa diligent collector of the plants of the

912 REPORT—1899.

Punjab and of the North-Western Frontier. Some results of his work are to be
found in his ‘ List of Punjab Plants, which was published in 1867, and in various
papers which he contributed (some of them in conjunction with Mr. Hemsley) to
the Linnzean Society and to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh. In Dr. G.
Henderson’s book on Yarkand there are also descriptions of some plants of the
extreme North-Western Himalaya and of Western Tibet. Mr. (now Sir George)
Birdwood also made some contributions to the Botany of the Bombay Presidency.

Five officers of the Indian Forest Department, viz. Dr. Lindsay Stewart, Colonel
Beddome, Sir D. Brandis, and Messrs. Talbot and Gamble, C.I.E., have within the
past thirty years made important contributions to the Systematic Botany of India.
Dr. Stewart collected largely, and published in 1869 his ‘ Punjab Plants,’ a book
which gives a very imperfect impression of his acquirements as a Botanist. Sir
Dietrich Brandis issued in 1874 his admirably accurate ‘Forest Flora of the
North-West Provinces of India,’ illustrated by seventy excellent plates. Between
the years 1869 and 1873, Colonel Beddome issued his ‘Flora Sylvatica of the
Madras Presidency,’ illustrated by numerous plates. He also published, between
1869 and 1874, a volume of descriptions and figures of new Indian plants, under
the title ‘ Icones Plantarum Indiz Orientalis.’ Colonel Beddome is the only Indian
Botanist of note, except Griffith, Mr. C. B. Clarke, and Mr. C. W. Hope, who has
written much on Indian Ferns. His two works, the ‘Ferns of Southern India’
and the ‘Ferns of British India,’ published, the former in 1863 and the latter
between 1865 and 1870, practically give a systematic account, together with
excellent figures, of the whole Fern Flora of India. Of these excellent books a
condensation in a popular and abridged form has also been issued. The fourth
Forest officer who has published contributions to Systematic Botany is Mr. W. A.
Talbot, whose ‘List of the Trees, Shrubs, and Woody Climbers of the Bombay
Presidency’ gives evidence of much careful research. And the fifth is Mr. J. 8.
Gamble, who, besides amassing at his own expense probably the largest private

collection of plants ever owned in India, has published a systematic account of the -

Indian Bambusee, a tribe of grasses which, from the peculiarity of many of the
species in the matter of flowering, had so long been the bane of the Indian agros-
tologist. Mr. Gamble, in his monograph, gives a description and a life-sized figure
of every one of the Indian species. Of this monograph (which forms a volume oi
the ‘Annals of the Botanic Garden, Calcutta’) Sir Joseph Hooker writes (at
p. 875, vol. vii. of his ‘ Flora of British India’): ‘ It is indispensable to the student
of the tribe by reason of its descriptions and admirable plates and analyses.’ Mr.
Gamble has also published a Manual of Indian Timbers. A Forest officer who was
ever ready to help in Botanical work, but who never himself published, was Mr.
Gustav Mann, for many years Conservator of Forests in Assam, but now lost to
India by his premature retirement. Other Forest officers, who have done, and are
still doing, good botanical work in their various spheres, are Messrs. Lace, Heinig,
Haines, McDonell, Ellis, Oliver, and Upendra Nath Kanjilal. Mr. Bourdillon,
Conservator of Forests in the Travancore State, is also an enthusiastic Botanist and
eollector.

In the Madras Presidency Botanical work has been carried on during this second
half of the century by Noton, Perrottet, Metz, Hohenacher, Schmidt (on the Nil-
giris), Bidie, and Lawson. By the efforts of the latter two a second public
Herbarium was established in Madras (the first having been broken up many years
ago), and in this second Madras Herbarium are to be found many of the collections
of Wight, besides those of the other Madras Botanists just named.

In the Bombay Presidency the only public Herbarium is at Poona. This is
of recent origin, and owes its existence to the devotion of four men, viz. Dr.
Theodore Cooke (late Principal of the College of Science at Poona), Mr. Marshall
Woodrow (until recently Superintendent of the Garden at Guneshkind and
Lecturer in Botany in the Poona College), the late Mr. Ranade (a native gentle-
man), and Dr. Lisboa (a medical practitioner in the Deccan)—all four enthusiastic
Botanists. The amount of Government support given to the Herbarium at Poona
has hitherto been very inadequate. It is to be hoped that greater liberality
may be extended to it now that a stranger to the Bombay Presidency has just

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 913

been appointed to its charge in the person of Mr.. George Gammie, hitherto
employed in the Cinchona Department of Bengal.

Reference has already been made to the Botanic Gardens at Seharunpore and
Calcutta. But to complete this sketch, and especially in order to give a clear idea
of the apparatus at present existing in India for carrying on the study and prac-
tice of Systematic Botany, it is necessary again to refer to them. On the retire-
ment of Dr. Jameson in 1872, Mr. J. F. Duthie was selected by the Secretary of
State for India as Superintendent of the Seharunpore Garden. Mr. Duthie is still
at Seharunpore. During his tenure of office he has added to the Herbarium
previously existing there (which consisted chiefly of the collections of Royle,
Falconer, and Jameson) a magnificent collection of his own. Mr. Duthie has
published a valuable book on the ‘ Field and Garden Crops of the North-Western
Provinces,’ and another on the Grasses of the same area. He is now engaged on
the preparation of local Floras of the North-West Provinces and of the Punjab.

The Calcutta Garden at the date of Sir J. D. Hooker's arrival in India in 1848
was under the temporary charge of Dr. McClelland, who soon made way for Dr.
Falconer, who, in 1855, was succeeded by Dr. J. Thomson, and he in turn by Dr. T.
Anderson in 1861. Mr. C. B. Clarke acted as Superintendent during the interreenum
between Dr. Anderson’s lamented death in 1870 and my own appointment in 1871.
The Garden and Herbarium at Calcutta have been most liberally supported by the
Government of Bengal. By funds thus supplied the Garden has been remodelled and
improved ; the Herbarium has been housed in an excellent fire-proof building (erected
in 1883), and the collections of which it consists have been greatly increased. The
chief items of these later acquisitions have been the large contributions of Mr. C. B.
Clarke; of Dr. D. Prain, for many years Curator of the Herbarium, and now Superin-
tendent of the Garden and of the cinchona plantation and factory; of Mr. G. A.
Gammie, formerly one of the staff of the cinchona plantation, and now Lecturer on
Botany in the College of Science at Poona; of Mr. R. Pantling, Deputy-Superin-
tendent of the Cinchona plantation, who, in addition to dried specimens of the orchids
of Sikkim, contributed nearly five hundred drawings, most of which have been litho-
graphed as the illustrations to a book published in the ‘ Annals’ of the Garden, as the
‘Orchid Flora of Sikkim ;’ of Mr. Kunstler, a collector in the Malay Peninsula; and
last, but by no means least, of a trained band of aborigines of Sikkim named Lepchas
who possess keener powers of observation of natural objects, more patience, sweeter
tempers, avd, [am bound in fairness to add, dirtier clothes than any race I have ever
met—black, yellow, or white! In addition to their liberal grants to the Garden and
Herbarium, the Bengal Government, twelve years ago, sanctioned the publication,
at their expense, as occasion might offer, of monographs of important families or
genera of Indian plants. These monographs are printed in quarto, and they are,
with one exception, profusely illustrated by plates drawn and lithcgraphed by
Bengali draughtsmen. The series is known as ‘The Annals of the Royal Botanic
Garden, Calcutta,’ and it has now reached its eighth volume, the ninth being in
active preparation. These ‘Annals’ have been contributed to by Dr. Prain (my
successor at the Calcutta Garden), by Dr. D. Douglas Cunningham, Mr. J. 8.
Gamble, Mr. R. Pantling, and myself.

About ten years ago, it occurred to the Supreme Government of India that it
might be to the interest of Science if the four Botanical establishments at Calcutta,
Seharunpore, Madras, and Poona were to be formed into a kind of hierarchy under
the designation of The Botanical Survey of India, without removing either
the officers or the four institutions to which they were attached from the
financial or general control of the local administrations within which they are
respectively situated, the Supreme Government making a small contribution of
money for the purpose of exploring littlé-known districts and making itself
responsible for the cost of a publication called ‘The Records of the Botanical
Survey.’ The four institutions just mentioned continue, therefore, to be paid for
and controlled by the Governments of Bengal, the North-West Provinces, Madras,
and Bombay, but their Superintendents are placed on the cadre of the Botanical
Survey. The published Records of this Survey now extend to twelve numbers,
each of which is devoted to an account of the Botany of some part of the enormous
and continually expanding area to be explored.

1899. 3N

914 REPORT—1899.

Such, then, is the machinery by which Systematic and Geographical, as distin-
guished from Economic and Physiclogical, Botany is carried on within the Indian
Empire. But the work donein India itself by no means represents all that is
being carried on in connection with the elucidation of the Flora of the Empire
of India. On the contrary the bulk of the work of elaborating the materials
sent from India in the shape of dried specimens has always been, and must
always be, done in a large Herbarium; and until lately no Herbarium in Asia
has been sufficiently extensive. The last word on every difficult taxonomic
question must still lie in Europe. A very large number of the Herbarium
specimens collected in India have found their way to the various centres of
Botanical activity in Europe, and have been described by Botanists of many
nationalities. The lion’s share of these specimens has naturally come to the two
great national Herbaria in the British Museum and at Kew, but especially to the
latter. It was in the Kew Herbarium that Sir Joseph Hooker and his collaborateurs
prepared the Flora of British India. And it isin the Kew Herbarium that are
to be found the types of an overwhelming proportion of the new species described
for the first time in that monumental work. The Kew Herbarium is therefore to
the Indian Botanist the most important that exists. Imust apologise for diverging
for a moment to remind you what a type specimen is. It is the very one on which
an author has founded any species to which he has given a name. And in order
to determine absolutely what is the specific form to which the author meant his
name to apply, it is often necessary to examine his type. This necessity increases
in urgency with the extension of our knowledge of the Flora of the world.

The preservation in good condition of a type specimen is therefore, from the
point of view of a Systematic Botanist, as important as is the preservation to the
British merchant of the standard pound weight and the standard yard measure on
which the operations of British commerce depend. ‘Types’ also stand to the
Systematic Botanist much in the same relation as the national records do to the
national historian. The latter are guarded in the Record Office, I understand,
with all the skill which the makers of fire-proof, damp-proof, and burglar-proof
depositories can suggest. If, however, the type of a species happens to be
deposited at Kew, what are the probabilities of its preservation? Such a type at
Kew is incorporated in what is admitted to be in every sense the largest and, for
its size, the most accurately named, the most easily consulted, and therefore the
most valuable Herbarium in the world, the destruction of which would be a
calamity commensurate in extent with that of the burning of the Library at
Alexandria. One might therefore reasonably expect that a people who rather
resent being called a ‘nation of shopkeepers’ would feel pride in providing for
this priceless national collection a home which, although perhaps somewhat
inferior to that provided for the National Historical Records, might at least be
safe from fire. This expectation is not fulfilled. The infinitely valuable Kew
Herbarium and library have no safer home than an old dwelling-house on Kew
Green, to which a cheap additional wing has been built. The floor, galleries, and
open inner roof of this additional wing are constructed of pine coated with an
inflammable varnish, and on the floor and galleries are arranged cabinets (also made
of pine-wood), in which the specimens (which are mounted on paper) are lodged.
The provision of a fireproof building, capable of expansion as the collections extend,
is surely not beyond the means of an exchequer which last year netted over one
hundred and six millions sterling of revenue. On behalf of the Flora of India, I
venture to express the hope that the provision of a proper home for its types may
receive early and favourable consideration by the holders of the national purse-
strings. But India is by no means the only portion of the Empire interested in
this matter, for the types of the Australasian Floras, those of a large part of the
North American Flora,and those of many species inhabiting countries outside British
rule or influence, find their resting-place at Kew. ‘The safe custody of the Kew
Herbarium is, therefore, not merely a national, but a cosmopolitan responsibility.

In this Address I have hitherto made little reference to Cryptogamic and
Kconomic Botany. As regards Cryptogamic Botany there is little to relate.
Except Griffith, no Indian Botanist of the earlier of the two periods into which

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 915

I have divided my sketch ever did any serious work amongst non-vascular Crypto-
gams. During the second period two men have done gallant work under difficulties
which no one who has not lived in a tropical country can thoroughly appreciate. L
refer to Drs. Arthur Barclay and D. D. Cunningham, The former made some
progress in the study of Uredinous fungi, which was cut short by his untimely
death, while the latter, in addition to his bacterial and other researches con-
nected with the causation of human disease, conducted protracted investigations
into some diseases of plants of fungal or algal origin. Some of the results of Dr.
Cunningham’s labours were published in the ‘Transactions’ of the Linnean
Society, and in a series entitled the ‘ Scientific Memoirs, by Medical Officers of the
Indian Army.’ To the ‘ Annals of the Botanic Garden, Calcutta,’ Dr. Cunningham
also contributed elaborate memoirs on the phenomena of Nyctitropism, and on the
mode of fertilisation in an Indian species of Ficus (F. Roxburghii). There is no
doubt that in the past Cryptogamic Botany has not been studied in India as it ought
to have been and might have been. This discredit will, I hope, be soon removed ;
and I trust that, by the time the twentieth century opens, a Cryptogamist may
have been appointed to the staff of the Calcutta Botanic Garden. The collecting
of Cryptogams was not, however, altogether neglected in India in times past. For,
from materials sent to England, Mitten was able to elaborate a Moss Flora of India,
while Berkeley and Browne were enabled to prepare their account of the Fungi of
Ceylon. Dr.George Wallich, in whom the Botanical genius of his father burnt with
a clear though flickering flame, did some excellent work amongst Desmids, and was
among the earliest of deep-sea dredgers.

Economic Botany has, on the other hand, by no means been neglected. It was
chiefly on economic grounds that the establishment of a Botanic Garden at Calcutta
was pressed upon the Court of Directors of the East India Company. And almost
every one of the workers whose labours I have alluded to has incidentally devoted
some attention to the economic aspect of Botany. Roxburgh’s ‘ Flora Indica’
contains all that was known up to his day of the uses of the plants described in
it. Much of Wight’s time was spent in improving the races of cotton grown in
India. The Botanists of the Seharunpore Garden during the middle of the
century were especially prominent in this branch of Botanical activity. Royle
wrote largely on cotton and on other fibres, on drugs, and on various vegetable
products used, or likely to be of use, in the arts. These Botanists introduced into
the Himalayas more than fifty years ago the best European fruits, From gardens
which owe their origin to Royle, Falconer, and Jameson, excellent apples grown
in Gharwal and Kamaon are to-day purchasable in Calcutta. Peaches, nectarines,
grapes, strawberries, of European origin, are plentiful and cheap all over the North-
West Himalaya, and are obtainable also in the submontane districts. Potatoes,
and all the best European vegetables, were introduced long ago; and at Seharun-
pore there is still kept up a large vegetable garden from which seeds of most
Suropean vegetables are issued for cultivation during the cold season in the
gardens of the various regiments of the Queen’s troops quartered in Upper India.
More or less attention has been given in the past by Government Botanists in
India generally to the improvement of the cultivation of flax, hemp, rheea, tobacco,
henbane, dandelion, vanilla, sarsaparilla, coffee (Arabian and Liberian), cocoa,
ipecacuanha, aloes, jalap, indiarubber, Japanese paper-mulberry, cardamoms,
tapioca, coca, tea, and cinchona. Only to three economic enterprises, however,
have I time to allude in any detail. These are (1) the cultivation of tea, (2) the
introduction of cinchona, and (8) the formation of the Forest Department. But
before proceeding to the consideration of these I wish to give a short account of the
inauguration of the office of Reporter on Economic Products. Up to the year 1883
there had been no special Government department in India for dealing with ques-
tions connected with the natural products of the Empire. Whatever had been
done prior to that date (and the amount was by no means unimportant) was the
result of isolated and uncoérdinated effort. In 1883 the Government of India
founded a department for dealing with the Economic Products of the Indian
Empire, and under the title of Reporter on these products they were fortunate
enough to secure Dr, George Watt, a member of the Bengal Educational Service.

3N 2

916 REPORT—1899.

Dr. Watt is an accomplished and able Botanist. He has collected Indian plants:
largely, and has made numerous notes both in the field and in the bazaar. The
great work which, on the initiative of Sir Edward Buck, Secretary to the Depart-
ment of Revenue and Agriculture, and of Sir W. Thiselton Dyer, of Kew,
Dr. Watt began and carried to a successful termination was the compilation of
his ‘ Dictionary of Economic Products,’ in which valuable book is collected all that
is known of almost every Indian product, whether vegetable, animal, or mineral.
The study of Economic Botany is now pursued in India as part of a highly
specialised system of inquiry and experiment. Dr. Watt has a competent staff
under him in Calcutta, one of whom is Mr. D. Hooper, well known for his:
original researches into the properties of various Indian drugs. Dr. Watt has
arranged in Calcutta a magnificent museum of economic products, and there is no
doubt the economic resources of the Empire are now being studied with as much
energy as intelligence.

Tea cultivation is one of the enterprises in the introduction and development.
of which Botanists took a very leading part. The advisability of introducing the
industry was first pressed on the attention of the East India Company by Dr.
Govan (of Seharunpore), and in this he was seconded by Sir Joseph Banks as Pre-
sident of the Royal Society. Royle in 1827, and Falconer slightly later, again
urged it as regards the North-West Himalaya. In 1826 David Scott demon-
strated to rather unwilling eyes in Calcutta the fact that real tea grows wild
in Assam. In 1885 Wallich, Griffith, and McClelland were deputed by Govern-.
ment to visit Assam, to report on the indigenous tea. In the year 1838 the
first consignment of Indian-grown tea was offered for sale in London, The
consignment consisted of twelve chests containing 20 lbs. each. This first sample
of 240 lbs. was favourably reported upon. Last year the exports of tea from
India to all countries reached 157 millions of pounds, besides 120 millions of pounds.
exported from Ceylon!

The introduction of cinchona into India originated purely with the Govern-
ment Botanists. As everybody knows, quinine, and to a less extent the other
alkaloids present in cinchona bark, are practically the only remedies for the
commonest, and in some of its forms one of the most fatal, of all Indian diseases,
viz. malarious fever. The sources of supply of the cinchona barks in their native
countries in South America were known to be gradually failing, and the price of
quinine had for long been increasing. The advisability of growing cinchona in the:
mountains of British India was therefore pressed upon Government by Dr. Royle
in 1835, and he repeated his suggestions in 1847,1853, and 1856, Dr. Falconer, in
his capacity of Superintendent of the Botanic Garden, Calcutta, made a similar
suggestion in 1852; and his successors at Calcutta, Dr. T. Thomson and Dr. T.
Anderson, in turn advocated the proposal. In 1858 Government at last took action,,
and, as the result of the labours of Sir Clements Markham and Sir W. J. Hooker, of
Kew, the medicinal cinchonas were finally, in the period between 1861 and 1865,
successfully introduced into British India—on the Nilgiris under Mr. Mclvor, and
on the Sikkim-Himalaya under Dr. T. Anderson. Various experiments on the best
mode of utilising the alkaloids contained in red cinchona bark resulted in the
production in 1870 by Mr. Broughton, Quinologist on the Nilgiri plantation, of an
amorphous preparation containing all the alkaloids of that bark. This preparation
was- named Amorphous Quinine. Somewhat later (1875) a similar preparation,
under the name of Cinchona Febrifuge, was produced at the Sikkim plantation by
Mr. C. H. Wood, the Quinologist there; and of these drugs about fifty-one tony
had been distributed from the Sikkim plantation up to the end of last year. The
preparation of pure quinine from the yellow cinchona barks, sv successfully grown.
in the Sikkim plantation, long remained a serious problem. The manufacture of
quinine had hitherto been practically a trade secret. And when the Indian Goyern~
ment had succeeded in providing the raw material from which a cheap quinine
might be made for distribution amongst its fever-stricken subjects, the knowledge
of the means of extracting this quinine was wanting. Philanthropic platitudes
were freely bandied about as to the immensity of the boon which cheap quinine
would be to a fever-stricken population numbering so many millions. But there

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K, 917

‘was a singular absence of any practical help in the shape of proposals, or even
hints, as to how quinine was to be extracted from the rapidly increasing stock of
crown and yellow bark. The officers in charge of the cinchona plantations in India
had therefore to do their best to solve the problem for themselves. And it was ulti-
mately solved by Mr. C. H. Wood, at one time Government Quinologistin Sikkim,
who suggested, and Mr. J. A. Gammie, Deputy-Superintendent of the plantation
there, who carried into practice a method of extraction by the use, as solvents of
the cinchona alkaloids, of a mixture of fusel-oil and petroleum. The details of
this process were published in the ‘ Calcutta Official Gazette,’ for the benefit of all
whom it might concern. Very soon after the introduction of this method of
manufacture, the Government factories in Sikkim and the Nilgiris were able to
supply the whole of the Government hospitals and dispensaries in India with all
the quinine required in them (some 5,000 or 6,000 pounds annually), besides
providing an almost equal quantity for the supply of Government officers for
charitable purposes. The latest development of the quinine enterprise in India
has been the organisation of a scheme for the sale at all the post-offices in the
province of Bengal, and in some of those of Madras, of packets each containing
tive grains of pure quinine, that being a sufficient dose for an ordinary case of fever
ina native of India. These packets (of which some are on the table for distri-
bution) are sold at one pice each, the pice being a coin which is equal, at the
current rate of exchange, to one farthing sterling!

In conclusion, I wish to make a few remarks on the third great economic
enterprise connected with Botany in India, viz. the Forest Department. The
necessity for taking some steps to preserve a continuity of supply of timber,
damboos, and other products trom the jungles which had for generations been
exploited in the most reckless fashion, was first recognised by the Government of
Bombay, who in 1807 appointed commissioners to fix the boundaries of and to
guard the forests in that Presidency. This scheme was abandoned in 1822, but
was resumed in a modified form during 1839-40. Seven years later a regular
forest service was established in Bombay, and Dr. Gibson was its first head. Dr.
Gibson in turn was succeeded by Mr. Dalze)l—and both were Botanists. In the
Madras Presidency the first man to recognise the necessity of perpetuating the
supply of teak for ship-building was Mr. Connolly, collector of Malabar, who in
1843 established a teak plantation at Nelumbur, which has been carried on, and
annually added to, down to the present time. In 1847 Dr. Cleghorn (a Botanist)
was appointed to report on the conservation of the forests of Mysore (which con-
tain the well-known sandal-wood), and the following year Lieutenant Michael
(still with us as General Michael, a hale and hearty veteran) was appointed to
organise and conserve the public forests in Coimbatore and Cochin. The crowning
merit of General Michael’s administration was the establishment, for the first time
in India, of a system of protection against the fires which annually used to work
such deadly havoc. In 1850 the British Asscciation, at their Edinburgh Meeting,
appointed a Committee to consider and report upon the probable effects, from an
economic and physical point of view, of the destruction of tropical forests. This
Committee’s Report was submitted to the Association at the Meeting at Ipswich in
1851. The weighty evidence collected in this Report so impressed the Court of
Directors of the East India Company that, within a few years, regular forest esta-
blishments were sanctioned for Madras and British Burma, the two main sources
of the supply of teak.

In 1856 Mr. (now Sir Dietrich) Brandis was appointed to the care of the
forests of the latter province. These forests had been the object of spasmodic
efforts in conservancy for many years previously. In 1827 Dr. Wallich reported
on the teak forests, and five years later a small conservancy establishment was
organised, oflicered by natives. This, however, was kept up for only three or four
years. In 1837 and 1838 Dr. Helfer reported on these forests, and an English
-conservator was appointed, In 1842 and 1847 Codes of Forest Laws were drawn
up, but do not appear to have been enforced to any extent. In 1853 Dr. McClelland
‘was appointed superintendent, but he continued to hold the office for only a short
time. A few years after Sir Dietrich Brandis’s assumption of the charge of the

918 REPORT—1899.

Burmese Forests, he was appointed Inspector-General of all the Government
Forests in British India; and it is to him that we owe for the most part the
organisation of the Indian Forest Department as it now exists. That organisation
includes two Schools of Forestry (in both of which Botany is taught), one in con-
nection with Cooper's Hill and the other at Dehra Dun in Upper India. The latter
has for many years been under the direction of a gentleman who is distin-
guished both as a Forester and as a Botanist. In the Cooper’s Hill School, the
hicher grades of Forest officers receive their training ; at Dehra Dun those of the
lower grades receive theirs. The officers of the department on the Imperial list,
according to the latest official returns, now number 208, divided into the grades of
conservator, deputy- and assistant-conservator, with a single inspector-general as
chief. In addition to these, there are 566 provincial officers, ranking from rangers
upwards to extra deputy-conservators.

Botanists took a leading part in moulding the department in its earlier years;
for, as already stated, its pioneers—Gibson, Dalzell, Cleghorn, Anderson, Stewart,
and Brandis—were all Botanists. And to most people, who give even casual
attention to the matter, it appears fitting that the possession of a knowledge
and liking for Botany should form a strong characteristic of officers whose main
duties are to be in the forest. And this belief did for some time exercise consider-
able influence in the selection of recruits for the department. But, except in the
Dehra Dun School, it does not appear to guide the department any longer. For
example, at the Entrance Examination to the Forest Schoo] at Cooper’s Hill,
only three subjects are obligatory for a candidate, viz. mathematics, to which
3,000 marks are allowed; German, to which 2,000 are allowed; and English,
for which 1,000 are given. Botany is one of the nine optional subjects of which a
candidate may take up two, and in each of which 2,000 marks may be made.

Botany is taught at Cooper’s Hill, and (according to the Calendar of the
College) it forms one of the ‘special auxiliary subjects’ for the Forest student.

I do not wish to say a single word in depreciation of the Botanical teaching at this —

College, which is probably excellent of its sort. I do not know what value, as
part of their professional equipment, students are accustomed or encouraged to
attach to the possession of the means of acquiring a knowledge of the trees and
shrubs in the midst of which they are to pass their lives in India. But this I do
know, that the ordinary Forest officer educated in England now arrives in India
without sufficient knowledge to enable him to recognise from their Botanical
characters the most well-marked Indian trees. To tell such an officer the name
of the natural family to which a plant belongs conveys no information to
him whatever, for he knows nothing of Botanical affinities. Moreover, the
Forest officer after he has arrived in India is not encouraged to familiarise himself
with the contents of the forests under his charge. ‘Chis will be better appreciated
by giving an example than by any number of remarks. Some three years
ago, Mr. J. 5. Gamble (a Forest officer) published a monograph of the Bamboos
of British India. From bamboos, as you may possibly be aware, a very large
amount of Forest revenue is annually derived. The sales of bamboos for the
year 1896-97 amounted to no less than 110 millions of stems. A great number of
the species of bamboos have the curious habit of flowering gregariously at remote
intervals of thirty or forty years, and the flowering is followed by death. The absence
from the forests for years in succession of flowers of a number of the species, and the
similarity of many of them in leaves, had hitherto made members of the group most
difficult of identification. Mr. Gamble had devoted himself to their study for many
years. He had carefully examined all the previously collected materials stored in the
Herbaria at Kew, the British Museum, Calcutta, and elsewhere ; and large special
collections had been made for him by Mr. Gustay Mann and other officers of
Government. Moreover, he had General Munro’s great paper in the ‘ Linnean
Transactions’ asa basis. Mr. Gamble’s work was undertaken with the full
approval of Sir Joseph Hooker, who indeed accepted Mr. Gamble’s account of the
bamboos for his ‘ Flora of British India.’ Myr. Gamble’s monograph is illustrated
by a life-sized drawing of each species, with analyses of the flowers on a larger
scale. When comovleted, the book was published as one of the volumes of the

Ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 919

« Annals of the Caleuttia Botanic Garden.’ In consideration of the supposed great
importance of the book to the forester, and in the belief that the copies would be
eagerly taken by the Forest Department, an extra hundred copies were printed,
and these hundred copies were put into stout canvas binding suitable for camp use.
These copies, or as many of them as he cared to take, were offered to the
Head of the Forest Department in India at the reduced price of fifteen rupees
per copy. The result was an official refusal to buy a single one, although the
purchase of the whole hundred (which was not asked for) would have cost only
fifteen hundred rupees—a sum which would have reduced the revenue of the year
by about one twelve-thousandth part! An appeal against this ruling having been
made to a still higher authority, a modified order was subsequently issued per-
mitting such Forest officers as desired to possess the book to buy copies and charge
the cost in their office expenditure. I may state that the book was not a private
venture. It was produced at the expense of the Government of Bengal.

It is not because I like to play the censor that I have made these remarks
about the Forest Department. Having myself served in it from 1869 to 1871,
I can speak from my own experience’as to the value, from the utilitarian point
of view, of a knowledge of the names, affinities, and properties of the trees,
shrubs, and herbs which compose an Indian jungle, and of a knowledge of
these as individual members of the vegetable kingdom rather than as masses of
tissue to be studied through a microscope. The appointment which I held in India
for twenty-six years after leaving the Forest Department gave me full opportunity
of getting into touch with all who interest themselves in a lnowledge of plants,
and of discovering how few of these at the present day are Forest officers. The
majority of the latter, if they love their trees, are content to do so without
knowing their names or relationships! There are, of course, splendid exceptions
who know as well as love. The general decadence of the teaching of Systematic
Botany in England during the past twenty years is, perhaps, to some extent the cause
of the low estimation in which the science is held by the authorities of the Indian
Forest Department. Twenty-five years ago Systematic and Morphological Botany,
no doubt, had too great prominence given to them in the teaching at universities
and colleges of this country, and the other branches of Botanical science were too
much neglected, although I do not think they were despised. Now it appears to
me that Systematic Botany is too much neglected. I hope it is not also despised. !
Few of the systematists who survive in England are now to be found attached to
the universities. They are mostly clustered round the two great Herbaria in
London ; and such of them as-have to look to Systematic Botany for the means of
livelihood are not in the receipt of salaries such as one might reasonably expect in
one of the richest countries in the world!

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Some Methods for Use in the Culture of Alge.
By Professor Marsnatt Warp, /.2.S.

The following notes are of the nature of suggestions, since the experiments are
not yet completed, and much has still to be done, no doubt, before the efficacy of the
treatment and the faults and difficulties of the methods in detail are fully demon-
strated ; but since the author has found they can be used with some measure of
success, the various workers’ interested in the culture of algee may care to take
the methods up and try to improve them.

1. If agar is swollen in dilute acetic acid, and then washed very thoroughly
so that every trace of soluble salt is removed, it can be used, mixed with the
necessary culture fluids, as a convenient medium for the growth of some algze, as
Beyjerinck had already observed. But,so far as the author knows, the use of such
a medium for separating alge in plate culture and for observing their growth in
hanging drops has not been attempted. It can be done, however, though the

920 REPORT—1899.

high melting-point of the agar and the sliminess of some alge occasionally
cause difficulties,

The author has also succeeded in separating algze by the following methods :—

2. Shake them up in sterilised nutritive mineral solutions, mix rapidly with
silica jelly, also sterilised, and pour into glass dishes. With species of Oscdllaria
and of Palmella the author has observed growth in hanging drops of this silica
jelly medium under high powers, and has seen sufficient to make it hopeful that
even Diatoms may be cultivated this way; and it is not impossible that some
modification of the process could be utilised for the culture of marine alge,

Another device is as follows :—

3. Shake the algze up in the nutritive solution and rapidly mix with sterilised
plaster of paris and pour into dishes. The fixed algze grow zm sztu in some cases,
but others appear to be too sensitive for such treatment.

Experiments have also been made as follows, with some promise of success :—

4, The alge are shaken up in the culture medium, and a large quantity of
lime-water quickly added. Then carbon dioxide gas is passed rapidly through,
and the alg are thrown down with the precipitate of calcium carbonate; this is
poured into dishes as if it were plaster of paris. Perhaps this method could be
utilised in the study of calcareous alge, but with some forms it appears too
drastic. It is possible baryta may succeed with some alge, but the trials have not
yet been completed, and it seems to act as a poison to some. One drawback here is
the difficulty of obviating the use of unsterilised materials.

It is clear that if once we obtain a pure colony on a glass dish, a trace fished out

with a needle may be used to start other cultures. Season, temperature, intensity _

of light, and other factors, are of importance in these matters.

2. On the Growth of Oscillaria in Hanging Drops of Silica Jelly.
By Professor MarsuaLty Warp, f£.2.S.

Tn illustration of the applications of the methods for use in the culture of alge
Professor Ward described the results of observations of the growth of Osczdlaria
tenerrima in hanging drops of silica jelly. The growth of a single filament was
followed for more than a week, and the curve showed that growth ceased during
the hours of darkness, and was coincident with assimilation during the day.

The author has also obtained light-figures by exposing plates of green alge,
coyered with stencil letters, to various intensities of daylight, reflected from
mirrors. When the incident light was not too strong a green letter on a colour-
less ground was found, but with intense illumination the alge exposed on the
letter was killed, while those in the covered area, iliuminated only by the diffuse
light, were able to grow; the result was a colourless letter on a green ground.

The division of the contents of certain green Protococcoidez into zoospores has
also been seen in hanging drops of algar, &c.

3. On the Life-history and Cytology of Halidrys siliquosa.
By J, Liuoyp-Wit.iams.

The chief points dealt with in the paper are the formation and liberation of
the sexual cells, the striking phenomena accompanying the act of fertilisation, the
segmentation of the spore together with the cytology of the various processes.

is

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 921

4, The Sand Dunes between Deal and Sandwich, with Remarks on the Flora
of the Districts. Ly G. Dowker, F.G.S.

The author in this paper gave an account of the formation of the dunes and
mud banks, claiming for them the reclamation of the large tract of sand from the
sea, mostly since the Roman occupation of Britain. He referred to the Acts of
Parliament passed prohibiting the destruction of the mat grass, which contributed
so largely to the preservation of the hills, and lamented that nothing was done to
prevent the wholesale gathering of sea holly by men who ruthlessly destroyed
it by taking it away to sell. He recounted his long experience and knowledge of
the district, dating back to his schoolboy days with the Rev. J. Layton, a distin-
guished botanist of Sandwich. He particularised the following rare plants as
denizens of the hills: Allium vineale and compactum, Poa bulbosa, Hippophae
rhamnoides, Silene conica, Orobanche caryophyllacea, Lepidium latifolium, and on
the salt marshes, Atripler pedunculata, Frankenia levis, Aster Tripolium, and
Polypogon monspeliensis. ‘The author added a list of over 300 species of flowering
plants to be met with in the district.

5. The Research Laboratory in the Royal Botanic Garden, Peradeniya,
Ceylon. By J. C. Wis.

6. Report on Fertilisation in the Pheophycece. See Reports, p. 610.

7. Report on Experimental Investigation of Assimilation in Plants.
See Reports, p. 611.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On White-Rot—a Bacterial Disease—of the Turnip.
By Professor M. C. Porrrr,

The author has found in the early autumn numerous turnips, whose roots, when
fully grown, have become completely rotten. The rotten portion presents a white
glazy appearance, and the tissues are reduced to a soft pulpy condition; the cell-
walls are much swollen, faintly stratified, and separate from each other along the
middle lamella, The decaying mass is infested with bacteria, but the most careful
microscopic search has failed to detect any fungoid hyphe, and no fungi have
appeared in the experimental cultures.

The rottenness can be readily introduced into a sound root by inoculation at a
wounded surface; from this point the decay spreads rapidly through the root, the
leaves gradually turn yellow, and in about fourteen days the entire plant has
succumbed.

Among the bacteria found in the rotten mass one has been isolated, which,
when sown from a pure culture on to turnips, under sterile conditions, induces all
the characteristic effects of the ‘ white-rot.’ The liquid expressed from the pulp
of one of these cultivations, when passed through a Pasteur-Chamberland filter,
yields a clear light yellow filtrate, which was found to have the same powerful
action upon the living cells of the turnip, causing the swelling of the wall and the

‘separation of the cells by the dissolution of the middle lamella. This action was
destroyed by boiling. When diluted with four to five volumes of alcohol, the
extract yields a copious flocculent precipitate; the precipitate was dried and

922 REPORT—1899,

digested with a little water, and the solution, after filtration through the Pasteur-
Chamberland filter, was also found to have the same effect upon the cell-walls, the
action again being destroyed by boiling. The whole appearance of the sections
corresponded exactly with those taken from turnips affected by the rot. The
bacterium, therefore, secretes a cytase enzyme, which, in healthy living tissues,
dissolves the middle lamella and causes the swelling of the cell-wall. The same
enzyme is produced when the bacterium is grown in Koch’s bouillon.

The bacterium has a single polar flagellum, and, adopting Migula’s classifica-
tion, the author has ventured to describe it under the name Pseudomonas
destructans,

General Characteristics,

Short rods about 3 long by *8u broad, with one polar flagellum.
Rapidly liquefies gelatine, forming circular whitish colonies.

Agar-agar, whitish glazy growth.

Stab cultures grow along the track of the wire, rapidly forming a funnel.
Aerobic.

Parasitic on turnips, potatoes, carrots, but not beetroot, forming a cytase,
Copious evolution of carbonic acid during the fermentation,

Infection by P. destructans appears always to be introduced at a wound, and
it is powerless to set up decay unless placed in contact with the parenchymatous
cells of the cortex. Having gained an entrance, the organism penetrates the
living tissues by means of the intercellular spaces, and by the action of the enzyme
it breaks through the intercellular substance and traverses the middle lamella.
Many of the intercellular spaces are crowded with bacteria, and in some sections
they are found lying in the track of the middle lamella.

2. On the Phosphorus-containing Elements in Yeast.
By Harotp WaGER.

3. On the Influence of the Temperature of Liquid Hydrogen on the Germi-
native Power of Seeds. By Sir Witu1aM Tuisetton-Dyerr, K.C.ILG.,
PRS.

Sir William Thiselton-Dyer described some experiments made by Professor
Dewar on the influence of the temperature of liquid hydrogen on the germinative
power of seeds. The most important was one in which five kinds of seeds, varying
in size and conformation, were immersed for six hours in liquid hydrogen. The
temperature to which they were cooled was —453° F. below melting ice. They
were subsequently sown at Kew, and germinated readily without exception.

The bearing of the experiments on the accepted conception of protoplasm gave
rise to some discussion. Protoplasm is conceived to consist of physiological
molecules, the properties of which cannot be explained with our present knowledge
of either physics or chemistry. They are in a state of constant kinetic energy,
based upon equally continued metabolic change. But if it is admitted that the
latter is impossible at very low temperatures the former must cease and the evi-
dence of life disappears. The physiological molecule becomes purely static; its
energy is wholly potential, and, in fact, it becomes, as Professor Casimir de Candolle
has pointed out, analogous to an explosive.

4. On a Horn-destroying Fungus. By Professor MarsHaLt Warp, F.R.S.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 923

5, Bulgaria polymorpha (Wettstein) as a Wood-destroying Fungus.
By R. H. Birren, Cambridge.

Bulgaria polymorpha (Wettstein), B. inquinans (Fr.), is stated by Ludwig to
be parasitic on oak, The author has examined its anatomy, and studied it in pure
cultures on wood and in food-material. The white early growth soon becomes
bright orange; small rounded elevations are afterwards formed, which are incipient
reproductive bodies.

The action on wood is examined in some detail. The fungus grows better on
oak than on pine. The lignified wood-elements are de-lignified. Details as to
the reactions in various stages of its destructive action are dealt with in the paper.
The author does not regard this fungus as of great importance as a wood-destroy-
ing fungus in this country.

6. On a Disease of Tradescantia fluminensis and T. sebrina.
By Ausrrt Howarp, B.A., Scholar of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

During the summer it was found that two species of Tradescantia, viz. T. flu-
minensis and T. sebrina, growing in greenhouses, were being attacked by a fungus.
Diseased leaves and stems were in many cases found to be covered with long white
conidiophores. Pure cultures were made of this form, and the complete develop-
ment was followed out by the hanging-drop method. The fungus proved to be a
species of Botryosporium. Some difficulty was experienced in obtaining this form
free from another fungus, a species of Cladosporium. Infection experiments, made
with the spores and mycelium of the Botryosporiwm under the most diverse con-
ditions, failed, nor would the mycelium infect the healthy leaves if previously
invigorated by cultivation.

It was found in the case of the naturally growing host plants that infection
started either on the upper side of the leaf as a small semitransparent dot, or from
the margin. Tangential sections of the upper epidermis of the leaf containing one
of these transparent areas, and also portions of the infected margin, when grown
in hanging drops, showed in all cases hyphz on the epidermis, which gave rise to
the same species of Cladosporium as that mentioned above, occurring as a weed in
the Botryosporium cultures. The development of this Cladosporium was then
followed out from a single spore by the hanging-drop method, and infection
experiments were made which proved successfnl.

7. Demonstration of Vermiform Nuclei in the Fertilised Embryo-Sac of
Lilium Martagon. Sy Miss Etnen SarGant.

8. On the Sexuality of the Fungi. By Harotp WAGER.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

Joint Discussion with Section B on Symbiosis.—See p. 692.

924 REPORT—1899,

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Localisation of the Irritability in Geotropic Organs.
By Francis Darwin, LBS.

The seedlings of Setaria, Sorghum, and some other grasses are remarkable for
possessing a hypocotyl or stalk-like part intercalated between the grain and the
cotyledon. Rothert has shown that while the hypocotyl is the motor apparatus,
the sensitiveness to light resides in the cotyledon, which transmits a stimulus to
the hypocotyl, and this results in curvature. The author showed that the coty-
ledon is also a sense organ for gravitation, the stimulus which leads to geotropic
curvature being in like manner transmitted to the hypocotyl. If a seedling of
Sorghum or Setaria is fixed by its grain to a support, so that the hypocotyl is hori-
zontal, it bends apogeotropically till the cotyledon is vertical ; it then ceases to be
geotropically stimulated, and no longer transmits an influence to the region of
curvature, But if the conditions are reversed, if the seedling is supported by its
cotyledon (which is fixed in a horizontal position), while the hypocotyl projects
freely, the result is otherwise. The hypocotyl begins to curve upwards, just as in
the first experiment, but it does not cease to curve when the free end points vertically
upwards ; the curvature continues indefinitely, so that the hypocotyl curls into a
spiral of three or four rings. This can only be explained by the assumption that
the geotropic sensitiveness resides in the cotyledon, and that since the cotyledon
remains horizonial it continues to be stimulated, and transmits a continuous
influence to the motor part of the seedling,

2. Studies in Aracee. By Prof. Douctas CAMPBELL.

1. The Aracez have been much neglected in studies of the development of the
flower and embryo, and our knowledge of these is very incomplete.

2. The materials for the present studies were collected mostly in Jamaica, and
include species of Dieffenbachia, Aglaonema, Philodendron, and Anthurium. A
study was also made of Lystchiton, of Pacific North America.

3. A study of the development of the ovule indicates that the primitive form is
axial, as in other low monocotyledons.

4, The early development of the embryo-sac follows the ordinary type. Later,
there is a multiplication of the antipodal cells, and the sac becomes very early
filled with endosperm.

5. The ovule is often massive, and there is a marked development of mucilage-
secreting hair upon the funiculus and the base of the nucellus.

6. In all forms so far examined the embryo is destitute of a suspensor, and the
cotyledon is very large, sometimes suggesting the scutellum of the grass-embryo.

7. The forms with a single carpel are probably most primitive and most nearly
related to the other low monocotyledons.

3. Onthe Morphology and Life History of the Indo-Ceylonese Podostemacee.
By J. C. Wiis, Director of the Royal Botanic Garden, Peradeniya,
Ceylon.

The paper read was an abstract of a forthcoming monograph of the Indian and
Ceylon species of this very remarkable order of water plants, in which the various
species will be described in detail, both morphologically and ecologically. A few
typical species were described, their life history explained, showing the extra-
ordinary modifications which the vegetative system has undergone to suit the
needs of life in rising and falling water and in rapid currents. The vegetative
organs consist largely of modified roots forming thallus-like bodies, and bearing

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K, 925

leafy or floral endogenous shoots, and branching themselves in an exo- or endo-
genous manner, The conclusion was drawn that the endo- or exogenous origin of
an organ or a branch is a phenomenon of an adaptive nature in these plants, and
to a large extent in others also. The adaptive modifications of the structure, such
as the gradual reduction through a series of forms of the shoots and leaves, the
increased multiplication of the shoots by vegetative budding, the reduction of the
number of flowers per shoot and the change to anemophily, the increased dorsi-
ventrality, and other characters were shown to be rather correlated with the rise
and fall of the water than with the velocity of the stream. In conclusion some
of the more general questions of morphology were discussed in the light of the
observations made on these plants.

4. Note on the Anabena-containing Roots of some Cycads.
By W. G. FREEMAN.

Attention was drawn to the manner in which the anabiena-containing roots
were borne on various members of this group, growing in very poor soil, in an open
garden border in the Royal Botanic Garden at Peradeniya, in Ceylon.

In the majority a dense coralloid mass of specialised fleshy roots was found
immediately encircling the main stem.

In others—e.g. Nacrozamia Peroffskiana—normal-looking lateral roots ran
horizontally beneath the ground, giving off the special algal-containing roots at
intervals. These primary lateral roots were themselves sometimes apogeotropic
for a period, resuming a normal habit of growing downwards again after having
borne the anabsena-containing masses.

5. A Mixed Infection in Abutilon Roots. By E. J. Burter, WB.

The roots of seedlings of Abutilon hybrids (Darwinii x ?) in the plant-
houses of Queen's College, Cork, presented tuberoid enlargements, due to at least
two parasites, a Nematode and an Ascomycete.

(1) The Nematode is a Heterodera, apparently identical with ZH. radicicola.
It is found also in abundance on the roots of Solanum Capsicastrum. All stages
of the life-history were worked out. If the female penetrates the central connec-
tive tissue of the stele, it daes not emerge. The worm will hatch and go through
a part of its development in water containing decomposing roots of Adbutilon.
Experiments as to whether it can complete its cycle in liquid are in progress,

(2) The Ascomycete is a new Thielavia, which I propose to name 7. Hartogit,
differing from 7. basicola, Zopf, with more abundant gonidia (up to a hundred) in
each pseudo-sporange, and dark green chlamydospores. Only young perithecia
were observed. This is a dangerous parasite under favourable conditions of moisture
and temperature. j

(3) A fungus coexisting with (1) and (2), whose unseptate hyphz and ‘ cellulose
wall and reproductive bodies recall Peronosporez, has been partially studied ; it
appears to be relatively harmless. emg

The research was commenced, at Professor Hartog’s suggestion, in the"Bio-
logical Institute of Queen's College, Cork, and continued under Professor; Van
Tieghem’s direction at the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris,

6. Remarks on Fern Sporangia and Spores.
By Professor F. O. Bower, 7.2.8.

926 REPORT—1899.

7. The Jurassic Flora of Britain. By A. C. Snwarp, F.R.S.

The Lower Oolite rocks exposed in the cliff-section between Whitby and a few
miles south of Scarborough have long been famous as affording rich collections of
fossil plants, which enable us to form a fairly accurate idea of the chief charac-
teristics of the Jurassic Flora. Plants from the Yorkshire coast are abundantly
represented in most of the English museums as well as in Continental collections.
The Ferns and Cycadean genera constituted a large proportion of the vegetation,
with an abundance of one or two species of Eguisetites and a few conifers; no
trace of undoubted Angiosperms has so far been discovered.

The account of the flora includes a description of the more important types, a
general comparison of the English species with recent plants, and remarks on the
characteristics and distribution of the Lower Oolite floras.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.

The following Papers were read :-—
1. A new Genus of Paleozoic Plants. By A. C. Sewarp, 2. B.S.

The description of this genus, which represents a new type of Cycadofilices, is
founded on a single specimen in the Binney Collection of Coal-measure Plants
(presented in 1892 to the Woodwardian Museum, Cambridge),: The specimen
consists of a small piece of stem, unfortunately without the cortical tissues, with
the structure of the primary and secondary wood very clearly preserved. A strand
of primary xylem, 1-9 cm. in diameter, occupies the axial region; this consists of
large isodiametric or slightly elongated tracheids with multiseriate bordered pits
on their walls, associated with parenchymatous tissue; the narrow and spirally
thickened protoxylem elements occur at the margin of the primary stele, which
is, therefore, of exarch structure. Surrounding the primary stele there is a broad
cylinder of secondary wood exhibiting anatomical features characteristic of
Cycadean stems. Leaf-traces are given off from the periphery of the primary
strand; these consist of long tracheids intermixed with parenchyma.

The features of most interest in the anatomy of this stem are (1) the manner
of origin and behaviour of the leaf-traces; (2) the exarch structure of the primary
system; and (3) the structure of the large primary tracheids.

The genus is placed among the Cycadofilices, and compared with Heteranyium
and other Paleozoic genera, also with Zygodium and other recent plants.

2. On the Structure of a Stem of a Ribbed Sigillaria.
By Professor C. Ec. Berrranp (Lille).

The specimen described was obtained by M. Breton from a colliery in the
Hardinghem district, Pas de Calais ; it presents external features similar to those of
Sigillaria elongata, and the structure of the wood is well preserved. The fragment
of stem measures 100 x60 mm. and the surface is traversed by 72 ribs. The
primary system (corona) is in places perfectly preserved; it agrees with that of a
Diploxylon stem and forms a continuous centripetally developed ring. Exteriorly
the primary wood is succeeded by a continuous zone of centrifugal secondary wood,
but the cambial and phloeum regions have not been preserved. The continuou
corona consists of 10-13 rows of large scalariform tracheids; its external surface is
characterised by the very prominent teeth which form ridges separated by sinuses.
The narrowest xylem elements are situated in the projecting teeth. ‘The leaf-
traces arise as separate strands from the external face of the primary wood, and
each is detached from the middle of a sinus; the arrangement of the leaf-traces
suggests an almost regularly yerticillate disposition of the appendices. Each leaf-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 927

trace consists of 6 trachex in the form of a tangentially elongated group, and 6-8
rows of radially disposed centripetal scalariform vessels. The traces consist only
of primary elements, and pass outwards through a medullary ray of the secondary
wood.

Professor Bertrand compared the Hardinghem specimen with Diploaylon stems
from Oldham, Halifax, and Burntisland, and with a Sigillaria of the Leiodermaria
eee section, S. sprnulosa. In S. spinulosa the leaf-traces are given off

rom the same position on the corona as in the ribbed stem, but in the former
species the corona consists of separate groups of tracheids as distinct from the
continuous band in the Hardinghem stem. In the Leiodermarian species, as
Renault has shown, the leaf-traces consist in part of secondary xylem.

In the Diploxylon stem from Halifax and Oldham the leaf-traces are given off
from the middle of a sinus of the corona, as in the new Stgillaria, but in the
Burntisland Diploxylon they have a lateral origin, as in Lepidodendron selaginoides.

3. On a biserial Halonia belonging to the genus Lepidophloios.
By Professor F. E. WEIss.

At the Bristol meeting of the British Association, Dr. D. H. Scott exhibited
photographs of this Ha/onia from the Hough Hill Colliery, Stalybridge, and
pointed out the agreement of its well-preserved internal structure with that of
Lepidodendron fuliginosum of Williamson, Dr. Scott had most kindly and gene-
rously allowed the author to undertake the further examination of this specimen,
and this completely confirmed the identity of the internal structure of this Halonia
with that of Williamson’s Lepidodendron fuliginosum. Williamson retained this
name in his ‘ Memoir,’ pt. xix., published in 1893, though Cash and Lomax had
shown conclusively, at the meeting of the British Association at Leeds in 1890,
that this type of structure was revealed by a specimen showing undoubtedly
Lepidophiovos leaf-scars, and though Williamson’s Lepidophioios, figured in pt. xix.,
also shows the stem structure of the fuliginosum type. The same structure is
shown also by stems of the ordinary multiseriate Halonias, which, as Kidston and
Potonié have shown, belong undoubtedly to the genus Lemdophloios. Stems,
therefore, showing the structure of Lepidodendron fuliginosum (Williamson) should
be referred to the genus Lepzdophloios,

The fruiting branches of this genus, however, termed Halonia, or halonial
branches, have usually a number of rows of spirally arranged tubercles. The
Hough Hill Halonia has only two rows of fructigerous tubercles. Hence it would
by some palzobotanists be classed as Ulodendroid, but it seems better to call it a
‘biserial Halonia,’ since the name of Halonia has been reserved by Kidston and
others for the fruiting branches of Lepidophloios, and also because its elevated
tubercles distinguish it from the usually depressed Ulodendroid scars. As the
Hough Hill Halonia shows no leaf-scars, the author has sought for confirmatory
evidence for his conclusion that Lepidophloios may possess fruiting branches with
two rows of fruit-bearing tubercles. The Lepidophlotos figured by Williamson in
his nineteenth ‘ Memoir’ (figs. 830 to 38), and coming from the same locality, is
described as possessing two rows of halonial tubercles, and this is confirmed by
two pieces of this specimen preserved, one in the Williamson collection in the
British Museum, and another in the Wilde collection in the Manchester Museum.
The author also submitted photographs of two other biserial Halonias showing dis-
tinct Lepidophioios leaf-scars, one from the Williamson collection (No. 1946B)
at the British Museum, and one presented by Mr. Dawes to the Manchester
Museum, Owens College. These, he considered, confirmed his conclusion that the
biserial Halonia from the Hough Hill Colliery was also a fruiting branch of
Lepidophioios,

928 REPORT—1899,

4. The Maiden-hair Tree (Ginkgo biloba, Z.).
By A. C. Sewarp, £.2.S., and Miss J. Gowan.

The chief points dealt with in this paper may be summarised as follows :—

1. Ginkgo biloba.—The history of our knowledge of Ginkgo; its external
features and peculiarities; the variability in form and structure of the leaves; the
structure and morphology of the male and female flowers; pollination and fertilisa-
tion of the ovule; the development and structure of the embryo; the anatomy of
the seedling and adult plant; comparison of Ginkgo with other genera, and its
place in the plant-kingdom,

2. Fossil Ginkgoacee.—A. general consideration of the evidence available
towards an account of the past history of Ginkgo and closely allied plants; a com-
parison of Ginkgo with various fossil types from Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Tertiary
horizons; the geographical distribution of Ginkgo during the Mesozoic and
Tertiary epochs.

5. Stem-structure in Schizeacez, Gleicheniacexe, and Hymenophyllacee.
By L. A. Boopte.

There is a wide difference between the types of stem-structure shown by the
different members of the Schizeacee. Thus Lygodium has a stele in which the
xylem forms a solid mass in the centre of the stem, and is surrounded by a con-
tinuous ring of phloem pericycle and endodermis.

Aneimia Phyllitidis, on the other hand, has a ring of separate bundles (or
steles), which may be compared with those of Aspidiwm or other Polypodiacee ;
each of them consisting of a band of xylem surrounded by a phloem, pericycle,
and endodermis of its opvn.

Mohria resembles Aneimia Phyllitidis in type. Certain species of Aneimia, e.g.
A. mexicana, have in the internodes a complete ring of xylem bounded on the
inner and outer side by a ring of phloem, pericycle, and endodermis, with a central
pith, and thus resemble Marsila. Schizea has a ring of xylem surrounding a
central pith, but no internal phloem or endodermis.

The above four genera, which male up the Schizeacee, agree in having a
stem-protoxylem, which is not well marked, as it consists of elements which are
not annular or spiral, and are usually not specially small. Lygodium, Aneimia,
and Mohria are exarch; in Schizea, however, the relative position of the proto-
xylem has not been made out with certainty.

In their main points the types of stem-structure found in the Schizeacce
agree with the structures shown at successive levels in the stem of a ‘seedling ”
plant of Polypodium, i.e. at successive stages in the ontogeny of such a fern.
Hence the Aneimia type (which corresponds with that of a mature Polypodium)
may be regarded as the more specialised type among the Schizeacee, and Lygodium
(which corresponds in structure with the base of the stem of Polypodium) as the
more primitive type.

The Gileicheniacee and Hymenophyllacee also include forms with a solid
central mass of xylem, but differing in some details from Lygyodium. The proto-
xylem is well marked and composed of annular and spiral elements in both orders.
Gleichenia is mesarch and closely resembles the fossil genus Heterangium.

In the Gleicheniacee the only advance on the Lygodiwm type is found in
Platyzoma (a subgenus of Gileichenia) in which there is a ring of xylem surround-
ing a central pith, as in Schizea, but differing from the latter plant in having an
inner endodermis.

In the larger species of Trichomanes there is a solid xylem-mass, but with a
group of parenchyma in connection with the one or two protoxylems, which are
more or less centrally placed. In Hymenophyllum the corresponding parenchy-
matous mass is large in proportion to the amount of xylem. In the smallest
species of Trichomanes the stele of the rhizome takes the form of a collateral

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 929

bundle. The protoxylem of Z'richomanes spicatum, unlike the other species
examined, resembles that of the Sehizeacee.

The solid stele may be regarded as primitive, the Ancimia type being derived
from it by the following steps :—

1. Solid central xylem-mass surrounded by phloem, &c.

2. Ring of xylem surrounding a central pith.

3. Ring of xylem with internal phloem, endodermis, and pith.

4. Ring of separate bundles formed by the breaking up of the above vascular
ring, owing to large leaf-gaps.

The Aneimia type thus explained would not be polystelic, in the morphological
sense of the word, but the separate bundles would represent peripheral parts of an
originally solid stele, in which the central part has been replaced by parenchyma,
additional pieces of phloem and endodermis having been differentiated to complete
the concentric bundles.

6. Notes on Indiarubber. By R. H. Birrren, Cambridge.

Starch and caoutchoue appear not to occur together. Caoutchouc occurs as
small particles in latex, and coagulation begins with their running together.
Certain reagents will bring this about; but it is better to avoid all chemical pro-
cesses, any of which do harm. Two physical processes are now being used.
(1) The latex, mixed with water, is strained and churned; the thick cream which
rises to the surface is pressed through rollers and converted into rubber. (2) The -
author's process consists in separating the rubber with a centrifugal apparatus.
Details are given in the paper regarding the chemical properties of the different
kinds of rubber obtained from Hevea, Castilloa, Manihot, Ficus, Hancormia,
Kicksia, Artocarpus, and Clusia. The author also raises some questions of theo-
retical interest with regard to possible relations between caoutchouc, starch, and
resin-bodies, and indicates lines for further inquiry.

7. Some Isolated Observations bearing on the Function of Latex.
By J. Parkin, IA.

The author has lately returned from a year’s sojourn in Ceylon, where he has
been acting as scientific assistant to Mr. Willis, the Director of the Royal Botanic
Gardens. During his time there he has been principally engaged in investigations
on caoutchouc-yielding trees, chiefly Hevea brasiliensis (Para Rubber), and Cas-
tilloa elastica var. (a Central American Rubber-tree). The results of this research
are contained in a recently-published circular of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Cey-
lon, entitled ‘ Caoutchouc or Indiarubber,’ intended primarily for those interested
in rubber cultivation.

The purpose of this paper is to draw attention to some of the observations and
experiments recorded in the Circular, which, besides their practical value, have a
general botanical interest, and also to make public other observations which may
throw light on the functions of laticiferous tissue. It is arranged in six sections.
The main features of these are here briefly given.

Section I. is occupied chiefly with the coagulation of the latex of Hevea.
Coagulation is now known to be brought about by the proteid contained in the
latex passing from a soluble to an insoluble state. The latex of Hevea is not
coagulable by heat or slight additions of alkalies, but is coagulable in the cold, by
small quantities of acids, The approximate weight of acid required to clot com-
pletely 100 c.c. of latex has been worked out for sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric,
acetic, oxalic, tartaric, and citric acids. Experimental evidence points to the
proteid in question being alkali-albumen rather than ordinary albumen. It has
previously been called albumen.

The behaviour of this latex towards certain saline solutions has also been
investigated. Mercuric chloride is shown to be a powerful coagulator.

1899. 30

930 REPORT—1899.

Section II. contains observations and remarks relating to the carbohydrates of
latex. g

Sugar in variable proportions is of frequent occurrence in latex. The little
contained in the trunk-latex of Hevea seems to be cane-sugar.

It is suggested that the sugar may arise, in part at least, from the surrounding
injured tissues, and may not be always originally present in the latex.

The starch-rods so characteristic of the laticiferous tubes of Huphordia and
allied genera have been found still present in the turned and fallen leaves of the
following species examined: Euphorbia pulcherrima, E. Bojeri, E. rothiana, Pedi-
lanthus tithymaloides, Hura crepitans, Exvcecaria bicolor, and Sapium biglandu-
losum. This fact is somewhat opposed to the view of these tubes functioning as
conductors of starch from the leaf.

In Section IIL. reasons are given for thinking that in some caoutchoue trees
the latex of the young stems and leaves differs in the composition of its globules
in suspension from that of the trunk and main branches. While the latter yield
rubber free of stickiness, the former give a somewhat viscous substance with
feeble elasticity. Such is the case with Hevea, Castilloa, Landolphia Kirkii, Ficus
elastica, and Urceola eseulenta.

Section IV. treats of an important fact connected with the tapping of Hevea
trees, viz., that wounding the bark causes a greater flow of latex from subsequent
injuries. A point first indicated in the experiments of Mr. Willis, who found that
the weight of rubber obtained from the second tapping was about double that
from the first. The author has followed this up with some instructive results.

In Section V. a peculiarity in the exudation of latex from the severed base of
the petiole of Hevea brasiliensis and Plumiera acutifolia is described and
discussed. :

In Section VI. a special laticiferous system developed in the immature seed of
Hevea brasiliensis is brought to notice.

The paper concludes with general remarks and suggestions on the origin and —

functions of laticiferous tissue.

8. Intumescences of Hibiscus vitifolius (Z.). By Miss E. Datz, Cambridge.
I. Anatomical Part.

The plants on which the following observations were made were grown, directly
or indirectly, from seed from Somaliland. The intumescences, which vary in size
and shape, occur on the leaves, stems, green parts of the flower, and on the young
fruit. Some are entirely colourless; others are green at the base. Those on (1)
the leaf differ from those on (2) the stem.

1. On the leaf the intumescences are of two types.

(a) Purely epidermal.

(8) Partly sub-epidermal.

a. The purely epidermal and smaller type consists of one or two tiers, of much
elongated, thin-walled cells, usually twisted spirally round one another. At the
apex is a stoma, which may or may not lead into an intercellular space.

8. The larger outgrowths contain basal prolongations of parenchyma.

2. On the ste the outgrowths are more complex, and usually larger. The
basal part consists of elongated sub-epidermal cells divided by periclinal walls.
The upper part is made up of much enlarged, thin-walled epidermal cells, similarly
divided. The outgrowths later become cut off by cork, which arises in the lowest
row of daughter cells derived from the original epidermis, z.c. in the lowest
colourless cells; after suberisation of these cells the outgrowth shrivels.

Il. Experimental Part.

Seedlings were raised in the Tropical Pit, and eight of them were planted, each
in a separate pot, and allowed to grow on under identical conditions. They all

O4

—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 931

developed intumescences, and were all very much alike. When each had about
nine or ten leaves, and was beginning to flower, the plants were placed under
different conditions, and examined at the end of six weeks :—

The plant grown in the open was entirely free from intumescences ; it was par-
ticularly vigorous, and had strong lateral branches.

The plant in the temperate house had outgrowths only on the wnder sides of
the leaves, and on the flowers and fruits.

The plant in the filmy fern-house was very unhealthy, but had no outgrowths.

All the other plants had outgrowths on one or both sides of most of the leaves,
on the stems, the green parts of the flowers, and on the young fruits.

Conelusions,

As far as the evidence goes at present, it seems to point to the conclusion that
the intumescences are pathological, and are due neither to insects nor to fungi,
but to the direct effects of environment. The formation of outgrowths appear to
be caused by excessive moisture combined with a high temperature. If the
temperature is low the plants do not appear to have strength to form them. The
production of outgrowths seems to be a response on the part of the plant to
insufficient transpiration.

Note—Similar, but less well-marked, outgrowths were observed on the leaves
of plants of Ceratotheca triloba. As in the case of Hibiscus vitifolius, they were
not formed in a plant placed in the open ground.

Outgrowths which may prove to be of the nature of those in Hibiscus vitifolius
have been described by Sorauer in Dracena (angustifolia, &e.), Cassia tomentosa,
Acacia (semperflorens, &c.).

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nit

sid ans whey

Ley toe As a baat a0
if peaeulk fa. Pung

iye
,

vial aceon bh Ob acer of oe hape

a esiee OF Witt Wes i ot ‘poe alt
php gta te v4 Hid ie jailinte:? oul 4
ode ce Laas (aes > oi +s dy ;
>see oe ht! Ron ke ¥ eprrogny aia!

5 be Pa: od Ye ty Hontt ligy car

7 i

Pr cet ee ae

INDEX.

References to reports and papers printed in extenso are given in Italies.

An Asterisk * indicates that the title only of the communication is given.

Lhe marh ¢ indicates the same, but a reference is given to the Journal or Newspaper
where the paper is published in extenso.

4

BJECTS and rules of the Association,
pSaba

List of Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and
Local Secretaries, 1831-1900, xl.

List of Trustees and General Officers,
1831-1900, lii.

List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of Sections, liii.

List of evening Discourses from 1842,
Ixxi.

Lectures to the Operative Classes from
1867, Ixxy.

Officers of Sections present at Dover,
lxxvi.

Treasurer’s account, Ixxviii.

Yable showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the annual meetings, lxxx.
Officers and Council for 1899-1900, Ixxxii.
Report of the Council to the General

_ Committee at Dover, lxxxiii.
Resolutions passed by the General
Committee at Dover:

(1) Committees receiving grants of
money, xciv.

(2) Committees not receiving grants
of money, c.

(3) Papers ordered to be printed in
extenso, Ciii. ,

(4) Resolutions referred to the Coun-
cil for consideration, and ac-
tion if desirable, ciii.

(5) Change of time of meetings on
the first day of the Annual
Meeting, ciii.

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated |

to scientific purposes in 1899, civ.
Places of meeting in 1900 and 1901, evi.
General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, cvii.
General meetings, cxxiv.

Address by the President, Sir Michael
Foster, L.RAS., 3.

ABBOTT (G.) on water zones; their
influence on the situation and growth
of concretions, 741.

on tubular and concentric concre-
tions, 741.

ABNEY (Capt. W. de W.) on solar
radiation, 159.

, on nave-length tables of the spectra

of the elements and compounds, 257.

, on the action of light upon dyed
colours, 363.

Abutilon roots, a mixed infection in, E.
J. Butler on, 925.

Abyssinia a journey to King Menelek’s
dominions, Capt. M. 8, Wellby on, 814.

ADAMS (Prof. F.) on the meteorological
Observatory at Montreal, 65.

—— (Prof. W.G.) on practical electrical
standards, 240,

ADENEY (Dr. W. E.) on radiation from a
source of light in a magnetic field, 63.
Africa, the climatology of, Eighth report

on, 448.

*African, West, tribes north of the Benue,
Lieut. H. Pope Hennessy on some, 880.

*___, ethnography; specimens from
Somali, Galla and Shangalla exhibited
by Dr. Koettlitz, 880.

* —— of the Lake region of Uganda.
Lieut.-Col. J. R. L. Macdonald on, 880.

Agricultural wages in the United King-
dom from 1770 to 1895, A. L. Bowley
on, 829.

*Aire, sources of the river, P. F. Kendall
on the, 750.

Air-propellers, experiments on the thrust
and power of, W. G. Walker on, 860
ALBy (Amédée) on the erection of Alex-

ander IIT, Bridge in Paris, 469.

Alewander IIT. Bridge in Paris, the
erection of, Amédée Alby on, 469.

Algze, the culture of, some methods fer
use in the, Prof. Marshall Ward on,
919, 920.

934

ALLEN (J. Romilly) on an ethnographi-
cal survey of the United Kingdom, 493.

ALLEN-BROWN (J.) on the discovery of
stone implements in Pitcairn’s Island,
871.

Alloys, Report on the heat of combination
of metals in the formation of, 246

—— of cadmium, zinc, and magnesium
with platinum, and with palladium,

Prof. Hodgkinson, Capt. Waring and |

Capt. Desborough on, 714.

—— of iron, electric conductivity and
magnetic properties of, Prof. W. F.
Barrett and W. Brown on, 856.

Alphabet, the sources of the, Prof.
Flinders Petrie on, 877.

America, North, recent magnetic work
in, L. A. Bauer on, 660.

American municipal finance, some aspects
of, J. H. Hollander on, 825.

Amt (Dr. H.) on Canadian Pleistocene
Jlora and fauna, 411.

— on the subdivisions of the Carboni-
ferous system in certain portions of
Nova Scotia, 755.

Anabena-containing roots of
Cycads, W. G. Freeman on, 925.

ANDBRSON (Dr. Joseph) on an ethno-
graphicalsurvey of the United Kingdom,
493.

—— (Prof. R. J.) on the pelvic sym-
physial bone of the Indian elephant,
781.

, on rhythmic motion, 782.

some

—— (Dr. Tempest) on the collection |

of photographs of geological interest
in the United Kingdom, 377.

—— on the eruption of Vesuvius in
1898, 749.

ANDREWS (C. W.) on the relations of
Christmas Island to the neighbouring
lands, 815.

Anglesey, Dwlbau Point,
pipes at, E. Greenly on, 742.

—— ——,, glaciation at, E. Greenly on,
742.

Antarctic exploration; the voyage of the
Southern Cross from Hobart to Cape
Adare, Dr. H. R. Mill on, 803.

, the problem of, Henryk

Arctowski on, 803.

, the physical and chemical

work in, J. Y. Buchanan on, 804.

, with reference to its botani-
cal bearings, G. R. M. Murray on, 80€.

*Anthropogeography of certain places in
British New Guinea and Sarawak,
Prof. A. C. Haddon on, 813.

Anthropological interest, photographs of,
Report on, 592.

method, two new departures in, Dr.
Rivers on, 879.

** Anthropological Notes and Queries,
Report on the new edition of, 868.

sandstone

*.

REPORT—1899.

Anthropology, Address by C. H. Read
to the Section of, 861.

Anthropometrical work in Egypt, recent,
D. Maclver on, 875.

*Anthropometry, the personal equation
in, Dr. J. G. Garson on, 868.

Aracez, Studies in, by Prof. Douglas
Campbell, 924.

*Arctic exploration, the problem of, W.
Wellman on, 814.

ARMSTRONG (Prof. H. E.) on the investi-
gation of isomeric naphthalene deriva-
tives, 362.

on the teaching of science in ele-

mentury schools, 359.

on the laws of substitution, especi-
ally in benzenoid compounds, 683.

— on the relative orienting effect of
chlorine and bromine, 687.

on isomorphism in benzenesulphonic
derivatives, 687.

—— on symbiotic fermentation, its
chemical aspects, 699.

ARNOLD (John P.) on the dependence of
the tonus of the muscles of the bladder
in rabbits on the spinal cord, 902.

Assimilation in plants, Report on an
experimental investigation of, 611.

Astroclera Willeyana, the type of a new
family of recent sponges, J. J. Lister -
on, 775.

Atmospheres of planets, the permanence
of certain gases in the, Prof. G. H.
Bryan on, 634.

Atomic weights, a proposed International
Committee on, Prof. ¥. W. Clarke on,
703.

, Prof. W. A. Tilden on, 706.

tAtoms, the existence of masses smaller
than the, Prof. J. J. Thomson on, 637.

Australia, the discovery of, E. Heawood
on, 814.

AYRTON (Prof. W. E.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 240.

Bacterial treatment of sewage in coke-
beds, intermittent, Prof. F. Clowes on,
691.

BALFOUR (H.) on photographs of anthro-
pological interest, 592.

—— (Prof. I. B.) on the exploration of
Sokotra, 460.

Balloon, the first crossing of the Channel
by a, A. L. Rotch on, 656.

Bank reserves, G. H. Pownall on, 833.

*Barents Sea, physical observations in,
W. 8. Bruce on, 802.

BARKER (W. R.) on the excavation of
caves at Uphill, 402.

BARNES (H. T.) and Prof. H. L. CAt-
LENDAR on the variation of the specific
heat of water, 624.

BARRETT (W. F.) on some novel thermo-
electric phenomena, 635.

INDEX,

BARRETT (W. F.) and W. BRowN on the
electric conductivity and magnetic pro-
perties of an extensive series of alloys
of iron prepared by R. A. Hadfield, 856.

*BARRETT-HAMILTON (G. E. H.) on the
fur seals of the Behring Sea, 784.

BARRINGTON (R. M.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 447.

BATHER (F. A.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 371.

on the compilation of an. index
generum et specierum animalium, 429.

-_— on zoological and botanical publi-
cation, 444.

*Bathymetrical survey of the Scottish
freshwater lochs, Sir John Murray and
F, P. Pullar on the, 809.

BAUER (L. A.) on recent magnetic work
in North America, 660.

BEAUCHEMIN (Dr. Merée) on an ethno-
logical survey of Canada, 497.

BEDDOE (Dr. John) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 493.

—— on colour selection in man, 876.

BEDFORD (J. E.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 377.

(T. G.) onthe expansion of porcelain
with rise of temperature, 245.

Bees, cells of, the crystallisation of bees-
wax and its influence on the formation
of the, C. Dawson and 8. A. Woodhead
on, 782.

BELL (C. N.) on an ethnological survey of
Canada, 497.

Ben Nevis, meteorological observations on,
Report on, 250.

*Benzaldehyde, the action of caustic
soda on, Dr. C. A. Kohn and Dr. W.
Trantom on, 714.

Benzenesulphonic derivatives, isomor-
phism in, Prof. H. E. Armstrongon, 687.

Benzenoid compounds, the laws of sub-
stitution in, Prof. H. E. Armstrong on,
683.

BERTRAND (Prof. C. E.) on the structure
of a stem of a ribbed Sigillaria, 926.
BEVAN (Rey. J. O.) on the work of the

Corresponding Societies Committee, 27.

Bibliography of spectroscopy, Interim
Report on the, 256.

— of papers &c. on the Drift, 422.

BUrFEN (R. H.) on Bulgaria polymorpha
as a wood-destroying fungus, 923.

on indiarubber, 929.

Biological Association at Plymouth, the
Marine, Report on investigations made
at the laboratory of, 437.

Bird migration in Great Britain and
Ireland, Second interim report on, 447.

Bladder muscles in rabbits, the depend-
ence of the tonus of, on the spinal
cord, J. P. Arnold on, 902.

935

BLAKE (Prof. J. F.) on records of the Drift
section at Moel Tryfaen, 414.

BLANFORD (Dr. W. T.) on the zoologu of
the Sandwich Islands, 436.

Blood, Report on the physiological effects
of peptone when introduced into the
circulating, 605.

Boiler furnaces and cylinders, an instru-
ment for gauging the circularity of, T.
Messenger on, 859.

= water-tube, the Niclausse, Mark
Robinson on, 855.

Bokhara, East, travels in, Mrs. W. R.
Rickmers on, 806.

Bouton (H.) on the excavation of caves at
Uphill, 402.

Bonney (Prof. T. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 27.

on seismological investigation, 161.

— on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 377.

on the erratic blocks of the British
Tsles, 398.

BoopLe (L. A.) on stem structure in
Schizzacez, Gleicheniacez, and Hy-
menophyllacez, 928.

Bornylamine series, the influence of sub-
stitution on specific rotation in the, M.
O. Forster on, 712.

Botanical and xoological publication,
Report on, 444.

Botany and zoology of the West India
Islands, Final report on the, 441.

Botany, Address by Sir G. King to the
Section of, 904.

BorTromMuLey (J. T.) on practical electri-
cal standards, 240.

*BOULT (Wilfred 8.) on signalling with-
out contact, a new system of railway
signalling, 858.

BouRtor (Sir J. G.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 497.

BOURNE (G. C.) on investigations made at
the Marine Biological Association
laboratory at Plymouth, 437.

on the micro-chemistry of celis, 609.

Bower (Prof. F. 0.) on fertilisation in
Phaophycee, 610.

be (Prof. F. O.) on fern sporangia and
spores, 925.

Bow ey (A. L.) on agricultural wages in
the United Kingdom from 1770 to 1895,
829.

Boyce (Prof. R.) on recording the results
of the chemical and bacterial examina-
tion of water and sewage, 255.

on the physiological effects of
peptone and its precursors when intro-
duced into the circulation, 605.

BoYueE (David) on an ethnological survey
of Canada, 497.

Boys (C. Vernon) on determining magnetic
force at sea, 64.

936

Boys (C. Vernon) on seismological inves-
tigation, 161.

on the B. A. screw gauge, 464.

BRABROOK (E. W.) on the physical and
mental defects ofchildren in schools, 489.

on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 493.

—— on the Silchester excavation, 495.

on an ethnological survey of Canada,
497,

Brain, anemic stimulation and excita-
bility of the, W. J. Gies on, 897.

BRAMWELL (Sir F. J.) on seismological
wwestigation, 161.

on the B. A. screw gauge, 464.

Bridge in Paris, Alewander ITLTI., the
erection of, Amédée Alby on, 469.

*British Trade, the silver question in re-
lation to, J. M. Macdonald on, 835.

Bromine and chlorine, the relative orien-
ting effect of, Prof. H. E. Armstrong on,
687.

Brown (Prof. A. Crum) on meteoro-
logical observations on Ben Nevis, 250.

— (Horace T.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 27.

—— Address to the Section of Chemistry
by, 664.

— on symbiotic fermentation, 702.

—— (W.), and Prof. W. F. BARRETT
on the electric conductivity and mag-
netic properties of an extensiveseries of
alloys of iron prepared by R. A. HAD-
FIELD, 856.

BROWNE (Dr. C. BR.) on an ethnographicat
survey of the United Kingdom, 493.

BRUCE (Hric 8.) ona newinstrument for
measuring the duration of persistence
of vision on the human retina, 902.

2 (W. 5S.) on physical observations in
Barents Sea, 802.

BRYAN (Prof. G. H.) on the permanence
of certain gases in the atmospheres of
planets, 634.

BUCHAN (Dr. A.) on meteorological obser-
vations on Ben Nevis, 250.

BUCKNEY (T.) on the LB. A. screw gauge,
464,

'BULLEID (A.) on the lake village of
Glastonbury, 594.

BuncH (Dr. J. L.) on the effects of suc-
cessive stimulation of the visceromotor
and vasomotor nerves of the intestines,
897.

BuRcHuH (G. J.) on spectroscopical exami-
nation of contrast phenomena, 624.
BurGI (Dr. Emil) on respiration on

mountains, 900.

Burmese, the thirty-seven Nats (or spirits)
of the, Col. R. C. Temple on, 878.

BuRTON (F. M.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 398.

Buscu (Dr. F.C.) on the resonance of
nerve and muscle, 894.

REPORT—1899.

Buscu (Dr. F. C.) and Prof. H. Kro-
NECKER on the propagation of impulses
in the rabbit’s heart, 895.

———- on fibrillation and pulsation of the
dog’s heart, 896.

BUTLER (E. J.) on a mixed infection in
Abutilon roots, 925.

Calcuius of differences, the notation of
the, Prof. J. D. Everett on, 645.

CALLENDAR (Prof. H. L.) on the Meteoro-
logical Observatory at Montreal, 65.

on solar radiation, 159.

— on practical electrical standards,
240.

—— ona standard scale of temperature
based on the platinum resistance ther-
niometer, 242.

and H. T. BARNES on the variation
of the specific heat of water, 624.

CALMETTE (Dr. A.) on industrial sym-
biotic fermentations, 697.

CAMFBELL (Prof. Douglas) on studies in
Araceze, 924.

Camphoroxime, new derivatives from,
M. O. Forster on, 713.

Canada, ethnological survey of, Third
report on an, 497.

Canadian Pleistocene flora and fauna,
Report on, 411.

CANNAN (E.) on the State as investor,
828.

Carbohydrates, the action of hydrogen
peroxide on, in the presence of ferrous
salts, R. S. Morrell and J. M. Crofts
on, 712.

Carboniferous rocks, Report on life-zones
in the British, 371.

— rocks, Upper, of North Staffordshire,
Walcot Gibson on, 738.

—— system in certain portions of Nova
Scotia, the subdivisions of the, H. M.
Ami on, 755.

CARRUTHERS (W.) on the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 441.

CASE (Edward) on the Dymchurch Wall
and reclamation of Romney Marsh,
859.

Caves at Uphill, Weston-super-Mare,
Report on the excavation of, 402.

Ty Newydd, North Wales, Report on
the investigation of the, 406.

Cells, Report on the micro-chemistry of,
609.

Celts, Irish copper, G. Coffey on, 872.

*Census, 1901, Miss Collet on the, 829.

Cerebral cortex, Report on the compara-
tive histology of the, 603.

*Ceylon, Peradeniya, the research labora-
tory in the Royal Gardens, J. C. Willis
on, 921.

Chalk and Gault near Dieppe, a boring
through, A. J. Jukes-Browne on, 738.

INDEX.

CHANEY (H. J.) on the dimensions of the
B.A. screw, 468.

Channel tunnel, the geological conditions
of the, Prof. Boyd Dawkins on, 750.
CHAPMAN (S. J.) on the regulation of
wages by lists in the Spinning Industry,

830.

CHaApputs (Dr. P.) and Dr. J. A. HARKER
on a comparison af platinum and gas
thermometers, 243.

Chemical constitution and absorption
spectra of organic bodies, Report on the
relation between, 316.

Chemistry, Address by Dr. H. Brown
to the Section of, 664.

*____ development of, in the last fifteen
years, Prof. Dr. A. Ladenburg on the,
707.

Children in schools, the physical and
mental defects of, Report on, 489.

Chlorine and bromine, the relative orient-
ing effect of, Prof. H. E. Armstrong on,
687.

CHREE (Dr. C.) on solar radiation, 159,

Christmas Island, the relations of, to the
neighbouring lands, C. W. Andrews on,
815.

CHRYSTAL (Prof. G.) on practical electri-
cal standards, 240.

Circulation, the physiological effects of
peptone and its precursors when intro-
duced inte the, Third interim report
on, 605.

Circulatory apparatus for aquatic organ-
isms, Interim report on, 431.

CLARKE (Prof. F. W.) on a proposed
International Committee on atomic
weights, 703.

CLAxTon (T. F.)
Mauritius, 654.

CLAYDEN (A. W.) on the application of
photography to the elucidation of
meteorological phenomena, 238.

Climatology of Africa, Eighth report on
the, 448.

CLODD (Edward) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 493.
CLoWES (Prof. F.) on recording the
results of the chemical and bacterial
examination of water and sewage, 255.

—— on intermittent bacterial treatment
of sewage in coke-beds, 691.

Club houses and Dubus of British New
Guinea, C. G. Seligmann on the, 591.
Coal basins, the Dover and Franco-
Belgian, the relation between, R.

Etheridge on, 730.

—— the South-Eastern, Prof. W. Boyd
Dawkins on, 734.

Coalfields below Carboniferous rocks of
North Staffordshire, Walcot Gibson on,
738. ;

*Coast erosion, preliminary report on
observations by the coast guard on, 748.

on seismology at

937

Coast erosion, Capt. McDakin on, 747.

—— G. Dowker on, 747.

CoATES (H.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 377.

Corrny (George) on Irish copper celts,
872.

- on stone moulds for new types of
implements from Ireland, 873.

COLEMAN (Prof. A. P.) on Canadian
Pleistocene flora and fauna, 411.

*COLLET (Miss) on the census, 1901, 829.

Colloids, mineral and organic, phenomena
connected with the drying of, Dr. J.
H. Gladstone and W. Hibbert on, 709.

Colour vision, spectroscopical examination
of contrast phenomena in, G. J. Burch
on, 624.

Colours of the skin, methods of record-
ing, Dr. Rivers on, 879.

Concretions, influence of water-zones on
the situation and growth of, G. Abbott
on, 741.

tubular and concentric, G. Abbott
on, 741.

Confetti, calcareous, structure of, H. J.
Johnson-Lavis on the, 744.

{Contact force, Volta’s, the seat of, Prof.
O. J. Lodge on, 838.

Contrast phenomena, spectroscopical
examination of, G. J. Burch on, 624.
CoovDE (J. C.) and W. MATTHEWS on

Dover Harbour works, 479.

CooKE (C. W.) on the B.A. screw gauge,
464.

COPELAND (Prof. RB.) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 250.

Copper sulphate, dried, the action of
acetylic and benzoylic chlorides on,
Prof. Hodgkinson and Capt. Leahy on,
715.

CoRDEAUX (the late J.) on making a
digest of the observations on the migra-
tion of birds, 447.

CoRNISH (Vaughan) on deep-sea waves,
636.

— on photographs of wave phenomena,
748.

——on the sand-dunes bordering the
Delta of the Nile, 812.

Corresponding Societies Committee :

Report, 27.

Conference at Dover 29.

List of Corresponding Societies, 39.

Papers published by Local Societies,
42,

CowPrER-CoLes (Sherard) on some recent
applications of electro-metallurgy to
mechanical engineering, 857.

*Crania, Egyptian, a collection of 1,000,
Prof. A. Macalister on, 876.

*Craven, underground waters of, P. F.
Kendall on the, 750.

CREAK (Capt. E. W.) on determining
magnetic force at sea, 64.

938

Crick (G. C.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 371.

Crorts (J. M.) and R. 8. MORRELL on
the action of hydrogen peroxide on
carbohydrates in the presence of
ferrous salts, 712.

CROMPTON (R. E.) on the B.A. screw
gauge, 464.

Crook (C. V.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 377.

CROOKE (W.) on an_ ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 493.

—— on primitive rites of disposal of the
dead, as illustrated by survivals in
India, 877.

* Crystals, Interim report on the struc-
ture of, 740.

CUNNINGHAM (Lt.-Col. Allan) on tables
of certain mathematical functions, 160.

—— on Fermat’s numbers, 653.

—— (Prof. D. J.) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 493.

Su0g (Abbé) on an ethnological survey of
Canada, 497.

Currency, Indian, after the report of the
Commission, H. Schmidt on, 834.

Curves, the use of Galtonian and other,
to represent statistics, Prof. F. Y.
Edgeworth on, 825.

Cycads, the anabzena-containing roots of
some, W. G. Freeman on, 925.

DALE (Miss E.) on intumescences of
Hibiscus vitifolius, L., 930.

DARWIN (F.) on assimilation in plants,
611.

—— on symbiotic fermentation, 702.

—— on the localisation of the irritability
in geotropic organs, 924.

(Prof. G.) on seismological investi-
gation, 161.

——— (Horace) on seismological investi-
gation, 161.

(Maj. L.) on seismological investiga-
tion, 161.

DAWKINS (Prof. Boyd) on Irish elk re-
mains in the Isle of Man, 376.

on the excavation of caves at Uphill,
402.

---- on the lake village of Glastonbury,
594.

‘on an ethnographical survey of the

United Kingdom, 493.

on the South-Hastern coalfield, 734.

——on the geological condition of a
tunnel under the Straits of Dover, 750.

DAwson (Charles) and 8. A. WOODHEAD
on the crystallisation of beeswax and
its influence on the formation of the
cells of bees, 782.

—— (Dr. G.M.) on anethnological survey
of Canada, 497.

(Sir J. W.) on Canadian Pleistocene

Jlora and fauna, 411.

REPOR'T—1899

Dead, primitive rites of disposal of the,
as illustrated by survivals in modern
India, W. Crooke on, 877.

Deep-sea expedition in the Valdivia,
oceanographical and meteorological
results of the, Dr. Gerhard Schott on,
808.

DENISON (F. Napier) on the hydro-
aérograph, 656.

Denmark, old age pensions in: their in-
fluence on thrift and pauperism, Prof.
A. W. Flux on, 835.

DE RANCE (C. E.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 398.

DESBOROUGH (Capt.), Prof. HODGKINSON,
and Capt. WARING on alloys of cad-
mium, zinc, and magnesium with
platinum, and with palladium, 714.

DEWAR (Prof. J.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 257.

Diabetes, pancreatic, auto-intoxication
as the cause of, J. L. Tuckett on, 892..

DicKsSON (H. N.) on the application of
photography to the elucidation of
meteorological phenomena, 238.

on the plankton and physical condi-

tions of the English Channel during

1899, 444.

on the climatology of Africa, 448.

—-—on the mean temperature of the
surface waters of the sea round the
British coasts, and its relation to that
of the air, 809.

on temperature and salinity of the
surface water of the North Atlantic
during 1896-7, 810.

Dieppe, a boring through the Chalk and
Gault near, A. J .Jukes- Browne on, 738.

1:3 dinitro-benzene, the reaction be-
tween potassium cyanide and, Prof.
Hodgkinson and Lieut. Webley-Hope
on, 716.

Discussions :

Platinum thermometry, 660.

The laws of substitution, especially
in benzenoid compounds, 683.

Symbiotic fermentation, 692.

Atomic weights, 703.

Dispersion in quartz and calcite, in-
fluence of temperature on, J. W.
Gifford on, 661.

Dixon (Prof. A. C.) on the partial
differential equation of the second
order, 646.

— (Dr. Walter HE.) the vascular
mechanism of the testis, 901

DOBBIE (Prof. J. J.) on absorption spec-
tra and chemical composition of or-
ganie bodies, 316.

DONALD (Robert) on municipal trading
and profits, 826.

Dover Harbour Works, J. C. Coode and
W. Matthews on, 479.

INDEX.

Dowker (G.) on coast erosion, 747.

—— on the sand-dunes between Deal
and Sandwich, with remarks on the
flora of the district, 921.

Drift section at Moel Tryfaen, Report of
photographic and other records of the,
414,

Drugs, Report on the influence of, upon
the vascular nervous system, 608.

DunsTAN (Prof. W. R.) on the teach-
ing of science in elementary schools,
359.

DWERRYHOUSE (A. R.) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 398.

Dyed colours, the action of light upon,
Report on, 363.

DyMonp (T. 8.) on the chemical effect
on agricultural soils of the salt water
flood of November 29, 1897, on the
East Coast, 707.

Earth, interior of the, seismology in
relation to the, J. Milne on, 802.

Echinide, rearing of larve of, Prof. B. W.
Mae Bride on the, 438.

Economic Science and Statistics, Ad-
dress by H. Higgs to the Section of,
816.

Economics, the Faculty of, in the Teach-
ing University of London, Sir P.
Magnus on, 831.

Eppows#s (Alfred) on Stonehenge ; some
new observations and a suggestion,
871.

EDGEWORTH (Prof. F. Y.) on the use of
Galtonian and other curves to repre-
sent statistics, 825.

Egypt, recent anthropometrical work in,
D. MaclIver on, 875.

Electrical changes accompanying the
discharge of the respiratory centre,
Report on the, 599.

—.— measurements, experiments for im-
proving the construction of practical
standards for, Report on, 240.

Appendix :

I. On the mutual induction of coaxial
helices, by Lord Rayleigh, 241.

Il. Proposals for a standard scale of
temperature based on the platinum
resistance thermometer, by Prof.
H. L.. Callendar, 242.

Ill. Comparison of platinum and gas
thermometers, by Dr. P. Chappuis
and Dr. J. A. Harker, 243.

IV. On the \expansion of porcelain
with rise of temperature, by T. G&.
Bedford, 245.

* machinery on board ship, A.
Siemens on, 856.
* ___ resistance balance, a workshop

form, Prof. J. A. Fleming on an, 662.

939

Electricity. The mutual induction of
coaxial helices, by Lord Rayleigh, 241.

t——. The seat of Volta’s contact force ;
the controversy concerning, Prof. 0. J.
Lodge on, 6388.

Electrolysis and electro-chemistry, Le-
port on, 160.

Electrolytic solution pressure, the theory
of the, R. A. Lehfeldt on, 661.

Electrometallurgy, applications of, to
mechanical engineering, 5. Cooper-
Coles on, 857.

Elephant, Indian, the pelvic symphysial
bone of the, Prof. R. J. Anderson on,
781.

Elk remains, Trish, in the Isle of Man,
Report on the, 376.

ELPHINSTONE (G. K. B.) on the B. A.
serem gauge, 464.

English Channel, plankton and physical

conditions in 1899 of the, First report
on the, 444.

Equation, partial differential, of the
second order, Prof. A. C. Dixon on the,
646.

*Equations, differential, singular solu-
tions of ordinary, Prof. A. R. Forsyth

on, :

Erratic blocks of the British Isles, Report
on the, 398.

EssELMONT (J. E.), Observations, physio-
logical and pharmacological, on the
intestinal movements of a dog with a
vella fistula by, 899.

ETHERIDGE (R.) on the relation between
the Dover and Franco-Belgian coal
basins, 730.

Ether, the structure of the, and the
transmission of energy in a turbulent
liquid, Prof. G. F. FitzGerald on,
632.

Ethnographical survey of the United King-
dom, Final report on an, 493.

4 specimens from Somali, Galla, and
Shangalla, exhibited by Dr. R. Koett-
litz, 880.

work in Scotland, recent, J. Gray
on, 874.

*Ethnography of the Lake region of
Uganda, Lieut.-Col, J. R. L. Mac-
donald on the, 888.

Ethnological Survey of Canada, Third
report on an, 497.

Etna, the recent eruption of, Prof. G.
Platania on, 750.

EVANS(A. J.) on an ethnographical survey
of the United Kingdom, 493.

on the Silchester excavation,495.

—— on the lake village of Glastonbury,
594.

—— on the occurrence of Celtic types of
fibula of the Hallstatt and La Téne
periods in Tunisia and Eastern Algeria,
872.

940

EVANS (Sir John) on the work of the Cor-
responding Societies Committee, 27.

—— onthe lake village of Glastonbury,
594,

EVERETT (Prof. J. D.) on. practieal clec-
trical standards, 240.

—— on the notation of the calculus of
differences, 645.

on geometrical illustrations of the
theory of rent, 825.

Ewine (Prof. J. H.) on seismological
investigation, 161.

“Excretory products of plants, Prof.
Hanriot on the, 692.

Lxpansion of porcelain with rise of tem-
perature, T. C. Bedford on, 245.

#ARADAY (Ethel R.) on the mercantile
system of laisser faire, 824.

FARMER (Prof. J.B.) on fertilisation in
Pheophycee, 610.

FARQUHARSON (Col. Sir J.) on twelve
years’ work of the Ordnance Survey,
811.

FENTON (H. J. H.) on oxidation in the
presence of iron, 688.

and H. JACKSON on condensation of
glycollic aldehyde, 689.

Fermat’s numbers, Col. A. Cunningham
on, 655.

Fermentation, symbiotic,
Dr. A. Calmette on, 697.

——, its chemical aspects, Prof.
H. E. Armstrong on, 699.

*Fern sporangia and spores, Prof. F. O.
Bower on, 925.

HERNBACH (Dr. A.) on the influence of
acids and of some salts on the saccha-
rification of starch by malt-diastase,
709.

Fibula of the Hallstatt and La Téne
periods, Celtic types of, found in
Tunisia and Eastern Algeria, A. J.
Evans on, 872.

Finger prints of young children, F.
Galton on, 868.

—— -—— and the detection of crime in
India, E. R. Henry on, 869.

Fish, sea, experiments on the artificial
rearing of, W. Garstang on, 784.

*Fisheries of the Thames estuary, the
physico-biological aspects of the, Dr.
J. Murie on, 7838.

Fishes, the palpebral and oculomotor
apparatus of, N. Bishop Harman on,
780.

FITZGERALD (Prof. G. F.) on radiation
from a sowree of light in a magnetic
field, 63.

on solar radiation, 159.

on practical electrical standards,

240.

industrial,

REPORT—1899.

FITZGERALD (Prof. G. F.) on the heat of
combination of metals in the formation
of alloys, 246, 249.

on the energy per c.c. ina turbulent
liquid transmitting laminar waves, 632.

FITZPATRICK (Rev. T. C.) on electrolysis
and clectro-chemistry, 160.

— on practical electrical standards,
240.

FLEMING (Dr. J. A.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 240.

fy on a workshop form of resistance
balance, 662.

Flint, the origin of, Prof. W.J.Sollas on,
744,

Flora of the sand-dune district between
Deal and Sandwich, George Dowker
on, 921.

Fiux (Professor A. W.) on old age
pensions in Denmark: their influence
on thrift and pauperism, 835.

Foorp (A. H.) on life zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 371.

Foraminifera from the Drifts of Moel
Tryfaen, T. Mellard Reade on, 420,

ForBES (Dr. Henry 0.) on the migration
of birds in Great Britain and Ireland,
447.

on the exploration of Sokotra, 460.

on the ethnographical survey of the -

United Kingdom, 493.

| Forster (M. O.) on the influence of

substitution on specific rotation in
the bornylamine series, 712.

—— on new derivatives from camphor-
oxime, 713.

ForsytH (Prof. A. R.) on tables of the
G (7, v)-Integrals, 65.

—— ona systemof invariants for paralle!
configurations in space, 640.

* on singular solutions of ordinary
differential equations, 647

Fossils, type specimens of, Report on the
registration of, 405.

photomicrographs of opaque, Dr. A.
Rowe on, 740.

Foster (A. Le Neve) on the B. A. screw
gauge, 464.

—— (Prof. G. C.) on practical eleotrical
standards, 240.

FOstTEeR (Sir Michael) Presidential Ad-
dress at Dover by, 3.

on the Torres Straits Expedition,

585.

| Fox (E£. Marshall) on non-flammable

wood and its use in warships, 854.

—— (H.) on life-zones wm the British
Carboniferous rocks, 371.

FRANKLAND (Prof. Percy F.) on ve-
cording the results of the chemical and
bacterial examination of water and
senage, 255.

FREEMAN (W. G.) on the Anabzna-
containing roots of some Cycads, 925.

INDEX.

*Fungi, the sexuality of the, H. Wager on,
923.

*Fungus, a horn-destroying,
Marshall Ward on, 922.

, Bulgaria polymorpha as a wood-

destroying, R. H. Biffen on, 922.

Prof.

GALT (Dr. A.) on the heat of combination
of metals in the formation of alloys,
246.

GALTON (the late Sir Douglas) on the
physical and mental defects of children
in schools, 489.

—— (Francis) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 27.

—— on photographic and other records of
pedigree stock, 424.

on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 493.

———. on the median estimate, 638.

—— on finger prints of young children,
868.

GAMBLE (FF. W.) on a circulatory appara-
tus for aquatic organisms, 431.

GARSON (Dr. J. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 27.

on the physical and mental defects

of children in schools, 489.

on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 493.

——on photographs of anthropological
interest, 592.

*_____ on the personal equation in anthro-
pometry, 868.

GARSTANG (W.) on investigations made at
the Marine Biological Laboratory at
Plymouth, 437.

on the plankton and physical con-

ditions of the English Channel during

1899, 444.

——on experiments on the artificial

rearing of sea-fish, 784.

GARWOOD (E. J.), on life-zones in the |

British Carboniferous rocks, 371.

—— on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 377.

Gases in the atmospheres of planets, the
permanence of certain, Prof. G. H.
Bryan on, 634,

, rarefied, production of luminous
rings about lines of magnetic force in,
C. E. 8. Phillips on the, 636.

Gauge for small screws, the British
Association, 464.

GEIKIE (Sir Arch.), Address to the Section
of Geology by, 718.

(Prof. J.) on the collection of

photographs of geological interest in

the United Kingdom, 377.

GEMMILL (James F.) on animalsin which |
| GODMAN (F. Du Cane) on the zoology of

nutrition has no influence in deter-
mining sex, 782.

94.2

Geography, Address by Sir John Murray
to the Section of, 789.

Geological photographs of interest, United’
Kingdom, 377.

Geology, Address by Sir A. Geikie to-
the Section of, 718.

Geometry (non-Euclidian), the funda-
mental differential equations of, Dr.
Irving Stringham on, 646.

Geotropic organs, the localisation of the
irritability in, F. Darwin on, 924.

Gephyrea and allied norms, Dr. H.
Lyster Jameson on, 432.

GIBBs (Prof. Wolcott) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 257.

GIBSON (Prof. Harvey) on fertilisation in
Pheophycee, 610,

—— (Walcot) on recent work among the
Upper Carboniferous rocks of North:
Staffordshire, and its bearing on con-
cealed coalfields, 738.

GIES (William J.) on stimulation and
excitability of the anemic brain, 897.
GIFFORD (J. W.) on temperature and
the dispersion in quartz and calcite,

661.

GILL (Deemster) on Irish Elk remains-
in the Isle of Man, 376.

Ginkgo biloba, L. (the Maiden-hair tree),
A.C. Seward and Miss J. Gowan on,
928.

Glacial drainage of Yorkshire, P. F.
Kendall on, 743.

Glaciation of Dwlbau Point, Anglesey,,.
E. Greenly on, 742.

Glaciers, lateral moraines and rock trains
of, the origin of, J. Lomas on, 744.

GLADSTONE (G.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 359.

(Dr. J. H.) on the heat of combination

of metals in the formation of alloys,

246, 249.

on the teaching of science in elemen-
tary schools, 359.

—— on analyses of specimens from the
Lake Village, Glastonbury, 595.

—— and W. HIBBERT on phenomena
connected with the drying of colloids,
mineral and organic, 709.

GULAISHER (Dr. J. W. L.) on tables of the
G (7, v)-Integrals, 65.

on tables of certain mathematical
Functions, 160.

Glastonbury, the Lake Village of, Report
on the, 594.

——, Analyses of specimens from, by
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, 595.

GLAZEBROOK (R. T.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 240.

Glycollic aldehyde, H. J. H. Fenton and
H. Jackson on, 689.

the Sandwich Islands, 436.

942

GODMAN (F’. du Cane) on the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 441.

GOoMME (G. L.) on an ethnological survey
of the United Kingdom, 493.

GOODCHILD (J. G.) on the collection
of photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 377.

GORDON (Maria M.) on sigmoidal curves
in rocks, 754.

GotcH (Prof. F.) on electrical changes
accompanying the discharge of the

_ respiratory centre, 599.

on the comparative histology of the

cerebral cortex, 603.

on the influence of drugs upon the
vascular nervous system, 608.

GOWAN (Miss J.) and A. C. SEWARD on

the Maiden-hair tree (Ginkgo biloba, |

L.), 928.

‘Granite of Mount Sorrel, surface of the,
W. W. Watts on the, 747.

tGravity balance, Prof. J. A. Threlfall
and Prof. J. A. Pollock on a, 659.

*GRAy (A. A.) on the theory of hearing,
894.

-—— (J.) on recent ethnographical work in
Aberdeenshire, Scotland, 874.

—(W.) on the collection of photographs
of geological interest in the United
Kingdom, 377.

GREENHILL (Prof. A. G.) on tables of
certain mathematical functions, 160.
GREENLY (E.) on records of the Drift

section at Moel Tryfaen, 414.

~—— on photographs of sandstone pipes
in the Carboniferous Limestone at
Dwlbau Point, Anglesey, 742.

—— on glaciation of Dwlbau Point, 742.

GREEN (Prof. J. R.) on assimilation in
plants, 611.

GRIFFITHS (E. H.) on electrolysis and
electro-chemistry, 160.

—— on practical electrical standards,
240.

GUNTHER (Dr. A. C. L.) on the zoology
and botany of the West India Islands,
441,

Gurnard, grey, the occurrence of the, and
its spawning in the inshore and offshore
waters, Prof. W. C. McIntosh on, 787.

HADDON (Prof. A. C.) on an ethnographi-
cal survey of the United Kingdom, 493.

on an ethnological survey of Canada,
497.

—— on the Torres Straits expedition,
585.

—— onthe Yaraikanna Tribe, Cape York,
Queensland, 585.

*___ on the anthropogeography of certain
places in British New Guimea and
Sarawak, 813.

*_____ exhibited photographs from Torres
Straits and New Guinea, 871.

REPORT—1899.

Halidrys sitiquosa, the life-history and
cytology of, J. Lloyd-Williams on, 920.

HALLIBURTON (Prof. W. D.) on the
influence of drugs upon the vascular
nervous system, 608.

—— on the microchemistry of cells, 609.

HAMPpson (Sir G.) on the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 441.

*HAwnriot (Prof.) on the excretory pro-
ducts of plants, 692.

HARKER (Dr. J. A.)and Dr. P. CHAPPUIS
on & comparison of platinum and gas
thermometers, 243.

HARLEY (Rev. ROBERT) on tables of the
G (7, v)-Inteqrals, 65.

HARMAN (N. B.) on the palpebral and
oculomotor apparatus of fishes, 780.

HARMER (F. W.) on a proposed new
classification of the Pliocene deposits
of the East of England, 751.

—— on the meteorological conditions of
N.W. Europe during the Pliocene and
Glacial periods, 753.

| HARRISON (Rey. 8. N.) on the erratic

blocks of the British Isles, 398.
HARTLAND (E. 8.) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 493.
on an ethnological survey of Canada,

497.

on photographs of anthropological
interest, 592.

*HARTLEY (Sir Charles) on the engineer-
ing works of the Suez Canal, 855.

(Prof. W. N.) on wave-length

tables of the spectra of the elements and

compounds, 257.

on absorption spectra and chemical
constitution of organic bodies, 316.

HARVIE-BROWN (J. A.) on making a
digest of the observations on the migra-
tion of birds, 447.

Hearing Sc. of natives of New Guinea, C.
S. Myers on the, 588.

* , the theory of, A. A. Gray on, 894.

Heart, dog’s, fibrillation and pulsation of
the, Dr. F. C. Busch on the, 896.

rabbit’s, the propagation of impulses
in the, Prof. Kronecker and Dr. F.C.
Busch on, 895.

Heat of combination of metals in the
Sormation of alloys, Report on the,
246.

specific, of water, Prof. H. L.
Callendar and H. T. Barnes on the
variation of the, 624.

HEAWOOD (Edward) on the discovery of
Australia, 814.

Henry (E. BR.) on finger-prints and the
detection of crime in India, 869.

HERDMAN (Prof. W. A.) on the occupa-
tion of a table at the Zoological Station
at Naples, 431.

on zoological and botanical publica-

tion, 444,

INDEX.

HERDMAN (Prof. W. A.) on the plankton
and physical conditions of the English
Channel during 1899, 444.

HEWART (Miss) on increase in local
rates in England and Wales, 1891-2 to
1896-7, 832.

HEwItvt (C. J.) on the B. A. screw gauge,
464,

HIBBERT (Walter) and Dr. J. H. GLAD-
STONE on phenomena connected with
the drying of colloids, mineral and
organic, 709.

Hibiscus vitifolius, L., intumescences of,
Miss E. Dale on, 930.

Hicks (Dr. H.) on records of the Drift |

seetion at Moel Tryfaen, 414.

-—— (Prof. W. M.) on tables of certain
mathematical functions, 160.

Hickson (Prof. 8. J.) on a circulatory
apparatus for aquatie organisms, 431.
— on the occupation of a table at the

Zoological Station at Naples, 431.

—— on the present state of our know-
ledge of the zoology of the Sandwich
Islands, 436.

Hiees (Henry), Address to the Section
of Economic Science and Statistics by,
816.

Hinu-TouT (C.) on an ethnological survey
of Canada, 497, 500.

HILTON-PRICE (F. G.) on an _ ethno-
graphical survey of the United King-
dom, 493.

Hinpv (Dr. Wheelton) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 371.

HINDE (Dr. G. J.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 371.

HODGKINSON (Prof. W. R. E.), and Capt.
LEAHY on the action of acetylic and
‘benzoylic chlorides on dried copper
sulphate, 715.

Capt. WARING and Capt. DrEs-

BOROUGH on alloys of cadmium, zinc,

and magnesium with platinum, and |

with palladium, 714.

— and Lieut. W. H. WEBLEY-HOPE
on the reaction between potassium
eyanide and 1:3 dinitro-benzene,
716.

HOLLANDER (J. H.) on some aspects of
American municipal finance, 825.

Houmes (T. V.) on the work of the’

Corresponding Societies Committee, 27.

Homotaxy and contemporaneity, Prof.
W.. J. Sollas on, 744.

HOPKINSON (J.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 27.

—— on the application of photography
to the elucidation of meteorological
phenomena, 238.

——- on the rainfall of the south-eastern
counties of England, 658.

HORNE (J.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 398.

945

HORSLEY (Victor) on the histology of the
suprarenal capsules, 598.

HOWARD (Albert) on a disease of Tradv-
scantia fluminensisand T. sebrina, 923.

HowarrH (O. H.) on a journey in
Western Oaxaca, Mexico, 806.

HOwEs (Prof. G. B.) on the occupation
of a table at the Zoological Station at
Naples, 431.

HoworruH (Sir Henry) on an ethno-
graphical survey of the United Kingdom,
493.

HOYLE (W. E.) on the compilation of
an index generum et specierum
animalium, 429.

—- on a@ circulatory apparatus for
aquatic organisms, 431.

on the occupation of a table at the

Zoological Station at Naples, 431.

on zoological and botanical publica-
tion, 444,

HULL (Prof. E.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 398.

(Rev. E. R.) en the Ty Newydd caves,
406. '

HUMMEL (Prof. J. J.) on the action of
light upon dyed colours, 363.

HUNTER (A. F.) on an ethnological survey
of Canada, 497.

Hydro-aérograph, F. Napier Denison on
the, 656.

Hydrogen peroxide, the action of, on
carbohydrates in the presence of ferrous
salts, R.S. Morrell and J. M. Crofts on,
712.

Icebreakers, Polar exploration by means
of, Adm. Makaroff on, 802.

*Implements, stone moulds for new
types of, from Ireland, G. Coffey on,
873.

Index generum et specierum animalium,
Report on the compilation by C. Davies
Sherborn of an, 429.

India, finger prints and the detection of
crime in, EH. R. Henry on, 869.

, primitive rites of disposal of the
dead as illustrated by survivals in
modern, W. Crooke on, 877.

Indian currency after the report of the
Commission, H. Schmidt on, 834.

Indiarubber, R. H. Biffen on, 929.

Induction of coaxial helices, the mutual,
Lord Rayleigh on, 241.

Innervation of the thoracic and ab-
dominal parts of the cesophagus, W.
Muhlberg on, 898.

Intestinal movements of a dog with a
vella fistula, J. E. Esselmont on, 899.
Intumescences of Hibiscus vitifolius, L.

Miss E. Dale on, 930.

Invariants, a system of, for parallel con-
figurations in space, Prof. A. R, Forsyth
on, 640.

944. REPORT—1899.

Investor, the State as, E. Cannan on, 828.

Ireland, copper celts in, G. Coffey on,
872.

* , stone moulds for new types of
instruments from, G. Coffey on, 873.
Tron, oxidation in the presence of, H. J.

H. Fenton on, 688.

*TRVINE (Robert) and Sir J. MURRAY on
the distribution of nitrogen and
ammonia in ocean water, 810.

Tsle of Man, Trish elk remains in the,
Report on the, 376.

Tsomeric naphthalene derivatives, Twelfth
report on the investigation of, 362.

Isomorphism in benzenesulphonic deriva-
tives, Prof. H. E. Armstrong on, 687.

JACKSON (B. Daydon) on zoological and
botanical publication, 444.

JACOBS (Joseph) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 493.

JAMESON (H. Lyster) on Gephyrea and
allied worms, 432.

JAppP(Prof. F. R.) on absorption spectra
and chemical constitution of organic
bodies, 316.

JOHNSON-LAVIS (H. J.) on calcareous
confetti and oolitic structure, 744.

JONES (Prof. J. Viriamu)on practical elec-
trical standards, 240.

(Prof. T. Rupert) on the Phyllopoda
of the Palgozoic rocks, 403.

JUDD (Prof. J. W.) on seismological in-
vestigation, 161.

JUKES-BROWNE (A. J.) on a_ boring
through the Chalk and Gault near
Dieppe, 738.

Jurassic flora of Britain, A. C. Seward
on, 926.

Karch-chal Mountains, Transcaucasia, a
visit to the, W. R. Rickmers on, 813.
KEEBLE (F. W.) on @ circulatory appa-
ratus for aquatic organisms, 431.

KELVIN (Lord) on determining magnetic
Force at sea, 64.

on tables of certain mathematical
Functions, 160.

—— on seismological investigation, 161.

——on practical electrical standards,
240.

——on the heat af combination of metals
in the formation of alloys, 246, 249.

on the B. A. serew gauge, 464.

KENDALL (Prof. P. F.) on life-zones in
the British Carboniferous rocks, 371.

on the erratic blocks of the British

Isles, 398.

on records of the Drift section at
Moet Tryfaen, 414.

—— on the glacial drainage of York-
shire, 743.

* on the underground waters of
Craven; the sources of the Aire, 750.

KENNEDY (Sir C. M.) on an ethnographi-
cal survey of the United Kingdom, 493.

KERMODE (P. M. C.) on Irish elk remains
in the Isle of Man, 376.

*KERR (J. Graham) on the development
of Lepidosiren paradoxa, 782.

KIDsTON (R.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 371.

on the collection of photographs of

geological interest in the United King-

dom, 377.

on the registration of type specimens
of British fossils, 405.

Kine (Sir George), Address to the Section
of Botany by, 904.

Kiek (Sir John) on the climatology of
Africa, 448.

KirKBY (J. W.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 371.

Kites, progress in exploring the air with,
A. L. Rotch on, 655. :

Knotr (Prof. C. G.) on seismological
investigation, 161.

KNUBLEY (Rev. E. P.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 447.

*KOETTLITZ (Dr. R.) exhibited ethno-
graphical specimens from Somali, Galla
and Shangalla, 880.

*KOHN (Dr. C. A.) and Dr. W. TRANTOM

on the action of caustic soda on benz-~

aldehyde, 714.

*KosssL (Prof. A.) on protamines, the
simplest proteids, 901.

KRoNECKER (Prof. H.) and Dr. F. C.
Buscu on the propagation of impulses
in the rabbit’s heart, 895.

*LADENBURG (Prof. Dr. A.) on the de-
velopment of Chemistry in the last
fifteen years, 707.

Laisser faire, the mercantile system of,
Ethel R. Faraday on, 824.

LAMPLUGH (G. W.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 371, 375.
on Trish elk remains in the Isle of

Man, 376.

——on Canadian Pleistocene flora and
fauna, 411.

—— on records of the Drift section at
Moel Tryfaen, 414.

LANGLEY (J. N.), Address to the Section
of Physiology by, 881.

Languages of Torres Straits, S. H. Ray
on the, 589.

LANKESTER (Prof. E. Ray) on the occu-
pation of a table at the Zoological
Station at Naples, 431.

—~- on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Laboratory at Plymouth,
437.

— onthe plankton and physical condi-
tions of the English Channel during
1899, 444.

INDEX.

LANKESTER (Prof. E. Ray) on the micro-
chemistry of cells, 609.

Larynx, Monotreme, the morphology of
the cartilages of the, Prof. John Sym-
ington on, 779.

Latex, the function of, J. Perkin on, 929.

Laws (Edward) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 493.

LEAHY (Capt.) and Prof. HopGKINSON
on the action of acetylic and benzoylic
chlorides on dried copper sulphate, 715.

LEBOUR (Prof. G. A.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 371.

LEE (Miss Alice) on tables of F (1, v)
and H (97, v) functions, 71.

LEES (Dr. C. H.) on determining magnetic
SJorce at sea, 64.

LEHFELDT (R. A.) on the theory of the
electrolytic solution pressure, 661.

Lepidophiloios, a biserial Halonia belong-
ing to the genus, Prot. F. E. Weiss on,
927.

* Lepidosiren paradowa, the development
of, J. Graham Kerr on, 782.

Lewis (H. Percival) on the spectral
sensitiveness of mercury in hydrogen,
and its influence on the spectrum of
hydrogen, 660.

Life-zones in the British Carboniferous
rocks, Report on, 371.

Light, the action of, upon dyed colours,
Report on, 363.

——, the action of, upon metallic silver,
Col. J. Waterhouse on, 714.

*Zilium martagon, vermiform nuclei in
the fertilised embryo-sac of, Miss E.
-Sargant on, 923.

Limfjord, plaice culture in the, Dr. C. G.
J. Petersen on, 784.

Line RotuH (H.) on photographsof anthro- |

pological interest, 592.

Lister (J. J.) on Astroclera Willeyana,
the type of a new ‘family of recent
sponges, 775.

LIVEING (Prof. G. D.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 257.

LuioyD (Capt. E. W.) on the discharge of
torpedoes below water, 855.

LuioybD-MorGAN (Prof. C.) on the excava-
tion of caves at Uphill, 402.

LLoyD-WILLIAMS (J.) on the life history
and cytology of Halidrys siliquosa, 920.

LockYER (Sir J. N.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 257.

Lop@E (Prof. Alfred) on tables of the
G (7, v)-Integrals, 65.

—— on tables of certain mathematical
Functions, 160. ;

(Prof. O. J.) on radiation from a
source of light in a magnetic field, 63.
— on practical electrical standards,

240.
1899.

945

LopGs& (Prof. O. J.) on the heat of com-
bination of metals in the formation of
alloys, 246, 249.

t on the controversy concerning the
seat of Volta’s contact force, 638.

Lomas (J.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 398.

on records of the Drift section at

Moel Tryfaen, 414.

on the origin of lateral moraines and
rock trains, 744.

Lovett (Prof. E. 0.) on an application
and interpretation of infinitesimal
transformations, 648.

Luepock (Sir John) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 359.

Luminous rings in rotation about lines
of magnetic force in rarefied gases,

C. E. 8. Phillips on, 636.

*MACALISTER (Prof. A.) on a collection
of 1,000 Egyptian crania, 876.

*____ on a pre-basic occipital bone in a
New Hebridean skull, and an anomal-
ous atlanto-occipital joint in a Moriori,
876.

MACALLUM (Prof. A. B.) on the micro-
chemistry of cells, 609.

MACBRIDH (Prof. E. W.) on the rearing of
the larve of Echinide, 438.

McDAKIN (Capt.) on coast erosion, 747.
*MACDONALD (J. M.) on the silver ques-
tion in relation to British Trade, 835.
*__ (Lieut.-Col. J. KR. L.) on the ethno-
graphy of the Lake region of Uganda,

880.

—— (J. 8.) on electrical changes accom-
panying the discharge of the respiratory
centre, 599.

McDouGALL (W.) on the sense of touch
and of pain, on the estimation of weight
by natives of New Guinea, S§c., 588.

McIntosH (Prof. W. C.) on the occupa-
tion of a table at the Zoological Station
at Naples, 431.

—— on the occurrence of the grey gur-
nard ( Trigla gurnardus) and its spawn-
ing in the inshore and offshore waters,
787.

MacIver (D.) on recent anthropo-
metrical work in Egypt, 875.

*____ on the‘ Cero’ of St. Ubaldino: the
relic of a pagan spring festival at
Gubbio in Umbria, 880.

MCLACHLAN (R.) on the compilation of
an index generum et specierum anima-
liwm, 429.

McLaren (Lord) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 250.

MACLEAN (Rev. John) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 497.

McLEop (Prof. C. H.) on the Meteorolo-
gical Observatory at Montreal, 65.

3P

946

McLeEop (Prof. H.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 256.

MacMAHon (Maj. P. A.) on tables of
certain mathematical functions, 160.

MADAN (H. G.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 256.

Magnetic field, radiation from a source
of light in a, Report on, 63.

—- force at sea, Interim report on
determining, 64.

———. properties and electric conductivity
‘of alloys of iron prepared by R. A.
Hadfield, Prof. W. F. Barrett and W.
Brown on, 856.

—— work in North America,
L. A. Bauer on, 660.

MAGNUS (Sir P.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 359.

on the. teaching University of
London and its Faculty of Economics,
831.

MAKAROFF (Adm.) on Polar exploration
by means of ice-breakers, 802.

MANN (Dr. G.) on the comparative histo-
logy of the cerebral cortex, 603.

Mager (8. R.) on pre-animistic religion,
878.

MARR (J. E.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 371.

Mathematical functions, Report on tables
of certain, 160.

—— and Physical Science, Address by
Prof. J. H. Poynting to the Section of,
615.

Matrumws (W.) and J. C. CooDE on
Dover Harbour works, 479.

Mauritius, seismology at, T. F. Claxton
on, 654.

Mavor (Prof. J.) om an
survey of Canada, 497.
Mechanical Science, Address by Sir W.

H. White to the Section of, 837.

Median estimate, F. Galton on, 638.

MerLpoua (Prof. R.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
27.

recent,

ethnological

on scismological investigation, 161.

on the application of photography

to the elucidation of meteorological

phenomena, 238.

on the action of light upon dyed

colours, 363.

on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 493.

MELLO (Rev. J. M.) on some Palzolithic
implements of North Kent, 753.

Menelek, King, a journey to the domi-
nions of, Capt. M. 8. Wellby on, $14.

Mental and physical defects of children
in schools, Report on the, 489.

Mercantile system of laisser faire, Ethel
R. Faraday on the, 824.

Mercantile system, Prof. G. J. Stokes on
the, 828

REPORT—1899.

MESSENGER (T.) on an instrument for
gauging the circularity of boiler fur-
naces and cylinders, producing a dia-
gram, 859.

*Meteorites, chondritic, the origin of,
Prof. A. Renard on, 747.

Meteorological Observatory at Montreal,
Report on the, 65.

phenomena, the application of photo-

graphy to the elucidation of, Ninth

report on, 238.

observations on Ben Nevis, Report

on, 250.

exploration of the air with kites,
A. L. Rotch on, 655.

— and oceanographical results of the
Valdivia expedition, Dr. Gerhard
Schott on, 808.

-_— phenomena and sunspots, a connec-
tion between, Dr. van Rijckevorsel on,
654.

Mexico, a journey in Western Oaxaca,
O. H. Howarth on, 806. ;

MIALL (Prof. L. C.) on the Torres Straits
expedition, 585.

Microchemistry of cells, Report on the,
609.

Migration of birds, Second interim report
of the Committee for making a digest
of the observations on the, 447. .

MiLu (Dr. H. BR.) on the climatology of
Africa, 448.

on the voyage of the Southern
Cross from Hobart to Cape Adare,
803.

—— on the terminology of the forms of
suboceanic relief, 810.

MILNE (Prof. J.) on seismological investi-
gation, 161.

on seismology in relation to the
interior of the earth, 802.

Moel Tryfaen, Drift section at, Report on
photographic and other records of the,
414.

Mo.utoy (Dr. Gerald) on radiation from
a source of light in a magnetic field, 63.

Monotreme larynx, the morphology of the
cartilages of the, Prof. Johnson Syming-
ton on, 779.

Montreal Meteorological
Report on the, 65.

Moore (Harold Ef.) on the results of
_recent Poor Law reform, 835.

Moraines, lateral, and rock trains, the
origin of, J. Lomas on, 744.

Moreno (F. P.) and A. SmirH Woop-
WARD on remains of Veomylodon,
newly-discovered in Patagonia, 783.

-—- on a skull of the extinct chelonian
Mivlania from Patagonia, 783.

MoreReE.t (R. 8.) and J. M. CRorts on
the action of hydrogen peroxide on
carbohydrates inthe presence of ferrous
salts, 712.

Observatory,

INDEX.

Morris (Dr. G. Harris) on symbiotic |

fermentation, 702.
——— on the combined action of diastase
and yeast on starch-granules, 710.
—— on the action of acids on starch,
Ta.
Morton (G. H.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 371, 375.
——on the Ty Nenydd caves, 406.

947

Nerve, phrenic, changes in, and state of
blood pressure, Report on the, 599.

| “Nerve cells, Interim report on the histo-

Morr (Dr. F. W.) on the comparative |

histology of the cerebral cortex, 603.

on the influence of drugs upon the
vascular nervous system, 608.

Mountains, respiration on, Dr. Emil Burgi
on, 900.

MUHLBERG (W.) on the innervation of
the thoracic and abdominal parts of
the cesophagus, 898.

MUIRHEAD (Dr. A.) on practical electricat
standards, 240.

Municipal finance, American, some as-
pects of, J. H. Hollander on, 825,

—— trading and profits, R. Donald on,
826.

Munro (Dr. R.) on the lake village of
Glastonbury, 594.

*MURIE (Dr. J.) on the Thames estuary :
its physico-biologicalaspectsas bearing
upon its fisheries, 788.

MupRAY (G. R. M.) on the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 441.

——— (Sir John) on meteorological observa-
tions on Ben Nevis, 250.

, Address to the Section of Geo-
graphy by, 789.

*____ and F. P. PULLAR on the bathy-
metrical survey of the Scottish fresh-
water lochs, 809.

*___and ROBERT IRVINE on the distri-
bution of nitrogen and ammonia in
ocean water, 810.

Muscle and nerve, the resonance of, Dr.
F. C. Busch on, 894.

Muscles of the bladder in rabbits, the
dependence of the tonus of, on the
spinal cord, J. P. Arnold on, 902.

Music, savage, C. 8. Myers on, 591.

Mussels and limpets, nutrition having no
influence in determining the sex of, J.
F. Gemmill on, 782.

Myers (C. 8.) on the hearing, smell, taste,
reactiontine, of natives of New Guinea,
Sc., 588.

—— on savage music, 591.

Mynres (J. L.) on the Silchester exeara-
tion, 495.

——on photographs of anthropological
interest, 592.

NAGEL (D. H.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 256.

Naphthalene derivatives, Twelfth report ,
on the investigation of isomeric, 362.

logical changes in, 892.

Nerves of the intestine, visceromotor and
vasomotor, the effects of successive
stimulation of the, Dr. J. L. Bunch on,
897.

| Wervous system, the vascular, Report on

the influence of drugs upon the, 608.

*Net for quantitative estimation of plank-
ton, Dr. Petersen’s closing, exhibited
by W. Garstang, 788.

Newton (Prof. A.) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, 436.

— _ on the zoology and botany of the
West India Islands, 441.

— on making a digest of the observa-
tions on the migration of birds, 447.

(E. T.) on the eacavation of caves at

Uphill, 402.

onthe investigation of the Ty Nenydd

caves, 406.

NICHOLSON (the late Prof. H. A.) on life-

zones in the British Carboniferous rocks,
ByGlle

Nile, sand-dunes bordering the Delta of
the, Vaughan Cornish on, 812.

Nova Scotia, the subdivisions of the
Carboniferous system in certain por-
tions of, H. M. Ami on, 755.

*Ocean water, the distribution of nitro-
gen and ammonia in, Sir J. Murray
and R. Irvine on, 810.

CGisophagus, innervation of the thoracic
and abdominal parts of the, W. Muhl-
berg on, 898.

Old age pensions in Denmark; their in-
fluence on thrift and pauperism, Prof.
A. W. Flux on, 835.

OLDHAM (R. D.) on seismological in-
vestigation, 161.

Oolitic structure, H. J. Johnson-Lavis
on, 774.

Optical activity of organic compounds,
influence of solvents upon the, W. J.
Pope. on the, 708.

rotation, the influence of substitu-
tion on, in the bornylamine series,
M. O. Forster on, 712.

Optically active components, a method
of resolving racemic oximes into their,
W. J. Pope on, 709.

Ordnance Survey, twelve years’ work of
the, Coi. Sir J. Farquharson on, 811.
Oscillaria, the growth of, in hanging
drops of silica jelly, Prof,, Marshall

Ward on, 820.

Oxidation in the presence of iron,

H. J. H. Fenton on, 688.

oP2

948

REPORT—1899.

*Pagan spring festival at Gubbio in | Photographs of geological interest in the

Umbria, the relic of a, the ‘ Cero’ of
St. Ubaldino, D. MacIver on, 880.

Paleolithic implements of North Kent,
Rev. J. M. Mello on some, 753.

Paleozoic plants, a new genus, A. C.
Seward on, 926.

Palpebral and oculomotor apparatus of
fishes, N. B. Harman on, 780.

Pancreatic diabetes, autointoxication as
the cause of, J. L. Tuckett on, 892

Paris, the erection of Alexander ITT.
Bridge in, Amédée Alby on, 469.

PARKIN (J.) on the function of latex,
929.

*PaRSONS (Hon. C. A.) on fast cross-
Channel steamers driven by steam tur-
pines, 855.

PAYNE (George) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 493.

PEACH (B.N.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 371.

PHARSON (Prof. Karl) on tables of the
G (7, v)-Integrals, 65.

Pedigree stock, records of, Report on, 424.

PEEK (Sir Cuthbert E.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
27.

Pelvic symphysial bone of the Indian
elephant, Prof. R. J. Anderson on, 781.

PENHALLOW (Prof. D. P.) on Canadian
Pleistocene flora and fauna, 411.

— onan ethnological survey of Canada,
497.

Peptone and its precursors, the physio-
logical effects of, when introduced into
the circulation, Third interim report
on, 605.

PERKIN (Dr. W. H.) on the action of light
apon dyed colours, 363.

Perry (Prof. J.) on seismological investi-
gation, 161.

on practical clectrical standards,
240.

PETERSEN (Dr. C. G. J.) on plaice cul-
ture in the Limfjord, Denmark, 784.

*___’s closing net for quantitative esti-
mation of plankton, exhibited by W.
Garstang, 788.

PeErRig (Prof. Flinders) on photographs
of anthropological interest, 592.

on sequences of prehistoric remains,

876.

on the sources of the alphabet, 877.

Pheophycee, fertilisation im, Third
interim report on, 610.

PHILLIPS (C. E. 8.) on the production,
in rarefied gases, of luminous rings in
rotation about lines of magnetic force,
636.

— (Prof. R. W.) on fertilisation in
Pheophycea@, 610.

Photographic records of pedigree stock,
Report on, 424.

United Kingdom, Tenth report on, 377.

— of anthropological interest, Report
on, 592.

Photography, the application of, to the
elucidation of meteorological pheno-
mena, Ninth report on, 238.

Photomicrographs of fossils, as opaque
objects, Dr. A. Rowe on, 740.

Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic
Fifteenth report on the, 403.

Physical and Mathematical Science, Ad-
dress by Prof. J. H. Poynting to the
Section of, 615.

Physiology, Address by J. N. Langley to
the Section of, 881.

Pitcairn’s Island, the discovery of stone
implements in, J. Allen Brown on, 871.

Pirr-RIvERS (Gen.) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 493.

rocks

| ~—— on the lake village of Glastonbury,

594.

Pituitary body, physiological effects of
extracts of the, Prof. E. A. Schifer
and Swale Vincent on the, 894.

Plaice culture in the Limfjord, Denmark.
Dr. C. G. J. Petersen on, 784.

Plankton and physical conditions of the
English Channel in 1899, First report
on the, 444.

Plants, assimilation in, Report on an
experimental investigation of, 611

PLATANIA (Prof. G.) on the recent erup-
tion of Etna, 750.

| Pleistocene Canadian flora and fauna,

Report on, 411.

Pliocene deposits of the East of England,
a proposed new classification of the,
F. W. Harmer on, 751.

—— and Glacial periods, the meteoro-
logical conditions of N.W. Europe
during the, F. W. Harmer on, 753.

PLUMMER (W.E. ) 07 seismological investi-
gation, 161.

Plymouth, Report on the occupation of a
table at the Marine Biological Labora-
tory, 437.

Podostomacex, the morphology and life
history of the Indo-Ceylonese, J. C,
Willis on, 924.

Polar exploration by means of icebreakers,
Adm, Makaroff on, 802.

Polarimeter, half-shadow field in a, a
method of making a, by two inclined
glass plates, Prof. J. H. Poynting on,
662.

POLLEN (Rey. G. C. H.) on the investiga-
tion of the Ty Newydd caves, 406.

+Pottock (Prof. J. A.) and Prof. R.
THRELFALL on a gravity balance, 659.

Polyzoa, the embryology of the, T. H.
Taylor on, 437.

Poor Law reform, the results of recent,
Harold E. Moore on, 835,

INDEX.

Pore (W. J.) on the influence of solvents
upon the optical activity of organic
compounds, 708.

——— on a method for resolving racemic
oximes into their optically active
components, 709.

*Popre HENNESSY (Lieut. H.) on some
West African tribes north of the Benue,
880.

Porcelain, the expansion of, with rise of
temperature, 1. G. Bedford on, 245
Porrer (Prof. M. C.) on white rot, a
bacterial disease of the turnip, 921.
Pouuton (Prof. E. B.) on records of

pedigree stock, 424.

Powder burnt in ordinary air, presence of
potassium nitrite in the residue of,
Mr. Seton and Mr. Stevenson on, 717.

POWNALL (G. H.) on Bank reserves, 833.

PoynTING (Prof. J. H.) on seismological
investigation, 161. :

——.,, Address to the Section of Mathe-
matical and Physical Science by, 615.

—on a method of making a half-
shadow field in a polarimeter by two
inclined glass plates, 662.

Pre-animistic religion, R. R. Marett on,
878.

PREECE (Sir W. H.) on practical electrical
standards, 240.

— on the B. A. screw gauge, 464.

Prehistoric remains, sequences of, Prof.
Flinders Petrie on, 876.

Presidential Address at Dover by Sir
Michael Foster, 3.

PRESTON (Prof. T.) on radiation from a

source of light in a magnetic field, 63.

PRICE (W. A.) on the B.A. screw gauge,
464.

*Protamines, the simplest proteids, Prof.
A. Kossel on, 901.

*____ and their cleavage compounds, the
physiological effects of, Prof. W. H.
Thompson on, 801.

Publication, zoological and botanical,
Report on, 444.

*PULLAR (¥. P.) and Sir Joun MURRAY
on the bathymetrical survey of the
Scottish freshwater lochs, 809.

Pulsation of the heart of the rabbit, Prof.
Kronecker and Dr. F. C, Busch on the,
895.

—— —— of the dog, Dr. F. C. Busch on
the, 896.

*Queensland, North, the Otati tribe,
C. G. Seligmann on, 871.

Racemic oximes, a method for resolving,
into their optically active components,

, 709.

Radiation from a source of light in a
magnetic field, Report on, 63.

949

*Railway signalling, a new system of,
W.S. Boult on, 858.

Rainfall of the south-eastern counties of
England, J. Hopkinson on, 658.

RAMBAUT (Dr. A. A.) on solar radiation,
159.

RAmsAy (Prof. W.) on recording the
results of the chemical and bacterial
examination of water and sewage, 255.

Ratesin England and Wales, increase in
local, 1891-2 to 1896-7, Miss Hewart
on, 832.

RAVENSTEIN (E. G.) on the climatology
of Africa, 448.

on an ethnographical survey of the
Onited Kingdom, 493.

Ray (Sidney H.) on the languages of
Torres Straits, 589.

RAYLEIGH (Lord) on practical electrical
standards, 240.

on the mutual induction of coaxial
helices, 241.

READ (C. H.) on photographs of anthro-
pological interest, 592.

—— Address to the Section of Anthro-
pology by, 861.

READE (T. Mellard) on the Drift at Moel
Tryfaen, 414, 420.

REID (A. S.) on the collection of photo-
graphs” of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 377.

(Clement) on seismological investiga-

tion, 161.

(Prof. E. Waymouth) on electrical
changes accompanying the discharge of
the respiratory centre, 599.

Religion, pre-animistic, R. R. Marett on,
878.

*RENARD (Prof. A.) on the origin of
chondritic meteorites, 747.

RENNIE (J.) on practical
standards, 240.

Rent, the theory of, geometrical illustra-
tions of, Prof. Everett on, 825.

Resonance of nerve and muscle, Dr. F.C.
Busch on the, 894.

Respiration on mountains, Dr. Emil Burgi
on, 900.

Respiratory centre, electrical changes
accompanying the discharge of the,
Report on, 599.

REYNOLDS (Prof. J. Emerson) on some
new silicon compounds, 690.

— (T. H.) on the excavation of caves at
Ophill, 402.

Ruys (Prof. John) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 493.

*Rhythmic motion, Prof. R. J. Anderson
on, 782.

RickMers (W. R.) ona visit to the
Karch-chal Mountains, Transcaucasia,
813.

—— (Mrs. W. R.) on travels in Kast
Bokhara, 806.

electrical

950

RIDEAL (Dr. 8.) on recording the results
of the chemical and bacterial examina-
tion of water and sewage, 255.

Rice (E.) on the B. A. serew gauge, 464.

RIJCKEVORSEL (Dr. van) ona connection
between sun-spots and meteorological
phenomena, 654.

Rivers (W. H.R.) on the vision, §c., of
Natives of Torres Straits and New
Guinea, 586, 902.

on two new departures in anthropo-
logical method, 879.

ROBERTS-AUSTEN (Sir W. C.) on the
bibliography of spectroscopy, 439.

*ROBINSON (Mark) on the Niclausse
water-tube boiler, 855.

Romney Marsh, reclamation of, and
Dymchurch Wall, E. Case on, 859.

RoscoE (Sir H. H.) on solar radiation,
159.

on wave-length tables of the spectra

of the elements and compounds, 257.

on the teaching of science in ele-
mentary schools, 359.

Ross (Hon. G.) on an ethnological sur-
vey of Canada, 497.

RotcH (A. Lawrence) on progress in
exploring the air with kites, 655.

—— on the first crossing of the Channel
by a balloon, 656.

RowE (Dr. Arthur) on the photo-micro-
graphy of opaque objects as applied to
the delineation of the minute struc-
ture of fossils, 740.

Rucker (Prof. A. W.) on determining
magnetic force at sea, 64.

on practical clectrical standards,
240.

RUSSELL (Dr. W. J.) on the action of
light upon dyed colowrs, 363.

Saccharification of starch by malt-
diastase, the influence of acids and of
some salts on the, Dr. A. Fernbach on
the, 709.

Salinity and temperature of the surface
water of the North Atlantic 1896-7,
H. N. Dickson on, 810. ‘

Salt water, effect on agricultural soils on
the East Coast, T. S. Dymond on the,
707.

Sand-dunes between Deal and Sandwich,
with remarks on the flora of the
district, G. Dowker on, 921.

--—— bordering the Delta of the Nile,
Vaughan Cornish on, 812.

Sandstone pipes in the Carboniferous
Limestone at Dwlbau Point, Anglesey,
E. Greenly on, 742.

Sandwich Islands, the zoology of the,
Ninth report on, 436.

*SARGANT (Miss Ethel) on vermiform
nuclei in the fertilised embryo-sac of
Lilium martagon, 923.

REPORT—1899.

SAVAGE (Rev. E. B.) on Trish elk re-
mains tn the Isle of Man, 376.

SCADDING (Rev. Dr.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 497.

ScCHAFER (Prof. E. A.) on the histology of
the suprarenal capsules, 598.

on the physiological effects of pep-

tone and its precursors when introduced

into the circulation, 605.

on the microchemistry of cells, 609.

—— and SWALE VINCENT on the
physiological effects of extracts of the
pituitary body, 894.

SCHMIDT (Hermann) on Indian currency
after the report of the Commission, 834.

Scuorr (Dr. Gerhard) on oceanographi-
cal and meteorological results of the
German deep-sea expedition in the
Valdivia, 808.

Schools, the physical and mental defects of
children in, Report on, 489.

ScHusTER (Prof. A.) on radiation from
a source of light in a magnetic field, 63.

—— on determining magnetic force at
sea, 64.

—— on solar radiation, 159.

—- on practical electrical standards,
240.

on wave-length tables of the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 257.

Science, the teaching of, m elementary
schools, Report on, 359.

ScLaTER (Dr. P. L.) on the compilation
of an index generum et specierum ani-
malium, 429.

on the present state of owr knowledge

of the zoology of the Sandwich Islands,

436.

on the zoology and botany of the

West India Islands, 441.

on zoological and botanical publica-
tion, 444.

Scotland, recent ethnographical work in
Aberdeenshire, J. Gray on, 874.

*Scottish fresh-water lochs, the hathy-
metrical survey of the, Sir J. Murray
and F. P. Pullar on, 809.

Scotr KeLrie (Dr. J.) on the explora-
tion of Sokotra, 460.

on the Torres Straits expedition,
585.

*Scorr-MONCRIEFF (W.) on the place of
nitrates in the biolysis of sewage, 692.

Screw gauge proposed in 1884, Report
on the means by which practicai effect
can be given to the introduction of the,
464,

*Seals, the fur, of the Behring Sea, G
E. H. Barrett-Hamilton on, 784.

Seclusion of girls at Mabuiag, C. G.
Seligmann on the, 590.

Sepewick (A.) on the occupation of wu
table at the Zoological Station at
Naples, 431.

INDEX

SEDGWICK (A.) on investigations made
at the Marine Biological Laboratory
at Plymouth, 437.

on zoological and botanical publica-

tion, 444.

, Address to the Section of Zoology
by, 757.

Seeds, germinative power of, the influ-
ence of the temperature of liquid
hydrogen on the, Sir W. Thiselton-
Dyer on, 922.

SEELEY (Prof. H. G.) on the registration
of type specimens of British fossils, 405.

Seismological investigation, Kourth report
on, 161.

Seismology at Mauritius, T. F. Claxton
on, 654.

SELIGMANN (C. G.) on the scelusion of
girls at Mabuiag, Torres Straits, 590.
on the club houses and Dubus of

British New Guinea, 591.

*____ on the Otati tribe, North Queens-
land, 871.

*____ on observations on visual acuity
from New Guinea, 902.

SETON (Mr.) and STEVENSON (Mr.) on
the presence of potassium nitrite in
brown powder residue burnt in ordinary
air, 717.

Sewage and water, Report on a uniform
system of recording the results of the
chemical and bacterial examination of,
255.

——-, intermittent bacterial treatment of,
in coke-beds, Prof. F. Clowes on, 691.

the place of nitrates in the
biolysis of, W. Scott-Moncrieff on, 602.

SEWARD (A. C.) on zoolagical and botani-
cal publication, 444.

—— ona new genus of Paleozoic plants.
926.

— on the Jurassic flora of Britain,
926.

-—— and Miss J. GOWAN on the Maiden-
hair tree (Ginkgo biloba, L.), 928.

Sex, animals in which nutrition has no
influence in determining, J. F. Gem-
mill on, 782.

SHARP (D.) on the zoology of the Sand-
wich Islands, 436.

on the zoology and botany of the
West India Islands, 441.

—— on sxoological and botanical publi-
eation, 444. .

SHAW (W. N.) on electrolysis and electro-
chemistry, 160.

-—— on practical electrical standards,
240.

SHERBORN (OC. D.) on zoological and
botanical publication, 444.

SHERRINGTON (Prof. C. 8.) on the
physiological effects of peptone and its
precursors when introduced inte the
eirculation, 605.

——

951

*Ship, electrical machinery on board, A.
Siemens on, 856.

SHONE(W.) on records of the Drift section
at Moel Trufaen, 414.

*SIEMENS (A.) on electrical machinery
on board ship, 856.

Sigillaria, the structure of a stem of a
ribbed, Prof. C. E. BERTRAND on, 926.

Sigmoidal curves in rocks, Maria M.
Gordon on, 754.

Silchester ewcavation, Report on the, 495.

Silicon compounds, some new, Prof. J. E.
Reynolds on, 690.

Silver, the action of light upon metallic,
Col. J. Waterhouse on, 714.

*____ question in relation to British trade,
J. M. Macdonald on, 835.

SKINNER (S.) on electrolysis and electro-
chemistry, 160.

*Skull, New Hebridean, a pre-basi-
occipital bone ina, Prof. A. Macalister
on, 876.

= , Moriori, an anomalous atlanto-
occipital joint in a, Prof. A. Macalister
on, 876.

SMART (Prof. W.) on the single tax, 827.

SMITH (EH. A.) on the present state of owr
knowledge of the zoology of the Sandwich
Islands, 436.

SMITHELLS (Prof. A.) on the teaching of
Science in Elementary Schools, 359.
Sokotra, Report on the exploration of, 460
Solar radiation, Interim report on, 159.
SOLLAS (Prof. W. J.) on the erratic blocks

of the British Isles, 398.

—— on the origin of flint, 744.

—— on homotaxy and contemporaneity,
746.

Solvents, the influence of, upon the optical
activity of organic compounds, W. J.
Pope on, 708.

Spectra of the elements and compounds,
wave-length tables of the, Report on, 257.

—_, absorption, and chemical constitu-
tion af organic bodies, Report on the
relation between, 316.

Spectroscopy, the bibliography of, Interim
report on, 256.

Spectrum of mercury in hydrogen, and
its influence on the hydrogen spectrum,
E. Percival Lewis on, 660.

Spinning Industry, the regulation of
wages by lists in the, 8. J. Chapman
on, 830.

Spirits (Nats) of the Burmese, the thirty-
seven, Col. R. C. Temple on, 878.

Sponges, Astroclera Willeyana, the type
of a new family of recent, J. J. Lister
on, 775.

Staffordshire, North, Carboniferous rocks
and concealed coalfields of, W. Gibson
on, 738.

—____ ___, Bunter Sandstone of, barium
sulphate in the, C. B. Wedd on, 740.

952

Starch, the saccharification by malt-
diastase of, the influence of acids and
of some salts on, Dr. A, Fernbach on,
709. ;

—— granules, the combined action of
diastase and yeast on, Dr. G. H. Morris
on, 710.

—— the action of acids on, Dr. G. H.
Morris on, 711.

State as investor, E. Cannan on the, 828.

STATHER, (F. W.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 398.

Statistics, the use of Galtonian and other
curves to represent, Prof. F. Y. Hdge-
worth on, 825.

, social and vital, the collection by
means of genealogies of, Dr. Rivers
on, 879.

Steam vehicles for common roads, J. I.
Thornycroft on, 858.

*Steamers driven by steam turbines, fast
cross-channel, Hon. C. A. Parsons on,
855.

STEBBING (Rey. T. R. R.) on the work
of the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee, 27.

—— on the compilation of an index gene-
rum et specierum animalium, 429.

on zoological and botanical publica-
tion, 444.

Stem-structure in Schizzacezx, Gleichen-
jacez, and Hymenophyllacex, L. A.
Boodle on, 928.

TEVENSON (Mr.) and Mr. SETON on the
presence of potassium nitrite in brown
powder residue burnt in ordinary air,
717.

STOKES (Sir G. G.) on solar radiation,
159.

(Prof. G. J.) on the mercantile
system, 828.

*Stone Circles, Interim report on investi-
gations of the age of, 871.

Stone implements, the discovery of, in
Piteairn’s Island, J. Allen Brown on,
871.

Stonehenge, new observations and a sug-
gestion about, A. Eddowes on, 871.

StoNry (Dr. G. Johnstone) on solar
radiation, 159.

on practical electrical standards, 240.

STRAHAN (A.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 371.

—— on the Ty Newydd caves, 406.

— on records of the Drift section at
Moet Tryfaen, 414.

STRINGHAM (Dr. Irving) on the funda-
mental differential equations of geo-
metry, 646.

STROH (A.) on the B. A. screw gauge, 464.

STROUD (Prof. W.) on determining mag-
netic force at sea, 64.

on the action of light upon dyed

colours, 363.

REPORT—1899.

STUPART (R. F.) on the Meteorological
Observatory at Montreal, 65.

Suboceanic relief, terminology of the
forms of, Dr. H. R. Mill on, 810.

Substitution, laws of, especially in ben-
zenoid compounds, Prof. H. E. Arm-
strong on the, 683.

*Suez Canal, the engineering works of
the, Sir C. Hartley on, 855.

SULTE (B.) on an ethnological survey of
Canada, 497, 499.

Sunspots and meteorological phenomena,
a connection between, Dr. van Rijcke-
vorsel on, 654.

Suprarenal capsules, Interim report onthe
histology of the, 598.

Surface water temperature, round British
Coasts, H. N. Dickson on, 809.

—— and salinity of the North Atlantic
1896-7, H. N. Dickson on the, 810.

Symbiosis, Prof. Marshall Ward on, 692.

Symbiotic fermentation, industrial, Dr.
A. Calmette on, 697.

its chemical aspects, Prof. H.
E. Armstrong on, 699.

SYMINGTON (Prof. Johnson) on the mor-
phology of the cartilages of the Mono-
treme larynx, 779.

SyMons (G. J.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 27.

on solar radiation, 159.

on seismological investigation, 161.

on the application of photography

to the elucidation of meteorological

phenomena, 238.

on the elimatology of Africa, 448.

Tables of the G (r, v)-Integrals, Report
on, 65.

of the F (7, v) and H. (7, v) Func-

tions, 71.

, mathematical (A new Canon Arith-
meticus), Eeport on, 160.

TANGUAY (Abbé) on an ethnological survey
of Canada, 497.

TAYLOR (T. H.) on the embryology of the
Polyzoa, 437.

Tax, the single, Prof. W. Smart on, 827.

TEALL (J. J. H.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 377.

Temperature, astandard scale of, based on
the platinum resistance thermometer,
Prof. H. L. Callendar on, 242.

of surface water round British
coasts, and its relation to that of the
air, H. N. Dickson on, 809.

—— and salinity of the surface water of
the North Atlantic 1896-7, H. N. Dick-
son on the, 810.

*TEMPLE (Col. R. C.) on the thirty-seven
Nats (or spirits) of the Burmese, 878.
Terminology of the forms of suboceanic

relief, Dr. H. R. Mill on the, 810,

INDEX,

Testis, the vascular mechanism of the,
Dr. W. E. Dixon on, 901.

*Thames estuary, the physico-biological
aspects of the, as bearing on its fish-
eries, Dr. J. Murie on, 788.

Thermo-electric phenomena, some novel,
W. F: Barrett on, 635.

Thermometers, @ comparison of platinum
and gas, Dr. P. Chappuis and Dr. J.
A. Harker on, 243.

THISELTON-DyER (Sir W.) on the in-

hydrogen on the germinative power of
seeds, 922.
THOMAS (Archdeacon) en an ethnographi-

953

Transformations, infinitesimal, an appli-
cation and interpretation of, Prof. E.
O. Lovett on, 648.

| *TRANTOM (Dr. W.) and Dr. C. H. Koun

on the action of caustic soda on ben-
zaldehyde, 714.

TUCKER (R. D.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 398.

TucKET?T (Ivor L.) on autointoxication
as the cause of pancreatic diabetes, 892.

| Tunnel under the Straits of Dover, the
fluence of the temperature of liquid |

cal survey of the United Kingdom,

493.

From a source of light in a magnetic
Jjield, 63.

— on practical electrical standards,
240.

on the teaching of science in element-
ary schools, 359.

—— (Prof. W. H.) on the physiological
effects of peptone and its precursors

geological conditions
Boyd Dawkins on, 750.

Turbulent liquid transmitting laminar
waves, the energy per c.c. in a, Prof.
G. F. FitzGerald on, 632.

of the, Prof.

| TURNER (Prof. H. H.) on seismological
TuHompson (Prof. 8. P.) on radiation |

when introduced into the circulation, :

605.
*

on protamines and their cleavage
products; their physiological effects,
901.

THOMSON (Prof. J. J.) on practical |

electrical standards, 240.

+—— on the existence of masses smaller
than the atoms, 637.

THORNYCROFT (J. I.) on recent experi-
ences with steam on common roads,
858.

THORPE (Dr. T. E.) on the action of
light upon dyed colours, 363.

Three Bodies, Report on the progress
of the solution of the problem of, by E.
T. Whittaker, 121.

+THRELFALL (Prof. R.) and Prof. J. A.
POLLOCK on a gravity balance, 659.

TIDDEMAN (R. H.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 377.

—— on the erratic blocks of the British
Tsles, 398.

TILDEN (Prof. W. A.) on the investiga-
tion of isomeric naphthalene deriva-
tives, 362.

-—— onatomic weights, 706.

Torpedoes, the discharge of, below water,
Capt. E. W. Lloyd on, 855,

Torres Straits anthropological and natu-
< Miglags expedition, Report on the,
585. .

*_- and New Guinea, Exhibition of
photographs from, by Prof. Haddon,
871.

Tradescantia fluminensis and T. Sabrina,
a disease of, Albert Howard on, 923.

investigation, 161.

(Sir W.) on the Torres Straits expe-
dition, 585.

Turnip, white rot, a bacterial disease of
the, Prof. M. C. Potter on, 921.

Ty Nenydd caves, North Wales, Report
on the investigation of the, 406.

Type specimens of British fossils, Report
on the registration of, 405.

University of London, the teaching, and
its Faculty of Economics, Sir P. Mag-
nus on, 831.

Uphill, Weston-super-Mare, Report on
the excavation of caves at, 402.

| Van LAER (Dr. H.) on symbiotic fermen-

tation, 701.

Vella fistula, intestinal movements of a
dog with a, J. E. Esselmont on, 899.
Vesuvius, the eruption of, in 1898, Tem-

pest Anderson on, 749.

VINCENT (Swale) on the histology of the
suprarenal capsules, 598.

and Prof. EH. A. SCHAFER on the
physiological effects of extracts of the
pituitary body, 894.

Vines (Prof. 8. H.) on investigations
made at the Marine Biological Asso-
ciation Laboratory at Plymouth, 437.

Vision of natives of Torres Straits and
New Guinea, Dr. W. H.. Rivers on,
586, 902.

-—- persistence of, a new instrument for
measuring the duration of, E. 8. Bruce
on, 902.

*Visual acuity, observations on, from
New Guinea, C. G. Seligmann on, 902-

| Votes, the median estimate for, F. Galton

on, 838.

Voyage of the Southern Cross from
Hobart to Cape Adare, Dr. H. R. Mill
on the, 803.

*WAGER (Harold) on the phosphorus-
containing elements in yeast, 922.
*____ on the sexuality of the Fungi, 923.

954

Wages, agricultural, in the United
Kingdom from 1770 to 1895, A. L.
Bowley on, 829.

-_— between 1790 and 1860, the course
of average, G. H. Wood on, 829

—— by lists in the Spinning Industry,
the regulation of, 8. J. Chapman on,
830.

WALKmR (W. G.) on experiments on the
thrust and power of air-propellers, 860.

WALLER (Dr. A.) on electrical changes
accompanying the discharge of the
respiratory centre, 599.

WALLIS (H. White) on the mental and
physical defects of children in schools,
489.

Warp (Prof. Marshall) on the Torres
Straits expedition, 585.

— on assimilation in plants, 611.

— on symbivsis, 692.

——on some methods for use in the
culture of Algz, 919, 920.

on the growth of Oscillaria in hang-
ing drops of silica jelly, 920.

+ on a horn-destroying fungus, 922.

WARING (Capt.), Prof. HODGKINSON and
Capt. DESBOROUGH, on alloys of
cadmium, zinc, and magnesium with
platinum, and with palladium, 714.

WARINGTON (Prof. R.) on symbiotic
fermentation, 701.

WARNER (Dr. Francis) on the physical
and mental defects of children in schools,
489.

Warships, the use of non-flammable wood
on, E. Marshall Fox on, 854.

Water and sewage, Report on a uniform
system of recording the results of the
chemical and bacterial examination of,
255,

Water, specific heat of, variation of the,
Prof. H. L, Callendar and H. T. Barnes
on the, 624.

WATERHOUSE (Col. J.) on the action of
light upon metallic silver, 714.

WATKIN (Col.) on the B. A. screw gauge,
464, 466.

WATSON (W.) on determining magnetic
Force at sea, 64.

Warts (Dr. Marshall) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and.
compounds, 257.

(Prof. W. W.) on the work of the

Corresponding Societies Committee, 27.

' geological interest in the United King-
dom, 377.

— on the surface of the Mount Sorrel
granite, 747.

Wave phenomena, photographs of V.
Cornish on, 748.

Wave-length tables of the spectra of the
elements and compounds, Report on,
257.

on the collection of photographs of |

RERORT—1899.

Waves, aérial, the hydro-aérograph for
recording, F. Napier Denison on,
656.

deep sea, V. Cornish on, 636.

WEBBER (Maj.-Gen.) on the B. A. serew
gauge, 464.

WEBLEY-HOPE (Lieut. W. H.) and Prof.
HODGKINSON on the reaction between
potassium cyanide and 1:3 dinitro-
benzene, 716.

WEDD (C. B.) on barium sulphate in the
Bunter Sandstone of North Stafford-
shire, 740.

Wertss (Prof. F. E.) on a biserial Halonia
belonging to the genus Lepidophioios,
927.

| WELDON (Prof. W. F. R.) on records of

pedigree stock, 424.

on the occupation of a table at the

Zoological Station at Naples, 431.

on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Association Laboratory at
Plymouth, 437.

—— on zoological and botanical publica-
tion, 444. =

on the exploration of Sokotra, 460.

WELLBY (Capt. M. 8.) ona journey to
King Menelek’s dominions, 814.

*WELLMAN (Walter) on a journey to
Wilczek Land and the problem of.
Arctic exploration, 814.

WHETHAM (W. C. D.) on electrolysis and
electro-chemistry, 160.

WHIDBORNE (Rev. G. F.) on the regis-
tration of type specimens of British
Fossils, 405.

WHITAKER (W.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 27.

| WHITE (Sir W. H.), Address to the

Section of Mechanical Science by,
837.

WHITTAKER (E.T.), Report on the pro-
gress of the solution of the problem of
Three Bodies by, 121.

*Wilczek Land, a journey to, and the
problem of Arctic exploration, W.
Wellman on, 814.

WILLIAMS (S. W.) ox an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 493.

*WILLIS (J. C.), the research laboratory
in the Royal Gardens, Peradeniya,
Ceylon, 921.

—— on the morphology and life-history
of the Indo-Ceylonese Podostemacez,
924.

WILSON (W. E.) on solar radiation, 159.

WILTSHIRE (Rev. T.) on the Phyllopoda
of the Paleozoic rocks, 403.

| Woop (G4. H.) on the course of average

wages between 1790 and 1860, 829.

(Sir H, T.) on the B.A. seren
gauge, 464.

Wood, non-flammable, and its use on
warships, E. Marshall Fox on, 854.

INDEX.

955

WoopDHEAD (S. A.) and C. DAwson on | *Yeast, the phosphorus-containing ele-

the crystallisation of beeswax and its
influence on the formation of the cells
of bees, 782.

Woops (H.) on the registration of type
specimens of British fossils, 405.

WooDWARD (A. 8.) on the registration of
type specimens of British fossils, 405.

—— and F. P. MORENO on remains of
Neomylodon newly discovered in
Patagonia, 783.
— on askull of the extinct che-
lonian Miolania from Patagonia, 783.
—— (Dr. H.) on life-sones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 371.

on the Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic

rocks, 403.

on the registration of type specimens

of British fossils, 405.

on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 429,

—— (H. B.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest in the
Onited Kingdom, 377.

WooLnouGH (F.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 377.

ments in, H. Wager on, 922.

Zones, life-, in the British Carboniferous

rocks, Report on, 371.

Zoological and botanical publication,

Report on, 444.

Station at Naples, Report on the

occupation of a table at the, 431.
Appendix:

I. On Gephyrea and allied worms, by
Di. H, Lyster Jameson, 432.

Il. List of naturalists who have worked
at the Station from July 1, 1898, to
June 30, 1899, 433.

Ill. List of papers published in 1898
by naturalists who have occupied
tables at the Station, 434.

IV. List of Publications of the Station
Sor the year ending June 30, 1899.
Zoology, Address by ADAM SEDGWICK

to the Section of, 757.

of theSandnich Islands, Ninth report
on the, 436.

and botany of the West India
Islands, Final report on the, 441.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

Life Members (since 1845), and all Annual Members who have not
intermitted their Subscription, receive gratis all Reports published after
the date of their Membership. Any other volume they require may be
obtained on application at the Office of the Association, Burlington
House, Piccadilly, London, W., at the following prices, viz.—Reports for
1831 to 1874 (of which more than 15 copies remain), at 2s, 6d. per volume ;
after that date, at two-thirds of the Publication Price. A few sets, from
1831 to 1874 inclusive, may also be obtained at £10 per set.

Associates for the Meeting in 1899 may obtain the Volume for the Year at two-thirds
of the Publication Price.

REPORT or tHe SIXTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Bristol,
September, 1898, Published at £1 4s.

CONTENTS.

PAGE
Rules of the Association, Lists of Officers, Grants of ae &e. XXixX.—CXvi.
Address by the President, Sir William Crookes . , F é : 3
Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee 3 41

Report of the Committee for the Establishment of a Meteorological Observa-
tory at Montreal . 2 , te Eis
Report on the Comparison and Reduction of Magnetic Observations 2 =) 50
Stream-line Motion of a Viscous Film : : . 136
Report on the Calculation of Tables of certain Mathematical Functions - . 145
Report on Electrical Standards . ; . ; A 1 a6
Interim Report on Electrolysis and Electro- ‘chemistry : : : : « 58
On the Use of Logarithmic Co-ordinates. By J. H. VINCENT . - 3 + Wl59
Third Report on Seismological Investigation . - “ : : els
Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis. 277

Eighth Report on the Application of Se pes to the Elucidation of
Meteorological Phenomena . 283
Report on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colours. z < - P - 285
Third Report on the Carbohydrates of the Cereal Straws . f > . 293
Fifth Report on the Electrolytic Methods of “aaa Analysis ‘ : . 294

Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives . : . - 311

958

Interim Report on the Promotion of Agriculture ;

Report on the Preparation of a New Series of Wave- length Tables of the Spectra
of the Elements and Compounds . ;

Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools

Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy

Fourteenth Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks .

Report on Canadian Pleistocene Flora and Fauna :

Report on the Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks

Ninth Report on Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom

First Report on Photographs of Geological Interest in Canada .

Report on the Remains of the Irish Elk found in the Isle of Man

Third Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles

Report on the Structure of a Coral Reef

Final Report on the Eurypterid-bearing Rocks of the Pentland Hills

Eighth Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands

Interim Report on Zoological Bibliography and Publication :

Third Report on the Elucidation of the Life Conditions of the Oyster under
Normal and Abnormal Environment, including the Effect of Sewage Matters
and Pathogenic Organisms

Interim Report on the Working out of the Details of the Observations of the
Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Lightships, 1880-87 3

Report on the Compilation of an Index Animalium . : : : :

Report on certain Caves in the Malay Peninsula

First Report on the Establishment of a Biological Station in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence

Report on Investig ations made at the Marine Biological Laboratory,
Plymouth

Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples

Photographic Records of Pedigree Stock. By FRANCIS GALTON

Seventh Report on the Climatology of Africa : : ; ‘

The Mechanical and Economic Problem of the Coal Question. By T. FoRSTER
BROWN -

A New Instrument for ‘Drawing Envelopes, and its Application ‘to the Teeth of
Wheels and for other Purposes. By Professor H. 8. HMLE-SHAW

Third Report on the Means by which Practical Effect can be given to the
Introduction of the Screw Gauge proposed by the Association in 1884

Twelfth and Final Report on the ‘N orth-Western Tribes of the Dominion of
Canada .

Interim Report on 1 the ‘Anthropology and Natural History of Torres Straits

Report on the Silchester Excavation

Report on the Mental and Physical Deviations from the Normal among
Children in Public Elementary and other Schools

Third Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury

Second Report on an Ethnological Survey of Canada. E

Sixth Report on an Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom j

Second Report on the Changes which are associated with the F unctional
Activity of Nerve Cells and their Peripheral Extensions

Second Interim Report on the Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Pre-
cursors when introduced into the Circulation : : :

Report on Fertilisation in Pheophycez ;

International Conference on Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity

The Transactions of the Sections ,

Index

List of Publications : E ¢ - E 4 ,

(Appendix, List of Members, pp. 1-112).

« . . . .

PAGE
312

313
433.
439)

959

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On the Regulation of Wages by means of Lists in the Cotton Industry :—Spin-
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Report on the best means for promoting Scientific Education in Schools, 6d.

Second Report on the present Methods of Teaching Chemistry, 1889, 6d.

Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use
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Second Report on the Development of Graphic Methods in Mechanical Science,
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Report of the Ethnographical Survey Committee, 1593, 6d.

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Report on Electrical Standards, with seven Appendices, 1894, 1s.

Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Thermodynamics, Part II., by
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Discussion on Agriculture-and Science, Ipswich, 1895, 3d.

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The President’s Address, and Sectional Addresses, for 1889, 1892, 1893, 1895, 1896,
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BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR

THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

HES.

OF

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS,

1699:

Office of the Association :
BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W.

SBT. A

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1899-1900.

“a PRESIDENT,
Proressor SIR MICHAEL FOSTER, K.C.B., M.D., D.O.L., LL.D., SEc.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

His Grace the LorD ARCHBISHOP OF OANTER- The Right Hon. A. AKFRS-DouGLAS, M.P.

Bury, D.D. The Very Rev. F. W. FARRAR, D.D., F.R.S., Deau
The Most Hon. the Marquis or SALISBURY, K.G., of Canterbury.

M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir J. Norman Lockykr, K.O.B., F.R.S.
The MAyor OF Dover. | Professor G, H. DARWIN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

The Masor-GENFRAL COMMANDING THE SouTH- |
EASTERN DISTRICT. |

PRESIDENT ELECT.
Proresson SIR WILLIAM TURNER, M.B., D.O.L., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT,

The Right Hon. the EArt or ScaRBROUGH, Lord- The MAYOR OF BRADFORD.
Lientenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire. The Hon. H. E. Butier, Lord of the Manor, Brad-
His Grace the DUKE or DrvonsHIRE, K.G., D.O.L., ford.
LL.D., F.R.S. Sir ALEXANDER BINNIE, M.Inst.0.E., F.G.S,
The Most Hon. the Marquis oF Ripon, KG., Professor RUCKER, M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S.
G.O.S.1., D.C.L., F.B.S. Dr, T. E. THorRPR, Sc.D., F.R.S., Pres.C.S.
The Right Rey. the Lorp BisHop or Ripon, D.D. Dr. N. BoDINGTON, M.A.
The Right Hon. Lonp MasHam. Prof. L. 0. MIAut, F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Professor H, A. ScuArer, LL.D., F.R.S., the University, Edinburgh.
Professor Sir W. C. Roperrs-AusTEN, K.O.B., D.O.L., F.R.S., Royal Mint, London, E.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GriFritH, Esq., M.A., Harrow, Middlesex,

GENERAL TREASURER,
Professor G. Carney Foster, B.A., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BRADFORD,
RAMSDEN Baccuus, Esq. | J. E, FAWCETT, Esq. | FREDERICK STEVENS, Esq.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BRADFORD.
The MAyor Of BRADFORD.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ARMSTRONG, Professor H. E., F.R.S. | MarR, J.E., Esq., F.R.S.

Bonar, J., Esq., LL.D. PouLton, Professor E. B.. F.R.S.
CREAK, Captain EB. W., R.N., F.R.S. PREECE, Sir W. H., K.O.B., F.R.S.
DaRwwy, F., Esq., F.R.S. Price, L. L., Esq., M.A.

Darwin, Major L., Sec.R.G.S. SHaAw, W.N., Hsq., F.R.S.
FREMANTLE, Hon. Sir C. W., K.0.B. TEALL, J. J. H., Esq., F.R.S.
GASKELL, Dr. W. H., F.R.S. THISELTON-DYER, Sir W. T..K.C.M.G., F.R.S
HALLIBURTON, Professor W. D., F.R.S. THOMSON, Professor J. M., F.R.S.
Harcourt, Professor L. F. VERNON, M.A. TILDEN, Professor W. A., F.R.S.
HHERDMAN, Professor W. A., F.R.S. TyLor, Professor E. B., F.R.S.
KE.tin, J. Scorr, Esq., LL.D. WHITE, Sir W. H., K.0.B., F.B.S.
Loner, Professor O. J., F.R.S. Wotre-Bakry, Sir J., K.C.B., F.R.S.
MacMAuHon, Major P. A., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and

Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Sir Joun Luppock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A., D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S,
Professor A. W: RUCKER, M.A., D.Sc., Sec. B.S.

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.

The Duke of Argyll, K.G.,K.T. | Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir J. S. Burdon Sanderson, Bart.
Lord Armstrong, 0.B., LL.D. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S. F.R.S.

Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.1.,F.RS. | Sir F. J. Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S. | The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G
Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S, Sir F. A. Abel, Bart., K.O.B., F.R.S.

Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.0., F.R.S. F.R.S. Lord Lister, D.C.L., Pres. B.S.
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. Sir Wm. Huggins, K.0,B., F.R.S. | Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.B.S,
Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S. | SirArchibald Geikie, LL.D.,F.R.S. | Sir William Crookes, F.R.S.

GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.

”

F. Galton, Esq., D.O.L., F.R.S. G. Griffith, Esq., M.A. | Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S,
Prof. Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., | P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F-R.S. | A. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., F.R.S.
Sec. B.S, | Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., F.R.S. | Prof. A. W. Riicker, D.Se., See.R.S.
AUDITORS.
Dr. D. H, Scott, F.R.S. | Sir H. Trueman Wood, M.A. | Dr. Horace Brown, F.R.S.

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LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

1899.

* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report.
§§ indicates Annual Subscribers who will be entitled to the Annual
Report if their Subscriptions are paid by December 31, 1899.
t indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members, elected
before 1845, not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in italics.

Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Assistant
General Secretary, G. Griffith, Esq., Burlington House, W.

Year of
Election. ‘

1887. *Abbe, Professor Cleveland. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, U.S.A.

1897. tAbbott, A. H. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

1898. §Abbott, George, M.R.C.S. 33 Upper Grosvenor-road, Tunbridge
Wells.

1881. *Abbott, R. T.G. Whitley House, Malton.

1887, tAbbott,T. C. Eastleigh, Queen’s-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1863. *AnEeL, Sir Frepkrick Avevustus, Bart., K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc.,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S., President of the Government Committee on
Explosives. The Imperial Institute, Imperial Institute-road,
and 2 Whitehall-court, S.W.

1885. *ABERDEEN, The Right Hon. the Earl of, G.C.M.G., LL.D., Haddo
House, Aberdeen.

1885. tAberdeen, The Countess of. Haddo House, Aberdeen.

1885. { Abernethy, David W. Ferryhill Cottage, Aberdeen.

1885. tAbernethy, James W. 2 Rubislaw-place, Aberdeen.

1873, *Asney, Captain Sir W. pe W., K.C.B., D.O.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Rathmore Lodge, Bolton-gardens South, Earl’s Court, S. W.

6 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1886. tAbraham, Harry. 147 High-street, Southampton.

1884. tAcheson, George. Collegiate Institute, Toronto, Canada.

1873. {Ackroyd, Samuel. Greaves-street, Little Horton, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1882. *Acland, Alfred Dyke. 38 Pont-street, Chelsea, S.W.

1869. {Acland, Sir C. T. Dyke, Bart., M.A. Killerton, Exeter,

1877. *Acland, Captain Francis E, Dyke, R.A. Woodmansterne Rectory,
Banstead, Surrey.

1873. *Acland, Rey. H. D., M.A. Luccombe Rectory, Taunton.

1894, *Acland, Henry Dyke, F.G.8S. The Old Bank, Great Malvern.

1832. *AcztanD, Sir Henry W. Dyxret, Bart., K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Broad-street, Oxford.

1877, *Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.A. 74 Brook-street, W.

1898.§§Acworth, W.M. 47 St. George’s-square, 8. W.

1887. tApamt, J. G., M.A., M.D., Professor of Pathology in the University,

Montreal, Canada.

1892. tAdams, David, Rockville, North Queensferry. :

1884, {Adams, Frank Donovan. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

1871. §Adams, John R. 2 Nutley-terrace, Hampstead, N.W.

1879. *Apams, Rey. THomas, M.A., D.C.L., Canon of Quebec, Principal of
Bishop’s College, Lennoxville, Canada.

1869, *Apams, WitLiam Grits, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S., Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in King’s College,
London. 43 Campden Hill-square, W.

1879. {Adamson, Robert, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Logic in the Uni-
versity of Glasgow.

1896. tAdamson, W. Sunnyside House, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

1898. §Addison, William L.'T. Byng Inlet, Ontario, Canada.

1890. tAddyman, James Wilson, B. A Belmont, Starbeck, Harrogate.

1890. tApENEY, W. E., F.C.S. Royal University of Ireland, Earlsfort-
terrace, Dublin.

1899. §Adie, R. H., M.A., B.Se. 8 Richmond-road, Cambridge.

1883. t{Adshead, Samuel. School of Science, Macclesfield.

1896. tAffleck, W. H. 28 Onslow-road, Fairfield, Liverpool.

1884. {Agnew, Cornelius R. 266 Maddison-avenue, New York, U.S.A.

1887. tAgnew, William. Summer Hill, Pendleton, Manchester.

1864, *Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

1871. *Ainsworth, John Stirling. Harecroft, Gosforth, Cumberland.

1871. {Ainsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

1895. *Airy, Hubert, M.D. Stoke House, Woodbridge, Suffolk.

1891. *Aisbitt, M. W. Mountstuart-square, Cardiff.

1871. §ArTKEN, Joun, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Ardenlea, Falkirk, N.B.

1898. tAxsrs-Doveuas, Right Hon. A., M.P. 106 Mount-street, W.

1884. *Alabaster, H. Lytton, Mulgray e-road, Sutton, Surrey.

1886. *Albright, G. S. The Elms, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1896. § Aldridge, J. G. W., Assoc.M. Tnst. C.E. 9 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S. W.

1894, tAlexander, A. W. Blackwall Lodge, Halifax.

1891. tAlexander, D.T. Dynas Powis, Cardiff.

1883. {Alexander, George. Kildare-street Club, Dublin.

1888. *Alexander, Patrick Y. Experimental Works, Bath.

1896. tAlexander, William. 45 Highfield South, Rockferry, Cheshire.

1891. *Alford, Charles J., F.G.S. 15 Great St. Helens, E.C.

1883. tAlger, Miss Ethel. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.

1883, tAleer, W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.

1883. tAlger, Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 7

Year of
Election.

1867. fAlison, George L. C. Dundee.

1885.

1871
1871
1879
1898

tAllan, David. West Cults, near Aberdeen.

. tAllan, G., M.Inst.C.E. 10 Austin Friars, E.C.

. tAtcen, Atrrep H., F.0.8. 67 Surrey-street, Sheffield.

. *Allen, Rev. A. J.C. The Librarian, Peterhouse, Cambridge.
. §Allen, E. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

1888.§§ALLEN, F. J., M.A., M.D., Professor of Physiology, Mason College,

1884.
1891.
1887.
1878.
1891.
1889.
1889,
1886.
1896.
1887.
18738.
1891.
1883.
1883.
1884.
1883.
1885.
1874.
1892.
1899.
1888.
1887.
1889.
1880.
1880.
1883.
1895.
1891.
1880.
1886.
1883.
1877.

1886,
1896.
1886.
1878.
1890.

Birmingham.
tAllen, Rev. George. Shaw Vicarage, Oldham,
tAllen, Henry A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street, S.W.
tAllen, John. Kilgrimol School, St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea, via Preston.
tAllen, John Romilly. 28 Great Ormond-street, W.C.
tAllen, W. H. 24 Glenroy-street, Roath, Cardiff.
{Allhusen, Alfred. Low Fell, Gateshead.
tAllhusen, Frank E. The School, Harrow.
fAllport, Samuel, F.G.S. Mason College, Birmingham.
tAlsop, J. W. 16 Bidston-road, Oxton.
tAlward, G. L. 11 Hamilton-street, Grimsby, Yorkshire.
tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tAmbrose, D. R. Care of Messrs. J. Evans & Co., Bute Docks, Cardiff.
§Amery, John Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.
§Amery, Peter Fabyan Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.
tAmi, Henry, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.
tAnderson, Miss Constance. 17 Stonegate, York.
*Anderson, Hugh Kerr. Caius College, Cambridge,
tAnderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast.
tAnderson, Joseph, LL.D. 8 Great King-street, Edinburgh.
*Anderson, Miss Mary K. 13 Napier-road, Edinburgh.
*Anderson, R. Bruce. 35a Great George-street, S.W.
tAnderson, Professor R. J., M.D. Queen’s College, Galway.
tAnderson, R. Simpson. Elswick Collieries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*AnpERSON, TemPEstT, M.D., B.Sc., F.G.S. 17 Stonegate, York.
tAndrew, Mrs. 126 Jamaica-street, Stepney, E.
tAndrew, Thomas, F.G.S. 18 Southernhay, Exeter.
tAndrews, Charles W. British Museum (Natural History), S.W.
tAndrews, Thomas. 163 Newport-road, Cardiff.
*Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.E. Oefn Eithen, Swansea.
§Andrews, William, F.G.S. Steeple Croft, Coventry.
tAnelay, Miss M. Mabel. Girton College, Cambridge.
§ANGELL, Jonny, F.C.S., F.1.C. 6 Beacons-field, Derby-road,
Withington, Manchester.
tAnnan, John, J.P. Whitmore Reans, Wolverhampton.
tAnnett, R. C.F. 11 Greenhey-road, Liverpool.
tAnsell, Joseph. 388 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
tAnson, Frederick H. 15 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, S.W.
§Antrobus, J. Coutts. Eaton Hall, Congleton.

1898.§§Archer,G. W. 11 All Saints’-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1894.
1884.

1851.

1883.
1883.
1887.
1857.

§Archibald, A. The Bank House, Ventnor.

*Archibald, E. Douglas. Constitutional Club, Northumberland
Avenue, W.C.

tAreytt, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Inveraray. :

§Armistead, Richard. Chambres House, Southport.

*Armistead, William. Oaktield, Compton-road, Wolverhampton.

tArmitage, Benjamin. Chomlea, Pendleton, Manchester.

*Armstrone, The Right Hon. Lord, O.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Cragside, Rothbury.

8 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1886, {ARMsTRONG, GrorGE Frepprick, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Regius
Professor of Engineering in the University of Edinburgh. The
University, Edinburgh.

1873. *Armstrone, Henry E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemis-
try in the City and Guilds of London Institute, Central
Institution, Exhibition-road, S.W. 55 Granville Park,
Lewisham, 8.E.

1876, {Armstrong, James. Bay Ridge, Long Island, New York, U.S.A.

1889. {Armstrong, John A. 32 Eldon-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1889. tArmstrong, Thomas John. 14 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-upon-

'yne.
1893. tArnold-Bemrose, H., M.A., F.G.S. 56 Friar-gate, Derby.
1870. *Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Penroses, Holsworthy, North Devon.
1874. tAshe, Isaac, M.B. Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
1889. tAshley, Howard M. Airedale, Ferrybridge, Yorkshire.
1887. {Ashton, Thomas Gair, M.A. 386 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors.
Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.
1888. *Ashworth, J. Jackson. Haslen House, Handforth, Cheshire.
1890. tAshworth, J. Reginald, B.Sc. 105 Freehold-street, Rochdale.
1887. tAshworth, John Wallwork, F.G.S. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor,
Stockport.
1887. tAshworth, Mrs. J. W.. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, Stockport.
1887. tAspland, Arthur P. Werneth Lodge, Gee Cross, near Manchester.
1875, *Aspland, W. Gaskell. Tuplins, Newton Abbot.
1861. {Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds.
1896. *Assheton, Richard. Birnam, Cambridge.
1861. { Aston, Theodore. 11 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
1896.§§ Atkin, George, J.P. Egerton Park, Rockferry.
1887. §Atkinson, Rev. C. Chetwynd, D.D. Fairfield House, Ashton-on-
Mersey.
1865. *Arxinson, Epmunp, Ph.D., F.C.S. Portesbery Hill, Camberley,
Surrey.
1884, {Atkinson, aneered, Ph.D., LL.D. Brookline, Massachusetts,
USA

1898. *Atkinson, E. Cuthbert. Temple Observatory, Rugby.

1894. tAtkinson, George M. 28 St. Oswald’s-road, 8. W.

1894, *Atkinson, Harold W. Rossall School, Fleetwood, Lancashire.

1861. fAtkinson, Rev. J..A. The Vicarage, Bolton.

1881. tAtkinson, J.T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.

1881. t{ArKinson, Roppert WiLLiAmM, F.C.S. 44 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.

1894, §Atkinson, William. Erwood, Beckenham, Kent.

1863. *Arrrrep, J., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 111 Temple-chambers,
E.C

1884, tAuchincloss, W.S. 209 Church-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

1877. *Ayrron, W. E., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Physics in the City
and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-
road, 8.W. 41 Kensington Park-gardens, W.

1884, {Baby, The Hon. G. Montreal, Canada.
1900. §BaccHus, RAMsDEN (LocaL Sxcrerary). 15 Welbury Drive, Brad-

ord.
1883. *Bach, Madame Henri. 12 Rue Fénélon, Lyons.
Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.
1863. {Backhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.
1883. *Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s, Wolsingham, R.S.0O., Durham.
1887. *Bacon, Thomas Walter. Ramsden Hall, Billericay, Essex.

—

LIST OF MEMBERS. 9

Year of
Election.

1887. {Baddeley, John. 1 Charlotte-street, Manchester.

1883. {Baildon, Dr. 65 Manchester-road, Southport.

1892. {Baildon, H. Bellyse. Duncliffe, Murrayfield, Edinburgh.

1888. *Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Ashfield, College-road, Whalley Range,
Manchester.

1898. §Bariey, Colonel F., Sec. R.Scot.G.8., F.R.G.S. 7 Drummond-place,
Edinburgh.

1870. {Bailey, Dr. Francis J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool.

1887. *Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Marple Cottage, Marple, Cheshire.

1865. {Bailey, Samuel, F.G.S. Ashley House, Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

1899. §Bailey, T. Lewis. 35 Hawarden-avenue, Liverpool,

1855. {Bailey, W. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolverhampton.

1887. { Bailey, W. H. Summerfield, Eccles Old-road, Manchester.

1866. {Baillon, Andrew. British Consulate, Brest.

1894. *Baily, Francis Gibson, M.A. 11 Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.

1878. {Batty, WatteR. 4 Roslyn-hill, Hampstead, N.W.

1885. {Barn, AtpxanDER, M.A., LL.D. Ferryhill Lodge, Aberdeen.

1897. §Baty, James, jun. Toronto.

1885. {Bain, William N. Collingwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

1882. *Baxer, Sir Bensamin, K.C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
2 Queen Square-place, Westminster, S.W.

1898.§§Baker, Herbert M. Wallcroft, Durdham Park, Clifton, Bristol.

1898.§§Baker, Hiatt C. Mary-le-Port-street, Bristol.

1891, {Baker, J. W. 50 Stacey-road, Cardiff.

1881. {Baker, Robert, M.D. The Retreat, York.

1875. {Baxer, W. Procror. Bristol.

1881, {Baldwin, Rev. G. W. de Courey, M.A. Lord Mayor’s Walk, York.

1884. {Balete, Professor E. Polytechnic School, Montreal, Canada.

1871. {Balfour, The Right Hon. G. W., M.P. 24 Addison-road, Ken-
sington, W.

1894,§§ Balfour, Henry, M.A. 11 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

1875. {Batrovr, Isaac Baytry,M.A.,D.Sc.,M.D., F.R.S.,F.R.S.E.,F.LS.,
Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Inverleith
House, Edinburgh.

1883, {Balfour, Mrs. I. Bayley. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.

1878. *Ball, Charles Bent, M.D., Regius Professor of Surgery in the
University of Dublin. 24 Merrion-square, Dublin.

1866, *Batt, Sir Roperr Stawett, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of
the Observatory and Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and
Geometry in the University of Cambridge. The Observatory,
Cambridge.

1883. *Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A, Trinity College, Cambridge.

1886. {Ballantyne, J. W., M.B. 24 Melville-street, Edinburgh.

1869, {Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, Westminster, 8. W.

1890. nes eee Harry, B.Sc. McGill University, Montreal,

anada.

1899. §Bampton, Mrs. 42 Marine-parade, Dover.

1882. {Bance, Colonel Edward, J.P. Oak Mount, Highfield, Southampton.

1898. §Bannerman, W. Bruce, F.R.G.S., F.G.S. The Lindens, Sydenham-
road, Croydon,

1884, {Barbeau, E. J. Montreal, Canada.

1866. {Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.

1884, {Barber, Rev. 8S. F. West Raynham Rectory, Swaffham, Norfolk.

1890. *Barber-Starkey, W. J.S. Aldenham Park, Bridgnorth, Salop.

1861, *Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.

10

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1855. {Barclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland.

1894. §Barclay, Arthur. 29 Gloucester-road, South Kensington, S.W.
1871. {Barclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.

1860. *Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.

1887. *Barclay, Robert. Sedgley New Hall, Prestwich, Manchester.

1886.
1881.
1882.
1886.

1890.
1899

1882,
1879.

1898.

1886.

1873.
1889.

1883.
1878.

1883.
1885.
1878.

1861.

1881,

1889.

1868.

1899,

1884.

1899.

1881.
1890.

{Barclay, Thomas. 17 Bull-street, Birmingham.

{Barfoot, William, J.P. Whelford-place, Leicester.

{Barford, J. D, Above Bar, Southampton.

{Barham, F. F. Bank of England, Birmingham.

{Barker, Alfred, M.A., B.Sc. Aske’s Hatcham School, New Cross, 8.E.

§Barker, John H, 26 Park-parade, Cambridge.

*Barker, Miss J. M. Hexham House, Hexham.

*Barker, Rev. Philip C., M.A., LL.B. Priddy Vicarage, Wells,
Somerset.

§Barker, W. R. 106 Redland-road, Bristol.

{Barling, Gilbert. 85 Edmund-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

TBarlow, Crawford, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. Deene, Tooting Bec-road,
Streatham, S.W.

§Barlow, H. W. L., M.A., M.B., F.C.S. Holly Bank, Croftsbank-
road, Urmston, near Manchester. :

{Barlow, J. J. 37 Park-street, Southport.

{Barlow, John, M.D., Professor of Physiology in Anderson’s Col- ©
lege, Glasgow.

{tBarlow, John R. Greenthorne, near Bolton.

*Bartow, WILLIAM, F.G.S. The Red House, Great Stanmore.

{Baritow, WitiiAmM Henry, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. High Combe, Old
Charlton, Kent.

*Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Cheltenham,

tBarnard, William, LL.B. 38 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

{Barnes, J. W. Bank, Durham.

§Barnes, Richard H. Heatherlands, Parkstone, Dorset.

§Barnes, Robert. 29 Thorngate-road, St. Peter’s Park, W.

{Barnett, J. D. Port Hope, Ontario, Canada.

§Barnett, W. D. 41 Threadneedle-street, H.C.

{tBarr, ArcurBaLD, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. The University, Glasgow.

{Barr, Frederick H. 4 South-parade, Leeds.

1859. {Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, East Grinstead, Sussex.

1891.

"1883.
1883.
1872,

1883.
1887.
1874.
1874.
1885,

1866.
1895.

1886
1886

§§Barrell, Frank R., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Bristol.
{Barrett, John Chalk. LErrismore, Birkdale, Southport.
tBarrett, Mrs. J.C. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.
*Barrert, W. F., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.R.LA., Professor of Physics
in the Royal College of Science, Dublin,
{Barrett, William Scott. Abbotsgate, Huyton, near Liverpool.
{Barrington, Miss Amy. Fassaroe, Bray, Co. Wicklow.
*Barrineton, R. M., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S. Fassaroe, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.
*Barrington-Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. Thorneloe Lodge, Worcester.
*Barron, Frederick Cadogan, M.Inst.C.E. Nervion, Beckenham-
erove, Shortlands, Kent.
{Barron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.
*BaRRow, GEORGE, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28 Jermyn-
street, S.W.
. {Barrow, George William. Baldraud, Lancaster.
. {Barrow, Richard Bradbury. Lawn House, 13 Ampton-road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 11

Year of
Election.
1896. §Barrowman, James. Staneacre, Hamilton, N.B.

1886,
1886.

1858.
1862.
1883.
1881.
1884.
1890.
1890.
1892.

1858.

1884.
1873.
1892.
1893.
1884.

1852.

1899.
1892.
1887.

{Barrows, Joseph. The Poplars, Yardley, near Birmingham.

{Barrows, Joseph, jun. Ferndale, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

tBarry, Right Rev. ALFRED, D.D., D.C.L. The Cloisters, Windsor.

*Barry, CHARLES. 1 Victoria-street, S.W.

{Barry, Charles E. 1 Victoria-street, S.W.

tBarry, J. W. Duncombe-place, York.

*Barstow, Miss Frances A. Garrow Hill, near York.

*Barstow, J. J. Jackson. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

*Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

tBartholomew, John George, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 12 Blacket-place,
Edinburgh.

*Bartholomew, William Hamond, M.Inst.C.E. Ridgeway House,
Cumberland-road, Hyde Park, Leeds.

{Bartlett, James Herbert. 148 Mansfield-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Bartley,G.O.T.,M.P. St. Margaret’s House, Victoria-street, 5. W.

{Barton, Miss. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.

{Barton, Edwin H., B.Sc. University College, Nottingham.

{Barton, H. M. Foster-place, Dublin.

tBarton, James. Farndreg, Dundalk.

*Barton, Miss Ethel S. Cornwall House, Reading-road, Pangbourne.

{Barton, William. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.

{tBartrum, John 8. 13 Gay-street, Bath.

*Bashforth, Rev. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.

1898.§§Bason, Vernon Millward. 7 Princess-buildings, Clifton, Bristol.

1876.
1876.
1888.

1891.

1866,
1889.

1869.
1871.

1889.
1888.

1868.

1889.
1884.

1881.

1863.

1867.
1892,
1875.
1876.
1887.
1885.

1886

tBassano, Alexander. 12 Montagu-place, W.

tBassano, Clement. Jesus College, Cambridge.

*Basset, A. B., M.A., F.R.S. Fledborough Hall, Holyport, Berk-
shire.

{Bassett, A. B. Cheverell, Llandaff.

*Bassert, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, N.

{Bastasin, Professor C. F., M.A., F.S.S. 6 Trevelyan-terrace,
Rathgar, Co. Dublin.

tBastard, 8.8. Summerland-place, Exeter.

tBastran, H. Cuartron, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University College,
London. 84 Manchester-square, W.

{Batalha-Reis, J. Portuguese Consulate, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Bateman, A. E., C.M.G., Controller General, Statistical Depart-

ment. Board of Trade, 7 Whitehall Gardens, S.W.

{Bateman, Sir F., M.D., LL.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

{Bates, C. J. Heddon, Wylam, Northumberland.

{Bareson, Wittiam, M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*Batuer, Francis Artuur, M.A., F.G.S. 1385 Kensington High-
street, W.; and British Museum (Natural History), S.W.

§Baverman, H., F.G.S. 14 Cavendish-road, Balham, 8.W.

{Baxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.

§Bayly, F. W. 8 Royal Mint, E.

*Bayly, Robert. Torr-grove, near Plymouth.

*Baynes, Ropert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

*Baynes, Mrs. R. E. 2 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*Bazley, Gardner. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire.

Bazley, Sir Thomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Winterdyne, Chine

Crescent-road, Bournemouth.

{Beale, C. Calle Progress No. 83, Rosario de Santa Fé, Argentine
Republic.

12

Year of

Election.

1886.
1860.
1882.
1884.
1872.

1883.
1889.

1842,
1889.
1855.

1886.
1861.
1887.
1885.

1896.
1871.
1887.
1885.

1870.
1896.
1858.
1890,
1891,
1878.

1884.
1878.

1874.
1891.
1892.
1871.
1884.
1894.

1860.
1862.

1875.
1896.§

1891.
1871.

1883.
1864,
1888,
1842.
1898.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

tBeale, Charles G. Maple Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*BrEALE, Lione 8., M.B., F.R.S.: 61 Grosyvenor-street, W.

§Beamish, Lieut.-Colonel A. W., R.E. 27 Philbeach-gardens, S.W.

tBeamish, G. H. M. Prison, Liverpool.

{Beanes, Edward, F.C.8. Moatlands, Paddock Wood, Brenchley,
Kent.

{tBeard, Mrs. Oxford.

§Beare, Prof. T. Hupson, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. University
College, W.O.

*Beatson, William. 2 Ash Mount, Rotherham.

tBeattie, John. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.S.S. 18 Picca-
dilly, W.

tBeaugrand,M.H. Montreal.

*Beaumont, Rey. Thomas George. Oakley Lodge, Leamington.

*Beaumont, W. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

*Beaumont, W. W., M.Inst.C.E., F:G.8. Outer Temple, 222 Strand,

W.C

{Beazer, C. Hindley, near Wigan.

*Beazley, Lieut.-Colonel George G. 74 Redcliffe-square, S.W.

*Beckert, Joann Hamppen. Corbar Hall, Buxton, Derbyshire.

{Bepparp, Frank E., M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Prosector to the Zoo-
logical Society of London, Regent’s Park, N.W.

§Brppor, Jonn, M.D., F.R.S. The Chantry, Bradford-on-Avon.

§Bedford, F. P. King’s College, Cambridge.

§Bedford, James. Woodhouse Cliff, near Leeds.

{Bedford, James E., F.G.S. Shireoak-road, Leeds.

§Bedlington, Richard. Gadlys House, Aberdare,

{Bepson, P.. Puitires, D.Sc., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in the
College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tBeers, W.G., M.D. 34 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.

{Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York-
shire.

{Belcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.

*Belinfante, L. L., M.Sc., Assist.-Sec. G.S. Burlington House, W.

TBell, A. Beatson. 145 Princes-street, Edinburgh.

{Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull.

{Bell, Charles Napier. Winnipeg, Canada.

{But, F. Jurrrey, M.A., F.Z.S. 35 Cambridge-street, Hyde
Park, W.

Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex.

{Bell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts.

*BELL, Sir Isaac Lowruray, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.Inst.C.E.
Rounton Grange, Northallerton.

{Bett, James, C.B., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. Howell Hill Lodge,
Ewell, Surrey.

§Bell, James. Care of the Liverpool Steam Tug Co., Limited,
Chapel-chambers, 28 Chapel-street, Liverpool.

tBell, James. Bangor Villa, Clive-road, Cardiff.

*Bent, J. CARTER, F.C.S. Bankfield, The Clitf, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.

*Bell, John Henry. 100 Leyland-road, Southport.

tBell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.

*Bell, Walter George, M.A. Trinity Hall, Cambridge.

Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Eagle Foundry, Manchester.

{Betrrr, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.M. Kingston, Nottingham-

shire.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 13

Year of
Election.

1884,
1886.
1885.

1891.
1870.

1896.
1881.
1883.
1896.
1881.

1889.
1887.

1863.
1898.
1884.
1897.
1896.

1894.

1863.
1886.
1898.
1894.
1862.

1882.
1890.
1880.
1885.
1884.
1870.
1888.
1885.

1882.
1898.
1891.
1886.
1887.
1884,

1881.

1873.
1899.
1880.

1888.
1887.
1871.
1894,

1885

tBemrose, Joseph. 15 Plateau-street, Montreal, Canada,

§Benger, Frederick Baden, F.I.C., F.C.S. The Grange, Knutsford.

{Brnnam, Wirt1aM Braxtanp, D.Sc., Professor of Biology in the
University of Otago, New Zealand.

{Bennett, Alfred Rosling. 44 Manor Park-road, Harlesden, N.W.

{Breyyerr, AtrreD W., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. 6 Park Village East,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

§Bennett, George W. West Ridge, Oxton, Cheshire.

§Bennett, John Ryan. 8% Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.

“Bennett, Laurence Henry. The Hall, East Ilsley, Berkshire.

{Bennett, Richard. 19 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.

{Bennett, Rev. 5. H., M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Bishopshill Junior,
York.

{Benson, John G. 12 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon- Tyne.

*Benson, Mrs. W. J. Care of Standard Bank of South Africa, Stel-
lenbosch, South Africa.

{Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

“Bent, Mrs. Theodore. 13 Great Cumberland-place, W.

{Bentham, William. 724 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Bently, R. R. 97 Dowling-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

*Bergin, William, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen's
College, Cork.

§Berkeley, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Foxcombe, Boarshill, near
Abingdon.

tBerkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.

{Bernard, W. Leigh. Calgary, Canada,

§Berridge, Miss C. E. 17 Rotunda-terrace, Cheltenham.

§Berridge, Douglas, M.A., F.C.S. The College, Malvern.

{Brsant, WintiaM Henry, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

“Bessemer, Henry. Town Hill Park, West End, Southampton.

{Best, William Woodham. 31 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.

“Bevan, Rey. James Oliver, M.A., F.G.S. 55 Gunterstone-road, W.

{Beveridge, R. Beath Villa, Ferryhill, Aberdeen.

“Beverley, Michael, M.D. 54 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.

TBickerton, A.W. Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand.

*Bidder, George Parker. Savile Club, Piccadilly, W.

*BIDWELL, SHELFORD, Sc.D., LL.B., F.R.S. Riverstone Lodge,
Southfields, Wandsworth, Surrey, S.W.

§Biges, C. H. W., F.C.S. Glebe Lodge, Champion Hill, S.E.

§ Billington, Charles. Studleigh, Longport, Staffordshire.

tBillups, J. E. %9 The Parade, Cardiff.

tBindloss, G.F. Carnforth, Brondesbury Park, N.W.

*Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Eccles, Manchester.

“Bingham, Lieut.-Colonel John E., J.P. West Lea, Ranmoor,
Sheffield.

{Brnnie, Sir Arexanper R., MInst.C.E., F.G.S. London County
Council, Spring-gardens, S.W.

{Binns, J. Arthur. Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire,

§Bird, F. J. Norton House, Midsomer Norton, Bath.

{Bird, Henry, F.C.S. South Down House, Millbrook, near

Devonport.

*Birley, Miss Caroline. 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensington, W.

*Birley, H. K. Hospital, Chorley, Lancashire.

*BiscHor, Gustav. 19 Ladbroke-gardens, W.

{Bisset, James. 5 East India-avenue, E.C.

Bissett, J. P. Wyndem, Banchory, N.B.

14

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1886.
1889.
1889.

1881.

1869.
1876.

1884,

1877.
1855.

1896,

1884,
1883.
1896.
1886.
1895.
1885.

1892.
1892.
1888.

1846.
1891.

1894.
1887.
1881.
1895.
1884.
1869,

1887.

1887.
1887.
1884.
1880.
1888.

1870.
1859.

1885.

1883.
1867.
1887.
1870.
1887.
1889.
1884.
1887.
1898.

1876.

*Bixby, Major W. H. Engineer's Office, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.

t{Black, W. 1 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

t Black, William. 12 Romulus-terrace, Gateshead.

tBlack, Surgeon-Major William Galt, F.R.C.S.E. Caledonian United
Service Club, Edinburgh.

{ Blackall, Thomas. 13 Southernhay, Exeter.

{Blackburn, Hugh, M.A. Roshyen, Fort William, N.B.

{Blackburn, Robert. New Edinburgh, Ontario, Canada.

{Blackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.

*Biackiz, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. 1 Belhaven-terrace, Kelvinside,
Glasgow.

§Blackie, Walter W., B.Sc. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.

{Blacklock, Frederick W. 25 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.

tBlacklock, Mrs. Sea View, Lord-street, Southport.

{Blackwood, J. M. 16 Oil-street, Liverpool.

{Biaikie, John, F.L.S. The Bridge House, Newcastle, Staffordshire.

{Blaikie, W. B. 6 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Blair, Mrs. Oakshaw, Paisley.

{Blair, Alexander. 35 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

{Blair, John. 9 Ettrick-road, Edinburgh.

*Brake, Rev. J. F., M.A., F.G.8. 69 Comeragh-road, W.

*Blake, William. Bridge, South Petherton, Somerset.

{Buanestey, THomas H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E. Royal Naval College,
Greenwich, 8.E. :

tBlakiston, Rev. C. D. Exwick Vicarage, Exeter.

tBlamires, George. Cleckheaton.

{Blamires, Thomas H. Close Hill, Lockwood, near Huddersfield.

{Blamires, William. Oak House, Taylor Hill, Huddersfield.

*Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading.

{Buanrorp, W. T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 72 Bedford-
gardens, Campden Hili, W.

*Bles, A. J. S. Palm House, Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Man-
chester.

*Bles, Edward J., B.Sc. Newnham Lea, Grange-road, Cambridge.

{Bles, Marcus S. The Beeches, Broughton Park, Manchester.

*Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.

tBloxam, G. W., M.A. 11 Presburg-street, Clapton, N.E.

§Bloxsom, Martin, B.A., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Hazelwood, Crumpsall
Green, Manchester.

tBlundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby.

{ Blunt, Captain Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey.

Blyth, B. Hall. 155 George-street, Edinburgh.

{Bryra, James, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in ~
Anderson’s College, Glasgow.

{Blyth, Miss Phoebe. 27 Mansion House-road, Edinburgh.

*Blyth-Martin, W. Y. Blyth House, Newport, Fife.

{Blythe, William S. 65 Mosley-street, Manchester.

{Boardman, Edward. Oak House, Eaton, Norwich.

*Boddington, Henry. Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester.

{Bodmer, G. R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 30 Walbrook, E.C.

{Body, Rev. C. W. E.,M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.

*Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Tesselschade-straat, Amsterdam.

§Bolton, H. The Museum, Queen’s-road, Bristol.

tBolton, J.C. Carbrook, Stirling.

1898.§§ Bolton, J. W. Baldwin-street, Bristol.
1894. §Bolton, John. 16 Clifton-road, Crouch End, N.

1898.

§Bonar, J., M.A., LL.D. 1 Redington-road, Hampstead, N.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 15

Year of
Election.

1883.§§Bonney, Frederic, F.R.G.S. Colton House, Rugeley, Staffordshire.

1883. §Bonney, Miss 8. 23 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.

1871. *Bonynry, Rev. THomas Guoree, D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.,
F.G.S., Professor of Geology in University College, London.
23 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W. ;

1898.§§Booby, Edward P. 2 Clifton-terrace, Torquay.

1888. {Boon, William. Coventry.

1893. {Boot, Jesse. Carlyle House, 18 Burns-street, Nottingham.

1890. *Booru,Cuartzs, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.S.S. 2 Talbot-court, Gracechurch-
street, E.C.

18838.§§Booth, James. Hazelhurst, Turton.

1883. {Booth, Richard, 4 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

1876. {Booth, Rey. William H. Mount N od-road, Streatham, S.W.

- 1888. {Boothroyd, Benjamin. Solihull, Birmingham.

1876. *Borland, William. 260 West George-street, Glasgow.

1882. §Borns, Henry, Ph.D., F.C.S. 19 Alexandra-road, Wimbledon,
Surrey.

1876. *Bosanauet, R. H. M., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Castillo Zamora,
Realejo-Alto, Tenerife.

1896. {Bose, Dr. J.C. Calcutta, India.

*Bossey, Francis, M.D, Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.

1881. §BorHamiEy, Cuartes H., F.1.C., F.C.8., Director of Technical
Instruction, Somerset County Education Committee. Otter-
wood, Beaconsfield-road, Weston-super-Mare.

1887. {Bott, Dr. Owens College, Manchester.

1872. {Bottle, Alexander. 4 Godwyne-road, Dover.

1868. {Bottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.

1887. gpeliornley. James, D.Sc., B.A. 220 Lower Broughton-road, Man-
chester.

1871. *Borromiery, James THomson, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S,
13 University-gardens, Glasgow.

1884, *Bottomley, Mrs. 13 University-gardens, Glasgow.

1892. {Bottomley, W. B., B.A., Professor of Botany, King’s College, W.C.

1876. {Bottomley, William, jun. 15 University-cardens, Glasgow.

1890. {Boulnois, Henry Perey, M.Inst.C.E. 44 Campden House Court,
Kensington, W.

1883. {Bourdas, Isaiah. Dunoon House, Clapham Common, S.W.

1883, {Bournz, A. G., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the

r Presidency College, Madras.

1893. *Bournn, G. C., M.A., F.L.S. Savile House, Mansfield-road, Oxford.

1889. {Bourne, R. H. Fou. 41 Priory-road, Bedford Park, Chiswick.

1866. §Bourne, SrepHen. 5 Lansdown-road, Lee, S.E.

1890. {Bousfield, C. E. 55 Clarendon-road, Leeds.

1884. {Bovey, Henry T., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil Engineer-
ing and Applied Mechanics in McGill University, Montreal.
Ontario-avenue, Montreal, Canada. .

1888. tBowden, Rey. G. New Kingswood School, Lansdown, Bath.

1881. *Bownr, F. O., D.Sc., F.R.S., E.RS.E., F.L.S., Regius Professor of
Botany in the University of Glasgow.

1898. *Bowker, Arthur Frank, F.R.G.S8., F.GS. Royal Societies Club,
St. James’s-street, S.W.

1856. *Bowlby, Miss F. E. 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham.

1898. §Bowley, A. L., M.A. St. John’s School, Leatherhead.

1880. {Bowly, Christopher. Cirencester,

1887. {Bowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester,

1865. §Bowman, F. H., D.Se., F.R.S.E. Mayfield, Knutsford, Cheshire,

1899. *Bowman, Herbert Lister, M.A. 13 Sheffield-gardens, Kensington, W

16 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1899. *Bowman, John Herbert. 13 Sheffield Gardens, Kensington, W.

1887. §Box, Alfred Marshall. 68 Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

1895. *Boyce, Rupert, M.B., Professor of Pathology, University College,
Liverpool.

1884. *Boyd, M. A., M.D. 30 Merrion-square, Dublin.

1871. {Boyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

1865. {BoyiE, The Very Rev. G. D., M.A. The Deanery, Salisbury.

1884. *Boyle, R. Vicars, C.S.I. Care of Messrs, Grindlay & Co., 55
Parliament-street, S.W.

1892. §Boys, Cuartes VERNON, F.R.S. 27 The Grove, Boltons, S.W.

1872. *Brasrooxr, E. W., C.B., F.S.A. 178 Bedford-hill, Balham, S. W.

1869. *Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Bushey Lodge, Teddington,
Middlesex.

1894. *Braby, Ivon. Bushey Lodge, Teddington, Middlesex.

1893. §Bradley, F. L. Bel Air, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

1899. *Bradley, J. W., Assoe.M.Inst.C.E. Town Hall, Wolverhampton.

1892. §Bradshaw, W. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.

1857. *Brady, Cheyne, M.R.I.A. Trinity Vicarage, West Bromwich.

1863. {Brapy, Gnuorer 8., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural .
History in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2 Mowbray-villas, Sunderland.

1880. *Brady, Rev. Nicholas, M.A. Rainham Hall, Rainham, S.0., Essex.

1864. { Braham, Philip. 3 Cobden-mansions, Stockwell-road, §.E.

1888. §Braikenridge, W.J., J.P. 16 Royal-crescent, Bath.

1898.§§ Bramble, James R. Seafield, Weston-super-Mare.

1865. §BramweELL, Sir Frepericx J., Bart., D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS.,
M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, S.W.

1872. {Bramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton.

1867. {Brand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.

1861. *Brandreth, Rev. Henry. The Rectory, Dickleburgh.

1885. *Bratby, William, J.P. Alton Lodge, Hale, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1890. *Bray, George. Belmont, Headingley, Leeds.

1868. {Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, W.C.

1877. { Brent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth.

1898. §Brereton, Cuthbert A., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, S.W.

1882. *Bretherton, C. E. Goldsmith-buildings, Temple, H.C.

1866. {Brettell, Thomas. Dudley. f

1891. tBrice, Arthur Montefiore, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 159 Strand, W.C.

1886. §Briven, T. W., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Zoology in the Mason

: University College, Birmingham.

1870. *Bridson, Joseph R. Bryerswood, Windermere.

1887. {Brierley, John, J.P. The Clough, Whitefield, Manchester.

1870. {Brierley, Joseph. New Market-street, Blackburn.

1886. {Brierley, Leonard. Somerset-road, Mdgbaston, Birmingham.

1879. {Brierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth.

1870. *Brieae, Joun, M.P. Kaildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire.

1890. {Brige, W. A. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire.

1893. {Bright, Joseph. Western-terrace, The Park, Nottingham.

1868. {Brine, Admiral Lindesay, F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall
Mall, S.W.

1893.§§ Briscoe, Albert E., B.Sc., A.R.C.Se. Municipal Technical Institute,
Romford-road, West Ham, E.

1884. {Brisette, M. H. 424 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada.

1898.§§ Bristot, the Right Rev. G. F. Brownz, Lord Bishop of, D.D. 17

The Avenue, Clifton, Bristol.
1879. *Brirrain, W. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Alma Works, Sheffield.
1878. {Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum, 8. W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. i

Year of
Election.

1884.

1899.
1899,

- 1897.
1896.

1859.
1883.

1884.

1883.
1881.

1864,
1888.

_ 1887.

1863.
1887.
1887.
1883.
1883.
1886.

1885.
1863.

1892.

1896.
1867.
1855,
1871.
1863,
1883.
1881.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1870.

1883.
1895.
1870.

1876.
1881.
1882.
1895.
1894.
1882,
1898.

*Brittle, John R., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 9 Vanbrugh-hill, Black-
heath, S.E. ;
§Broadwood, Miss Bertha M. Pleystowe, Capel, Surrey.

§Broadwood, James H. EK. Pleystowe, Capel, Surrey.

tBrock, W. R. ‘Toronto.

*Brocklehurst, 8. Olinda, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Bropuurst, BernarD Epwarp, F.R.C.S. 21 Portland-place, W.

*Brodie, David, M.D. Care of Mrs. Johnson, Ventnor House, Can-
terbury.

SPE, William, M.D. 64 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan,

S.A, 7

*Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. 5 Devonshire-place, Eastbourne,

fBrook, Robert G. Wolverhampton House, St. Helens, Lanca-
shire.

“Brooke, Ven. Archdeacon J. Ingham. The Vicarage, Halifax. .

{Brooke, Rey. Canon R. E., M.A. 14 Marlborough-buildings,
Bath.

$Brooks, James Howard. Elm Hirst, Wilmslow, near Man-
chester.

{Brooks, John Crosse. 14 Lovaine-place, Neweastle-on-Tyne.

{Brooks, S. H. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.

*Bros, W. Law. Camera Club, Charing-cross-road, W.C.

*Brotherton, E. A. Arthington Hall, Wharfedale, vid Leeds.

*Brough, Mrs, Charles 8. Rosendale Hall, West Dulwich, S.E.

tBrough, Professor Joseph, LL.M., Professor of Logic and Philosophy
in University College, Aberystwith.

*Browett, Alfred. 29 Wheeley’s-road, Birmingham.

*Brown, ALEXANDER Orum, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 8 Bel-
erave-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Brown, Andrew, M.Inst.C.E. Messrs. Wm. Simons & Co., Renfrew,
near Glasgow.

{Brown, A. T. The Nunnery, St. Michael’s Hamlet, Liverpool.

{Brown, Sir Charles Gage, M.D., K.C.M.G. 88 Sloane-street, S.W.

{Brown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow.

tBrown, David. Willowbrae House, Midlothian.

*Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.

tBrown, Mrs. Ellen F. Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

TBrown, Frederick D. 26 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.

{Brown, George Dransfield. Henley Villa, Ealing, Middlesex, W.

“Brown, Mrs. H. Bienz. Fochabers, Morayshire.

TBrown, Mrs. Helen. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace, Edinburgh.

§Brown, Horace T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 52 Nevern-square, S.W.

Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire.

tBrown, Miss Isabella Spring. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace,
Edinburgh.

{Brown, J. Auten, JP, FRGS, FGS. 7 Kent-gardens,
Ealing, W

*Brown, Professor J. Camppett, D.Sc., F.C.S. University College,
Liverpool.

§Brown, John. Longhurst, Dunmurry, Belfast.

*Brown, John, M.D. Stockbridge House, Padisham, Lancashire.
*Brown, John. 7 Second-avenue, Nottingham,

*Brown, John Charles. 2 Baker-street, Nottingham.

tBrown, J. H. 6 Cambridge-road, Brighton.

*Brown, Mrs. Mary. Stockbridge House, Padisham, Lancashire.
§Brown, Nicol, F.G.S, 4 The Grove, Highgate, N.

1899. B

18

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1897.
1886.
. {Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

. {Brown, Richard. Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

. {Brown, Stewart H. Quarry Bank, Allerton, Liverpool.

. §Brown, T. Forsrer, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Guild Hall Chambers,

{Brown, Price, M.B. 37 Carlton-street, Toronto, Canada.
§Brown, R., R.N. Laurel Bank, Barnhill, Perth.

Cardiff.

. {Brown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham.

. {Brown, W. A. The Court House, Aberdeen.

. {Brown, William George. Ivy, Albemarle Oo., Virginia, U.S.A.

. Browne, Sir Benjamin Chapman, M.Inst.C.E. Westacres, New-

castle-upon-Tyne.

. {Browne, Harold Crichton. Crindon, Dumfries.
. *Browne, H. T. Doughty. 10 Hyde Park-terrace, W.
. {Browne, Sir J. Cricuron, M.D.,LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 61 Carlisle-

place-mansions, Victoria-street, S.W.

. {Browne, Montacv, F.G.S. Town Museum, Leicester.

. *Browne, Robert Clayton, M.A. Browne’s Hill, Carlow, Ireland. .

. tBrowne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Redcot, Bradbourne, Sevenoaks, Kent,
. TBrownell, T. W. 6 St. James’s-square, Manchester.

. {Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 68 Strand, W.C.

. {Browning, Oscar, M.A, King’s College, Cambridge.

. [Brownlee, James, jun. 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.

. {Bruce, James. 10 Hill-street, Edinburgh.

. tBruce, William S. 11 Mount Pleasant, Joppa, Edinburgh.

. *Brunel, H. M., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, Westrainster, S.W.

. {Brunel, I. 15 Devonshire-terrace, W.

. {Brunlees, John, M.Inst.C.E. 12 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
. *Brunner, Sir J. T., Bart., M.P. Druid’s Cross, Wavertree, Liverpool.
. {Brunton, T. Lauper, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 10 Stratford-place,

Oxford-street, W.

. *Brush, Charles F. Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.

. §Brutton, Joseph Yeovil.
> *Bryan, G. H D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in

University College, Bangor.

. {Bryan, Mrs. R. P. Plas Gwyn, Bangor.
. {Brycz, Rev. Professor Grorcz. Winnipeg, Canada.
. {Brycr, Right Hon. James, D.C.L., M.P., F.R.S. 54 Portlands

place, W.

. {Brydone, R. M. Petworth, Sussex.
. §Bubb, Henry. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.
. §Bucnan, ALEXANDER, M.A., LL.D., F.B.S., F.R.S.E., Sec. Scottish

Meteorological Society. 42 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

. {Buchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.
. *Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk.
. {Bucmanan, Joun Youns, M.A., F.BS., F.R.S.E.,, F.R.G.S., F.C.S,

10 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
{Buchanan, W. Frederick. Winnipeg, Canada.

. {Buckland, Miss A: W. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington, W,
. *Buckle, Edmund W. 28 Bedford-row, W.C.

. *Buckley, Henry. 18 Princes-street, Cavendish-square, W.

. §Buckley, Samuel. Merlewood, Beaver Park, Didsbury.

. *Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S. 16 Heathfield-road,

Mill Hill Park, W.

, tBuckmey, Thomas, F.R.A.S. 53 Gower-street, W.C.
. *Bucxton, Grorce Bownrer, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.8. Weycombe,

Haslemere, Surrey.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 19

Year of
Election.

1887. {Budenberg, C. F., B.Sc. Buckau Villa, Demesne-road, Whalley
Range, Manchester.

1875. {Budgett, Samuel. Penryn, Beckenham, Kent.

1883. {Buick, Rev. George R., M.A. Cullybackey, Co. Antrim, Ireland.

1893. §BULLEID, ARTHUR, FS.A. Glastonbury.

1871. tBulloch, Matthew. 48 Prince’s-gate, S.W.

1883. {Bulpit, Rev. F. W. Crossens Rectory, Southport.

1895. {Bunte, Dr. Hans. Karlsruhe, Baden.

1886, §Burbury, 8. H., M.A., F.R.S. 1 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C,

1842. *Burd, John. Glen Lodge, Knocknerea, Sligo.

1869. t{Burdett-Coutts, Baroness. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, W.

1881. {Burdett-Coutts, W. L.A.B.,M.P. 1Stratton-street, Piccadilly, W.

1891. tBurge, Very Rev. T. A. Ampleforth Cottage, near York.

1894. {Burke, John. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1884. *Burland, Lieut.-Col. Jeffrey ‘H. 824 Sherbrook-street, Montreal,
Canada.

1899. §Burls, Herbert T. 206 Lewisham High-road, S.E.

1888. {Burne, H. Holland. 28 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.

1883. *Burne, Major-General Sir Owen Tudor, G.C.LE., K.C.8.L, F.R.G.S,.
132 Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, W.

1876. {Burnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

1885. *Burnett, W. Kendall, M.A. 11 Belmont-street, Aberdeen.

1877. {Burns, David. Alston, Carlisle.

1884, {Burns, Professor James Austin. Southern Medical College, Atlanta,
Georgia, U.S.A.

1899. §Burr, Malcolm. Dorman’s Park, East Grinstead.

1887. {Burroughs, Eggleston, M.D. Snow Hill-buildings, E.C.

1883. *Burrows, Abraham. Russell House, Rhyl, North Wales.

1860, {Burrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford.

1894. {Burstall, H. F. W. 76 King’s-road, Camden-road, N. W.

1891. {Burt, J. J. 103 Roath-road, Cardiff.

1888. {Burt, John Mowlem. 38t. J ohn’s-gardens, Kensington, W.

1888. {Burt, Mrs. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, W.

1894. {Burton, Charles V. 24 Wimpole-street, W.

1866. *Burron, Freprrtck M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough,

1889. {Burton, Rev. R. Lingen. Little Aston, Sutton Coldfield.

1897. {Burton, 8. H., M.B. 50 St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

1892. {Burton-Brown, Colonel Alexander, R.A., F.R.A.S., I.G.S. St.
George’s Club, Hanover-square, W.

1897. {Burwash, Rev. N., LL.D., Principal of Victoria University,
Toronto, Canada.

1887. *Bury, Henry. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1899. §Bush, Anthony. 43 Portland-road, Nottingham.

1895. §Bushe, Colonel C. K., F.G.S. 19 Cromwell-road, 8. W.

1878. {Burcuer, J. G., M. A. 22 Coilingham-place, S. W.

1884, *Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Holyrood, 5 Cleveland-
road, Ealing, W.

1884, {Butler, Matthew L. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.

1888. {Buttanshaw, Rev. John. 22 St. James’s-square, Bath.

1884. *Butterworth, W. 3 Doop-street, Thomas-street, Shudehill, Manchester,

1872. {Buxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk.

1883. {Buaton, Miss F. M. Newnham College, Cambridge.

1887. *Buxton, J.H. Clumber Cottage, Montague-road, Felixstowe.

1868, {Buxton, S. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.

1881. {Buxton, Sydney. 15 Eaton-place, S.W

1872, {Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., G.C. M.G., F.R.G.S. Warlies,
Waltham Abbey, Essex.

B2

20

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year ot
Election.

1854,

1899

1885.
1862.
18838.

1889.

1892.
1894.
1863.
1861.
1886.
1868.
1887.

1897.

1892.
1884,
1876.

1857.

1896.
1884.
1870.
1884.
1876.

1897.
1898.
1897,
1882.
1890.
1897.
1898.

1888.
1894,
1880.
1885,
1887.
18738.

1896.
1877.

tByertey, Isaac, F.L.S. 22 Dingle-lane, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.
§Byles, Arthur R. ‘Bradford Observer,’ Bradtord, Yorkshire.
{Byres, David. 63 North Bradford, Aberdeen.

{Byrne, Very Rey. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh.

{Byrom, John R. Mere Bank, Fairtield, near Manchester.

{Cackett, James Thoburn. 60 Larkspur-terrace, Newcastle-upon-

Tyne.
tCadell, Henry M., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Grange, Bo'ness, N.B.
{Caillard, Miss E. M. Wingfield House, near Trowbridge, Wilts.
{Oaird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.
*Caird, James Key. 8 Roseangle, Dundee.
*Caldwell, William Tay. Cambridge.
tCaley, A. J. Norwich.
{Cartaway, Cures, M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. 35 Huskisson-street,
Liverpool.
§CaLLENDAR, Professor Hucu L., M.A., F.R.S. University Col--
lege, Gower-street, W.C. .
{Calvert, A. F., F.R.G.S. Royston, Eton-avenue, N.W.
{Cameron, Aineas. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.
t{Cameron, Sir Charles, Bart., M.D., LL.D. 1 Huntly-gardens,.
Glasgow.
tOameron, Sir Cuartzs A., C.B., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road,
Dublin
§Cameron, Irving II. 307 Sherbourne-street, Toronto, Canada.
{Cameron, James C., M.D. 41 Belmont-park, Montreal, Canada.
tCameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
{Campbell, Archibald H. Toronto, Canada.
{Campbell, Right Ilon. James A., LL.D., M.-P. Stracathro Iouse,
Brechin.
Campbell, John Archibald, M.D, F.RS.E. Albyn-place,
Edinburgh.
{Campbell, Major J. C. L. New Club, Edinburgh.
§Campbell, Mrs. Napier. 81 Ashley-gardens, S.W.
{Campion, B. W. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
{Candy, F. H. 71 High-street, Southampton.
{Canwan, Epwin, M.A., F.S.S. 24 St. Giles's, Oxford.
§Cannon, Herbert. Woodbank, Erith, Kent.
{CanTEeRBuRY, Right Hon. and Most Rev. F. Temrtn, Lord Archbishop
of. Lambeth Palace, S.E.
{Cappel, Sir Albert J. L., K.C.LE. 27 Kensington Court-gardens,
London, W.
§Carrer, D. 8., M.A., Professor of Mechanical Engineering in King’s
College, W.C.
{Capper, Robert. 9 Bridge-street, Westminster, S.W.
{Capper, Mrs. R. 9 Bridge-street, Westminster, S.W.
{Capstick, John Walton. University College, Dundee.
*Carzurt, Sir Evwarp Tamar, Bart., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Hyde Park-
gardens, W.
*Carden, H. V. Balinveney, Bookham, Surrey.
{Carkeet, John. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.

1898. §§Carlile, George M. 7 Upper Belgrave-road, Bristol.
1867. tCarmichael, David (Hngineer). Dundee.
1897. §§Carmichael, Norman R. Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario,

Canada.

1384, {Carnegie, John. Peterkorough, Ontario, Canada.

- LIST OF MEMBERS. 21

Year of
Election.

* 1884,

1897.
1889.
1893.

1889.
1867.

1886.
1899.
1883.
1868.
1897.
1866.
1855.
1870.
1885.
1883.
1896.
1878.

» 4870.

1862.
1894.
1884.

1884.
1887.
1899.
1897.
1896.
1871.
1873.
1897.

1888.
1874.
1859.
1886.

1883.
1859.
1683.

1884,
1883.
%883.

1881.
1865.
1865.
1886.

1865.
188s.

tCarpenter, Louis G. Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado,
U.S.A

{Carpenter, R. C. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

{Carr, Cuthbert Ellison. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

{Carr, J. Westzy, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Nottingham.

{Carr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

tCarrurners, WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.L58., F.G.S. 14 Vermont-
road, Norwood, 8.E.

tCarstaKe, J. BAarwaM. 380 Westfield-road, Birmingham.

§Carslaw, H.S. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

{Carson, John. 51 Royal-avenue, Belfast.

*Carteighe, Michael, F.C.S., F.1.C. 180 New Bond-street, W.

§Carter, EK. Tremlett. Broadclyst, 53 Cloudesdale-road, S.W.

fCarter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.

{Carter, Richard, F.G.S. Cockerham Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.

{Carter, Dr. William. 78 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

tCarter, W. C. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.

{Carter, Mrs. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.

§Cartwright, Miss Edith G. 7 Fairfax-road, N.W.

*Cartwright, Ernest H., M.A., M.D. i Courtfield-gardens, S.W.

§Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.I., Borough and Water
Engineer. Albion-place, Bury, Lancashire.

tCarulla, F. J. R. 84 Argyll-terrace, Derby.

{Carus, Paul. La Salle, Illmois, U.S.A.

*Carver, Rey. Canon Alfred J., D.D., R.G.S. Lynnhurst, Streatham
Common, 8.W.

tCarver, Mrs. Lynuhurst, Streatham Common, London, S.W.

{Casartelli, Rev. L. C., M.A., Ph.D. St. Bede's College, Manchester.

*Case, John Monckton. Dymchurch, Kent.

*Case, Willard IE. Auburn, New York, U.S.A.

*Casey, James. 10 Philpot-lane, E.C.

tCash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry.

*Cash, William, F.G.S. 385 Commercial-street, Halifax.

tCaston, Harry Edmonds Featherston. 340 Brunswick-avenue,
Toronto, Canada.

tCater, R. B. Avondale, Henrietta Park, Bath.

}Caton, Richard, M.D. Lea Hall, Gateacre, Liverpool.

tCatto, Robert. 44 Kine-street, Aberdeen.

*Cave-Moyles, Mrs, Isabella. Lancaster House, Palace-road, Tulse-
hill, S.W.

Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Searborouch.

Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire.
tChadwick, James Percy. 51 Alexandra-road, Southport.
{Chalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.
t{Chamberlain, George, J.P. Helensholme, Birkdale Park,

Southport.
{Chamberlain, Montague. St. John, New Brunswick, Canada.
tChambers, Mrs. Colaba Observatory, Bombay.
{Chambers, Charles, Assoc.M.Inst.C., Colaba Observatory, Bombay.
*Champney, Henry Nelson. 4 New-street, York.
*Cbhampney, John EK. Abchurch-chambers, E.C.
tChance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Chance, James T. 1 Grand-avenue, Brighton.
*Chance, John Horner. 40 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tChandler, 8. Whitty, B.A. Sherborne, Dorset.

22

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1861.

1897.
1889.
1884.
1899.
1877.
1874.

1874,
1866.

1886.
1884,

1886.
1867.

1884.
1883.
1864.

1887.
1887.
1896.
1874,

1884.
1896.
1879.
1883,
1884.
1889.
1894.

1899.
1899,
1899,
1882,
1887.
1893.

1884.
1875.

1876.

1870.

1898.
1860.
1896.
1890.
1877.

*Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. Hill End, Mottram, Man-
chester.

{Chapman, Edward Henry. 17 St. Hilda’s-terrace, Whitby.

{Chapman, L. H. 147 Park-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Chapman, Professor. University College, Toronto, Canada,

§Chapman, Sydney John. University College, Cardiff.

tChapman, T. Algernon, M.D. 17 Wesley-avenue, Liscard, Cheshire.

tCharles, J. J., M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in
Queen’s College, Cork. Newmarket, Co. Cork.

tCharley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland.

t Charnock, Richard Stephen, Ph.D., F.S.A. Crichton Club, Adelphi-
terrace, W.C.

tChate, Robert W. Southfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

*Chatterton, George, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 6 The Sanctuary, West-
minster, S.W.

*Chattock, A. P., M.A., Professor of Iixperimental Physics in
University College, Bristol.

*Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.G.S. High Lawn, Broad Oak Park,
Worsley, Manchester.

{CuavveEav, The Hon. Dr. Montreal, Canada.

tChawner, W., M.A. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

tCurapiz, W. B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 19 Portman-street,
Portman-square, W.

{Cheetham, F. W. Limefield House, Hyde.

{Cheetham, John. Limefield House, Hyde.

{Chenie, John. Charlotte-street, Edinburgh.

*Chermside, Major-General Sir H. C., R.E., G.C.M.G.,C.B. Care of
Messrs. Cox & Co., Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, 8. W.

{Cherriman, Professor J. B. Ottawa, Canada.

tCherry, R. B. 92 Stephen’s Green, Dublin.

*Chesterman, W. Belmayne, Sheffield.

{Chinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington.

{Chipman, W. W. lL. 957 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada,

{Chirney, J. W. Morpeth.

{Chisholm, G. G., M.A., B.Se., F.R.G.S. 26 Dornton-road, Balham,
S.W.

§Chitty, Edward. Suffolk House, London-road, Dover.

§Chitty, Mrs. Edward. Suffolk House, London-road, Dover.

§Chitty, G. W. Mildura, Park-avenue, Dover.

tChorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.

tChorlton, J. Clayton. New Holme, Withington, Manchester.

*CHRER, CHARLES, D.Sc., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Kew
Observatory, Richmond, Surrey.

*Christie, William. 29 Queen’s Park, Toronto, Canada.

*Christopher, George, F.C.S. May Villa, Lucien-road, Tooting
Graveney, S.W.

*CurystaL, Guorcr, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mathe-
matics in the University of Edinburgh. 5 Belgrave-crescent,
Edinburgh.

§Caurcn, A. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Academy of Arts. Shelsley, Ennerdale-road, Kew.

§Cuurcn, Colonel G. Eart, F.R.G.S. 216 Cromwell-road, S.W.

tCmurcn, WittiaAM Setpy, M.A. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, E.C.

§Clague, Daniel, F.G.S. 5 Sandstone-road, Stoneycroft, Liverpool,

{Clark, E, K. 13 Wellclose-place, Leeds. .

*Clark, F. J., J.P., F.L.S. Netherleigh, Street, Somerset.

Clark, George T. 44 Berkeley-square, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 23

Year of

Election.

1876, {Clark, George W. 31 Waterloo-street, Glasgow.

1892. tClark, James, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Agriculture in the York-
shire College, Leeds.

1892. {Clark, James. Chapel House, Paisley.

1876, tOlark, Dr. John. 138 Bath-street, Glasgow.

1881. {Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Sc. 112 Wool Exchange, E.C.

1855. {Clark, Rev. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.

1887. §Clarke, O. Goddard, J.P. Fairlawn, 157 Peckham-rye, 8.E.

1875. tOlarke, Charles S. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

1886. {Clarke, David. Langley-road, Small Heath, Birmingham.

1886. {Clarke, Rev. H. J. Great Barr Vicarage, Birmingham.

1875. {CuarKE, Jonn Henry. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

1897. §Clarke, Colonel 8. C., RE. Parklands, Caversham, near Reading.

1883. {Clarke, W. P., J.P. 15 Hesketh-street, Southport.

1896. §Clarke, W. W. Albert Dock Office, Liverpool.

1884, {Claxton, T. James. 461 St. Urbain-street, Montreal, Canada.

1889. §Cuaypen, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. St. John’s, Polsloe-road, ixeter.

1866, {Clayden, P. W. 13 Tavistock-square, W.C.

1890. *Clayton, William Wikely. Gipton Lodge, Leeds.

1859. {Cleghorn, John. Wick.

1875. {Clegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucestershire.

1861.§§CrELAND, Jonn, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Glasgow. 2 The University, Glasgow.

1861. *Cxrrron, R. Bettany, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 3 Bardwell-
road, Banbury-road, Oxford.

1898.§§Clissold, H. 30 College-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1893. {Clofford, William. 36 Manstield-road, Nottingham.

Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.

1878. §Close, Rev. Maxwell H., F.G.S. 88 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.

1873. {Clough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire.

1892. {Clouston, T. S., M.D. Tipperlinn House, Edinburgh.

1883, *CLrowss, Frank, D.Se., F.C.S. London County Council, Spring-
gardens, S.W., and 17 Bedford Court-mansions, W.C.

1863. *Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington.

1881. *Clutton, William James. The Mount, York.

1885. tClyne, James. Rubislaw Den South, Aberdeen.

1891. *Coates, Henry. Pitcullen House, Perth.

1897. {Coates, J., M.Inst.C.E. 99 Queen-street, Melbourne, Australia.

1884, §Cobb, John. Westfield, Ilkley, Yorkshire.

1895. *Consoxp, Ferix T., M.A. The Lodge, Felixstowe, Suffolk.

1889. {Cochrane, Cecil A. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

1864, “Cochrane, James Henry. Burston House, Pittville, Cheltenham.

1889. {Cochrane, William. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1892. tCockburn, John. Glencorse House, Milton Bridge, Edinburgh.

1883. {Cockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport.

1861. *Coe, Rev. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Whinsbridge, Grosvenor-road,
Bournemouth.

1898. §Coffey, George. 5 Harcourt-terrace, Dublin.

1881. *Corrin, Water Harris, F.C.S. 94 Cornwall-gardens, South
Kensington, 8. W.

1896. *Coghill, Perey de G. Camster, Cressington.

1884, *Cohen, B. L., M.P. 30 Hyde Park-gardens, W.

1887. {Cohen, Julius B. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

1894, *Colby, Miss E. L., B.A. Carregwen, Aberystwyth.

1895. *Colby, James George Ernest, M.A., F.R.C.S. Malton, Yorkshire,

1895, *Colby, William Henry. Carregwen, Aberystwyth,

24 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Hilection.

1893. 1Cole, Grenville A. J., F.G.S. Royal College of Science, Dublin.
1879. {Cole, Skelton. 3887 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

1894, {Colefax, H. Arthur, Ph.D., F.C.S. 14 Chester-terrace, Chester-

1897.

1895

1899.
1878.
1854.
1899.
1892.
1892.
1887.

1869,
1898.
1854.

1861.

1865.
1876.
1892.
1882.

1884.

1897.
1896.
1888.
1884.

1891.
1892.
1884,
1896.
1890.
1871.
1881.
1895.

1899,

1898.
1882,

1876.
1881.
1868.
1895,
1868.
1884,
1878.
1881.
1865.
1896.
1888.

square, S.W.

§Cotrman, Dr. A. P. 476 Huron-street, Toronto, Canada.

tColeman, J. B., F.C.S., A.R.C.S. University College, Nottingham.

§Coleman, William. The Shrubbery, Buckland, Dover.

tColes, John, Curator of the Map Collection R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, W.

*Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.

§Collard, George. The Gables, Canterbury.

{Collet, Miss Clara E. 7 Coleridge-road, N.

tCollie, Alexander. Harlaw House, Inverurie.

{Coruin, J. Norman, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry to the
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 16 Campden-grove, W.

tCollier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.

tCollinge, Walter E. Mason College, Birmingham.

{CoLuinewoop, Curuzurr, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 69 Great Russell-
street, W.C.

*Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 5 Irene-road, Parson’s Green,
S.W.

*Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tCorins, J. H., F.G.S. 162 Barry-road, S.E.

tColman, H. G. Mason College, Birmingham.

{Colmer, Joseph G.,C.M.G. Office of the High Commissioner for
Canada, 17 Victoria-street, S.W.

tColomb, Sir J.C. R., M.P., F.R.G.S. Dromquinna, Kenmare, Kerry,
Ireland; and Junior United Service Club, S.W.

{Colquhoun, A. H. U., B.A. 39 Borden-street, Toronto, Canada.

*Comber, Thomas, F.L.S. Leighton, Parkgate, Chester.

Commans, R. D. Macaulay-buildings, Bath.

tCommon, A. A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 63 Eaton-rise, Ealing,
Middlesex, W.

t{Common, J. F. F. 21 Park-place, Cardiff.

tComyns, Frank, M.A., F.C.S.. The Grammar School, Durham.

{Conklin, Dr. William A. Central Park, New York, U.S.A.

{Connacher, W.S. Birkenhead Institute, Birkenhead.

{Connon, J. W. Park-row, Leeds.

*Connor, Charles C. 4 Queen’s Elms, Belfast.

TConroy, Sir Jonny, Bart., M.A., F.R.S. Balliol College, Oxford.

j{Conway, Sir W. M., M.A., F.R.G.S. The Red House, Hornton-
street, W.

§Coopn, J. Cuartes, M.Inst.C.E. Westminster-chambers, 9 Vic-
toria-street, S.W.

§Cook, Ernest H. 27 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol.

Cooxg, Major-General A. C., R.E., C.B., F.R.G.S. Palace-chambers,

Ryder-street, 8. W.

*Cooxr, Conrap W. 28 Victoria-street, S.W.

{Cooke, F. Bishopshill, York.

Cooke, Rev. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich.

{Cooke, Miss Janette E. Holmwood, Thorpe, Norwich.

tCooxr, M. C.,M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway, N.

{Cooke, R. P. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

}Cooke, Samuel, M.A., F.G.S. Poona, Bombay.

tCooke, Thomas. Bishopshill, York.

Cooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.

{Cookson. E. H. Kiln Hey, West Derby.

}Cooley, George Parkin. Cavendish Hill, Sherwood, Nottingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 25

Year of
Election.

1899.
1895,

1893.

18838.
1868.
1889.
1878.
1871.

1885,
1881.
1891.
1887.
1894.

1883.
1870.

. 1893.
1889.

1884.
1885.
1888,
_ 1891.
1891,

1883.
1891.
_ 1874,

1864.

1869.
1876.
1876.
1889.

. 1896.

1890.
1896.

1863.
1865.
1872.

1895.

1871.
1899.
1867.
1867.
1892.

*Coomara Swamy, A. K. Walden Worplesdon, Guildford.
{Cooper, Charles Friend, M.I.E.E. 68 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W

{Cooper, F. W. 14 Hamilton-road, Sherwood Rise, Notting-
ham.

{Cooper, George B. 67 Great Russell-street, W.C.

tCooper, W. J. New Malden, Surrey.

{Coote, Arthur. The Minories, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tCope, Rev. 8. W. Bramley, Leeds.

{CopEetanp, Rarru, Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland
and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh.

t{ Copland, W., M.A. Tortorston, Peterhead, N.B.

{Copperthwaite, H. Holgate Villa, Holgate-lane, York.

{Corbett, E. W.M. Y Fron, Pwllypant, Cardiff.

*Corcoran, Bryan. 9 Alwyne-square, N.

§Corcoran, Miss Jessie R. The Chestnuts, Mulgrave-road, Sutton,
Surrey.

*Core, Fens Thomas H., M.A. Fallowfield, Manchester.

*CoRFIELD, W. H., M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiene
and Public Health in University College, London. 19 Savile-
row, W.

*Corner, Samuel, B.A., B.Sc. 95 Forest-road West, Nottingham.

{Cornish, Vaugban, M.Sc., F.R.G.S. Branksome Cliff, Branksome
Park, Bournemouth.

*Cornwallis, F. S. W., M.P., F.LS. Linton Park, Maidstone.

{Corry, John. Rosenheim, Parkhill-road, Croydon.

{Corser, Rey. Richard K, 57 Park Hill-road, Croydon.

{Cory, John, J.P. Vaindre Hall, near Cardiff.

Cory, Alderman Richard, J.P. Oscar House, Newport-road, Car-

diff.

{Costelloe, B. F. C., M.A., B.Sc. 33 Chancery-lane, W.C.

*Cotsworth, Haldane Gwilt. G.W.R. Laboratory, Swindon, Wilts.

*Correriit, J. H., M.A., F.R.S. 15 St. Alban’s-mansions, Kensing-
ton Court-gardens, W.

{Corron, General Freprrick C., R.E., C.S.I. 15 Longridge-road,
Earl’s Court-road, 8. W.

tCorroy, Wri1ram. Pennsylvania, Exeter.

Couper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

{Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

{Courtney, F. S. 77 Redcliffe-square, South Kensington, S.W,

{Courtygey, Right Hon. Lronarp, M.P. 165 Cheyne Wall,
Chelsea, 8. W.

{Cousins, John James. Allerton Park, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

tCoventry, J. 19 Sweeting-street, Liverpool.

Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.

{tCowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham.

{tCowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.

*Cowan, Thomas William, F.L.3., F.G.S8. 17 King William-street,
Strand, W.C.

*CowELL, Purrty HW. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 8.E.

Cowie, The Very Rey. Benjamin Morgan, M.A., D.D., Dean of

Exeter. The Deanery, Exeter.

{tCowper, C. E. 6 Great George-strect, Westminster, S.W.

§Cowper-Coles, Sherard. Grosvyenor-mansions, Victoria-street, S.W.

*Cox, Edward. Cardean, Meigle, N.B.

*Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.

tCox, Robert. 34 Drumsheugh-gardens, Mdinburgh.

26

Year of
Election

1882.

1888.
1867.
1883.
1890.
1892.
1884,
1876.
1884,
1887.
1887.
1871.

1871.

1846.
1890.
1883.
1870.
1885.

1896.
1879.
1876,
1887.
1896.
1896.§
1880,

1890.
1878.

1857.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1887.
1898.
1865.

1879.
1897.

1870.
1894.
1870.
1890.

1887.
1861.

1853.
1887.
1894,

LIST OF MEMBERS.

tCox, Thomas A., District Engineer of the S., P., and D. Railways
Lahore, Punjab. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliaments
street, S.W.

{Cox, Thomas W. B. The Chestnuts, Lansdowne, Bath.

Cox, William. Fogeley, Lochee, by Dundee.

{Crabtree, William. 126 Manchester-road, Southport.

{Cradock, George. Wakefield.

*Craig, George A. 66 Edge-lane, Liverpool.

§Craicie, Major P. G., F.S.S. 6 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, N. W.

$Cramb, John. Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B,

{Crathern, James. Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Craven, John. Smedley Lodge, Cheetham, Manchester.

*Craven, Thomas, J.P. Woodheyes Park, Ashton-upon-Mersey.

*CRAWFORD AND BatcaRrEs, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Dun Echt, Aberdeen.

*Orawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-eardens, Craig-
lockhart, Edinburgh.

*Crawshaw, The Right Hon. Lord. Whatton, Loughborough.

§Crawshaw, Charles B. Rufford Lodge, Dewsbury.

*Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S. 26 Tollington-park, N.

*Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Caversham Park, Reading.

§Creax, Captain E. W., R.N., F.R.S. 9 Hervey-road, Black-
heath, S.E.

{Oregeen, A.C. 21 Prince’s-avenue, Liverpool.

{Creswick, Nathaniel. Chantry Grange, near Sheffieid.

*Crewdson, Rev. Canon George. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Windermere.

*Crewdson, Theodore. Norcliffe Hall, Handforth, Manchester.

§Crewe, W. Outram. Central Buildings, North John-street, Liverpool,

§Crichton, H. 6G Rockfield-road, Anfield, Liverpool.

*Crisp, Frank, B.A., LL.B., F.LS., F.G.S. 5 Lansdowne-road,
Notting Hill, W.

*Croft, W. B., M.A. Winchester College, Hampshire.

{Croke, John O’Byrne, M.A. Clouneagh, Ballingarry-Lacy, co,
Limerick.

{Crolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.

{Crombie, Charles W. 41 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

tCromptrs, J. W., M.A., M.P. Balrownie Lodge, Aberdeen,

tCrombie, Theodore. 18 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

§Croox, Henry T. 9 Albert-square, Manchester.

§Crooke, William. West Leigh, Arterberry-road, Wimbledon.

§Crooxss, Sir Wiri1am, F.R.S., V.P.C.S. 7 Kensington Park~
gardens, W.

{Crookes, Lady. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, W.

*CrooxsHaNkK, E. M., M.B., Professor of Bacteriology in King’s
College, London, W.C.

{Crosfield, C. J. Gledhill, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Crosfield, Miss Margaret C. Undercroft, Reigate.

*CROSFIELD, WiLLIAM. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.

tCross, E. Richard, LL.B. Harwood House, New Parks-crescent,
Scarborough.

§Cross, John. Beaucliffe, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

{Cross, Rey. John Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Halecote, Grange-over-
Sands.

tCrosskill, William. Beverley, Yorkshire.

*Crossley, William J. Glenfield, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Crosweller, William Thomas, F.Z.8., F.L.Inst. Kent Lodge, Sideup,
Kent.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 27

Year of
Election.

1897. *Crosweller, Mrs. W. T. Kent Lodge, Sidcup, Kent.

1894.
1883.
1882,
1890.
1863.
1885.
1888.

1883.
1878.
1883.
1897.
1874.
1898,
1861.

1861.
1882.

1877.
1891.
1852.
1885,
1869.
1883.
1892.
1892.

1884

{Crow, C. F. Home Lea, Woodstock-road, Oxford.

{Crowder, Robert. Stanwix, Carlisle.

§Crowley, Frederick. Ashdell, Alton, Hampshire.

*Crowley, Ralph Henry. Bramley Oals, Croydon.

{Cruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

t{Cruickshank, Alexander, LL.D. 20 Rose-street, Aberdeen.

{Crummack, William J. London and Brazilian Bank, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil.

Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.

*CULVERWELL, Epwarp P., M.A. 40 Trinity College, Dublin.

{Culverwell, Joseph Pope. St. Lawrence Lodge, Sutton, Dublin.

{Culverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.

{Cumberland, Barlow. Toronto, Canada.

{tCumming, Professor. 33 Wellington-place, Belfast.

§Cundall, J. Tudor. 1 Dean Park-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Man-
chester.

*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester.

*CunnincHaM, Lieut.-Colonel Attan, R.E., A.LC.E. 20 Essex-
villas, Kensington, W.

*CunnincHam, D. J., M.D., D.C.L., F.B.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Anatomy in Trinity College, Dublin.

{Cunningham, J. H. 4 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Cunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.

{Cunninenam, J. T., B.A. Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.

{Cunnineuam, Rozsert O., M.D., F.L.S., F.G.8., Professor of
Natural History in Queen’s College, Belfast.

*CunnincHaM, Rey. Wittiam, D.D., D.Sc. Trinity College, Cam-
bridge.

§Cunningham-Craig, E. H., B.A., F.G.8. Geological Survey Office,
Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.

*Currie, James, jun., M.A., F.R.S.E. Larkfield, Golden Acre,
Edinburgh.

» {Currier, John McNab. Newport, Vermont, U.S.A.

1898.§§Curtis, John. 1 Christchurch-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1878.
1884.
1883,
1881.

1889,

1854,
1883.

1898.
1889.
1863.
1867.
1894,

1870.

1862.

{Curtis, William. Caramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin.

{Cushing, Frank Hamilton. Washington, U.S.A.

tCushing, Mrs. M. Croydon, Surrey.

§Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. India Store Depét, Belvedere-road,
Lambeth, S.W.

{Dagger, John H., F.I.C. Victoria. Villa, Lorne-street, Fairfield,
Liverpool.

{Daglish, Robert. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.

}Dahne, F. W., Consul of the German Empire. 18 Somerset-place,
Swansea.

§Dalby, W. E. 6 Ooleridge-road, Crouch End, N.

*Dale, Miss Elizabeth. Westbourne, Buxton, Derbyshire.

tDale, J. B. South Shields.

tDalgleish, W. Dundee.

raat: W. Scott, M.A., LL.D. 25 Mayfield-terrace, Edin-

ureh,

f{DatiincER, Rev. W. H., D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Ingleside,

Newstead-road, Lee, 8.E.
Dalton, Edward, LL.D. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth.
}Dansy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. The Crouch, Seaford, Sussex.

28

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1876. {Dansken, John. 4 Eldon-terrace, Partickhill, Glasgow.
1896. §Danson, F. C. Liverpool and London Chambers, Dale-street,

1849.
1894.

Liverpool.
*Danson, Joseph, F.C.S8. Montreal, Canada.
{Darbishire, b. V., M.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, W.

1897.§§Darbishire, C. W. Elm Lodge, Elm-row, Hampstead, N.W.

1397.
1861.

1896.
1899,
1882.

1881.

1878.
1894.

1882.
1888.
1872.
1880.

1898,
1884.
1870.
1885,
, 1891.
1875.
1887.
1870.
4887.
1896.
1895,

1898.
1887.
1873.
1870.
1864.
1882.
41896.
1885.
1891.
1886.
1886,
1864.
1857.
1869,
1869,
1860.
1864,

1886,
1891.

§Darbishire, F. V. Dorotheenstrasse 121, Dresden Strehlen, Germany.

*DARBISHIRE, Robert DvuKINFIELD, B.A. 26 George-street, Man-
chester.

{Darbishire, W. A. Penybryn, Carnarvon, North Wales.

*Darwin, Erasmus, The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

{Darwin, Francis, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Wychfield, Hun-
tingdon-road, Cambridge.

*Darwty, Groree Howanrp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian
Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.

*Darwin, Horace. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

*Darwin, Major Lronarp, Sec. R.G.S. 12 Egerton-place, South
Kensington, 8.W.

{Darwin, W. I, M.A., F.G.S. Bassett, Southampton.

tDaubeny, William M. 11 St. James’s-square, Bath.

{Davenport, John T. 64 Marine-parade, Brighton.

*Davey, Henry, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 3 Prince’s-street, West-
minster, S.W.

§Davey, William John. 6 Water-street, Liverpool.

{David, A. J., B.A., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C.

tDavidson, Alexander, M.D. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.

{Davidson, Charles B. Roundhay, Fonthill-road, Aberdeen.

TDavies, Andrew, M.D. Cefn Parc, Newport, Monmouthshire.

tDayies, David. 2 Queen’s-square, Bristol.

tDavies, David. 55 Berkley-street, Liverpool.

{Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.

*Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales,

*Davies, Thomas Wilberforce, F.G.S. 41 Park-place, Cardiff.

*Davies, Rev. T. Witton, B.A., Ph.D. Midland Baptist College,
Nottingham.

§Davies, Wm. Howell, J.P. Down House, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

}Davies-Colley, T. C. Hopedene, Kersal, Manchester.

*Davis, Alfred. 26 Victoria-street, 8. W.

*Davis, A. S. St. George’s School, Roundhay, near Leeds.

Davis, Cuarztes E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath.

tDavis, Henry C. Berry Pomeroy, Springfield-road, Brighton.

*Davis, John Henry Grant. Ingleside, Savile Park, Halifax, Yorkshire.

*Davis, Rev. Rudolf. 1 Victoria-avenue, Evesham.

tDavis, W. 48 Richmond-road, Cardiff.

tDavis, W. H. Hazeldean, Pershore-road, Birmingham.

tDavison, Cuartus, M.A. 16 Manor-road, Birmingham.

*Davison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire,

Davy, E. W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, Dublin.

tDaw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter.

{Daw, R. R. M. Bedtord-circus, Exeter.

*Dawes, John T. The Lilacs, Prestatyn, North Wales.

tDawxiys, W. Boyp, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., Professor of
Geology and Paleontology in the Victoria University, Owens
College, Manchester. Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Manchester.

{Dawson, Bernard. The Laurels, Malvern Link.

t{Dawson, Edward. 2 Windsor-place, Cardiff.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 29

Year of
Election.

1897. §Dawson, G. M., O.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., Director of the Geological
Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Canada.

1885. *Dawson, Lieut.-Colonel H. P., R.A. Hartlington, Burnsall, Skipton.

1884. tDawson, Samuel. 258 University-str eet, Montreal, Canada.

1855.§$Dawson, Sir Witniam, C.M.G., M. A, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
293 Univ ersity-street, Montreal, Canada.

1859. *Dawson, Captain William G. The Links, Plumstead Common, Kent.

1892. {Day, ‘I’. OC, F.C.S. 36 Hillside-crescent, Edinburgh.

1870. *Dxracon, G. F., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Warw ick- square, ‘S.W.

1861. {Deacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington,

1887. {Deakin, H.T. Egremont House, Belmont, near Bolton.

1861. {Dean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.

1884. *Debenham, Frank, F.S.S. 1 Fitzjohn’s-ayvenue, N. W.

1866. {Dexus, Hervricu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 4 Schlangenweg, Cassel,
Hessen.

1884, {Deck, Arthur, F.C.S. 9 King’s-parade, Cambridge.

1893.§§Deeley, R. M. 88 Charnwood-street, Derby.

1878. {Delany, Rev. William, St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore.

1884, *De Laune, C. De L. F. Sharsted Court, Sittingbourne.

1870. tDe Meschin, Thomas, B.A., LL.D. 2 Dr. Johnson’s Buildings,
Temple, E.C.

1896. §Dempster, John. Tynron, Noctorum, Birkenhead.

1889. tDendy, Frederick Walter. 3 Mardale-parade, Gateshead.

1897. §Denison, F. Napier. Moteoraaciet Office, Victoria, B.C., Canada.

1896. {Denison, Miss Louisa E. 16 Chesham- -place, S.W.

1889. §Dunny, ALFRED, F.L.S., Professor of Biology in University College,.
Sheffield.

Dent, William Yerbury. 5 Caithness-road, Brook Green, W.

1874, {Dz Rance, Cuaries E., F.G.8. 55 Stoke-road, Shelton, Stole-
upon-Trent.

1896. {Derspy, The Right Hon. the Earl of,G.C.B. Knowsley, Prescot,.
Lancashire.

1874. *Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S. 76 Lancaster-gate, W.

1894. *Deverell, F. H. 7 Grote’s-place, Blackheath, 8.E.

1899. §Dewar, A. Redcote. Redcote, Leven, Fife.

1868. {DEewar, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., V PC. S., Fullerian
Professor of Chemistry i in the Royal Institution, London, and
Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy
in the University of Cambridge. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cam-
bridge.

1881. {Dewar, Mrs. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.

1883. {Dewar, James, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. Drylaw House, Davidson’s Mains,
Midlothian, N.B.

1884. *Dewar, William, M.A. Rugby School, Rugby.

1872. {Dewick, Rey. E.S., M.A., F.G.S. 26 Oxford-square, W.

1887. {DE Winton, Major-General Sir F., G.C.M.G., C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, 8. W.

1884. {De Wolf, 0. C., M.D. Chicago, U.S.A.

1873. *Dew-SMrrn, A. G. M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1896. {D’Hemry, P. 136 Prince’s- road, Liv erpool.

1897. {Dick, D. B. Toronto, Canada.

1889. {Dickinson, A. H. The Wood, Maybury, Surrey.

1863. {Dickinson, G. T. Lily-avenue, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

1887. {Dickinson, Joseph, F.G.8. South Bank, Pendleton.

1884, Dickson, Charles R., M.D. Wolfe Island, Ontario, Canada.

1881. {Dickson, Edmund, M ~As; E.G.S.) (2 Starkie-street, Preston.

1887. §Dicxson, HI. N., F.RS.E., F.R.G.S. 2 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.

30

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1885.
1883.
1862.

1877.
1869.
1898,

1899

1874,

1883.
1888.

1879.

1885.
1896.
1887.
1885.
1890.
1885.
1860.
1897.
1892.
1891.
1898.
1894.
1875.
1870.
1876.

tDickson, Patrick. Laurencekirk, Aberdeen.

{Dickson, T. A. West Cliff, Preston.

*Ditxe, The Right Hon. Sir Cuartes WeEntwoxrru, Bart., M.P.,
F.R.G.S. 76 Sloane-street, S. W.:

tDillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 36 Dawson-street, Dublin.

tDingle, Edward. 19 Kine-street, Tavistock.

*Dix, John William S. Hampton Lodge, Durdham Park, Clifton,
Bristol.

*Dixon, A. C., D.Sc., Professor of Mathematics in Queen’s College,
Galway.

*Dixon, A. E., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork.
Mentone Villa, Sunday’s Well, Cork.

{Dixon, Miss E. 2 Cliff-terrace, Kendal.

§Dixon, Edward T. Messrs. Lloyds, Barnetts, & Bosanquets’ Bank,
54 St. James’s-street, S.W.

*Drixon, Harorp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
the Owens College, Manchester.

tDixon, John Henry. Inveran, Poolewe, Ross-shire, N.B.

§Dixon-Nuttall, F. R. Ingleholme, Ecclestone Park, Prescot.

{Dixon, Thomas. Buttershaw, near Bradford, Yorkshire.

tDoak, Rev. A. 15 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.

{Dobbie, James J., D.Sc. University College, Bangor, North Wales.

§Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D, The University, Edinburgh.

*Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. Hartley Manor, Longfield, Kent.

{Doberck, William. The Observatory, Hong Kong.

tDobie, W. Fraser. 47 Grange-road, Edinburgh.

tDobson, G. Alkali and Ammonia Works, Cardiff.

{Dobson, W. E., J.P. Lenton-road, The Park, Nottingham.

{Dockar-Drysdale, Mrs. 39 Belsize-park, N.W.

*Docwra, George. Liberal Offices, Cinderford, Glos.

*Dodd, John. Nunthorpe-avenue, York.

tDodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.

1897.§§Dodge, Richard E. Teachers’ College, Columbia University, New

1889.

York, U.S.A.
t{Dodson, George, B.A. Downing College, Cambridge.

1898.§§Dole, James. Redland House, Bristol.

1893.
1885,

1869.
1877.
1889.
1896.
1861.

1881.
1867.
1863.
1884.

1890.
1885.
1884,
1884.
1876.
1894.

}Donald, Charles W. Kirsgarth, Braid-road, Edinburgh.

}Donaldson, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Senior Principal of
the University of St. Andrews, N.B.

tDonisthorpe,G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter.

*Donxin, Bryan, M.Inst.C.E. The Mount, Wray Park, Reigate.

{Donkin, R.S., M.P. Campville, North Shields.

{Donnan, F. E. Ardenmore-terrace, Holywood, Ireland.

Donnelly, Major-General Sir J. F. D., R.E., K.C.B. 59 Onslow-
gardens, S.W.

{Dorrington, John Edward. Lypiatt Park, Stroud.

tDougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotseraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.

*Doughty, Charles Montagu. Tllawara House, Tunbridge Wells.

tDouglass, William Alexander. Freehold Loan and Savings Com-
pany, Church-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Dovaston, John, West Felton, Oswestry.

tDove, Arthur. Crown Cottace, York.

{tDove, Miss Frances. St. Leonard's, St. Andrews, N.B.

[Dowe, John Melnotte. 69 Seventh-avenue, New York, U.S.A.

{Dowie, Mrs. Muir. Golland, by Kinross, N.B.

[Dowie, Robert Chambers. 13 Carter-street, Higher Broughton, Man-=
chester.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS, 31
of

Election.

1884, *Dowling, D. J. Bromley, Kent.

1865.
1881,
1887.
1894.
1883.

*Dowson, Ei. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near’ Beccles, Suffolk,
*Dowson, J. Emerson, M.Inst.C.E. 91 Cheyne-walk, S.W.
{Doxey, R. A. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.

{Doyne, R. W., F.R.C.S. 28 Beaumont-street, Oxford.

{Draper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York.

1892. *Dreghorn, David, J.P. Greerwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
1868, {Dressrr, Henry E., F.Z.S. 110 Cannon-street, E.C,
1890. {Drew, John. 12 Harringay-park, Crouch End, Middlesex, N.

1892.
1893.

{Dreyer, John L. E., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.A.S. (The Observatory,
Armagh. a
§Drucr, G. Craripen, M.A., F.L.S. 118 High-street, Oxford,

1889. {Drummond, Dr. 6 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1897

§§Drynan, Miss. Northwold, Queen’s Park, Toronto, Canada.

1892. {Du Bois, Dr. H. Mittelstrasse, 39, Berlin.

1889

. {Du Chaillu, Paul B. Care of John Murray, Esq., 504 Albemarle-
street, W.

1856. *Ducrn, The Right. Hon. Henry Jonn Reynorps Moreton, Earl

1870.
1895.
1867.

1852.

1877.
1875.
1890.
1884,
1883.
1892.
1866.
1891.

of, F.R.S., F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, W.; aud Tortworth
Court, Falfield, Gloucestershire.

{Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. Christchurch Vicarage, Chester,

*Duddell, William. 47 Hans-place, S.W.

*Durr, The Right Hon. Sir Mountstuarr ELpHinstone GRant-,
G.C.S8.L, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 11 Chelsea-embankment, 8. W.

{Durrerin and Ava, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.P., G.C.B.,
G.C.M.G., G.C.S.L, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Clande-
boye, near Belfast, Ireland.

{Duffey, George F., M.D. 30 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.

{Duffiin, W. E. L’Estrange. Waterford.

{Dufton, S. F. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Duegdale, James H. 9 Hyde Park-gardens, W.

{Duke, Frederic. Conservative Club, Hastings.

{Dulier, Colonel E., C.B. 27 Sloane-gardens, S.W.

*Duncan, James. 9 Mincing-lane, E.C.

*Duncan, John, J.P. ‘South Wales Daily News’ Office, Cardiff.

1880. {Duncan, William S. 143 Queen’s-road, Bayswater, W.
1896. {Duncanson, Thomas. 16 Deane-road, Liverpool. |

1881.
1895.

1892.
1881.

1896

1865
1882

1883
1876
1878
1884

1859

{Duncombe, The Hon. Cecil, F.G.S. Nawton Grange, York.
*Dunell, George Robert. 7 Spencer-road, Grove Park, Chiswick,
Middlesex.
{Dunham, Miss Helen Bliss. Messrs. Morton, Rose, & Co., Bartholo-
mew House, E.C.
{Dunhill, Charles H. Gray’s-court, York.
. *DuNKERLEY, S., M.Sc., Professor of Applied Mechanics in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.
. {Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.
. {Dunn, J. T., M.Sc, F.C.8. Northern Polytechnic Institute,
Holloway-road, N.
. tDunn, Mrs. Northern Polytechnic Institute, Holloway-road, N.
. {Dunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
. {Dunne, D. B., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Logic in the Catholic Uni-
versity of Ireland. 4 Clanwilliam-place, Dublin.
.§§Dunnington, F. P. University Station, Charlottesville, Virginia,

. {Duns, Rev. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh.

1893. *Dunstan, M. J. R. Newecastle-circus, Nottingham.

1891

. tDunstan, Mrs. Newcastle-circus, Nottingham,

32. LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1885. *Dunstan, WyNDEAM 2., M.A., F.R.S., Sec.C.S., Director of the
. Scientific Department of the Imperial Institute, S.W.

1869, {D’Urban, W.S. M., F.L.S. Newport House, near Exeter,

1898. §Durrant, R. G. Marlborough College, Wilts,

1895. *Dwerryhouse, Arthur R. 5 Oaktield-terrace, Headingley, Leeds-

1887. {Dyason, John Sanford. Guthibart street, W.

1884. {Dyck, Professor Walter. The University, Munich.

1885. *Dyer, Henry, M.A., DSc. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill, ©

Glasgow.
1869. *Dymond, Edward 5. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Bletchley.
1895. fDyniond: Thos.8., F.C.S. County Technical Laboratory y, Chelmsford.

1868. tEade, Sir Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

1895. t{Earle, Hardman A. 29 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S.W.

1877. {Earle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alvington, Devon.

1888. {Zarson, H. W. P. 11 Alevandra-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1874. {Eason, Charles. 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.

1899. §East, W. H. Municipai School of Ari, Science, and Technology,
Dover. =

1871. *Easron, Epwarp. 11 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.

1863. {Easton, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.

1876, {Easton, John. Durie House, ‘Abercromby-street, Helensburgh, N.B.

1883. {Eastwood, Miss. Littleover Grange, Derby.

1893. *Ebbs, Alfred B. Northumberland-alley, Fenchurch-street, E.C.

1884, {Bckersley, W.T. Standish Hall, Wigan, Lancashire.

1861. tEcroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.

1870. *Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. ~The Lodge, Adel, Leeds.

1899. §Eddowes , Alfred, M.D. 28 Wimpole-Street, W.

*ddy, James Ray, F.G.S. The Grange, Carleton, Skipton.

1887. tEde, Francis J., F.G.S. Silchar, Cachar, India.

1884, *Kdgell, Rev. R. Arnold, M Ml. F.C.S. The College Tlouse,
Leamington.

1887. §Epceworta, F. Y., M.A., D.C.L., F.S.S., Professor of Political
Economy in the University of Oxford. All Souls College, Oxford.

1870. *Edmonds, F. B. 6 Clement’s Inn, W.C.

1883. {Edmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Colyton, Devon.

1888. *Edmunds, Henry. Antron, 71 Upper Tulse-hill, S.W.

1884, *Edmunds, James, M.D. 26 Manchester-square, W,

1883. {Edmunds, Lewis, D.Sc., LL.B., F.G.S. 1 Garden-court, Temple, E.C.

1867. *Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee.

1899. §Edwards, Fh. J. 139 Leander-road, Brixton Ifill, S.W.

1855. *Epwarps, Professor J. Baker, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Canada.

1884. {Edwards, W. F. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.

1887. *Egerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. Lord. Tatton Park, Knutsford.

1896.§§Ekkert, Miss Dorothea. 95 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.

1876, {Elder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

1890. §Elford, Perey. St. John’s College, Oxford.

1885. *Exear, Francis, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 113 Cannon-
street, E.C.

1885. {£llingham, Frank. Thorpe St. Andrew, Norwich.

1883. {Ellington, Edward Bayzand, M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers, Bridge-
street, Westminster, S.W.

1891. {Elliott, A. C.,D.Sc., Professor of Engineering in University College,
Cardiff. 2 Plasturton-avenue, Cardiff,

1883. *Exniorr, Epwin Battery, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Waynflete
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Oxford.
4 Bardwell-road, Oxford.

LIS! OF MEMBERS. 33

Year of
Election.
Elliott, John Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham.
1886. {Exiiot, Tuomas Henry, C.B., F.S.5. Board of Agriculture,

1898.
1877.
1875.
1880.
1891.
1884.

1869.

1887.
1862.

1899.

1897.
1883.
1887.
1870.

1897.

1865.
1891.
1884.
1865,
1890.

1894.
1866.
1884.
1853.
1883.
1869.
1894,
1864.
1862.

1878.
1887.

1887,
1869,
1888.
1883.
1889,
1881.
1887.

1870.
1865.
1896,
1891.
1889.

4 Whitehall-place, 8S. W.

§Elliott, W. J. 14 Buckingham-place, Clifton, Bristol.

t£llis, Arthur Devonshire. Thurnscoe Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire.

*Ellis, H. D. 12 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W.

*Eutis, Jonn Henry. Woodhaye, Ivy Bridge, Devon,

§Ellis, Miss M. A. 11 Canterbury-road, Oxford.

fEllis, Professor W. Hodgson, M.A., M.B, 74 St. Alban’s-street,
Toronto, Canada.

t£ilis, Wiliam Horton. Hartwell House, Eveter.

Ellman, Rey. EK. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.

tElmy, Ben. Congleton, Cheshire.

{Elphinstone, Sir H. W., Bart., M.A., F.L.S. 2 Stone-buildings,
Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

*Elvery, Miss Amelia. The Cedars, Maison Dieu-road, Dover.

§Elvery, Mrs. Elizabeth, The Cedars, Maison Dieu-road, Dover.

{Elwes, Captain George Robert. Bossington, Bournemouth.

§Etwortuy, Freperick T. Foxdown, Wellington, Somerset.

*Exy, The Right Rev. Lord Atwynr Compron, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. The Palace, Ely, Cambridgeshire.

§Ely, Robert EH. 744 Massachusetts-avenue, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A.

{Embleton, Dennis, M.D. 19 Claremont-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Emerton, Wolseley, D.C.I.. Banwell Castle, Somerset.

tEmery, Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.

{tEmery, The Ven. Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire.

tLimsley, Alderman W. Richmond House, Richmond-road, Head-
ingley, Leeds,

jEmtage, W.T. A. University College, Nottingham.

tEnfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.

{England, Luther M. Knowlton, Quebec, Canada.

{English, E. Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowegate, Hull.

tEntwistle, James P. Beachfield, 2 Westclyffe-road, Southport.

*Enys, John Davis. Enys, Peuryn, Cornwall.

t£rskine-Murray, James, 46 Great King-street, Edinburgh.

*Kskrigge, R. A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins Hey, Liverpool.

*Hsson, Wittram, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Savilian Professor. of
Geometry in the University of Oxford. 13 Bradmore-road,
Oxford.

tEstcourt, Charles. 8 St. James’s-square, John Dalton-street, Man-
chester.

*Estcourt, Charles. Hayesleigh, Montague-road, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.

*Kstcourt, P. A., F.C.S., F.1.C. 20 Albert-square, Manchester.

tErnerrper, R., F.R.S., F.RS.E., F.G.S. 14 Carlyle-square, 8. W.

tEtheridge, Mrs, 14 Carlyle-square, S.W.

{Eunson, Henry J., F.G.S., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Vizianagram, Madras.

*Evans, A. H. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

tEvans, Alfred, M.A., M.B. Pontypridd.

*Evans, Mrs. Alfred W. A. Lyndhurst, Upper Chorlton-road,
Whalley Range, Manchester.

*Evans, ARtHUR JoHN, M.A., F.S.A. Youlbury, Abingdon.

*Evans, Rey. Cuartts, M.A. 41 Lancaster-gate, W.

§Evans, Edward, jun. Spital Old Hall, Bromborough, Cheshire,

tEvans, Franklen. Llwynarthen, Castleton, Cardiff.

tEvans, Henry Jones, Greenhill, Whitchurch, Cardiff.

1899. c

84 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1883. *Evans, James C. 175 Lord-street, Southport,

1883. *Evans, Mrs. James C. 175 Lord-street, Southport.

1861. *Evans, Sir Jonn, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.S.A.,
F.L.S., F.G.S. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.

1897. *Evans, Lady. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.

1898.§§Evans, Jonathan L, 4 Litfield-place, Clifton, Bristol.

1881, tEvans, Lewis. Llanfyrnach, R.S.O., Pembrokeshire.

1885. *Evans, Percy Bagnall. The Spring, Kenilworth.

1865. {Evans, SepasrrAn, M.A., LL.D. 15 Waterloo-crescent, Dover.

1899. §Evans, Mrs. 15 Waterloo-crescent, Dover.

1875. {Evans, Sparke. 3 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1865. *Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.

1891. t{£vans, William Llewellin. Guildhall-chambers, Cardiff.

1891. {Evan-Thomas, C., J.P. The Gnoll, Neath, Glamorganshire,

1886. {Eve, A.S. Marlborough College, Wilts.

1871. {Eve, H. Weston, M.A. University College, W.C.

1868. *Everert, J. D., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 22 Earl’s Court-
square, S.W.

1895.§§Hverett, W. H., B.A. University College, Nottingham.

1863. *Everitt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire.

1886. {Everitt, William E. Finstall Park, Bromsgrove.

1883. {Eves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge.

1881, }Ewarz, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in
the University of Edinburgh.

1874. {Ewart, Sir W. Quartus, Bart. Glenmachan, Belfast.

1876. *Ewrne, James AtFrep, M.A., B.Sc., F.RS., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.
C.E., Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the
University of Cambridge. Langdale Lodge, Cambridge.

1883. {Ewing, James L. 52 North Bridge, Edinburgh.

1871. *Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol.

1884, *Eyerman, John, F.Z.S. Oakhurst, Easton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

1882, {Eyre, G. E. Briscoe. Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants.

Eyton, Charles, Hendred House, Abingdon.

1890. {FaBer, Epmunp Brorerr. Straylea, Harrogate.

1896. §Fairbrother, Thomas. 46 Lethbridge-road, Southport.

1865. *Farriry, THomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds.

1886. {Fairley, William. Beau Desert, Rugeley, Staffordshire.

1896. §Falk, Herman John, M.A. Thorshill, West Kirby, Liverpool.

1883. {Fallon, Rev. W. S. 9 St. James's-square, Cheltenham.

1898. §Faraday, Miss Ethel R., M.A. Ramsay Lodge, Levenshulme, near
Manchester.

1877. §Farapay, I’. J., F.LS., F.S.S. College-chambers, 17 Brazenose-
street, Manchester.

1891. {Fards,G. Penarth.

1892. *Farmer, J. Bretianp, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany, Royal

College of Science, Exhibition-road, S.W.

1886. {Farncomhbe, Joseph, J.P. Saltwood, Spencer-road, Eastbourne.

1897. *Farnworth, Eruest. Rosslyn, Goldthorn Hill, Wolverhampton.

1897. *Farnworth, Mrs. Ernest. Rosslyn, Goldthorn Hill, Wolverhampton.

1883. {Farnworth, Walter. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

1883. {Farnworth, William. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

1885. {Farquhar, Admiral. Cuarlogie, Aberdeen.

1886. {Far@uHARsoN, Colonel Sir J., K.C.B., R.E. Corrachee, Tarland,
Aberdeen. 5

1859. {Farquharson, Robat F.O. Havehtor, Aberdeen,

a = -

LIST OF MEMBERS, 35

Year of
Election.

1885. {Farquharson, Mrs. R. F.O. Haughton, Aberdeen.

1866. *Farrar, The Very Rev. Frepertc Wixtiam, D.D., F.R.S. The
Deanery, Canterbury.

1883. {Farrell, John Arthur. Moynalty, Kells, North Ireland.

1897. {Farthing, Rev. J. C., M.A. The Rectory, Woodstock, Ontario,
Canada.

1869. *Faulding, Joseph. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.

1883. {Faulding, Mrs. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.

1887. §Faulkner, John. 13 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Manchester.

1890. *Faweett, F. B. University College, Bristol.

1900. §Fawcnrr, J. HE. (Loca Secretary). Bradford.

1886, §Felkin, Robert W., M.D., F.R.G.S. 6 Crouch Hall-road, N,

Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverstone, Lancashire,

1883, {Fenwick, E. H. 29 Harley-street, W.

1890. {Fenwick, T. Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

1876, {Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosyenor-terrace, Glasrow.

1883, {Ferguson, Mrs. A. A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.

1871, *Fereuson, Jonny, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A., F.C.S., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.

1896. *Ferguson, John. Colombo, Ceylon.

1867. {Ferguson, Robert M., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Learmouth-terrace,
Edinbureh,

1883. {Fernald, H. P. Clarence House, Promenade, Cheltenham.

1883. *Fernie, John. Box No.2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A.

1862. {FerReRs, Rev. Norman Macrzop, D.D., F.R.S. Caius Ccllege
Lodge. Cambridge.

1873. {Ferrrer, Davip, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Neuro-
Pathology in King’s College, London. 34 Cavendish-square, W.

1892. {Ferrier, Robert M.,B.Se. College of Science, Newcastle-upon-J'yne.

1897. {Ferrier, W. F. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

1897.§§Fessenden, Reginald A. Professor of Electrical Engineering,
University, Alleghany, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. ‘

1882. §Fewings, James, B.A., B.Sc. King Edward VI. Grammar School,
Southampton.

1887. {Fiddes, Thomas, M.D. Penwood, Urmston, near Manchester.

1875. {Fiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.

1868. {Field, Edward. Norwich.

1897.§§Field, George Wilton, Ph.D, Experimental Station, Kingston,
Rhode Island, U.S.A. 3

1886. {Field, H.C. 4 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1869, *Frexp, Roerrs, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 7 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W.

1882. {Filliter, Freeland. St. Martin’s House, Wareham, Dorset.
1883. *Finch, Gerard B., M.A. 1 St. Peter’s-terrace, Cambridge.
1878. *Findlater, Sir William. 22 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.
1884, {Finlay, Samuel. Montreal. Canada.
1887. {Finnemore, Rev. J., M.A., Pb.D., F.G.S. 8S Upper Hanover-street,
Sheffield.
1881. {Firth, Colonel Sir Charles. Heckmondwike.
Firth, Thomas. Northwich.
1895. §Fish, Frederick J. Spursholt, Park-road, Ipswich.
1891. {Fisher, Major H.O. The Highlands, Llandough, near Cardiff.
1884, *Fisher, L. C. Galveston, Texas, U.S.A.
1869. {Fisuer, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlton Rectory, near
Cambridge.
1875. *Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.
1858. {Fishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale.
Cc 2

36 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year o
Election.

1887, *Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. 25 Blenheim-gardens, Willesden Green, N.W.

1885. {Fison, E. Herbert. Stoke House, Ipswich.

1871, *Frson, Freperick W., M.A., M.P., F.C.S. Greenholme, Burley-in-
Wharfedale, near Leeds.

1871. {Frren, Sir J. G., M.A., LL.D. Athenzeum Club, S.W.

1883. {Fitch, Rev. J. J. Ivyholme, Southport.

1878. {Fitzgerald, C. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.

1878, §FirzGeraLp, Grorce Francis, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of
Naturaland Experimental Philosophy in Trinity College, Dublin.

1885. *FitzGerald, Professor Maurice, B.A. 32 Eglantine-avenue, Belfast.

1894. {Fitzmaurice, M., M.Inst.C.E. Nile Reservoir, Assuan, Egypt.

1857. {Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 381 Lower Bagot-street, Dublin.

1888, *Frtzparrick, Rey. Tuomas 0. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

1897, {Flavelle, J. W. 565 Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

4881. {Fleming, Rev. Canon J., B.D. St. Michael’s Vicarage, Ebury-
square, S.W.

1876. {Fleming, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

1876. tFleming, Sir Sandford, K.C.M.G., F.G.S. Ottawa, Canada.

1867. {Fuercupr, Atrrep E., F.C.S. Delmore, Caterham, Surrey.

1870. {Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich.

1890. Fletcher, B. Morley. 7 Victoria-street, 5. W.

1892. tFletcher, George, F.G.S. 60 Connaught-avenue, Plymouth.

1888. *Fretcupr, Lazarus, M.A., F.RS., F.G.S., F.C.S., Keeper of
Minerals, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road,
S.W. 386 Woodville-road, Haling, W.

1889, tFlower, Lady. 26 Stanhope-gardens, S.W.

1877. *Floyer, Ernest A. Downton, Salisbury.

1890. *Fiox, A. W., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in the Owens
College, Manchester. 2

1887. {Foale, William. 3 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth.

1883. {Foale, Mrs. William, 3 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth.

1891. {Foldvary, William. Museum Ring, 10, Buda Pesth.

1879. { Foote, Charles Newth, M.D, 8 Albion-place, Sunderland.

1880. {Foote, R. Bruce, F.G.8. Care of Messrs. H. 8. King & Co., 65
Cornhill, 1.C.

1873. *Forbes, Grorez, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 34 Great
George-street, S. W.

1883. {Fornes, Heyry O., LL.D., F.Z.S., Director of Museums for the Cor-
poration of Liverpool. The Museum, Liverpool.

3897. {Forbes, J.,Q.C. Hazeldean, Putney-hill, S.W.

1885. tForbes, The Right Hon. Lord. Castle Forbes, Aberdeenshire,

1890. tForp, J. Rawiinson. Quarry Dene, Weetwood-lane, Leeds.

1875. *ForpHam, H. Groner. Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock, Herts.

1894. {Forrest, Frederick. Beechwood, Castle Hill, Hastings.

1887. {Forrest, The Right Hon. Sir Jonny, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S., F.G.S,.
Perth, Western Australia.

1883. {Forsyru, A. R., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Sadlerian Professor of Pure
‘Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Trinity College,
Cambridge.

1884. {Fort,George H. Lakefield, Ontario, Canada.

1877. {Forrescug, The Right Hon. the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon.

1882. t Forward, Henry. 10 Marine-avenue, Southend.

1896, {Forwoop, Sir Wirt1Am B., J.P. Ramleh, Blundellsands, Liverpool.

1875. {Foster, A. Le Neve. 51 Cadogan-square, S.W.

1865. t¥oster, Sir B. Walter, M.D.,M.P. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham.

1885, *Fosrer, Crement Lz Neve, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Mining in the Royal College of Science, London. Llandudno,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 37

Year of

Election.

1883. {Foster, Mrs. C. Le Neve. Llandudno.

1857. *FostrrR, GzEorGE Carry, B.A., F.RS., F.C.S. (Guyeran

TREASURER.) Ladywalk, Rickmansworth.

1896. {Foster, Miss Harriet. Cambridge Training College, Wollaston-road,
Cambridge.

3877. §Foster, Joseph B. 4 Cambridge-street, Plymouth.

1859, *Fostzr, Sir Micwazr, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L.,
Sec.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Physiology in the University
of Cambridge. (Prrsiprnr.) Great Shelford, Cambridge.

1863. {Foster, Robert. The Quarries, Grainger Park-road, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.

1896. {Fowkes, F. Hawkshead, Ambleside.

1866. {Fowler, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Nottingham,

1868. {Fowler,G.G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.

1892. {Fowler, Miss Jessie A. 4 & 5 Imperial-buildings, Ludgate-circus, E.C.

1883. *Fox, Charles. The Chestnuts, Warlingham, Surrey.

1883. §Fox, Sir Cuartes Doveras, M.Inst.C.K. 28 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W.

1896. {Fox, Henry J. Bank’s Dale, Bromborough, near Liverpool.

1883. {Fox, Howard, F.G.S. Rosehill, Falmouth.

1847. *Fox, Joseph Hoyland. The Clive, Wellington, Somerset.

1881. *Foxwetn, Herzerr §., M.A., F.S.S., Professor of Political Economy
in University College, London. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1889. {Frain, Joseph, M.D. Grosvenor-place, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-

Pyne.
Francis, Wi11r4M, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.8., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, E.C.; and Manor House, Richmond, Surrey.

1887. *FRANKLAND, Percy I’., Ph.D., B.Sc., F’.R.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the Mason College, Birmingham.

1894. §Franklin, Mrs. EK. L. 650 Porchester-terrace, W.

' 1895. *Fraser, Alexander. 63 Church-street, Inverness,

1882, “Fraser, Alexander, M.b. Professor of Anatomy in the Royal
College of Surgeons, Dubiin.

1885. {Fraser, Aneus, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. 232 Union-street, Aber

deen.

1865. *Frasrr, Jonn, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.

1897. {Fraser, Sir Malcolm, K.C.M.G. 15 Victoria-street, S.W.

1871. {FRasrr, Tomas R., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Materia
Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

1859. *Frazer, Daniel. Rowmore House, Garelochhead, N.B.

1871. {Frazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.

1884, *Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Sc. (Univ. de France). Room 1042,
Drexel Building, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

1824, *Fream, W., LL.D., B.Sc, F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.S. The Vinery,
Downton, Salisbury.

1877. §Freeman, Francis Ford. Abbotsfield, Tavistock, South Devon.

1884, *FReMAnTIE, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. 4 Lower Sloane-street,

S.W.

1869, {Frere, Rev. William Edward. The Rectory, Bitton, near Bristol.

1886. ipete Dovetas W., F.R.G.S._ 1 Airlie-gaidens, Campden
Till, NV,

1887. {Fries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A.

1887. eee The Cavaliere. Grosvenor-terrace, Withington, Man-
chester.

© 1892. *Frost, Edmund, M.B. Chesterfield, Meads, Eastbourne.
1882. §Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.

38 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887. *Frost, Robert, B.Sc. 53 Victoria-road, W.

1899. §Fry, Edward W. Cannon-street, Dover.

1898. {Fry, The Right Hon, Sir Epwarp, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.
Failand House, Failand, near Bristol.

1898.§§Fry, Francis J. Leigh Woods, Clifton, Bristol.

1875, *Fry, Joseph Storrs. 17 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1898.§§Fryer, Alfred C., Ph.D. 13 Eaton-crescent, Clifton, Bristol.

1884. {Fryer, Joseph, J.P. Smelt House, Howden-le-Wear, Co. Durham.

1895. {Futtarton, Dr. J. H. Fishery Board for Scotland, George-street,
Edinburgh.

1872. *Fuller, Rev. A. 7 Sydenham-hill, Sydenham, S.E.

1859. {FurtER, Freperick, M.A. 9 Palace-road, Surbiton.

1869, {Futrer, G., M.Inst.C.E. 71 Lexham-gardens, Kensington, W.

1884, {Fuller, William, M.B. Oswestry.

1891. {Fulton, Andrew. 23 Park-place, Cardiff.

1881. {Gabb, Rev. James, M.A. Bulmer Rectory, Welburn, Yorkshire.

1887. {Gaddum, G. H. Adria House, Toy-lane, Withington, Manchester,

1836. *Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey.

1863. *Gainsford, W. D. Skendleby Hall, Spilsby.

1896. {Gair, H. W. 21 Water-street, Liverpool.

1850. {GarrpneR, Sir W. T., K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of
Medicine in the University of Glasgow. The University,
Glasgow.

1876. tGale, James M. 23 Miller-street, Giascow.

1885. *Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B.

1861. {Galloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.

1889. {Galloway, Walter. Lichton Banks, Gateshead.

1875. {GatLoway, W. Cardiff.

1887. *Galloway, W. J., M.P. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford,
Manchester.

1860. *Gatton, Francis, M.A., D.C.L., D.Se., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.GS.
42 Rutland-gate, Knightsbridge, S.W.

1869. tGatron, Jonn C., M.A., F.LS. New University Club, St.
James’s-street, S.W.

1899. §Galton, Lady Douglas. Himbleton Manor, Droitwich.

1870. §Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel Sir D., Bart., C.B. St. Helens, Lancashire.

1889. {Gamble, David. Ratonagh, Colwyn Bay.

1870. {Gamble, J.C. St. Helens, Lancashire.

1888. *Gamble, J. Sykes, C.LE., F.RS., M.A., F.L.S. Highfield, East
Liss, Hants.

1877. {Gamble, William. St. Helens. Lancashire.

1868. {Gamerr, Arrnur, M.D., F.R.S. 8 Avenue du Kursaal, Montreux,
Switzerland.

1899. *Garcke, KE. Sunnyside, Bedford Park, W.

i889. {Gamgee, John. 6 Lingfield-road, Wimbledon, Surrey.

1898. §Garde, Rev. C. L. Skenfrith Vicarage, near Monmouth.

1887. {Garpiner, WatTeR, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. 45 Hills-road, Cam-
bridge.

1882. *Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G.S. Fairmead, 46 The Goffs, Eastbourne.

1894, {Gardner, J. Addyman. 5 Bath-place, Oxford.

1896. {Gardner, James. The Groves, Grassendale, Liverpool.

1882. [GarpNER, JoHN Stargin. 29 Albert Embankment, S.E.

1884, {Garman, Samuel. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

1887. *Garnett, Jeremiah. The Grange, Bromley Cross, near Bolton,

Lancashire.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 89

Year of
Election.

1882.
1878.

1883.
1894,

1874.

1882.
1892.
1889.
1870.
1870.
1896.

1896.
1862.

1890,
1875.
1892.
1871.
1883.
1885.
1887.
1867.

1871.

1898,
1882.

1875.
1885,
1884,
1884,

~ 1865.

1874.
1892.

1876.

1896.

1884.
1889.
1893.
1887.

1888,
1898,
1884,

{Garnett, William, D.C.L. London County Council, Spring-
gardens, S. W.

tGarmnham, John. Hazelwood, Crescent-road, St. John’s, Brockley,
Kent, S.E.

tGarson, J. G., M.D. 64 Harley-street, W.

*Garstane, WALTER, M.A., F.Z.S. Marine Biological Laboratory,
Plymouth.

*Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B, M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellingham, Ireland.

{Garton, William. Woolston, Southampton.

§Garvie, James. Devanha House, Bowes-road, New Southgate, N,

{Garwood, H. J., B.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Gaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.

*Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Clayton Lodge, Aigburth, Liverpool.

“GASKELL, Watrer Horsroox, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. The
Uplands, Great Shelford, near Cambridge.

§Gatehouse, Charles. Westwood, Noctorum, Birkenhead.

*Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., F.G.S. Fels
bridge Place, East Grinstead, Sussex.

tGaunt, Sir Edwin. Carlton Lodge, Leeds.

tGavey, J. Hollydale, Hampton Wick, Middlesex.

tGeddes, George H. 8 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Geddes, John. 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

tGeddes, John. 33 Portland-street, Southport.

{Guppus, Professor Parrick. Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.

tGee, W. W. Haldane. Owens College, Manchester.

{Grrxiz, Sir Arcureatp, LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., GAS.
Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United King-
dom. 10 Chester-terrace, Regent’s-park, N.W.

tGrnmce, James, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Murchison
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of
Edinburgh. Kilmorie, Colinton-road, Edinburgh.

§Gemmill, James F., M.A., M.B. 16 Dargavel-avenue, Dumbreck,
Glasgow.

*GENESE, R, W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University Col-
lege, Aberystwyth.

*George, Rev. Hereford B., M.A., F.R.G.S. Holywell Lodge, Oxford,

{Gerard, Robert. Blair-Devenick, Cults, Aberdeen.

*Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. 20 St. Joln-street, Oxford.

TGibb, Charles. Abbotsford, Quebec, Canada,

{Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham.

{Gibson, The Right Hon, Edward,Q.C. 23 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin,

{Gibson, Francis Maitland. Care of Professor Gibson, 20 George-
square, Edinburgh.

*Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Secretary to the
Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. 17 Alva-street,
Edinburgh.

$Gibson, Harvey, M.A., Professor of Botany, University College,
Liverpool.

{Gibson, Rey. James J. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

*Gibson, T. G. Lesbury House, Lesbury, R.S.O., Northumberland.

Gibson, Walcot, F.G.S. 28 J. ermyn-street, 8. W.

{Gurren, Sir Ropert, K,C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.S.8. Atheneum
Club, S.W.

*Gifford, H. J. Lyston Court, Tram Inn, Hereford.

“Gifford, J. William. Chard.

tGilbert, E. E. 245 St. Antoine-street, Montreal, Canada.

40

Year of
Election

1842.

1883.
1857.
1884,
1895.
1896.

1878.
1871,

1888.
1884.
1896.
1892.

1867.
1895.

1867.

1884.
1886.
1850.
1849.

1883.
1861.

1871.

1897.
1883.
1881.

1881.
1859.
1867.
1874.

1870.
1872.
1899.
1886.
1887.
1878.
1880.

1883.
1852.
1879.

1876.
1898.
1881.
1886,

LIST OF MEMBERS.

GILBERT, Sir JoserH Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.8. Hare
penden, near St. Albans.

§Gilbert, Lady. Harpenden, near St. Albans,

tGilbert, J. T., MR.I.A. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin.

*Gilbert, Philip H. 63 Tupper-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Gilchrist, J. D. F. Carvenon Anstruther, Scotland.

*Gitcurist, Percy C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Frognal Bank, Finchley-
road, Hampstead, N. W.

{Giles, Oliver. Brynteg, The Crescent, Bromsgrove.

*Gitt, Davin, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal Observatory,
Cape Town.

§Gill, John Frederick. Douglas, Isle of Man.

t¢Gillman, Henry. 130 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.

t{Gilmour, H. B. Underlea, Aigburth, Liverpool.

*Gilmour, Matthew A. B.,F.Z.8. Saffronhall House, Windmill-road,
Hamilton, N.B.

tGilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.

*Gimingham, Edward. Stamford House, Northumberland Park,
Tottenham.

}Gryszura, Rey. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Holmlea, Virginia Water
Station, Chertsey.

t{Girdwood, Dr.G. P. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.

*Gisborue, Hartley, M.Can.8.C.E. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada,

*Gladstone, George, F.R.G.S. 34 Denmark-villas, Hove, Brighton.

*GrapsronE, JouN Hatt, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Pem-
bridge-square, W.

*Gladstone, Miss. 17 Pembridge-square, W.

*GiaisuEr, James, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Shola, Heathfield-road,
South Croydon.

*GLAIsHER, J. W.L., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Trinity College,
Cambridge.

tGlashan, J. C., LL.D. Ottawa, Canada.

tGlasson, L. T. 2 Roper-street, Penrith.

*Giazesroox, R. T., M.A., F.R.S., Director of the National Physical
Laboratory, Kew Observatory, Richmond.

*Gleadow, Frederic. 388 Ladbroke-grove, W.

tGlennie, J. S. Stuart, M.A. Verandah Cottage, Haslemere, Surrey.

tGloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh.

Glover, George I’. Corby, Hoylake.

Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport.

tGlynn, Thomas R., M.D. 62 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

{Gopparp, Ricwarp. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.

§Godfrey, Ingram F. Brook House, Ash, Dover.

tGodlee, Arthur. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.

tGodlee, Francis. 8 Minshall-street, Manchester.

*Godlee, J. Lister. 8 Clarence-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

t{Gopman, F. Du Cant, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S. 10 Chandas-
street, Cavendish-square, W.

tGodson, Dr. Alfred. Cheadle, Cheshire.

tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.

t{Gopwrn-Avsten, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
F.Z.S. Shalford House, Guildford.

{Goff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.

§Goldney, F'. B. Goodnestone-park, Dover.

{Gorpscumipt, Epwarpd, J.P. Nottingham.

{Gorpsm1p, Major-General Sir I. J., K.C.S.1., C.B., F.R.G.S.
Godfrey House, Hollingbourne.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 41

Year of
Election.

1899.
1890.

18384,
1852.
1878.
1884.
1885.
1884.

1884.
1885.
1871.

1893.
1884.

1885.
1899.
1887.
1865.
1875.

1873.

1849.
1881.
1894,
1888.
1867.
1876.
1883.
1873.

1886.
1875.
1892.
1893.

1896.
1892.
1864.

1881.
1899.
1890.

1899.
1864.
1876.
1881.
1893.

1870.
1892,

§Gomme, G. L. 24 Dorset-square, N.W.

*GonneRr, E. C. K., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in Univer-
sity College, Liverpool.

tGood, Charles E, 102 St. Francois Xavier-styeet, Montreal, Canada.

tGoodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland.

TGoodbody, Jonathan, jun. 50 Dame-street, Dublin.

tGoodbody, Robert. airy Hill, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

tGoopman, J. D., J.P. Peachfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Goodridge, Richard EK. W. 54 South Canal Street, Chicago,
Illinois, U.S.A.

t{Goodwin, Professor W.L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.

tGordon, Rey. Cosmo, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.8. Chetwynd Rectory,
Newport, Salop.

*Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne’s Mansions, West-
minster, 8. W.

tGordon, Mrs. M. M., D.Sc. 1 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

*Gordon, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. 70 South-street, St.
Andrews, N.B.

tGordon, Rev. William. Braemar, N.B.

§Gordon, T. Kirkman. 15 Hampden-road, Nottingham.

{Gordon, William John. 3 Lavender-gardens, S.1W.

{Gorn, Grorer, LL.D., F.R.S. 20 Easy-row, Birmingham.

*Gorcu, Francis, M.A., B.Sc., P.RS.,- Professor of Physiology in
the University of Oxford, The Lawn, Baubury-road, Oxford.

tGott, Charles, M.Inst.C.E. Parlkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

tGough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.

tGough, Rev. Thomas, B.Sc. King Edward’s School, Retford.

tGould, G. M., M.D. 119 South 17th-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

t¢Gouraud, Colonel. Little Menlo, Norwood, 8.E.

tGourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee.

tGow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanbill Gardens, Glasgow.

§Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill Gardens, Glasgow.

§Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

tGrabham, Michael C., M.D. Madeira.

{Granamn, James. 12 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

tGrange, C. Ernest. 57 Berners-street, Ipswich.

tGranger, Professor F. S., M.A., D.Litt. 2 Cranmer-street,
Nottingham.

tGrant, Sir James, K.C.M.G. Ottawa, Canada.

tGrant, W. B. 10 Ann-street, Edinburgh.

{Grantham, Richard F., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Northumberland-cham-
bers, Northumberland-avenue, W.C.

tGray, Alan, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

§Gray, Albert Alexander. 16 Berkeley-terrace, Glasgow.

tGray, Anprew, M.A., LL.D., F.RS. F.R.S.E., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow.

§Gray, Charles. 1] Portland-place, W.

*Gray, Rey. Canon Charles. West Retford Rectory, Netford.

tGray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glasrow.

tGray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

tGray, J. C., General Secretary of the Co-operative Union, Limited,
Long Millgate, Manchester.

{Gray, J. Macfarlane. 4 Ladbroke-crescent, W.

*Gray, James Hunter, M.A., B.Sc. 38 Crown Oftice-row, Temple, 11.C.

42

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1892.
1887.
1887.
1886.
1881.

1873.

1883.
1885.
1886.
1866.
1893.
1869.
1872.
1872.
1888.

1887.
1882.

1881.
1884.
1898.
1884.
1884,
1887.
1863,
1890.
1875.
1877.
1887.

1887.
1861.

1894.
1896.

1883.
1881.
1859.
1878.
1836.
1894,
1859.

1884.
1884.
1891.
1847.

1870.
1888.

1884,

§Gray, John, B.Sc. . 351. Coldharbour-lane; Brixton, S.W.

{Gray, Joseph W., F.G.S. St. Elmo, Leckhampton-road, Cheltenham,

tGray, M. H., F.G.S. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

*Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park,Abbey Wood, Kent.

{Gray, Thomas, Professor of Engineering.in the Rane Technical In-
stitute, Terre Haute, Indiana, U.SVA. : «

tGray, William, M.R.LA. Glenburn Park, Belfast.

*Gray, Colonel WitrraM.’ Farley Hall, near Reading.

tGray, William Lewis. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

tGray, Mrs. W. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

tGreaney, Rev. William. Bishop’s House, Bath-street, Birmingham,

§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B:, LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby.

*Greaves, Mrs. Elizabeth. Station-street, Nottingham.

tGreaves, William, Station-street, Nottingham.

tGreayes, William. 83 Marlborough-place, N.W.

*Grece, Clair J., LL.D. Redhill, Surrey.

§Grenpn, J. Reynotps, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., E.L.S., Professor of
Botany to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.
Arncliffe, Grange-road, Cambridge.

{Greene, Friese. 162 Sloane-street, S.W.

{GREENHILL, A. G.; M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
Royal Artilléry College, Woolwich. 10 New Inn, W.C.

{Greenhough, Edward. Matlock Bath, Derbyshire.

tGreenish, Thomas, F.C.S. 20 New-street, Dorset-square, N. W.

*Greenly, Edward. Achnashean, near Bangor, North Wales.

tGreenshields, KE. B. Montreal, Canada.

tGreenshields, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.
tGreenwell, G. C., jun. Driffield, near Derby.
tGreenwell, G. KE. Poynton, Cheshire.
tGreenwood, Arthur. Cavendish-road, Leeds.

{tGreenwood, F., M.B. Brampton, Chesterfield.

tGreenwood, Holmes. 78 King-street, Accrington.

tGreenwood, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Adderley Park Rolling Mills,
Birmingham.

*Greg, Arthur. Eagley, near Bolton, Larcashire.

*Grec, Ropert Pures, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-
ford, Herts.

*Gruaory, J. WALTER, D.Sc., F.G.S. 3 Aubrey-road, Kensington, W.

§Gregory, R. A. The Homestead, Westover-road, Wandsworth
Common, 8.W.

tGregson, G. E. Ribble View, Preston.

{Gregson, William, F.G.S. Baldersby, S.O., Yorkshire.

tGrrerson, Tuomas Bortz, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire,

{Griffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin.

Gritin, S. F. Albion Tin Works, York-road, N.

*Griffith, C.L.T. College-road, Harrow, Middlesex.

*GrirFira, G. (Assistant GENERAL SECRETARY.) College-road,
Harrow, Middlesex.

tGrirritus, HE. H., M.A., F.R.S. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.

tGriffiths, Mrs. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.

{Griffiths, P. Rhys, B.Sc., M.B. 71 Newport-road, Cardiff.

tGriffiths, Thomas. The Elms, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Birs
mingham.

tGrimsdale, T. F., M.D. Hoylake, Liverpool.

*Grimshaw, James Walter, M.Inst.C.E. Australian Club, Sydney,
New South Wales.

tGrinnell, Frederick. Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A,

\

i

LIST OF MEMBERS. 43

Year of
‘Election.

1894.
1894.
1896.
1892.
1891.
1865.
1869.

1897.
1897.

1886.
1891.
1887.

1842.
1891.
1877.

1866.

1894,
1880.
1876.
1883.
1896.
1857.
1876.

1884.
1884.
1881.

1842.
1888.

1892.
1870.
1879.

1883.
1899.

1879.
1881.
1854.

1898.

1887.
1899.
1885.
1896.
1884.
1896.
1891.
1891.
1873.
1888.

tGroom, P., M.A., F.L.8. 38 Regent-street, Oxford.

tGroom, T. T., D.Sc. The Poplars, Hereford.

{Grossmann, Dr. Karl. 70 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

tGrove, Mrs. Lilly, F.R.G.S. Mason College, Birmingham.

tGroyer, Henry Llewellin. Clydach Court, Pontypridd.

*Grovrs, THomas B.. Broadley, Westerhall-road, Weymouth.

t{Gruss, Sir Howarp, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 51 Kenilworth-square,
Rathgar, Dublin.

{Grimbaum, A.S., M.A., M.D. 45 Ladbroke-grove, W.

§Griinbaum, O. F. F., B.A., D.Sc. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Grundy, John. 17 Private-road, Mapperley, Nottingham.

{tGrylls, W. London and Provincial Bank, Cardiff.

tGuitLtemARD, F. H. H. Eltham, Kent.

Guinness, Henry. 17 College-creen, Dublin.

Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-ereen, Dublin.

{Gunn, Sir John. Llandaff House, Llandatt.

{Gunn, William, F.G.S. Office of the Geological Survey of Scot
land, Sheriffs Court House, Edinburgh.

{Ginraer, eee C. L. G., M.A,, M.D, Ph.D., F.R.S., Pres.L.S.,
E.Z.S8. 22 Lichfield-r oad, Kew, Surrey.

{Giinther, R. T. Magdalen College, Oxford.

§Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea.

{ Guthrie, Francis. Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.

{Guthrie, Malcolm, Prince’s-road, Liverpool.

t{Guthrie, Tom, B.Sc. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

Gwynne, Rev. "John. Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland.

{Gwyruer, R. F., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.

tHaanel, E., Ph.D. Cobourg, Ontario, Canada,

tHadden, Captain C. F., R.A. Woolwich.

*Happon, ALFRED Cort, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.8. Imnisfail, Hills-road,
Cambridge.

Hadfield, George. Victoria Park, Manchester.

*Hadfield, R. A., M.Inst.C.E. The Grove, Endcliffe Vale-road,
Sheffield.

{Haigh, K., M.A. Longton, Staffordshire.

tHaigh, George. 27 Highfield South, Rockferry, Cheshire.

tHaxn, . Wrisor, Ph.D. , F.C.S. Queenwood College, Hants.

{Harisurton, R. G., Q. C. 13 Pall Mall, 8. W.

§Hall, A. D. South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

*Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.

{ Hall, Frederick Thomas, F.R.A.S. 15 Gray’s Inn-square, W.C.

*Hatt, Hue Ferreir, F.G.S. Cowley House, Headington Hill,
Oxford.

§Hall, J. P. The ‘Tribune,’ New York, U.S.A.

{Hall, John. Springbank, Leftwich, Northwich.

§Hall, John, M.D. National Bank of Scotland, 87 Nicholas-lane, E.C,

§Hall, Samuel, F.LC., F.C.S. 19 Aberdeen-park, Highbury, } N.

§Hall, Thomas B. Larch Wood, Rockferry, Cheshire.

{Hall, Thomas Proctor. School of Practical Science, Toronto, Canada.

{Hall-Dare, Mrs, Caroline. 13 Great Cumberland-place, Ave

*Hallett, George. Cranford, Victoria-road, Penarth, Glamorganshire.

§ Hallett, J. H,, M.Inst.C.E. Maindy Lodge, Cardiff.

*Hatierr, T. G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.

§HALLIBURTON, Ww. D., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
King’s College, London, Church Cottage,17 7 Marylebone-road, W.

44

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1858.
1885,
1885.
1899.
1881,
» 1899.
1892.
1878.
1875.

Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.
*Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G,S, Fairley, Weston, Bath.
*Hamel, Egbert D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.
tHamilton, David James. 41 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.
§Hamilton, G. E. H. Barrett. Kilmarnock, Arthurstown, Ireland.
*Hammond, Robert. 64 Victoria-street, Westminster, S. W.
*Hanbury, Daniel. La Mortola, Ventimiglia, Italy.
{Hanbury, Thomas, F.L.S. La Mortola, Ventimiglia, Italy.
§Hance, Edward M., LL.B. Municipal Offices, Liverpool.
tHancock, C. F., M. A. 195 Queen’s-gate, S. W.

1897.§§ Hancoc,, Harris. University of Chicago, U S.A,

1861.
1890.
1882,
1884,

1894.
1886.
1859,

1890.

1886.

1892.
1865.

1869.
1877.
1869.

1894,
1897.

1894,
1894.

tHancock, Walter. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, E. C.

t{Hankin, Ernest Hanbury. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Hankinson, R. C. Bassett, Southampton.

{Hannatord, HK. P., M. Inst.C.E, 2573 St. Catherine- street, Montreal,
Canada.

§Hannah, Robert, F.G.S. 82 Addison-road, W.

§Hansford, Charles, J.P. Englefield House, Dorchester.

*Harcourt, A. G. VERNON, M. A ODICE i. Di hE RS meeO.se
Cowley Grange, Oxford.

*Harcourt, L. F. Vernon, M.A., M.Inst.0.E. 6 Queen Anne’s-gate,

S.W.

*Hardcastle, Basil W., F.S.S. 12 Gainsborough-gardens, Hampstead,
N.W.

*Harden, Arthur, Ph.D., M.Sc. 20 Kensington-crescent, W.

tHarding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham.

t Harding, Joseph. Millbrook House, Exeter.

{Harding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol,

THarding, William D. Islington Lodge, King’ s Lynn, Norfolk.

{Hardman, S.C. 225 Lord-street, Southport.

{Harpy, Hon. ArrnurR &., Premier ot the Province of Ontario.
Toronto, Canada.

tHare, A. T., M.A. Neston Lodge, East Twickenham, Middlesex,

{Hare, Mrs. Neston Lodge, Hast Twickenham, Middlesex.

© 1898.§§ Harford, W. H. Oldown House, Almondsbury.

1858.
1885.
1883.
1890,
1881.
1890.
1896.
1887.
1878.

1871.
5. *Harland, Rev. Albert Aucustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.5., F.b.A. The

1877.
1883.
1883.
1862.

1875

1899.
1868.
1881.

tHargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds.
tHargreaves, Miss H. M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
{Harereaves, Thomas. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
tHargrove, Rev. Charles. 10 De Grey-terrace, Leeds.
{Harerove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York.
§Harxer, ALFRED, M.A,,F.G.S. St. J ohn’s College, Cambridge.
{Harker, Dr. John “Allen. Springfield House, Stockport.
{Harker, T. H. Brook House, Fallowfield, Manchester.
*Harkmess, H. W., M.D. California Academy of Sciences, San
Francisco, California, U.S.A.
tHarkness, William, F.C.S. 1 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, N.

Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.

*Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton.

*Harley, Miss Clara. Rosslyn, Westbourne-road, ‘Forest Hill, 8.E.

*Harley, Harold. 14 Chapel-street, Bedford-row, W.C.

*Hartey, Rev. Ronprrr, M.A., F. R. S., F.R.A.S. Rosslyn, West-
bourne- road, Forest Hill, S.E.

§Harman, Dr. N. Bishop. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*Harmer, F. W., F.G.8. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.

*HaRMER, SIDNEY PA. Bsc, H. RS. Kine's College, Cam-
bridge.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 45

Year of
Election.

1882. {Harper, G. T. Bryn Hyfrydd, Portswood, Southampton.

1872. tHarpley, Rev. William, M.A. Clayhangex Rectory, Tiverton,

1884. {Harrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Mineralogy in McGill University, Montreal. University-street,
Montreal, Canada.

1872. *Harris, Alfred. Lunefield, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland.

1888. tHarris,C.T. 4 Kilburn Priory, N.W.

1842. *Harris, G. W., M.Inst.C.E. Millicent, South Australia.

1889. §Harris, H. Grawam, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, West-
minster, 8. W.

1898.§§Harrison, A. J.. M.D. Failand Lodge, Guthrie-road, Clifton,
Bristol.

1888. tHarrison, Charles. 20 Lennox-gardens, S.W.

1860, {Harrison, Rev. Francis, M.A. North Wraxall, Chippenham.

1864. tHarrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.

1858. *Harrison, J. Parx, M.A. 22 Connaught-street, Hyde Park, W.

1892. tHarrison, Joun. Rockville, Napier-road, Edinburgh.

1889, §Harrison, J.C. Oxford House, Castle-road, Scarborough.

1870. t{Harrison, Reernarp, F.R.C.S. 6 Lower Berkeley-street, Port-
man-square, W.

1853. tHarrison, Robert. 386 George-street, Hull.

1892. tHarrison, Rev. 5. N. Ramsey, Isle of Man.

1895. tHarrison, Thomas. 48 High-street, Ipswich.

1886, tHarrison, W. Jerome, F.G.S. Board School, Icknield-street, Bir-
mingham.

1876. *Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn,

1875. {Hart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.

1893. *Harriann, EK. Sipney, F.S.A. Highgarth, Gloucester.

1897. tHartley, E.G.S. Wheaton Astley Hall, Stafford.

1871. {Harrtey, Watrer Nost, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. 86 Water-
loo-road, Dublin.

1896. tHartley, W. P., J.P. Aintree, Liverpool.

1886. *Hanroe, Professor M. M., D.Sc. Queen’s College, Cork.

1887. tHartog, P. J., D.Sc. Owens College, Manchester.

1897.§§Harvey, Arthur. Rosedale, Toronto, Canada.

1898.§§Harvey, Eddie. 10 The Paragon, Clifton, Bristol.

1885. §Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B.

1862. *Harwood, John. Woodside Mills, Bolton-ie-Moors.

1884. {Haslam, Rev. George, M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.

1893. §Haslam, Lewis. 44 Evelyn-gardens, 8.W.

1875. *Hastines, G@. W. Elm Lodge, Dartford Heath, Bexley, Kent.

1889. tHatch, F. H., Ph.D., F.G.8. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

1898. t{Hatton, John L. 8. People’s Palace, Mile End-road, E.

1887. *Hawkins, William. Jarlston House, Broughton Park, Man-
chester.

1872. *Hawhkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St. James’s, S.W.

1864. *HawxsHAw, Joun Crarxe, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 2 Down-
street, W., and 35 Great George-street, S. W.

1897. §Hawksley, Charles. 60 Porchester-terrace, W.

1884. *Haworth, Abraham. MHilston House, Altrincham.

1889. {Haworth, George C. Ordsal, Salford.

1887. *Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1887. tHaworth, 8. E. Warsley-road, Swinton, Manchester.

1886. { Haworth, Rev. T. J. Albert Cottage, Saltley, Birmingham.

1890. {Hawtin, J. N. Sturdie House, Roundhay-road, Leeds,

1877. {Hay, Arthur J, Lerwick, Shetland.

46

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.

of

Election.

1861. *Hay, Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Joun C. D., Bart., K.C.B.,

D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, S.W.

1885. *Hayorart, Joun Berry, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physi-

1891
1894
1896

ology, University College, Cardiff.
. tHayde, Rev. J. St. Peter’s, Cardiff.
. tHayes, Edward Harold. 5 Rawlinson-road, Oxford.
. {Hayes, Rev. F.C. The Rectory, Raheny, Dublin.

1896. {Hayes, William. Fernyhurst, Rathgar, Dublin.

1878
1898
1858
1896
1879
1883
1883
1885

1871.
1885.
1861.
1883.
1883.
1882.
1877.
1877.
1885.
1898.
1866.

. *Hayes, Rev. William A., M.A. Dromore, Co. Down, Ireland.
.§§$Hayman, C. A. Kingston Villa, Richmond Hill, Clifton, Bristol.
. *HAywarp, R. B., M.A., F.R.S. Ashcombe, Shanklin, Isle of Wight.
. *Haywood, A. G. Rearsby, Merrilocks-road, Blundellsands,

. *Hazelhurst, George S. The Grange, Rockferry.

. {Headley, Frederick Halcombe. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.

. {Headley, Mrs. Marian. Manor House, Petersham, 8.W.
.§§Headley, Rev. Tanfield George. Manor House, Petersham, S.W,
§Healey, George. Oak Hill, Windermere.

*Heap, Ralph. 1 Brick-court, Temple, E.C.

*Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, Manchester.

tHeape, Charles. Tovrak, Oxton, Cheshire.

{Heape, Joseph R. 96 Tweedale-street, Rochdale.

*Heape, Walter, M.A. Heyroun, Chaucer-road, Cambridge.
tHearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth.
tHearder, William Keep. 195 Union-street, Plymouth.

tHeath, Dr. 46 Hoghton-street, Sonthport.

*Heath, Arthur J. 10 Grove Road, Redland, Bristol.

tHeath, Rev. D. J. Esher, Surrey.

1898.§§Heath, R.S., M.A., D.Sc. Mason University College, Birmingham.

1884.
1883.
1865.
1892.

1889.
1884.

1888.
1888.

1855.
1887.
1881.

1887.
1897.
1899.
1867.
1875.
1883.
1891.

1892.

tHeath, Thomas, B.A. Royal Observatory, Edinburgh.

tHeaton, Charles. Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport.

{Heaton, Harry. Harborne House, Harborne, Birmingham.

*Heaton, WriiiAm H., M.A., Professor of Physics in University
College, Nottingham.

*Heaviside, Arthur West. 7 Grafton-road, Whitley, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

FEeariaie, Rev. George, B.A., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.8. 7 Grosvenor-
street, Coventry.

*Heawood, Edward, M.A. 3 Underhill-road, Lordship-lane, S.E.

*Heawood, Percy J., Lecturer in Mathematics at Durham University.
41 Old Elvet, Durham.

t{Hacror, Sir Jamus, K.C.M.G., M'D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the

Geological Survey of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand.

*Hepens, Kittinewortn, M.Inst.C.E. Wootton Lodge, 39 Streat-
ham-hill, S.W.

*Heie-Suiaw, H. S., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engi-
neering in University College, Liverpool. 27 Ullett-road,
Liverpcol.

§Hembry, Frederick William, F.R.M.S. Langford, Sidcup, Kent.

§Hemming, G. W., Q.C. 2 Harl’s Court-square, 5. W.

§Hemsalech, G. A. Faculté des Sciences, Paris.

tHenderson, Alexander. Dundee.

*Henderson, A. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

tHenderson, Mrs. A. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

*Hnnperson, G.G., D.Sc., M.A.,F.C.S., F.LC., Professor of Chemistry
in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. 204
George-street, Glasgow.

{Henderson, John, 3 St. Catherine-place, Grange, Edinburgh.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 47

Year of
Election.

1885. tHenderson, Sir William. Devanha House, Aberdeen.

1880, *Henderson, Captain W. H., R.N. 21 Albert Hall-mansions, Ken-
sington, S. W.

1896. {Henderson, W. Saville, B.Sc. Beech Hill, Fairfield, Liverpool.

1856. {Hrnnessy, Henry G., PRS, M.R.I.A. Clarens, Montreux,
Switzerland.

1873. *Henrtcr, Otaus M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Mechanics
and Mathematics in the City and Guilds of London Institute,
Central Institution, Exhibition-road, S.W. 934 Clarendon-
road, Notting Hill, W.

Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester.
Henry, Mitchell. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, W.

1892. {Hepburn, David, M.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Edinburgh.

1855. *Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Oalfield Cottage, Dartford,
Kent. .

1855. {Hepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, W.

1890. {Hepper, J. 45 Cardigan-road, Headingley, Leeds.

1890. {Hepworth, Joseph. 25 Wellington-street, Leeds.

1892. *Hureertson, ANDREW J., F.R.G.S. Colinton, Midlothian.

1887. *Herpman, Witttam A.,D.Sc., F.R.S., F.RS.E., F.L.S., Professor
of Natural History in University College, Liverpool. Croxteth
Lodge, Sefton Parl, Liverpool.

1898. *Herdman, Mrs. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

1891. {Hern, 8. South Cliff, Marine Parade, Penarth.

1871. *HerscneL, ALExAnpDeErR §., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Honorary
Professor of Physics and Experimental Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Durham. Observatory House, Slough, Buel.

1874. §Herscurt, Colonel Jonny, R.E., F.RS., F.R.A.S. Observatory
House, Slough, Bucks.

1895. §Hesketh, James. Scarisbrick Avenue-buildings, 107 Lord-street,
Southport.

1894. {Hewertson, G. H. 39 Henley-road, Ipswich.

1894. {Hewins, W. A.S., M.A., F.S.S. Professor of Political Meonomy in

Kino’s College, Strand, W.C. ;

1896. §Hewitt, David Basil. Oakleigh, Northwich, Cheshire.

1893. {Hewitt, Thomas P. Eccleston Park, Prescot, Lancashire.

1883. {Hewson, Thomas. Junior Constitutional Club, Piccadilly, W.

1882. {Hxeycocr, Cuartes T., M.A., F.R.S. King’s College, Cambridge.

1883. §Heyes, Rev. John Frederick, M.A., F.C.8., F.R.G.S. The Hollies,
Banbury.

1866. *Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.

1897. {Heys, Thomas. 180 King-street West, Toronto, Canada.

1861. *Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere.

1&79. {Heywood, Sir A. Percival, Bart. Duffield Bank, Derby.

1886. §Hnywoop, Henry, J.P., F.C.S. Witla Court, near Cardiff.

1887. {Heywood, Robert. Mayfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.

1888. ae James Harvey, M.A., F.G.S. The School House, Wolver-

ampton.

1875, {Hicxs, H.,M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Hendon Grove, Hendon, N.W.

1898. §Hicks, Henry B. 44 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1877. §Hicks, Professor W. M., M.A., D.Sc. F.R.S., Principal of
University College, Sheffield. ;

1886. {Hicks, Mrs. W. M. Dunheved, Hndcliffe-crescent, Sheffield.

1884. {Hickson, Joseph. 272 Mountain-street, Montreal, Canada.

1887. *Hickson, Sypyuy J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in
Owens College, Manchester. ”

1864, *Hrern, W.P., M.A. The Castle, Barnstaple. 1

48

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.

of

Election.

1891
1894.
1885
1898

1881

1887.
1884.

1886.

1885,
1898.
1888.
1876.
1885.

1886.
1863.
1887.
1870.

1898.
1885.
1888.
1886.

1881.
1884,

1884.
18658.
1899.
1879.

1887,
1883.
1883.
1877.
1883.
1877.
1876.
1852.

1863.
1887.

1896.
.§$Hodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor cf

1880

1884
1863
1863
1898

. §Hices, Henry, LL.B., F.S.S. 12 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, N. W.

. §Hill, Rev. A. Du Boulay. East Bridgford Rectory, Nottingham.

. *Hitt, ALEXANDER, M.A., M.D. Downing College, Cambridge.

.§§Hill, Charles. Clevedon.

*Tiill, Rey. Canon Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory,
Harlow.

. *Hitt, Rey. Epwin, M.A., F.G.8. The Rectory, Cockfield, Bury
St. Edmunds.

{Hill, G. H., F.G.S. Albert-chambers, Albert-square, Manchester.

{Hill, Rev. James Edgar, M.A., B.D. 2488 St. Catherine-street,
Montreal, Canada.

tHixz, M. J. M., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics
in University College, W.C.

*Hill, Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.

*Hill, Thomas Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.

tHill, William. Hitchin, Herts.

tHill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B.

*HintHovsn, WiritaM, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Mason
Science College. 16 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Hillier, Rev. E. J. Cardington Vicarage, near Bedford.

tHills, F. C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, 8.E.

tHilton, Edwin. Oak Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.

tHinos, G. J., Ph.D., F.RS., F.G.S. Ivythorn, Avondale-road,
South Croydon, Surrey.

§Hinds, Henry. 57 Queen-street, Ramsgate.

*Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington.

*Hindmarsh, William Thomas, F.L.S. Alnbank, Alnwick.

{Hingley, Sir Benjamin, Bart. Hatherton Lodge, Cradley, Wor-
cestershire.

tHingston, J. T. Clifton, York.

{Hineston, Sir WintiAm Hates, M.D., D.C.L. 87 Union-avenue,
Montreal, Canada.

tHirschfilder, C. A. Toronto, Canada.

{Hirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester.

§Hobday, Henry. Hazelwood, Crabble Hill, Dover.

tHobkirk, Charles P., F.L.S. The Headlands, Scotland-lane, Hors-
forth, near Leeds.

*Hobson, Bernard, B.Sc., F.G.5. Tapton Elms, Sheffield.

tHobson, Mrs. Carey. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington, W.

tHobson, Rey. E. W. 55 Albert-road, Southport.

tHockin, Edward. Poughill, Stratton, Cornwall.

t Hocking, Rev. Silas K. 21 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.

tHodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth,

tHodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast.

tHodges, John F., M.D., F.C.8S., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s
College, Belfast.

*Hopexrn,THomas, B.A.,D.C.L. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer on Laryngology at
Owens College, Manchester. 18 St. John-street, Manchester.

tHodgkinson, Arnold. 16 Albert-road, Southport.

Chemistry and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Woolwich.
18 Glencoe-road, Blackheath, S.E.
. {Hodeson, Jonathan. Montreal, Canada.

. tHodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.
. {Hodgson, R. W. 7 Sandhill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
. §Hodgson, T, V. Municipal Musenm and Art Gallery, Plymouth,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 49

Yeur of
Election.

1896.
1894,
1894.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1884.
1887.
1896.
1887.
1891.
1879.
1896.

tHodgson, Dr. Wm., J.P. Helensville, Crewe.

tHogg, A. F., M.A. 13 Victoria-road, Darlington.

§Holah, Ernest. 5 Crown-court, Cheapside, E.C.

tHolden, Edward. Laurel Mount, Shipley, Yorkshire.

tHolden, James. 12 Park-avenue, Southport.

tHolden, John J. 23 Duke-street, Southport.

{Holden, Mrs. Mary E. Dunham Ladies’ College, Quebec, Canada,
*Holder, Henry William, M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
tHolder, Thomas. 2 Tithebarn-street, Liverpool.

*Holdsworth, C.J. Hill Top, near Kendal, Westmoreland.
tHolgate, Benjamin, I'.G.S. 4 Montpelier-terrace, Cliff-road, Leeds.
{Holland, Calvert Bernard. Hazel Villa, Thicket-road, Anerley, S.E.
§Holland, Mrs. Lowfields House, Hooton.

1898.§§Holland, Thomas H., ¥.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Calcutta,

1889.
1886.
1883.
1883.
1866.
1892.
1882.
1896.

tHolliinder, Bernard. King’s College, Strand, W.C.

tHolliday, J. R. 101 Harborne-road, Birmingham.

tHollingsworth, Dr. T.S. Elford Lodge, Spring Grove, Isleworth.
*Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 5 Freeland-road, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
*Holmes, Charles. 24 Aberdare-gardens, West Hampstead, N.W.
tHolmes, Matthew. Netherby, Lenzie, Scotland.

*Hormes, Tuomas VincEN?, F.G.S, 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich, S.E.
tHolt, William Henry, 11 Ashvyille-road, Birkenhead.

1897.§§Holterman, R. F. Brantford, Ontario, Canada.
1891. *Hood, Archibald, M.Inst.C.E. 42 Newport-road, Cardiff,

1875.
1847,

1892.
1865.
1877.

1856.
1884.
1882.
1871.

1858.
1891.

1898.
1885,

1875.
1884.

1887.
1898,

1884,
1899.
1859.

1896.

1886.

1887,
1896.

1884.

18

*Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester.

tHooxer, Sir Josep Darron, G.C.S.L, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
E.RS., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. The Camp, Sunningdale.

tHooker, Reginald H., M.A. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C.

*Hooper, John P. Deepdene, Rutford-road, Streatham, S.W.

*Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. Lydlinch Rectory, Sturminster
Newton, Dorset.

tHooton, Jonathan. 116 Great Ducie-street, Manchester,

*Hopxrnson, Cuartes. The Limes, Didsbury, near Manchester.

*Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. Oakleigh, Timperley, Cheshire.

*Hopxinson, Joun, F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. 34 Margaret-
street, Cavendish-square, W.; and The Grange, St. Albans.

tHopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Hudderstield.

tHorder, T. Garrett. 10 Windsor-place, Cardiff.

Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool.

*Hornby, R., M.A. The High School, Newcastle, Staffordshire.

{florns, Jouy, F.RS.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff
Court-buildings, Edinburgh.

*Horniman, F. J., M.P., F.RGS., F.L.S. Falmouth House, 20
Hyde Park-terrace, W.

*Horsfall, Richard. Stoodley House, Halifax.

tHorsfall, T. C. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield.

*Horstey, Vicror A. H., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.C.S. 25 Cavendish-
square, W.

*Hotblack, G.S. Bremdall, Norwich.

§Hotblack, J.T. 45 Newmarket-road, Norwich.

tHough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolvezhampton,

*Hough, S.S. Royal Observatory, Cape Town.

tHoughton, F.T.S., M.A., F.G.S. 188 Hagley-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

tHouldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart., M.P. Norbury Booths, Knutsford,

tHoult, J. South Castle-street, Liverpool.

tHouston, William, Legislative Library, Toronto, Canada, i

99, D

50 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1888. *Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.8., F.G.S. Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road,
West Dulwich, Surrey, S.E.

1898. t{Howard, F. T., M.A.,F.G.S. University Colleze, Cardiff.

1899. §Howard-Hayward, H. Harbledown, 120 Queen’s-road, Richmond,

Surrey.

1883. tHoward, James Fielden, M.D., M.R.C.S. Sandycroft, Shaw.

1886. *Howarp, Jamus L., D.Sc. 90St. John’s-road, Waterloo, near Liverpool.

1887. *Howard, 8.8. 58 Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent. :

1886. {Howatt, David. 3 Birmingham-road, Dudley.

1876. tHowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glascow.

1899. §Howden, Ian D.C. 6 Cambridge-terrace, Dover.

1889.§§ Howden, Robert, M.B., Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Durham College of Medicine, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1857. {Howell, Henry H., F.G.8., Director of the Geological Survey of
Great Britain. Geological Survey Office, Edinburgh.

1868. {Howrtn, Rev. Canon Hinps. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich.

1898.§ §Elowell, J. H. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1891. {Lfowell, Rev. William Charles, M.A. Holy Trinity Parsonage, High
Cross, Tottenham, Middlesex.

1886. §Howns, G. B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.8. Professor of Zoology in the
Royal College of Science, South Kensington, S. W.

1884. {Howland, Edward P.,M.D. 211 413-street, Washington, U.S.A.

1884. tHowland, Oliver Aiken. Toronto, Canada.

1865. *Howxzmrr, Rey. Freprericn, F.R.A.S. 7 Prince’s Buildings, Clifton,
Bristol.

1863. {Howorrn, Sir H. H., K.C.LE., M.P., D.C.L, F.RS., FSA.
30 Collingham-place, Cromwell-road, 8. W.

1883. tELoworth, John, J.P. Springbank, Burnley, Lancashire.

1883. {Hoyle, James. Blackburn.

1887..§Hoyin, Wint1AM E., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.

1888. {Hudd, Alfred E., F.S.A. 94 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1898. §Hupiuston, W.U.,M.A., F.R.S.,F.G.S. 8 Stanhope-gardens, 8. W.

1888. {Hupson, C. T., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. 2 Barton-crescent, Dawlish.

1894. §Efudson, John EH. 125 Milk-street, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

1867. *Houpson, Wittram H. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in King’s
COUPES London. 15 Altenberg-gardens, Clapham Common,

1858. *Efocemrs, Sir WitrraM, K.C.B., D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S. 90 Upper Tulse-hill, S.W.

1887. {iiughes, K,G. 4 Roman-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

1883. tHughes, Miss HE. P. Cambridge Teachers’ College, Cambridge.

1871. oie nee Pringle, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-

erland.

1887. {Hughes, John Taylor. Thorleymoor, Ashley-road, Altrincham.

1896. {Hughes, John W. New Heys, Allerton, Liverpool,

1870. *Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-chambers, Liverpool.

1891. tHughes, Thomas, F.C.S, 31 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.

1868. §Euenus, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor
of Geology in the University of Cambridge. 18 Hills-road,
Cambridge.

1891. {Efughes, Rey, W. Hawker. Jesus College, Oxford.

1865. {Elughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the City of Birmingham,
Birmingham.

1867. §Hurt, Eywarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 20 Arundel-gardens,
Notting Hill, W.

1897. {Hume, J.G., M.A., Ph.D. 650 Church-street, Toronto, Canada.

1887. *tLumuman, Professor J. J. 152 Woodsley-road, Leeds.

——— se

LIST OF MEMBERS. 61

Year of
Election.

1890.
1878.
1880,

1877.
1891.
1886.
1891.

1875.
1881.
1889.
1881.
1884.
1879.

1885.
1863.

tHumphrey, Frank W. 63 Prince’s-gate, S. W.

tHumphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon.

tHumphreys, Noel A., F.S.S., Ravenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on-
Thames.

*Hont, Arruur Roorg, M.A., F.G.S. Southwood, Torquay,

*Hunt, Cecil Arthur. Southwood, Torquay.

tHunt, Charles. The Gas Works, Windsor-street, Birmingham.

tHunt, Bc de Vere, M.D. Westbourne-crescent, Sophia-gardens,
Cardiff.

*Hunt, William. North Cote, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.

tHunter, F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

tHunter, Mrs. F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.::

tHunter, Rev. John. University-gardens, Glasgow.

*Hunter, Michael. Greystones, Sheffield.

{Hunrineron, A. K.,¥.C.S., Professor of Metallurgy in King’s College,

W.C.

tHuntly, The Most Hon. the Marquess of. Aboyne Castle, Aber-
deenshire.

Huntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.

1898.§§ Hurle, J. Cooke, Southfield Mouse, Brislington, Bristol.

1869.
1882.
1861.

1896.
1887.
1882.
1894.
1896.

1864,
1887.
1883.
1871.

1883.

1884.
1885.
1888.

1858.
1893.
1876,
1891.
1852.

1885.
1886.
1898.
1892.
1892.
1892.
1882.

tHurst, George. Bedford.

*Hurst, Walter, B.Sc. Kirkeate, Tadcaster, Yorkshire.

*Hurst, William John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Co. Down,
Treland.

*Hurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Holly Lodge, Cressington, Liverpool.

tHusband, W. E. 56 Bury New-road, Manchester.

} Hussey, Major L. R., RE. 24 Waterloo-place, Southampton.

*Hutchinson, A. Pembroke College, Cambridge.

tHutchinson, W. B. 4 West-street, Southport.

Hutton, Crompton. Harescombe Grange, Stroud, Gloucestershire,
*Hutton, Darnton. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.
*Hutton, J. Arthur. The Woodlands, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
tHyde, George H. 23 Arbour-street, Southport.

*Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Painswick, Stroud, Glouces-
tershire.

§Idris, T. H. W. Pratt-street, Camden Town, N.W.
Ihne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.

*Iles, George. 5 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada.

fim-Thurn, Everard F., C.M.G., M.A. British Guiana.

“Ince, Surgeon-Lieut.-Col. John, M.D. Montague House, Swanley,
Kent.

{Ingham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.

tIngle, Herbert. Pool, Leeds.

Inglis, John, jun. Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow,

{Ingram, Lieut.-Colonel C. W. Bradford-place, Penarth.

fIneram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Senior Lecturer in the Univer-
sity of Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin,

tIngram, William, M.A. Gamrie, Banff.

{Innes, John. The Limes, Alcester-road, Moseley, Birmingham,

§Inskip, James. Clifton Park, Clifton, Bristol.

tIreland, D. W. 10 South Gray-street, Edinburgh,

tIrvine, James. Devonshire-road, Birkenhead.

fIrvine, Robert, F.R.S.E. Royston, Granton, Edinburgh.

§Irvine, Rey. A., B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Hockerill Vicarage, Bishop's
Stortford, Herts.

D2

52

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1888.
1883.
1881.
1891.
1886.

1859.
1884.
1876.

1883.

1883.
1874,

1883.
1885.
1899.
1885.
1866.
1897.
1898.
1869.
1887.

1874.
1865.
189].
1891.
1891.
1860.
1886.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1896.
1858.
1896.
1884.
1881.

1887.
1885.
1885.
1859,
1889.

1896.
1870.
1891.
1855.
1897.§
1867.
1894,
1895.
1891,

*Tsaac, J. F. V., B.A. Royal York Hotel, Brighton.

tIsherwood, James, 18 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Ishiguro, Isojt. Care of the Japanese Legation, 9 Cavendish-square, W.
*Isuay, Toomas H. 10 Water-street, Liverpool.

{Izod, William. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tJack, John, M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.

tJack, Peter. People’s Bank, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

*Jack, WILL1AM, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Glasgow. 10 The College, Glasrow.

*Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Sc. 358 Collins-street, Melbourne,
Australia.

tJackson, Frank. 11 Park-crescent, Southport.

*Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Penalya Ranche, Millarville, Alberta,
Calgary, N.W.T., Canada.

*Jackson, F. J. 42 Whitworth-street, Manchester.

tJackson, Mrs. F. J. 42 Whitworth-street, Manchester.

§ Jackson, Geoffrey A. 31 Harrincton-gardens, Kensington, S.W.

tJackson, Henry. 19 Golden-square, Aberdeen.

tJackson, H. W., F.R.A.S. 67 Upgate, Louth, Lincolnshire.

§Jackson, James, F.R.Met.Soc. 34 Lonsdale-square, N.

*Jackson, Sir John. 38 Victoria-street, S.W.

§Jackson, Moses, J.P. The Orchards, Whitchurch, Hants.

§Jacobson, Nathaniel. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Man-
chester.

*Jaffe, John. Villa Jaffe, Nice, France.

*Jaffray, Sir John, Bart. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tJames, Arthur P, Grove House, Park-crove, Cardiff.

*James, Charles Henry. 64 Park-place, Cardiff.

*James, Charles Russell. 6 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C

tJames, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth.

tJames, Frank. Portland House, Aldridge, near Walsall.

tJames, Ivor. University College, Cardiff.

{James, John Herbert. Howard House, Arundel-s'reet, Strand, W.C.

tJames, J. R., L.R.C.P. 158 Cowbridge-road, Canton, Cardiff.

{James,O.S. 192 Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada,

tJames, William C. Woodside, Plymouth.

*Jameson, H. Lyster. Killencoole, Castlebellingham, Ireland.

tJameson, W.C. 48 Baker-street, Portman-square, W.

{ Jamieson, Andrew, Principal of the College of Science and Arts,
Glasgow.

tJamieson, G. Auldjo, 37 i a aaah Edinburgh.

{Jamieson, Patrick. Peterhead, N.B

{Jamieson, Thomas. 1738 Union- street, Aberdeen.

*Jamieson, Thomas F., LL.D., F.G.S. ’ Ellon, Aberdeenshire.

*Jarp, F. R., M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Aberdeen.

*Jarmay, Gustav. Hartford Lodge, Hartford, Cheshire.

tJarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.

tJ efferies, Henry. Plas Newydd, Park-road, Penarth.

*Jeffray, John. 9 Winton-drive, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

SJeffrey, Ki. C., B.A. The University, Toronto, Canada.

Jeffreys, Howel, M.A. 61 Bedford-gardens, Kensington, W.

tJelly, Dr. W. ’Aveleanas, 11 , Valencia, Spain.

§Jenkins, Colonel T. M. Glen Tify, Westwood-road, Southampton.

éJenkins, Henry C., Assoc.M.Inst.0.E., F.C.8, Royal College of
Science, South ‘Kensington, Seva

LIST OF MEMBERS, 653

Year of
Election.

1873. §Jenkins, Major-General J. J. 16 St. James’s-square, S.W.

1880. *Jenxins, Sir Jonn Jones, M.P. The Grange, Swansea.

1852. {Jennings, Francis M., M.R.I.A. Brown-street, Cork.

1893. §Jennings, G. EK. Ashleigh, Ashleigh-road, Leicester.

1897. §Jennings, W. T. 34 St. Vincent-street, Toronto, Canada.

1878. {Jephson, Henry L. Chief Secretary's Office, The Castle, Dublin.

1899. §Jepson, Thomas. Evington, Northumberland-street, Higher Brough-
ton, Manchester.

1887.§§Jervis-Smitag, Rev. F, J., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Oxford.

Jessop, William. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield.

1889. tJevons, I’. B., M.A. The Castle, Durham.

1884, {Jewell, Lieutenant Theo. F. Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.

1891. {Johin, £. Cowbridge, Cardiff.

1884. {Johns, Thomas W. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.

1884.§§JoHnson, ALEXANDER, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in
McGill University, Montreal. 6 Prince of Wales-terrace, Mont-
real, Canada.

1883. {Johnson, Miss Alice. Llandaff House, Cambridge,

1883. {Johnson, Ben. Micklegate, York.

1871. *Johnson, David, F.C.8., F.G.8. 1 Victoria-road, Clapham Common,
S.W.

1883. t{Johnson, Edmund Litler. 73 Albert-road, Southport.

1865. *Johnson, G. J. 86 Waterloo-street, Birmingham,

1888. {Johnson, J. G. Southwood Court, Highgate, N.

1870. tJohnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. 46 Jermyn-street, Liverpool.

1863. {Johnson, R. 8. TLanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.

1881. {Johnson, Sir Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham.

1890. *Jounson, Tuomas, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.

1898. *Johnson, W. Claude, M.Inst.C.E. The Dignaries, Blackheath, S.E,

1887. {Johnson, W. H. Woodleigh, Altrincham, Cheshire.

1883. {Johnson, W. H. F. Llandaff House, Cambridge.

1883. tJohnson, William. Harewood, Roe-lane, Southport.

1861. {Johnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham,
Cheshire.

1899. §Johnston, Colonel Duncan A., R.K. Ordnance Survey, Southampton.

1883. {Jounston, Sir H. H., K.C.B., F.R.G.S. Queen Anne’s Mansions,
S.W.

1859. {Johnston, James. Newmill, Elgin, N.B.

1864. {Johnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, N.W.

1884. {Johnston, John L. 27 St. Peter-street, Montreal, Canada.

1883. {Johnston,Thomas. Lroomsleich, Seal, Sevenoaks.

1884. {Johnston, Walter R. Fort Qu’Appelle, N.W. Territory, Canada,

1884. *Johnston, W. H. County Offices, Preston, Lancashire.

1885. es H. J., M.D., F.G.S. Beaulieu, Alpes Maritimes,

rance,

1886. {Johnstone, G. H. Northampton-street, Birmingham.

1864, JJolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath.

1871. {Jonny, Witrram, F.RS.E., F.G.S. St. Andrew’s-road, Pollok-
shields, Glasgow.

1888. {Jolly, W.C. Home Lea, Lansdowne, Bath.

1896. *Joty, C. J.. M.A. The Observatory, Dunsink, Co. Dublin.

1888. {Jory, Joun, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., Professor of Geology and
Mineralogy in the University of Dublin.

1898.§§ Jones, Alfred L. Care of Messrs. Elder, Dempster, & Co., Liverpool.

I@81. {Jones, Alfred Orlando, M.D. Cardigan Villa, Harrogate.

54

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887.

1890.
1891.
1896.
1887,

1891.
1883.
1895.
1884,
1877.

1881.

1878.
1880.
1860.

1896.
1883.
1891.
1875.
1884.
1891.
1891.
1879.
1890.
1872.
1883.
1886.
1896.
1891.

1848.

1870.

1883.

1868.
1888,

1884.
1875.
1886.
1894.
1894,

1892.

1884.
1864,
1885.
1847,

jJones, D. E., B.Sc., H.M. Inspector of Schools. Science and Art
Department, South Kensington, S.W.

§Jonrs, Rev. Epwarp, F.G.S. Primrose Cottage, Embsay, Skipton.

tJones, Dr. Evan. Aberdare.

tJones, EK. Taylor. University College, Bangor,

jJones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Beaufort House, Alexandra Park,
Manchester.

*Jonus, Rey. G. Hartwett, M.A. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill, Surrey,

*Jones, George Oliver, M.A. Inchyra House, Waterloo, Liverpool.

tJones, Harry. Engineer’s Office, Great Eastern Railway, Ipswich.

tJones, Rey. Harry, M.A. 8 York-cate, Regent’s Park, N. W.

tJones, Henry C., F.C.S. Royal Coliege of Science, South Kensing-
ton, S.W.

*Jonus, J. Virtamu, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of the University
College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff.

tJones, Theodore B. i Finsbury-cireus, F.C.

tJones, Thomas. 15 Gcwer-street, Swansea.

tJonrs, THomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S. 17 Parson’s Green, Ful-
ham, 8. W.

§Jones, W. Hope Bank, Lancaster-road, Pendleton, Manchester.

tJones, William. Elsinore, Birkdale, Southport.

tJones, William Lester, 22 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*Jose, J. K. 49 Whitechapel, Liverpool.

tJoseph, J. H. 738 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada,

tJotham, F. H. Penarth.

ftJotham, T. W. Penylan, Cardiff.

tJowitt, A. Scotia Works, Sheffield.

tJowitt, Benson R. Elmhurst, Newton-road, Leeds.

tJoy, Algernon. Junior United Service Club, St. James’s, S.W.

tJoyce, Rev. A.G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester,

tJoyce, The Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.

tJoyce, Joshua. 151 Walton-street, Oxford.

fJoynes, John J. Great Western Colliery, near Coleford, Gloucester-
shire.

*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax.

{Jupp, Joun Wrs.ey, C.B., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in
the Royal College of Science, London. 22 Cumberland-road,
Kew.

tJustice, Philip M. 14 Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane, W.C.

*Kaines, Joseph, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Osborne-road, Stroud Green-road, N.

{Kapp, Gisbert, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.E. 8 Lindenallee, Westend,
Berlin.

tKeefer, Samuel. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

tKeeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney.

tKeen, Arthur, J.P. Sandyford, Augustus-road, Birmingham.

} Keene, Captain C. T. P., F.Z.S. 11 Queen’s-gate, S.W.

{Keightley, Rev. G. W. Great Stambridge Rectory, Rochford,
Essex.

{ Keller, Alexander, M.D., LL.D., F RSE. 54 Northwnberland-
street, Edinburgh.

{Kelloge, J. H., M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.

*Kelly, W. M., M.D. Ermington, Taunton, Somerset.

§Kerxtin, J. Scorr, LL.D., Sec. R.G.S., F.S.S. 1 Savile-row, W.

*Ketvin, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C V.O., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.RS., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. The University, Glasgow.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS, 55

Election.

1877.
1887.

1898.
1884,
1890.
1891.

1875,
1897.
1884,

1876.
1884.
1884.
1897.
1886,

1893.

1886.
1857.
1876.
1881.
1884.
1887.
1883,

1892.
1889.
1887.
1869,
1869.

18853.
1876,
1886.
1897,
1885.
1896.

1890.
1878.

1860,
1875.

1888.
1888.
1883.
1875.
1871.
1855,
1883.
1870.

*Kkelvin, Lady. The University, Glasgow.

{Kemp, Harry. 55 Wilbraham-road, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Man-
chester.

*Kemp, John T., M.A. 61 Cotham Brow, Bristol.

{Kemper, Andrew C.,A.M., M.D. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati, U.S.A,

§Kempson, Augustus. JGldare, 17 Arundel-road, Eastbourne.

{KenpatL, Percy F., F.G.8., Professor of Geology in Yorkshire
College, Leeds.

{Keynepy, ALEXANDER B. W., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 17 Victoria-
street, S.W., and 1 Queen Anne-street, Cavendish-square, W.

§Kennedy, George, M.A., LL.D. Crown Lands Department, Toronto,
Canada.

{Kennedy, George T., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Geology in King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, Canada.

{Kennedy, Hugh. 20 Mirkland-street, Glasgow.

tKennedy, John. 113 University-street, Montreal, Canada.

tKennedy, William. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.

tKenrick, Frank B. Knesebeckstr. 3iii., Charlottenburg, Berlin.

TKenrick, George Hamilton. Whetstone, Somerset-road, Edgbaston,
Bumingham.

§Kent, A. F. Stantpy, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S8., Professor of Physio-

logy in University Colleze, Bristol.

§KEnWARD, JAuEs, F.S.A. 43 Streatham High-road, 8.W.

*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.

{Ker, William, 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.

{Kermopg, Puitir M. C. Ramsey, Isle of Man.

{Kerr, James, M.D. Winnipeg, Canada.

tKerr, James. Dunkenhalgh, Accrington.

{Kerr, Rey. Jonn, LL.D., F.R.S. Free Church Training College,
Glasgow.

{Kerr, J. Graham. Christ’s College, Cambridge,

{Kerry, W. H. R. Wheatlands, Windermere.

{Kershaw, James. Holly House, Bury New-road, Manchester.

*Kesselmeyer, Charles A. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

*Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

{Kidston, J. B. 50 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

§Kipston, Rosert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 12 Clarendon-place, Stirling.

{Kiekelly, Dr. John, LL.D. 46 Upper Mount-street, Dublin.

*Kilgour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.

*Killey, George Deane. Bentuther, 11 Victoria-road, Waterloo,
Liverpool.

{Kimmins, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Downing College, Cambridge.

{Kinahan, Sir Edward Hudson, Bart. 11 Merrion-square North,

' Dublin.

{Kinawan, G. Henry, M.R.L.A. Dublin.

*Kincu, Epwarp, F.C.8. Royal Agricultural College, Ciren-
cester.

{King, Austin J. Winsley Hill, Limpley Stoke, Bath.

*King, E. Powell. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants.

*King, Francis. Alabama, Penrith.

*King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.

*King, Rey. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourten, Bath.

{King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.

*King, John Godwin. Stonelands, East Grinstead.

{King, John Thomson, 4 Ciayton-square, Livervool.

56

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1883.
1860.

*King, Joseph. Lower Birtley, Witley, Godalming.
*King, Mervyn Kersteman. 3 Clifton-park, Clitton, Bristol.

1899.§§Kine, Sir Groren, K.C.L.E., F.R.S. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co.,

1875.
1870.
1889.
1897,
1875.
1867.
1892.
1899.
1899.
1870.
1890.
1886,

1869,
1886.
1898.
1888.

1887.
1887.
1887.
1874.
1897.
1883.
1885.
1876.
1875.
18853.
1892.
1898.

1890.
1888.

1870,

1858.
1884.
1885.
1897,
1877.
1859.
1889.
1887.

1887.
1883.
1885.
1896.
1893.
1884,

55 Parliament-street, S.W.
*King, Percy L. 2 Worcester-avenue, Clifton, Bristol.
ting, William. 5 Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.
{King, Sir William. Stratford Lodge, Southsea.
{Kingsmill, Nichol. Toronto, Canada.
§Kryezerr, Coartes T., F.C.S. Elmstead Knoll, Chislehurst.
{Kinloch, Colonel. Jirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.
{tKnnear, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E. Blair Castle, Culross, N.B.
*Kirby, Miss C. F. 74 Kensington Park-road, W.
*Kirby, Miss M. A. Field House, Montpelier-road, Buistol.
{Kitchener, Frank E. Newcastle, Staffordshire.
*Krrson, Sir James, Bart., M.P. Gledhow Hall, Leeds.
tlein, Rev. L. M. de Beaumont, D.Sc., F.L.S. 6 Devonshire-road,
* Liverpool.
ioapuaa, Haward: The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter.
{Knicht, J. McK., F.G.S. Bushwood, Wanstead, [ssex.
§Kwocrer, EH. Wottastoy, C.B. Castle Hill House, Dover.
{Knott, Professor Cargill G., D.Sc., F.R.S.1. 42 Upper Gray-street,
Edinburch.
*Knott, Herbert. Aingarth, Stalybridge, Cheshire.
*Knott, John F. Staveleich, Stalybridge, Cheshire.
tKnott, Mrs. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire.
Knowles, William James, Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co, Antrim.
Knowlton, W. H. 36 King-street Kast, Toronto, Canada.
{Knowwlys, Rev. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.
{Knowlys, Mrs. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.
{Knox, David N., M.A., M.B. 24 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.
*Knubley, Rey. 1. P., M.A. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.
{Knubley, Mrs. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.
t{Koun, Cuartrs A., Ph.D. 20 Mulgrave-street, Liverpool.
§Krauss, A, Hawthornden, Priory-road, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton,
Bristol.
*Krauss, John Samuel, B.A. Wilmslow, Cheshire.
*Kunz,G. F. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., 11 Union-square, New
York City, U.S.A. :

{Kynaston, Josiah W.,F.C.S. 3 Oak-terrace, Beech-street, Liverpool.

tLace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds.

tLaflamme, Rev. Professor J.C. K. Laval University, Quebec.

*Laing, J. Gerard. 111 Church-street, Chelsea, S.W.

{tLaind, Professor G. J. Wesley College, Winnipeg, Canada,

tLake, W.C., M.D. Teignmouth.

tLalor, John Joseph, M.R.I.A. City Hall, Cork Hill, Dublin.

*Lamb, Edmund, M.A. Borden Wood, Liphook, Hants.

Lams, Horacz, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the
Owens College, Manchester. 6 Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester,

tLamb, James. Kenwood, Bowdon, Cheshire.

YLamb, W. J. 11 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Lampzrt, Rey. Brooxn, LL.B. The Vicarage, Greenwich, S.E.

§Lambert, Frederick Samuel. Balgowan, Newland, Lincoln.

JLambert, J. W., J.P. Lenton Firs, Nottingham.

{Lamborn, Robert H. Montreal, Canada.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 57

Year of
Election.

1893, {LamwerucH, G. W.,F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-street,
S.W.

1890. t{Lamport, Edward Parke. Greenfield Well, Lancaster.

1884, {Lancaster, Alfred. Fern Bank, Burnley, Lancashire.

1871. tLancaster, Edward. SKaresforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.

1886. {Lancaster, W. J., F.G.8. Colmore-row, Birmingham.

1877. tLandon, Frederic George, M.A., F.R.A.S. 59 Tresillian-road, St.
John’s, S.E.

1883. t{Lang, Rey. Gavin. Mayfield, Inverness.

1859. {Lang, Rey. John Marshall, D.D. Barony, Glasgow.

1898. *Lang, William H. 10 Jedburgh-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

1886. *Lanetry, J. N., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1870. {Langton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.

1865. {Lanxesrpr, i. Ray, M.A., LL.D., I'.R.S., Director of the Natural
History Museum, Cromwell-road, 8. W.

1880. *Lansprxt, Rey. Henry, D.D., F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.S. Morden College,
Blackheath, London, S.E.

1884. §Lanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston,

1878. {Lapper, E., M.D. 61 Ilarcourt-street, Dublin.

1885. {LapwortH, Cuartes, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
and Physiography in the Mason University College, Birmingham.
28 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1887. {Larmor, Alexander, Clare College, Cambridge.

1881. {Larmor, Jospru, M.A.,D.Se., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1883. §Lascelles, B. P., M.A. The Moat, Harrow.

1896. *Last, William J. South Kensington Museum, London, S.W.

1870, *Larnam, Batpwin, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 7 Westminster-chambers,
Westminster, 8.W,

1870. {Laughton, John Knox, M.A.,F.R.G.S. 5 Pepy’s-road, Wimbledon,
Surrey.

1891. tLaurie, A. P. 49 Beaumont-square, I.

1892.§§Laurie, Malcolm, B.A., B.Se., F.LS., Professor of Zoology in St.
Mungo'’s College, Glasgow.

1888. tLaurie, Colonel R. P., C.B. 79 Farringdon-street, E.C.

1883. tLaurie, Major-General. Odaltield, Nova Scotia, Canada.

1870. *Law, Channell. Isham Dene, Torquay.

1878. {Law, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-chambers, 8. W.

1884. §Law, Robert, F.G.S. Fennyroyd Hall, Hipperholme, near Halifax,
Yorkshire.

1870. {Lawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.

1881. {Lawrence, Rey. F., B.A. The Vicarage, Westow, York.

1889. §Laws, W. G., M.Inst.C.E. 65 Osborne-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

1885. {Lawson, James. 8 Church-street, Huntly, N.B.

1888. {Layard, Miss Nina F. 2 Park-place, Fonnereau-road, Ipswich.

1856. {Lea, Henry. 38 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

1883. *Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland.

1875. {Leach, Colonel Sir G., K.0.B., R.E. 6 Wetherby-gardens, S.W.

1894, *Leahy, A. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Firth College.
92 Ashdell-road, Sheffield.

1884, *Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Ireland.

1884, {Learmont, Joseph B. 120 Mackay-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884, *Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.

1872. {Lrnour, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Col-
lege of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1884, {Leckie, R.G. Springhill, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia, Canada.

58 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1895. *Ledger, Rev. Edmund. Proted, Woods-road, Reigate.

1898. §Lxrz, ArtHUR, J.P. 10 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol.

1861. {Lee, Henry. Sedgeley Park, Manchester.

1896. §Lee, Rev. H. J. Barton. South Park View, Ashburton, Devon,

1891. {lee, Mark. The Cedars, Llandatf-road, Cardiff.

1894. *Lee, Mrs. W. Ashdown House, Forest-row.

1884. *Leech, Sir Bosdin T. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.

1896. *Leech, Lady. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.

1887. {Leech, D. J., M.D., Professor of Materia Medica in the Owens
College, Manchester. Elm House, Whalley Range, Manchester.

1892, *Lrrs, Cartes H.,D.Se. Osborne, Belgrave-road, Oldham.

1886. *Lees, Lawrence W. Claregate, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton.

1882, tZees, R. W. Motra-place, Southampton.

1859. tLees, William, M.A. 12 Morningside-place, Edinburgh.

1896. {Lees, William. 10 Norfolk-street, Manchester.

1883. *Leese, Miss H. K. 3 Lord-street West, Southport.

*Leese, Joseph. 3 Lord-street West, Southport.

1889. *Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., C.M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Clifden House,
Twickenham, Middlesex.

1881. {Lz Frevvrr, J. E. Southampton.

1872. {Lerzvre, The Right Hon. G. Suaw. 18 Bryanston-square, W.

1869. tLe Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.

1892. {Lehfeldt, Robert A. 28 South Molton-street, W.

1868. {Letcestmr, The Richt Hon. the Marl of, K.G. Holkham, Norfolk.

1856. {Leien, The Right Hon. Lord. Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth,

1890. {Leigh, Marshall. 22 Goldsmid-road, Brighton.

1891. {Leigh, W. W. Treharris, R.S.O., Glamorganshire.

1867. {Letshman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool.

1859. {Leith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.

1882.§§ Lemon, James, M.inst.C.E., F.G.S. Lansdowne House, Southampton.

1867. tLeng, Sir John, M.P. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.

1878. {Lennon, Rev. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland.

1887. *Leon, John T. 38 Portland-place, W.

1871, {Leonarp, Huen, M.R.L.A. 24 Mount Merrion-avenue, Blackrock,
Co. Dublin.

1874. {Lepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast.

1884, {Lesage, Louis. City Hall, Montreal, Canada.

1890. *Lester, Joseph Henry. Royal Exchange, Manchester.

1883. §Lester, Thomas. Fir Bank, Penrith.

1880. {Lercuzr, R. J. Lansdowne-terrace, Walters-road, Swansea.

1894, {Leudesdorf, Charles. Pembroke College, Oxford.

1896. §Lever, W. H. Port Sunlight, Cheshire.

1887. *Levinstein, Ivan. Hawkesmoor, Fallowfield, Manchester,

1890. §Levy, J.H. 11 Abbeville-road, Clapham Park, S.W.

1893. *Lewes, Vivian B., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.

1879, {Lewin, Colonel, F.R.G.S. Garden Corner House, Chelsea Embank-
ment, 8. W.

1870. {Lewis, Arrrep Lioner. 54 Highbury-hill, N.

1891. tLewis, D., J.P. 44 Parlk-place, Cardiff.

1891.§§ Lewis, Professor D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Aberystwyth.

1899. §Lewis, Professor E. P. University of California, Berkeley, U.S.A.

1897.§§Lewis, Rev. J. Pitt, MA. Care of G. A. Mackenzie, Esq., 18
Toronto-street, Toronto, Canada.

1899. §Lewis, Thomas. 9 Hubert-terrace, Dover.

1891. tLewis, W. Lyncombe Villa, Cowbridge-road, Cardiff.

1891. {Lewis, W. 22 Duke-street, Cardiff.

e

LIST OF MEMBERS. 59

Year of

Election.

1891. {Lewis, W. Henry. Bryn Rhos, Llanishen, Cardiff.

1884, *Lewis, Sir W. T., Bart. The Mardy, Aberdare.

1876. {Lietke, J.O. 30 Gordon-street, Glasgow.

1878. {Lincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire.

1881. *Lindley, William, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S, 74 Shooters Hill-road, Black-
heath, 8.E.

1871. {Lindsay, Rev. T. M., M.A.,D.D. Free Church College, Glasgow.

1898. §Lippincott, R. C. Cann. Over Court, near Bristol.

1883. {Lisle, H. Claud. Nantwich.

1896, “Lister, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L., Pres.R.S. 12 Park-crescent,
Portland-place, W.

1888. {Lister, J. J. Leytonstone, Essex, N.E.

1861. *Liverne, G. D., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge.

1876, *Liversipcr, ARcurBaLp, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, N.S.W.

1880, {Lirwexyy, Sir Joun T. D., Bart., M.P. Penllegare, Swansea.

1865, {Lloyd, G. B., J.P. Edgbaston-grove, Birmingham.

1865. [Lloyd, John. Queen's College, Birmingham.

1886. {Lloyd, J. Henry. Ferndale, Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

1891. *Lloyd, R. J., M.A., D.Litt, F RSE. 49a Grove-street, Liverpool.

1886, {Lloyd, Samuel. Farm, Sparkbrook, Birmingham.

1865, *Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Park Lane House, Woodgreen, Wed-
nesbury.

1897. §Lloyd-Verney, J. H. 14 Hinde-street, Manchester-square, W.

1854. *Lozrey, JamEs Logan, F.G.S. City of London College, Moorgate-
street, E.C.

1892. §Loch, C.8., B.A. 15a Buckingham-street, W.C.

1867. *Locke, John. 144 St. Olaf’s-road, Fulham, 8.W.

1892, {Lockhart, Robert Arthur. 10 Polwarth-terrace, Edinburch.

1863. {LocxyeEr, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., F.R.S. Royal College of Science,
South Kensington, 8. W.

1886, *Lopen, ALFRED, M.A., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the Royal
Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, Staines.

1875. *Lonex, Orrver J., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in
University College, Liverpool. 2 Groye-park, Liverpool.

1894, *Lodge, Oliver W. F. 2 Grove-park, Liverpool.

1889. {Logan, William. Langley Park, Durham.

1896. §Lomas, J. 16 Mellor-road, Birkenhead.

1899. §Loneq, Emile. 6 Rue de la Plaine, Laon, Aisne, France.

1876. {Long, H. A. Brisbane, Queensland.

1883. *Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

1883. {Long, Mrs. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

1883. {Long, Miss. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

1866. {Longden, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby.

1883. {Longe, Francis D. Lowestoft.

1898, *Longfield, Miss Gertrude. High Halston Rectory, Rochester.

1883. {Longmaid, William Henry. 4 Rawlinson-road, Southport.

1875. *Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.S.S. Highlands,
Putney Heath, S.W.

1872. *Longstaff, Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands, Wimbledon,
Surrey.

1881. *Longeitit 0, Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey.

1899. *Longstaff, Tom G., B.A., F.R.Met.Soc. Ridgelands, Wimbledon,

Surrey.
1883. *Longton, E. J,, M.D. Brown House, Blawith, vid Ulverston.

60

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1861.
1894,
1889.
1897.

1883.
1896.

1887.
1886.
1876.
1883.
1875.
1892.
1889.
. *Low, James F, Seaview, Monifieth, by Dundee.

. §Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex.

. §Lowdon, John. St. Hilda’s, Barry, Glamorgan.

. "Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex.

2, {Lowe, D. T. Heriot’s Hospital, Edinburgh.

. "Lows, Epwarp Josnru, F.R.S., F.R.AS., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.M.S.

*Lord, Edward. _Adamroyd, Todmorden.

fLord, Edwin C. E., Ph.D. 247 Washington-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.

fLord, Riley. 75 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Loupon, James, LL.D., President of the University of Toronto,
Canada.

*Louis, D. A., F.C.S. 77 Shirland-gardens, W.

§Louis, Henry, Professor of Mining, Durham College of Science,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Love, Professor A. E. H., M.A., F.R.S. Oxford,

*Love, I. F. J., M.A. The University, Melbourne, Australia.

*Love, James, .R.A.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. 33 Clanricarde-gardens, W.

tLove, James Allen. 8 Eastbourne-road West, Southport.

*Lovett, W. Jesse, F.I.C. 29 Park-crescent, Monkgate, York.

§Lovibond, J. W. Salisbury, Wiltshire.

{Low, Charles W. 84 Westbourne-terrace, W.

Shirenewton Hall, near Chepstow.

. “Lowe, John Landor, M.Inst.C.E. Lansoar, Burton-road, Derby.
. {Lowe, William Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Edin-

bureh.

. {Lowenthal, Miss Nellie. 60 New North-road, Huddersfield.

. [Lowry, George. Manchester.

. {Lubbock, Arthur Rolfe, High Elms, Farnborough, R.S.O., Kent.

» “Luspock, The Right Hon. Sir Joun, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D.,

E.B.S., F.L.S., F.G.8. High Elms, Farnborough, R.S.O., Kent.

. {Lubbock, John B. 14 Berkeley-street, W.

- {Lubbock, Montague, M.D. 19 Grosvenor-street, W.

. [lucas, John. 1 Carlton-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead.

. tLucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, 8.W.

- {Luckley, George. The Grove, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

. *Lucovich, Count A. The Rise, Llandaff.

. Tluden, C.M. 4 Bootham-terrace, York.

- {Lumsden, George E., F.R.A.S. 57 Eim-avyenue, Toronto, Canada.
. “Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

. tLund, Joseph. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

. “Lundie, Cornelius. 82 Newport-road, Cardiff.

- {Lunn, Robert. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court Touse,

Edinburgh,

3. fLunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull.
3. *Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.I., ¥.G.S., Professor of Coal Mining in

Yorkshire College, Leeds. 6 De Grey-road, Leeds.

. “Lupton, Sypnpy, M.A. A. Audley-mansions, 44 Mount-street, W.
. §Lupron, W. C. (Locan TrEasurER), Mayor of Bradford.

. *Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.

. §Luxmore, Dr. C. M. Reading College, Reading.

- {Lyell, Sir Leonard, Bart., M.P., F.G.8. 48 Eaton-place, S.W.

. §Lyle, Professor Thomas R. The University, Melbourne.

. {Lyman, A. Clarence. 84 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada,

. tLyman, H. H. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada.

. [Lynam, James. Ballinasloe, Ireland.

. {lyon, Alexander, jun. 52 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

1896.§ §Lyster, A.G. Dockyard, Coburg Dock, Liverpool.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 62

Year of
Election.

1896.
1862.
1854.

1876.
1868.
1878.

1896.
1897.
1896.
1879.
1883.
1883.
1866.
1896.
1884,
1896.
1854.
1896.

1884,

1886.
1887.
1884.
1884.
1891.

1876.
1868.

1872.
1878.
1892,
1892,
1885.
1899.
1890.
1886.
1884,
1884.
1884,

1883.
1884,
1897.
1881.

1885,

1879.
1897.

{Lyster, Grorcr F. Plas Isaf, Ruthin.
*Lyrn, Ff. Maxwnxt, ¥.0.8. 60 T'inborough-road, S.W.
*MacapaM, Srevenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.C., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh ; and Brighton House
Portobello, Edinburgh. :
*MacapaM, Witttam Ivison, F.R.S.E., F.L.C., F.C.S. Surgeons’
Hall, Edinburgh. @
{MacaristEr, ALEXANDER, M.A., M.D., P.RS., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Cambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge.
Pere nes Donatp, M.A.,M.D., B.Sc. St. John’s College, Cam-
ridge.
Macalister, N. A. S. 2 Gordon-street, W.C.
McAllister, Samuel. 99 Wilcox-street, Toronto, Canada.
Macatium, Professor A. B., Ph.D. The University, Toronto, Canada,
MacAndrew, James J.,P.L.S. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon,
MacAndrew, Mrs. J. J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.
MacAndrew, William. Westwood House, near Colchester,
*M‘Arthur, Alexander. 79 Holland-park, W.
McArthur, Charles. Villa Marina, New Brighton, Cheshire.
Macarthur, D. Winnipeg, Canada.
Macaulay, F.S., M.A. 19 Dewhurst-road, W.
Macavnay, James, A.M., M.D. 4 Wynnstay-gardens, W.
{MacBripr, Professor E. W., M.A. McGill University, Montreal
Canada. ;
t{McCabe, T., Chief Examiner of Patents. Patent Office, Ottawa
Canada. s
{MacCarthy, Rev. E. F. M., M.A. 98 Hagley-road, Birmincham,
*McCarthy, James. Banglolk, Siam. 3
*McCarthy, J. J., M.D. 853 Wellington-road, Dublin.
tMcCausland, Orr. Belfast.
*McClean, Frank, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Rusthall IIouse
Tunbridge Wells. f
*M‘Crectann, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glaseow.
tM‘Cxmvrock, Admiral Sir Francis L., R.N., K.C.B., F.RS.
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, S.W. se
*McClure, J. H., F.R.G.S. Whiston, Prescot.
*M‘Comas, Henry. Homestead, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
*McCowan, John, M.A., D.Sc. University College, Dundee.
tMcCrae, George. 5 Dick-place, Edinburgh.
{MeCrossan, James. 92 Hushisson-street, Liverpool.
§McDiarmid, Jabez. ‘Che Elms, Stanmore, Middlesex.
*MacDonald, Mrs. J. R. 3 Lincoln's Inn Fields, W.C.
tMcDonald, John Allen. Hillsboro’ House, Derby.
tMacDonald, Kenneth. Town Hall, Inverness.
*McDonald, Sir W. C. 891 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
f{MacDonnell, Mrs. F. II. 1433 St. Catherine-street, M ontreal, Canada,
MacDonnell, [Hereules IT. G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.
{Mac Donnell, Rev, Canon J. C.,D.D. Misterton Rectory, Lutterworth,
t{McDougall, John. 85 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada.
JMcEwen, William C. 9 South Charlotte-street, Edinburgh.
t{Macfarlane, Alexander, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physics in the
University of Texas. Austin, Texas, U.S.A.
tMacfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Biology in the
University of Pennsylvania, Lansdowne, Delaware Co., Penn-
sylvania, U.S.A.
{Macfarlane, Walter, jun. 12 Lynedoch-crescent, Glascow,
tMcFarlane, Murray, M.D, #2 Carlton-street, Toronto, Canada,

++

Catt tt

¥++44

62 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of ;

Election.

1867. *M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.

1897. {McGaw, Thomas. Queen’s Hotel, Toronto, Canada.

1888 tMacGeorge, James. 67 Marloes-road, Kensington, W,

1884, {MacGillivray, James, 42 Cathcart-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884, {MacGoun, Archibald, jun., B.A., B.C.L. Dunavon, Westmount
Montreal, Canada. ‘

1885. {Macgregor, Alexander, M.D. 256 Union-street, Aberdeen.

1884, *MacGrecor, JAmEs Gorpon, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physics in Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

1885. INE Gregan Robenteons J.,M.A., M.B. 26 Buchanan-street, Hillhead,

asgow.

1867. *McInrosu, W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Professor
of Natural History in the University of St. Andrews. 2 Abbots-
ford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.

1884. {McIntyre, John, M.D. Odiham, Hants.

1883. {Mack, Isaac A. Trinity-road, Bootle.

1884. §MacKay, A. H., B.Sec., LL.D., Superintendent of Education.

Education Office, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

1885. §Mackay, Joun Yue, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in University
College, Dundee:

1897. {McKay, T. W G., M.D. Oshawa, Ontario, Canada.

1896. *McKechnie, Duncan. Eccleston Grange, Preston.

1873. {McKewnoricx, Joun G., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor
of Physiolory in the University of Glasgow. 2 Florentine-
gardens, Glasgow.

1883. {McKendrick, Mrs. 2 Florentine-gardens, Glasgow.

1897. {McKenzie, John J. 6] Madison-aveoue, Toronto, Canada.

1884, {McKenzie, Stephen, M.D. 26 Finsbury-circus, F.C.

1884. {McKenzie, Thomas, B.A. School of Science, Toronto, Canada.

1883. {Mackeson, Henry. Hythe, Kent.

1872. *Mackey, J. A. 175 Grange-road, S.E.

1867. {Macxre, Samvurt JosepH. 17 Howley-place, W.

1884. {McKilligan, John B. 887 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

1887. {Mackrnper, H. J., M.A., F.R.G.S, Christ Church, Oxford.

1867. *Mackinlay, David. 6 Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glaszow.

1891. tMackintosh, A. C. Temple Chambers, Cardiff.

1850. {Macknight, Alexander. 20 Albany-street, Edinburgh.

1872. *McLacutan, Rozert, F.R.S., F.L.S. West View, Clarendon-road,
Lewisham, 8.E.

1896. {Maclagan, Miss Christian. Ravenscroft, Stirling.

1892, {Mactacan, Sir Doveras, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Medical Jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh. 28
Heriot-row, Edinburgh. :

1892. {Maclagan, Philip R. D. St. Catherine's, Liberton, Midlothian.

1892. {Maclagan, R. Craig, M.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.

1873. {McLandsborough, John, F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Manningham, Bradford
Yorkshire. ,

1885. *M‘Laren, The Hon, Lord, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. 46 Moray-place
Edinburgh.

1860. {Maclaren, Archibald. Summertown, Oxfordshire.

1897. tMacLaren, J. F. 380 Victoria-street, Toronto, Canada.

1873. t{MacLaren, Walter 8. B. Newington House, Edinburgh.

1897. {MacLaren, Rey. Wm., D.D. 57 St. George-street, Toronto
Canada. 2

1892. *Macrean, Maenvs, M.A., F.R.S.E. The University, Glasgow.

1884. {McLennan, Frank. 3817 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884, {McLennan, Hugh. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada,

—

Year of

‘LIST OF MEMBERS, 63

Election.

1884.
1868.

1892.
1861.

1883.
1883.

1878.
1874.
1884.

1867.
1878.
1887.
1883.

1887.
1883.
1883.
1868.
1875.
1896.
1878.
1899.
1887.
1883.
1881.
1874.
1889.
1857.

1896.

tMcLennan, John. Lancaster, Ontario, Canada,

§McLeop, Hersert, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, Staines.

{Macleod, W. Bowman. 16 George-square, Edinburgh,

*Maclure, Sir John William, Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S., F.S.S, Whalley
Range, Manchester.

*McManon, Lieut.-General C. A., F.R.S., F.G.S. 20 Nevern-square,
South Kensington, 8. W.

fMacManon, Major Percy A., R.A., F.R.S. 52 Shaftesbury-
avenue, W.C.

*M‘Master, George, M.A., J.P. Rathmines, Ireland.

{MacMordie, Hans, M.A. 8 Donegall-street, Belfast.

tMcMurrick, J. Playfair. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, U.S.A.

{M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.

{Macnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.

{Maconochie, A. W. Care of Messrs. Maconochie Bros., Lowestoft,

{Macpherson, J. 44 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.

*Macrory, Epwunp, M.A. 19 Pembridge-square, W.

tMacy, Jesse. Grinnell, Iowa, U.S.A.

tMadden, W.H. Marlborough College, Wilts.

{Maggs, Thomas Charles, I'.G.8. 56 Clarendon-villas, West Brighton.

tMagnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich.

*Maenus, Sir Purrir, B.Sc. 16 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W.

{Maguire, Thomas Philip, Lastfield, Lodge-lane, Liverpool.

{Mahony, W. A. 34 College-green, Dublin.

§Makarius, Saleem. ‘Al Mokattam,’ Cairo.

{Mainprice, W. 8. Longecroft, Altrincham, Cheshire.

{Maitland, P.C. 156 Great Portland-street, W.

tMalecolm, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. 72 Nunthorpe-road, York.

tMalcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast.

tMaling, C. T. 14 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tMatrer, Jonny Wir11aM, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.0.8., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Virginia, Albemarle Co. , U.S.A.

*“Manbré, Alexandre. 15 Alexandra-drive, Liverpool.

1897.§§Mancz, Sir H.C. 32 Earl’s Court-square, S.W.
1887. {MancuesteR, The Right Rey. the Lord Bishop of, D.D. Bishop's

1870.
1885.
1888.
1894.
1864,
1888.

1891.
1887.

1870.
1898.
i887.
1883.
1887.
1864,

1894.
1863.

Court, Manchester.

tManifold, W. H., M.D. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

{Mann, George. 72 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen,

{Mann, W. J. Rodney House, Trowbridge.

{Manning, Percy, M.A., F.S.A. Watford, Herts.

{Mansel-Pleydell, J. C., F.G.8. Whatcombe, Blandford.

{Mansercu, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8S. 5 Victcria-street, West-

minster, S.W.

{tManuel, James. 175 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*March, Henry Colley, M.D., F.S.A. Portesham, Dorchester, Dorset-
shire.

tMarcoartu, His Excellency Don Arturo de. Madrid.

*Mardon, Heber. 2 Litfield-place, Clifton, Bristol.

tMargetson, J. Charles. The Rocks, Limpley, Stoke.

{Marginson, James Fleetwood. The Mount, Fleetwood, Lancashire,

{Markham, Christopher A., F.R.Met.Soc. Spratton, Northampton.

tMarxuam, Sir Crements R., K.C.B., F.R.S., Pres.R.G.S., F.S.A.
21 Kecleston-square, 5. W.

{Markoff, Dr. Anatolius, 44 Museum-street, W.C,

tMarley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.

64

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1888.
1888.
1881.

1887.

1884.

1892,
1883.
1887.
1864.
1889.

1889.
1892.

1881.
1890,
1881.
1886.

1849.

1865.
1891,
1899.
1887.

1884.°

1889.
1890.

1865.
1883.
1891.
1878.

1847.

1886.
1879.
1896.
1893.

1891.

1885.

1898.

1883.
1887.

1890.

1865.
1898

1894,

1865.
1889.
1861,

tMarling, W. J. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire,

{Marling, Lady. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

*Marr, J. E., M.A., F.RS., F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

tMarsden, Benjamin. Westleigh, Heaton Mersey, Manchester.

*Marsden, Samuel. 1015 North Leffingwell-avenue, St. Louis,
Missouri, U.S.A.

*Marsden-Smedley, J. B. Lea Green, Cromford, Derbyshire.

*Marsh, Henry. 5 Ladywood-road, houndhay, Leeds.

tMarsh, J. E., M.A. The Museum, Oxford.

{Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 387 Grosvenor-place, Bath.

*MarsHatt, AtrreD, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Political Keonomy
in the University of Cambridge. Balliol Croft, Madineley-road,
Cambridge.

{ Marshall, Frank, B.A. 31 Grosvenor-place, Newcastle-upon- Tyne.

§Marshall, Hugh, D.Sc, F.R.S.E. 181 Warrender Park-road,
Edinburgh.

*Marshall, John, F.R.A.S. 2 Strattan-street, Leeds.

tMarshall, John. Derwent Island, Keswick.

t{Marshall, John Ingham Fearby. 28 St. Saviourgate, York.

*MarsHani, WittiaM Baytey, M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edgbas-
ton, Birmingham.

*MarsHatt, Witiiam P., M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

§Marten, Enwarp Brypon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge.

*Martin, Edward P., J.P. Dowlais, Glamorgan.

§Martin, Miss A. M. Park View, Bayham-road, Sevenoaks.

*Martin, Rev. H. A. Grosvenor Club, London, 8.W.

§Martin, N. H., J.P., F.L.S. Ravenswood, Low Fell, Gateshead-on-
Tyne. :

*Martin, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Northdene, New
Barnet, Herts.

§Martindale, William, F.L.S. 19 Devonshire-street, Portland-
place, W.

*Martineau, Rev. James, LL.D., D.D. 35 Gordon-square, W.C.

tMartineau, R. F. 18 Hightield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

tMarwick, Sir'James, LL.D. Iollermont, Maryhill, Glasgow.

tMarychurch, J.G. 46 Park-street, Cardiff.

tMasaki, Taiso. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street Within,
EC.

{Masxetyng, Nevin Srory, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Basset Down
House, Swindon.

tMason, Hon. J. FE. Fiji.

tMason, James, M.D. Montgomery House, Sheffield.

{Mason, Philip B., F.L.S., F.Z.S. Burton-on-Trent.

*Mason, Thomas. 6G Pelham-road, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

*Massey, William H., M.Inst.C.. Twyford, R.S.O., Berkshire.

t{Masson, Orme, D.Sc. University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.

§Masterman, A. T. University of St. Andrews, N.B.

tMather, Robert V. Birkdale Lodge, Birkdale, Southport.

*Mather, William, M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works, Manchester.

tMathers, J.S. 1 Hanover-square, Leeds.

{Mathews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

§Matkews, E. R. Norris. Cotham-road, Cotham, Bristol.

{Maruews, G. B., M.A., F.R.S. University College, Bangor.

*Mathews, G.S. 32 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Mathews, John Hitchcock. 1 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, W.

*Marurws, Witiram, M.A., F.G.S. 21 Augustus-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 65

Year of
JElection.

‘1881.
1883.
1858.
1885.
1885.
11899,
1893.
1865.
1894.
11876.
1887.

1883.
1885.
1884.
11878.
1871.
1879.
1887.

1881.

1867.

1885.
1879.
1866.
1883.
1896.
1881.
1887.
1847.

1863.
1896.

1862.

1879.
1899.
1880.
1899.
1889.
1863.
1896.

1869.
1886.
1865.
1881.
1893.
1881.
1894.

1899,

tMathwin, Henry, B.A. Bickerton House, Southport.

{Mathwin, Mrs. 40 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Matthews, F.C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire.

{MarrHews, James. Springhill, Aberdeen.

{Matthews, J. Duucan. Springhill, Aberdeen.

§Marrunws, WitL1AM, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, S.W.

{Mavor, Professor James, M.A.,LL.D. University of Toronto, Canada.

*Maw, Grore®, F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.A. Benthall, Kenley, Surrey,

§Maxim, Hiram 8. 18 Queen’s Gate-place, Kensington, S.W.

{ Maxton, John. 6 Belgrave-terrace, Glasgow.

t{Maxwell, James. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.

*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Finnebrogue, Downpatrick.

§May, William, F.G.S. Northfield, St. Mary Cray, Kent,

{Mayall, George. Clairville, Birkdale, Southport.

*Maybury, A. C., D.Sc. 19 Bloomsbury-square, W.C.

*Mayne, Thomas. 38 Castle-street, Dublin.

{Meikie, James, F.S.S. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh,

§Meiklejohn, John W.S., M.D. 105 Holland-road, W.

{Meischke-Smith, W. Rivala Lumpore, Salengore, Straits Settle-
ments.

*Merpora, Rapwart, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.IC., Professor of
Chemistry in the Finsbury Technical College, City and Guilds
of London Institute. 6 Brunswick-square, W.C,

{Mrtprvum, Cuartes, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Marine
House, Beach-road, St. Luke’s, Jersey.

tMellis, Rev. James. 28 Park-street, Southport.

*Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.

{Mer1o, Rev. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.

§Mello, Mrs. J. M. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.

§Mellor, G@. H. Weston, Blundell Sands, Liverpool.

§Melrose, James. Clifton Croft, York.

tMelvill, J. Cosmo, M.A. Kersal Cottage, Prestwich, Manchester.

{Melville, Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen's College,

Galway.

{Melvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.

{Menneer, R. R. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-street,
S.W.

{Mennetz, Huyry T. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,
E.C

{Merivatz, Joun Herman, M.A. Togston Hall, Acklineton,
*Merrett, William H, Royal Mint, Tower Hill, E.
tMerry, Alfred S. Bryn Heulog, Sketty, near Swansea.
§Merryweather, J.C. 4 Whitehall-court, S.W.
*Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tMessent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.
§Metzler, W. H., Professor of Mathematics in Syracuse University,
Syracuse, New York, U.S.A. ;
{Mraxt, Louts C., F.RS., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in
the Yorkshire College, Leeds.
tMiddlemore, Thomas, Holloway Head, Birmingham,
{Middlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
“Middlesbrough, The Right Rey. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of.
Middlesbrough.
§Middleton, A. 25 Lister-gate, Nottingham.
{Middleton, R. Morton, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 46 Windsor-road, Ealing, W.
“Miers, H. A., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy in the
University of Oxford, Magdalen College, Oxford.
E

66

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1889.
1886,
1881.
1885.

1889.

1875.
1895.
1888.
1885.
1886.
1861.
1895.
1884.
1876.
1897.

1868.

1880.

1885.
1882.
1885.
1887.
1898.
1882.

1880.

1855.
1859.
1876.
1883.

1883.

1885.
1885.
1879.

1895.
1885.
1885.
1883.
1878.
1877.
1884.
1887.

1891.
1882.

1892.
1872,

tMilburn, John D. Queen-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Miles, Charles Albert. Buenos Ayres.

{Mizes, Morris. Warbourne, Hill-lane, Southampton.

§ Mitt, Huex Rosert, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Librarian R.G.S, 22 Glouces-

ter-place, Portman-square, W.

*Millar, Robert Cockburn. 30 York-place, Edinburgh.

Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E, Perth.

tMiller, George. Brentry, near Bristol.

tMiller, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Bosmere House, Norwich-road, Ipswich.

{Miller, J. Bruce. Rubislaw Den North, Aberdeen.

{Miller, John. 9 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

{Miller, Rev. John, B.D, The College, Weymouth.

*Miller, Robert. Totteridge House, Hertfordshire, N.

§Miller, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Thoroughfare, Ipswich.

{Miller, T. F., B.Ap.Sc. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.

tMiller, Thomas Paterson. Cairns, Cambuslang, N.B.

{Miller, Willet G., Professor of Geology in Queen’s University,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada.

*Mitis, Epmunp J., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Young Professor of
Technical Chemistry in the Glasgow and West of Scotland
Technical College, Glasgow. 60 John-street, Glaseow.

§Mills, Mansfeldt H., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Sherwood Hall, Mans-
field.

{Milne, Alexander D. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

*Mitne, Jouy, F.R.S., F.G.S. Shide Hill House, Shide, Isle of Wight.

{Milne, William. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

{Milne-Redhead, R., F.L.S. Holden Clough, Clitheroe.

*Milner, S. Roslington, B.Sc. Owens College, Manchester.

{Milnes, Alfred, M.A., F.S.S. 224 Goldhurst-terrace, South Hamp-
stead, N.W.

{Mincutn, G. M., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
Royal Indian Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, Surrey.

{Mirrlees, James Buchanan. 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow.

tMitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen.

{Mitchell, Andrew. 20 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

{Mitchell, Charles T., M.A. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
V

WV.

{Mitchell, Mrs. Charles T, 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,

W.

{Mitchell, Rev. J. Mitford, B.A. 6 Queen’s-terrace, Aberdeen.

{Mitchell, P. Chalmers. Christ Church, Oxford.

+Mrvart, St. Grorex, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.Z.S. 77 In-

verness-terrace, W.

*Moat, William, M.A. Johnson, Eccleshall, Staffordshire.

{Moffat, William. 7 Queen’s-gardens, Aberdeen.

{Moir, James. 25 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

{Mollison, W. L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.

{Molloy, Constantine, Q.C. 65 Lower Leeson-street, Dublin.

*Molloy, Right Rev. Gerald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

{Monaghan, Patrick. Halifax (Box 317), Nova Scotia, Canada.

*Monp, Lupwic, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 20 Avenue-road, Regent's
Park, N.W.

*Mond, Robert Ludwig, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G,S. 20 Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

*Montagu, Sir Samuel, Bart., M.P, 12 Kensington Palace-gardens, W.

+Montgomery, Very Rev. J. F. 17% Athole-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 3 Porchester-place, Edgware-road, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 67

Year of
Election. ‘
1872. {Moon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton. :

1896. {Moore, A. W., M.A. Woodbourne House, Douglas, Isle of Man. ‘!

1884. {Moore, George Frederick. 49 Hardman-street, Liverpool.

1894. §Moore, Harold E. 41 Bedford-row, W.C.

1891. {Moore, John. Lindenwood, Park-place, Cardiff.

1890. {Moore, Major, R.E. School of Military Engineering, Chatham.

1857. *Moore, Rev. William Prior. Carrickmore, Galway, Ireland.

1896. “Mordey, W. M. Princes-mansions, Victoria-street, S.W.

1891. {Morel, P. Lavernock House, near Cardiff,

1881. {Morean, ALFRED. 50 West Bay-street, Jacksonville, Florida,
U.S.A

S.A.

1895.§§ Mor@an, C. Lion, F.R.S., F.GS., Principal of University College,
Bristol. 16 Canynge-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1873. {Morgan, Edward Delmar, F.R.G.S. 15 Roland-gardens, South
Kensington, 8. W.

1891. {Morgan, F. Forest Lodge, Ruspidge, Gloucestershire,

1896, §Morgan, George. 61 Hope-street, Liverpool.

1887. {Morgan, John Gray. 88 Lloyd-street, Manchester,

1882. §Morgan, Thomas, J.P. Cross House, Southampton,

1892. {Morison, John, M.D., F.G.S. Victoria-street, St. Albans.

1889. §Morison, J. Rutherford, M.D. 14 Saville-row, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

1893. iMeslandl, John, J.P. Glastonbury.

1891. {Morley, H. The Gas Works, Cardiff. .

1883. *Mortry, Henry Forster, M.A.,D.Sc.,F.0.8. 47 Broadhurst-gar-
dens, South Hampstead, N.W.

1889. {Mortey, The Right Hon. Jonn, M.A., LL.D; MiP FERS;
95 Elm Park-gardens, S.W.

1896. {Morrell, R. 8. Caius College, Cambridge. t

1881. {Morrell, W. W. York City and County Bank, York. '

1883, {Morris,C.S. Millbrook Iron Works, Landore, South Wales. a

1892. }Morris, Danrer, C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.LS. Barbados, West
Indies.

1899. §Morris, G. Harris, Ph.D., F.1.0. 18 Gwendwr-road, West Ken:
sington, W.

1883. {Morris, George Lockwood. Millbrook Iron Works, Swansea.

1880. §Morris, James. 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea.

1883. tMorris, John. 4 The Elms, Liverpool.

1896. *Morris, J. T. 12 Somers-place, W.

1888. {Morris, J. W., F.L.S. The Woodlands, Bathwick Hill, Bath.

Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S._ Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.

1874. §Morrison, G. J., M.Inst.C.E. Shanghai, China.

1871. *Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinburgh. .

1899. §Morrow, Captain John, M.Sc. 7 Rockleaze-avenue, Sneyd Park,
Bristol. :

1865. {Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Driffield.

1869. {Mortimer, William. Bedford-cireus, Exeter.

1857. §Morton, Grorce H., F.G.S. 209 Edge-lane, Liverpool.

1858. *Morron, Henry JoserH. 2 Westbourne-villas, Scarborough,

1887. {Morton, Perey, M.A. Illtyd House, Brecon, South Wales.

1886. *Morton, P. F. Hocklitfe Grange, Leighton Buzzard. ;

1896. *Morton, William B., M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy ‘in
Queen’s College, Belfast.

1883. {Moseley, Mrs. Firwood, Clevedon, Somerset.

1878. *Moss, Joun Francis, F.R.G.S. Beechwood, Brincliffe, Sheffield.

1876, §Moss, Ricuarp Jackson, F.1.0., M.R.LA. Royal Dublin Society,
and St. Aubyn’s, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin. :

; B2

68

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Biection.

1864,
1892.
18738.
1892.
1666.
1856.
1878.

1863.
1861.

1877.

1899.
1887.
1888.
1884,

1884.
1899.
1894.
1876.
1874.
1872.

1876,
18858.
1883.
1891.
1884,
1880.
1897.
1398.

1876.

*Mosse, J. R. 5 Chiswick-place, Eastbourne.

tMossman, R. C., F.R.S.E. 10 Blacket-place, Edinburgh.

{ Mossman, William. Ovenden, Halifax.

*Mostyn, S.G., M.A. 19 Peak-hill, Sydenham, 8.E.

{Morr, Frepericx T., F.R.G.S. Crescent House, Leicester.

tMould, Rev. J.G.,B.D. Roseland, Meadfoot, Torquay.

*Mouxron, J. Fuercuer, M.A., Q.C., M.P., F.R.S. 57 Onslow-
square, 5. W.

{Mounsey, Edward. Sunderland.

*Mountcastle, William Robert. The Wigwam, Ellenbrook, near
Manchester.

{Mcunt-Epecumse, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount-
Edgeumbe, Devonport.

§Mowll, Martyn. Chaldercot, Leyburne-road, Dover.

{Moxon, Thomas B. County Bank, Manchester.

{Moyle, R. E., M.A., F.C.S. Heightley, Chudleigh, Devon.

{Moyse, C. E., B.A., Professor of English Language and Literature
in McGill College, Montreal. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal,
Canada.

{Moyse, Charles E. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Muff, Herbert B. Aston Mount, Heaton, Bradford, Yorkshire.

{Mugliston, Rev. J.. M.A. Newick House, Cheltenham.

*Muir, Sir John, Bart. Demster House, Perthshire.

t{Murr, M. M. Partison, M.A. Caius College, Cambridge.

*Muirhead, Alexander, D.Sc., F.C.S. 2 Prince’s-street, Storey’s-gate,
Westminster, S.W.

*Muirhead, Robert Franklin, M.A., B.Sc. 14 Kerrsland-street,
Hillhead, Glasgow.

{Murwat, Micuart G. Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co. Dublin,

{Mulhall, Mrs. Marion, Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co. Dublin.

{Mirurr, The Right Hon. F. Max, M.A., Professor of Comparative
Philology in the University of Oxford. 7 Norham-gardens,
Oxford.

*Mizter, Hvueo, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 15 Park-square Last,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

{Muller, Hugo M. 1 Griinanger-gasse, Vienna.

{Mullins, W. E. Preshute House, Marlborough, Wilts.

§Mumford, C. E. Bury St. Edmunds.

Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, E.C.

{Munro, Donald, M.D., F.C.S. The University, Glasgow.

1898.§§Munro, John, Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the Merchant

1885.
1855.
1890.
1889.
1884.
1887.
1891.

1859.
1884.

1884.

1872.

Venturers’ Technical College, Bristol.

*Muwro, Ropert, M.A., M.D. 48 Manor-place, Edinburgh.

{Murdoch, James Barclay. Capelrig, Mearns, Renfrewshire.

{Murphy, A. J. Preston House, Leeds.

{Murphy, James, M.A., M.D. Holly House, Sunderland.

§Murply, Patrick. Marcus-square, Newry, Ireland.

{Murray, A. Hazeldean, Kersal, Manchester,

t{Murray, G. R. M, FERS, F.RSE., F.LS. British Museum
(Natural History), South Kensington, 8. W. :

{Murray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.

{Mourray, Sir Jony, K.C.B., LL.D., Ph.D., F.RS., F.R.S.E. Chal-
lenger Lodge, Wardie, Edinburgh.

{Murray, J. Clark, LL.D., Professor of Logic and Mental and Moral
Philosophy in McGill University, Montreal. 111 McKay-street,
Montreal, Canada, f

{Murray, J. Jardine, F.R.C.S.E. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 69

Year of
Election.

1892. {Murray, T.S. 1 Nelson-street, Dundee.

1863. {Murray, William, M.D. 9 Ellison-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1874. §Musgrave, Sir James, Bart., J.P. Drumglass House, Belfast.

1897. tMusgrave, James, M.D. 511 Bloor-street West, Toronto, Canada.

1870, *Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.

1891. {Muybridge, Kadweard. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
U.S.A.

1890, *Myres, Joun L., M.A., F.S.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

1886. {Nacet, D. Hi., M.A. Trinity College, Oxford.

1892. *Nairn, Michaei B. Ronkielor, Springfield, Fife.

1890. §Nalder, Francis Henry. 384 Queen-street, E.C.

1876. {Napier, James 8. 9 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

1872, {Narrs, Admiral Sir G. S., KCB, RN, F.RS., F.R.GS.
11 Claremont-road, Surbiton.

1887. {Nason, Professor Henry B., Ph.D. Troy, New York, U.S.A.

1896. {Neal, James E., U.S. Consul. 26 Chapel-street, Liverpool,

1887. §Neild, Charles. 19 Chapel Walks, Manchester.

1883. *Neild, Theodore, B.A. ‘The Vista, Leominster.

1887. { Neill, Joseph S. Claremont, Broughton Park, Manchester.

1887. {Neill, Robert, jun. Beech Mount, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

1855. {Neilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow.

1897. {Nesbitt, Beattie S. A., M.D. 71 Grosvenor-street, Toronto, Canada.

1868. {Nevill, Rev. H. R. The Close, Norwich.

1898. §Nevill, Rey. J. H. N. The Vicarage, Stoke Gabriel, South Devon.

1866, *Nevill, The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of
Dunedin, New Zealand.

1889, {Nervittp, F. H., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney College, Cambridge.

1869, {Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 3 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

1889. *Newall, H. Frank. Madingley Rise, Cambridge.

1886. tNewbolt, F.G. Oakley Lodge, Weybridge, Surrey.

1889. § Newstead, A. H. L., B.A. Rose Villa, Prospect-road, Snakes-lane,
Woodford.

1860. *Newron, ALrrep, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Mag-
dalene College, Cambridge.

1892. tNewron, E. T., F.R.S., F.G.8. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
S.W.

1867. {Nicholl, Thomas. Dundee.

1866. {NicHotsoy, Sir Cuartzs, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. The Grange, Totteridge, Herts.

1887. *Nicholson, John Carr. Moorfield House, Headingley, Leeds.

1884, {Nicnoxson, Josnpa §., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Political Economy in
the University of Edinburgh. Eden Lodge, Newbattle-terrace,
Edinburgh,

1883. {Nicholson, Richard, J.P. Whinfield, Hesketh Park, Southport.

1887. {Nicholson, Robert H. Bourchier, 21 Albion-street, Hull.

1893, {Nickolls, John B., F.C.S. The Laboratory, Guernsey.

1887. {Nickson, William. Shelton, Sibson-road, Sale, Manchester.

1885.§§Nicol, W. W. J., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 15 Blacket-place, Edinburgh,

1896. {Nisbet, J. Tawse. 175 Lodge-lane, Liverpool.

1878, {Niven, Cuarves, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Aberdecn. 6 Chanonry, Old

. Aberdeen.

1877. {Niven, Professor James, M.A. King's College, Aberdeen.

70 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1874. {Nixon, Randal C.J., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.

1863. *Nosie, Sir Anprew, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Elswick
Works, and Jesmond Dene House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. —

1879. tNoble, T.S. Lendal, York.

1886. {Nock, J. B. Mayfield, Penns, near Birmingham,

1887. {Nodal, John H. The Grange, Heaton Moor, near Stockport.

1870, {Nolan, Joseph, M.R.I.A. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

1863. §NormAn, Rev. Canon Atrrep MErRtz#, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.L.S. The Red House, Berkhamsted.

1888. {Norman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath.

1865, {Norris, Ricuarp, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham,

1872. {Norris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales.

1883, *Norris, William G. Dale House, Coalbrookdale, R.S.O., Shropshire,

Norton, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. 35 Eaton-place, 8.W.;

and Hamshall, Birmingham.

1886. {Norton, Lady. 35 Eaton-place,S.W.; and Hamshall, Birmingham,

1894.§§Norovzt, 8. A., LL.M., B.A., B.Sc. 98 Anglesea-road, Ipswich.

Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.

1896. {Nugent, the Right Rey. Monsignor. 1S Adelaide-terrace, Waterloo,
Liverpool.

1887. tNursey, Perry Fairfax. 2 Trafalgar-buildings, Northumberland-
avenue, London, W.C,

1898. *O’Brien, Neville Forth. Queen Anne’s-mansions, 8. W.
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.

1878. tO’Conor Don, The. Clonalis, Castlerea, Ireland.

1883. tOdgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D. 4 Elm-court, Temple, E.C.

1858, *Optine, Witii1am, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Waynflete Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens,
Oxford.

1884, {Odlum, Edward, M.A. Pembroke, Ontario, Canada.

1857. {O’Donnavan, William John. 54 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar,
Dublin.

1894. §Ogden, James. Kilner Deyne, Rochdale.

1896, {Ogden, Thomas. 4 Prince’s-avenne, Liverpool.

1885. {Ogilvie, Alexander, LL.D. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.

1876. {Ogilvie,Campbell P. Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffolk.

1885. {Ocitvin, F. Grant, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Heriot Watt College,
Edinburgh.

1859. {Ogilvy, Rev. C. W. Norman. Baldan House, Dundee.

*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby.

1884, {O’Halloran, J. 8.,O0.M.G. Royal Colonial Institute, Northumber-
land-avenue, W.C.

1881. {Oldfield, Joseph. Lendal, York.

1887. {Oldham, Charles. Romiley, Cheshire.

1896. {Oldham, G. S. Town Hall, Birkenhead.

1892. {Oldham, H. Yule, M.A., F.R.G.S., Lecturer in Geography in the
University of Cambridge. King’s College, Cambridge. ;

1853. {OLtpHaM, JAmus, M.Inst.C.K. Cottingham, near Hull.

1885. {Oldham, John. River Plate Telegraph Company, Monte Video.

1893. *Oldham, R. D., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India. Care of Messrs,
H. 8S. King & Co., Cornhill, F.C.

1892. {Oliphant, James. 50 Palmerston-place, Edinburgh.

1863, {OLivER, Dantet, LL.D.,F.RBS., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of Botany
in University College, London. 10 Kew Gardens-road, Kew,
Surrey.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 71

Year of
Election.

1887. {Oxtver, F. W., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in University
College, London. The Tower House, Tite-street, Chelsea, S.W.

1883. §Oliver, Samuel A. Bellingham House, Wigan, Lancashire.

1889, §Oliver, Professor T., M.D. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1882. §Olsen, O. T., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s-terrace, Grimsby,

1860. *Ommanney, Admiral Sir Erasmus, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.R.G.S. 29 Connaught-square, Hyde Park, W.

1880. *Ommanney, Rey. E. A. St. Michael’s and All Angels, Portsea,
Hants.

1872. {Onslow, D. Robert. New University Club, St. James’s, S.W.

1883. {Oppert, Gustav, Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Berlin.

1867. TOrchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee,

1885. Ord, Miss Maria. Fern Lea, Park-crescent, Southport.

1880. {O’Reilly, J. P., Professor of Mining and Mineralogy in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.

1899, §Orling, Axel. Moorgate Station-chambers, E.C.

1858. {Ormerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.

1883. {Orpen, Miss. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

1884. *Orpen, Lieut.-Colonel R. T., R.E. Care of G. H. Orpen, Esq.,
Erpingham, Bedford Park, Chiswick.

1884. *Orpen, Rey. T. H., M.A. Binnbrooke, Cambridge.

1838. Orr, Alexander Smith. 57 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin,

1899. §Osborn, Dr. F. A. The Chalet, Dover.

1897. {Osborne, James K. 40 St. Joseph-street, Toronto, Canada.

1887. §O’Shea, L. T., B.Sc. University College, Sheffield.

*OstER, A. Fotztert, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

1897. {Osler, E. B., M.P. Rosedale, Toronto, Canada

1865. *Osler, Henry F. Coppy Hill, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove,
Birmingham.

1884. {Ostur, Professor WinrtAM, M.D., F.R.S. Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, U.S.A.

1884, {O’Sullivan, James, F.C.S. 71 Spring Terrace-road, Burton-on-
Trent.

1882. *Oswald, T. R. Castle Hall, Milford Haven.

1881. *Ottewell, Alfred D. 14 Mill Hill-road, Derby.

1896. tOulton, W. Hillside, Gateacre, Liverpool.

1882. {Owen, Rev. C. M., M.A. St. George’s, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

1889. *Owen, Alderman H.C. Compton, Wolverhampton.

1896, §Owen, Peter. The Elms, Capenhurst, Chester.

1889. {Page, Dr. F. 1 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1883. {Page, George W. Fakenham, Norfolk.

1883. {Page, Joseph Edward. 12 Saunders-street, Southport.

1894, {Paget, Octavius. 158 Fenchurch-street, E.C.

1898. §Paget, The Right Hon. Sir R. H., Bart. Cranmore Hall, Shepton
Mallet.

1884, {Paine, Cyrus F. Rochester, New York, U.S.A.

1875. {Paine, William Henry, M.D. Stroud, Gloucestershire.

1870. *Parerave, R. H. Ivers, F.R.S., F.S.S8. Belton, Great Yarmouth,

1896, {Pallis, Alexander. Tatoi, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.

1889, a Sir CuHartes Mark, Bart., M.P. Grinkle Park, York
shire, :

1878. *Palmer, Joseph Edward. Rose Lawn, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.

1866. §Palmer, William. Waverley House, Waverley-street, Nottingham,

1872. *Palmer, W. R. 49 Tierney-road, Streatham Hill, S.W.

1883. {Pant, F. J. Vander. Clifton Lodge, Kingston-on-Thames.

72 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1886. {Panton, George A., F.R.S.E. 73 Westfield-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

1883. {Park, Henry. Wigan.

1883, {Park, Mrs. Wigan.

1880, *Parke, George Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. St. John’s, Wakefield,
Yorkshire. ;

1898.§§Parker, G., M.D. 14 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1863. {Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1886. {Parker, Lawley. Chad Lodge, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1899. §Parker, Mark. 30 Upper Fant-road, Maidstone.

1891. {Parker, William Newton, Ph.D., F.Z.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Cardiff.

1899. *Parkin, John. Blaithwaite, Carlisle.

1879. {Parkin, William. The Mount, Sheffield.

1887. §Parkinson, James. Greystones, Langho, Blackburn.

1859. {Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. Yewbarrow House, Grange-over-Sands..

1862. *Parnell, John, M.A. Hadham House, Upper Clapton, N.E.

1883. {Parson, T. Cooke, M.R.C.S. Atherston House, Clifton, Bristol.

1865. *Parsons, Charles Thomas. Mountlands, Norfolk-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

1878. {Parsons, Hon. C. A., F.R.S., M.Inst.0.E. Holeyn Hall, Wylam-
on-Tyne.

1883. {Part, Isabella. Rudleth, Watford, Herts.

1898. “Partridge, Miss Josephine M. Girton College, Cambridge.

1898.§§Pass, Alfred C. Clifton Down, Bristol.

1881. {Patchitt, Edward Cheshire. 128 Derby-road, Nottingham.

1887. {Parrrson, A. M., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in University College,.
Liverpool.

1897. {Paterson, John A. 23 Walmer-road, Toronto, Canada.

1896. {Paton, A. A. Greenbank-drive, Wavertree, Liverpool.

1897.§§Paton, D. Noél, M.D. 33 George-square, Edinburgh.

1883. *Paton, Henry, M.A. 32 Shandon-crescent, Edinburgh.

1884. *Paton, Hugh. Care of the Sheddon Co., Montreal, Canada.

1871. *Patterson, A. Henry. 16 Ashburn-place, S.W.

1876. {Patterson,T. L. Maybank, Greenock.

1874. {Patterson, W. H.,M.R.LA. 26 High-street, Belfast.

1863. {Parrinson, Jonny, F.C.S. 75 The Side, Newcastle-upon-Tyne..

1867. { Pattison, Samuel Rowles. 11 Queen Victoria-street, E.C.

1879. *Patzer, F. R. Clayton Lodge, Newcastle, Statfordshire.

1863. {Paul, Benjamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W..

1892. {Paul, J. Balfour. 30 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

1863. {Pavy, Freperick WitiraM, M.D., F.R.S. 35 Grosvenor-street, W..

1887. *Paxman, James. Stisted Hall, near Braintree, Essex.

1887. *Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cucktield, Hayward’x
Heath.

1881. {Payne, J. Buxton. 15 Mosley-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1877. *Payne, J. C. Charles. 1 Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.

1881. {Payne, Mrs. 1 Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.

1866, {Payne, Joseph F., M.D. 78 Wimpole-street, W.

1888. *Paynter, J. B. Hendford Manor House, Yeovil.

1886. {Payton, Henry. Wellington-road, Birmingham.

1876, {Peace, G. H. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester.

1879. {Peace, William K. Moor Lodge, Sheftield.

1885. {Pxzacu, B. N., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office,
Edinburgh.

1883. { Peacock, Ebenezer. 8 Mandeville-place, Manchester-square, W.

1875. {Peacock,Thomas Francis, 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, W.C.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 73

Year of
Election.

1881. *Pxrance, Horacn, F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. The Limes, Stourbridge.

1886. *Pearce, Mrs. Horace. ‘The Limes, Stourbridge.

1884, {Pearce, William. Winnipeg, Canada.

1886, {Pearsall, Howard D, 19 Willow-road, Hampstead, N.W.

1883. {Pearson, Arthur A. Colonial Office, S.W.

1891. {Pearson, B. Dowlais Hotel, Cardiff.

1893. *Pearson, Charles E. Chilwell House, Nottinghamshire.

1898. §Pearson, George. Baldwin-street, Bristol.

1883. {Pearson, Miss Helen KE, 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

1881. {Pearson, John. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.

1883. {Pearson, Mrs. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.

1872. *Pearson, Joseph. Grove Farm, Merlin, Raleigh, Ontario, Canada.

1892. {Pearson, J. M. John Dickie-street, Kilmarnock.

1881. {Pearson, Richard. 57 Bootham, York.

1883. *Pearson, Thomas H. Redclyffe, Newton-le- Willows, Lancashire.

1889. {Pease, Howard. Enfield Lodge, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1863. {Pease, Sir Joseph W., Bart., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Guis-
borough.

1863. {Pease, J. W. Newcastle-upon-Tyné.

Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.
*Peckover, Alexander, LL.D., F.S.A.. F.LS., F.R.G.S. {Bank

House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.

1888. {Peckover, Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.

1885. {Peddie, William, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 2 Cameron-park, Edinburgh,

1884, tPeebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin.

1883. ep CuruBert E., Bart.. M.A., F.S.A. 22. Beigrave-square,
S.W

1878. *Peek, William. The Manor House, Kemp Town, Brighton.

1881. {Peggs, J. Wallace. 21 Queen Anne’s-gate, 8. W.

1861. *Peile, George. Greenwood, Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.

1878. {Pemberton, Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln’s Inn-tields, W.C.

1887. §PenpLesury Wituam H., M.A., F.C.S. 6 Gladstone-terrace,
Priory Hill, Dover.

1894. §Pengelly, Miss. Lamorna, Torquay.

1894. §Pengelly, Miss Hester. Lamorna, Torquay.

1897, {PeNHALLow, Professor D. P., M.A. McGill University, Montreal,
Canada.

1896.§§Pennant, P,P. Nantlys, St. Asaph.

1898.§§Pentecost, Harold, B.A. Clifton College, Bristol.

1881. {Penty, W. G. Melbowrne-street, York.

1875. {Perceval, Rey. Canon John, M.A., LL.D. ~Rugby.

1889. {Percival, Archibald Stanley, M.A., M.B. 16 Ellison-place, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

- 1898.§§Percival, Francis W., M.A., F.R.G.S. 2 Southwick-place, W.

1895. §Percival, John, M.A., Professor of Botany in the South-Eastern.
Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

*Perigal, Frederick. Lower Kingswood, Reigate.

1894, {Perkin, A. G., F.RS.E, F.C.8., F.LC. 8 Montpelier-terrace,
Woodhouse Cliff, Leeds.

1868. *Prrxin, Witt1am Heyry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Chestnuts,
Sudbury, Harrow, Middlesex.

1884, {PrrKin, WitttaM Honry, jun., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Organic Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester.

1864, *Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.

1898. *Perman, E. P, University College, Cardiff.

1885, {Perrin, Miss Emily. 381 St John’s Wood Park, N.W.

1886, {Perrin, Henry S. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, N.W.

74 ‘ LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1886. {Perrin, Mrs. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, N.W.

1874, *Perry, Joun, M.E., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Mechanics and
Mathematics in the Royal College of Science, S.W.

1883. {Perry, Ottley L., F.R.G.S. Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.

1883. {Perry, Russell R. 34 Duke-street, Brighton.

1897. {Peters, Dr. George A. 171 College-street, Toronto, Canada,

1898. §Pethick, William. Woodside, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

1883. {Petrie, Miss Isabella. Stone Hill, Rochdale.

1895. §Prrrie, W. M. Frinpers, D.C.L., Professor of Egyptology in Uni-
versity College, W.C.

1871. *Peyton, John E, H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 13 Fourth-avenue, Brighton.

1886. {Phelps, Major-General A. 23 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham,

1886, {Phelps, Hon, KE. J. American Legation, Members’ Mansions, Victoria-
street, S.W.

1863, *PuHEnf, Joun Samvet, LL.D.,F.S.A., F.G.8S., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton-=
terrace, Oakley-street, S.W.

1896.§§Philip, George, jun. Weldon, Bidston, Cheshire.

1892. {Philip, R. W., M.D. 4 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

1870. {Philip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.

1853, *Philips, Rey. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.

1853, *Philips, Herbert. The Oak House, Macclesfield.

1877. §Philips, T. Wishart. Elizabeth Lodge, George-lane, Woodford, Essex.

1863, {Philipson, Dr. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1883. {Phillips, Arthur G. 20 Canning-street, Liverpool.

1899. §Phillips, Charles E. 8. Castle House, Shooter’s Hill, Kent.

1894, §Phillips, Staff-Commander E. C. D., R.N., F.R.G.S. 14 Hargreaves=
buildings, Chapel-street, Liverpool.

1887. {Phillips, H. Harcourt, F.0.S. 183 Moss-lane East, Manchester.

1892. §Phillips, J. H. Poole, Dorset.

1890. §Phillips, R. W., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Biology in University
College, Bangor. :

1883. {Phillips, S. Rees. Wonford House, Exeter.

1881. {Phillips, William. 9 Bootham-terrace, York.

1898.§§Philps, Captain Lambe. 7 Royal-terrace, Weston-super-Mare.

1868. {Phipson, T. L., Ph.D., F.C.S. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey, S.W,

1884, *Pickard, Rev. H. Adair, M.A. Airedale, Oxford.

1883, *Pickard, Joseph William. Oatlands, Lancaster.

i894, {Pickarp-CampringE, Rey. O., M.A., F.R.S. Bloxworth Rectory,
Wareham.

1885. *PickERING, Spencer P. U., M.A., F.R.S. Harpenden, Herts.

1884, *Pickett, Thomas E., M.D. Maysville, Mason Co., Kentucky, U.S.A.

1896. {Picton, W. H. College-avenue, Crosby, Liverpool.

1888. *Pidgeon, W. R. 42 Porchester-square, W.

1871. {Pigot, Thomas F.,M.R.I.A. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

1884. {Pike, L. G., M.A., F.Z.S. 12 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, E.C.

1865. {Prxe, L.Owrn. 44 Marlborough-cate, Hyde Park, W.

1873. {Pike, W. H., M.A., Ph.D,, Professor of Chemistry in the University
of Toronto, Canada.

1896. *Pillkington, A.C. The Hazels, Prescot, Lancashire.

1896. *Pilling, William. Rosario, Keene-road, West Worthing.

1877. {Pim, Joseph T, Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

1868. {Pinder, T. R. St. Andrew’s, Norwich.

1876, {Prrie, Rey. G., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Aberdeen. 33 College Bounds, Old Aberdeen,

1887. {Pitkin, James, 56 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, E.C.

1875. {Pitman, John, Redcliff Hill, Bristol.

Ls

LIST OF MEMBERS. 75

Year of
Election.

1883. {Pitt, George Newton, M.A.,M.D. 24 St. Thomas-street, S.E.

1864, {Pitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.

1883. {Pitt, Sydney. 16 St. Andrew’s-street, Holborn-circus, E.C.

1893. *Pirr, Watter, M.Inst.C.E. South Stoke House, near Bath.

1868. {Pirr-Rivers, Lieut.-General A. H. L., D.C.L., F.RS., F.GS.,
F.S.A. Rushmore, Salisbury.

1884. *Playfair, W. S., M.D., LL.D., Professor of Midwifery in King’s
College, London. 38 Grosvenor-street, W.

1898. §Playne, H.C. 28 College-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1883. *Plimpton, R.T.,M.D. 23 Lansdowne-road, Clapham-road, 8.W,

1893, {Plowright, Henry J. Brampton Foundries, Chesterfield.

1897. {Plummer, J. H. Bank of Commerce, Toronto, Canada.

1898. §Plummer, W. E. The Observatory, Bidston, Birkenhead.

1899. §Plumptre, Fitzwalter. Goodnestone, Dover.

1857. {Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Ireland,

1881. §Pocklington, Henry. 20 Park-row, Leeds.

1888. {Pocock, Rev. Francis. 4 Brunswick-place, Bath.

1846, {Porz, Wr11aM, Mus.Doc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E, Atheneum Club,
Pall Mall, S.W.

1896. {Pollard, James. High Down, Hitchin, Herts.

1898. §PottEeN, Rev. G. C. H., F.G.S. St. Beuno’s College, St. Asaph,
North Wales.

1896. *Pollex, Albert. Dale End, Cavendish Park, Rockferry.

1862. *Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro,
Cornwall.

1891. {Pomeroy, Captain Ralph. 201 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1892. gaa pec W. C., M.Se., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Yorkshire College,
Leeds.

1868. {PorraL, WynpuAmu S. Malshanger, Basingstoke.

1883. *Porter, Rey. C. T., LL.D., D.D. All Saints’ Vicarage, Southport.

1883. {Postgate, Professor J. P., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1887. {Potter, Edmund P. Hbllinhurst, Bolton.

1883. {Potter, M. C., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the College of
ee Neweastle-upon-Tyne. 14 Highbury, Newcastle-upon-

'yne.

1886. *Poutton, Epwarp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S., Pro-
fessor of Zoology in the University of Oxford. Wykeham House,
Banbury-road, Oxford.

1898. *Poulton, Edward Palmer. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford.

1873. *Powell, Sir Francis S., Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. Horton Old Hall,
Yorkshire ; and 1 Cambridge-square, W.

1887. *Powell, Horatio Gibbs. Wood Villa, Tettenhall Wood, Wolver-
hampton.

1883. {Powell, John. Brynmill-crescent, Swansea.

1894, *Powell, Sir Richard Douglas, Bart., M.D. 62 Wimpole-street, W.

1875. {Powell, William Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton, Bristol.

1887. §Pownall, George H. Manchester and Salford Bank, St. Ann-street,
Manchester.

1867. {Powrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.

1883. {Poyntine, J. H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Mason
University College, Birmingham.

1884, *Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. 66 Banbury-road, Oxford.

1869. *PREEcE, Sir WitttaM Henry, K.C.B., F.R.S.,M.Inst.C.E. Gothic
Lodge, Wimbledon Common, Surrey; and 13 Queen Anne’s
Gate, S.W.

1888. koe E Llewellyn. Tan-y-bryn, Rusholme-road, Putney Heath,

76

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1892.
1889.

1894,
1898,

1893.
1884.

1888.
1875.
1891.
1897.
1897.
1892.
1864.
1889.
1876.
1888.
1881.
1863.

1884.
1879.
1872.
1871.
1873.
1899.
1867.
1883.
1891.
1842.
1887.
1885.

1852.
1881.

1874.
1866.

1878.
1884.
1860.
1898.
1883.
1883.
1868.

1879.
1896.

1893.
1894,

§Prentice, Thomas. Willow Park, Greenock.

§Preston, Alfred Eley, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 14 The Exchange, Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.

tPreston, Arthur E. | Piccadilly, Abingdon, Berkshire.

*Preston, Martin Inett. Journal-chambers, Pelham-street, Notting-
ham.

§Preston, Professor Toomas, M.A., F.R.S. Bardowie, Orwell Parl,
Dublin.

*Prevost, Major L. de T., 2nd Battalion Argyll and Sutherland
Highlanders.

Price, J. T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.

ee Ne L. a nee F Be: Oriel College, Oxford.
rice, Rees. ath-stree asgow.
{Price, William. 40 Park-place, Cardiff,
*Price, W. A., M.A. Teign House, Westcombe Park-road, S.E.
tPrimrose, Dr, Alexander. 196 Simcoe-street, Toronto, Canada.
{Prince, Professor Edward E., B.A. Ottawa, Canada.
*Prior, R. C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent's Park, N.W.
*Pritchard, Eric Law, M.D., M.R.C.S. 45 St. Giles, Norwich.
eae Pant ; ane ae =a Wimpole-street, W.
robyn, Leslie C. Onslow-square, S. W.
§Procter, John William. Ashcroft, York.
tProctor, R. 5S. Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.
*Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. 2 Phillips-place, Montreal, Canada.
*Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S. Alvington, Slade-road, Ilfracombe.
*Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Park, Stevenage, Herts.

*Puckle, Rev. T. J. Chestnut House, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

tPullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.

§Pullar, Frederick P. The Lea, Bridge of Allan, N.B.

*Pullar, Sir Robert, F.R.S.E. Tayside, Perth.

*Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Brahan, Perth.

{Pullen, W. W. F. University College, Cardiff.

*Pumphrey, Charles. Castlewood, Park-road, Moseley, Birmingham,

§PumpHrey, WittIAM. 2 Oakland-road, Redland, Bristol.

{Purore, THomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of St. Andrews. 14 South-street, St. Andrews, N.B.

{Purdon, Thomas Henry, M.D. Belfast.

{Purey-Cust, Very Rey. ‘Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York. The
Deanery, York.

{Purser, Frepericx, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin.

{Pursrr, Professor Joun, M.A., M.R.I.A. Queen’s College,
Belfast. :

tPurser, John Mallet. 3 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.

*Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stratford-place, Oxford-street, W.

*Pusey, S. EH. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon.

*Pye, Miss E. St. Mary’s Hall, Rochester.

§Pye-Smith, Arnold. Willesley, Park Hill Rise, Croydon.

§Pye-Smith, Mrs. Willesley, Park Hill Rise, Croydon.

{Pyz-Ssorn, P. H., M.D.,F.R.S. 48 Brook-sireet, W.; and Guy's
Hospital, 8.1.

tPye-Smith R. J. 350 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

A ’ P ?

tQuaill, Edward. 3 Palm-grove, Claughton.
{tQuick, James. University College, Bristol.
tQuick, Professor W. J. University of Missouri, Columbia, U.S.A.

a

a

LIST OF MEMBERS. 77

Year of
Election.

1870, {Rabbits, W. T. 6 Cadogan-gardens, S.W.
1870. {Radcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Sate Works, Windsor, Liverpool.
1896, §Radcliffe, Herbert. Balderstone Hall, Rochdale.
1877. tRadford, George D. Mannamead, Plymouth.
*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth.
1855, *Radstock, The Right Hon. Lord. Mayfield, Woolston, Southampton.
1887. *Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Whitefield, Manchester.
1864. {Rainey, James T. 3 Kent-gardens, Naling, W.
1898. *Raisin, Miss Catherine A., D.Sc. Bedford College, York-place,
Baker-street, W.
1896. *Ramage, Hugh. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1804. *Rampaur, ArtauR A., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.AS., M.R.LA.,
Nadcliffe Observatory, Oxford.
1863, {Ramsay, ALEXANDER. 2 Cowper-road, Acton, Middlesex, W.
1884, {Ramsay, George G., LL.D., Professor of Humanity in the University
of Glasgow. 6 The College, Glascow.
1884, {Ramsay, Mrs.G.G. 6 The College, Glasgow.
1861. {Ramsay, John. Kildalton, Argyllshire.
1885. {Ramsay, Major. Straloch, N.B.
1889. {Ramsay, Major R.G. W. Bonnyrige, Edinburgh.
1876, *Ramsay, Writrtam, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in Uni-
versity College, London. 12 Arundel-gardens, W.
1883. {Ramsay, Mrs. 12 Arundel-gardens, W.
1869. *Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletown-road, West Ken-
sington, W.
1868. *Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. 24 Ashburnham-road, Bedford.
1893. {Ransom, W. B., M.D. The Pavement, Nottingham.
1863. {Ransom, Witr1am Heyry, M.D.,F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham.
1861. {Ransomn, Artuur, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Sunnyhurst, Deane Park,
Bournemouth.
Ransome, Thomas. Hest Bank, near Lancaster.
1889. §Rapkin, J. B. Sideup, Kent.
Rashleigh, Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent's Park, N.W.
1864. {Rate, Rev. John, M.A. Fairfield, Kast Twickenham.
1892. *Rathbone, Miss May. Backwood, Neston, Cheshire.
' 1870. §Rathbone, R. R. Glan y Menai, Anglesey.
1895, {Raruone, W., LL.D. Green Bank, Liverpool.
1874, {Ravenstury, E. G., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. 2 York-mansions, Battersea
Park, S.W.
1889. {Rawlings, Edward. Richmond House, Wimbledon Common, Surrey.
1870. {Rawlins,G. W. The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool.
1866, *Rawtiyson, Rev. Canon Grorer, M.A, The Oaks, Precincts,
Canterbury.
1887. {Rawson, Harry. Earlswood, Ellesmere Park, Eccles, Manchester.
1886. {Rawson, W.Stepney,M.A. 68 Cornwall-gardens, Queen’s-gate, 8. W.
1868, *RaytetcH, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS.,
F.R.AVS., F.R.G.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
Royal Institution. Terling Place, Witham, ssex.
1895.§§Raynbird, Hugh, jun. Garrison Gateway Cottage, Old Basing,
Basingstoke.
1883. *Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.O.S. St. Mary’s Gate, Lancaster.
1897, *Rayner, Edwin Hartree. Teviot Dale, Stockport.
1896, §Reav, Cuartes H., F.S.A, British Museum, W.C.
1870. {Ruavz, THomas Mettarp, F.G.S. Blundellsands, Liverpool.
1884, §Readman, J. B., D.Sc.,F.R.S.E. 4 Lindsay-place, Edinburgh.
1899, §Reaster, James William. 68 Linden-grove, Nunhead, S.E.
1852. *Reprurn, Professor Perer, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.

78 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1892. {Redgrave, Gilbert R., Assoc.Inst.C.E. The Elms, Westgate-road,
Beckenham, Kent.

1889. {Redmayne, J. M. Harewood, Gateshead.

1889. {Redmayne, Norman. 26 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1890. *Redwood, Boverton, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Glen Wathen, Church
End, Finchley, N.

‘Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales.

1861. {Reep, Sir Epwarp Jamus, K.C.B., F.R.S. Broadway-chambers,
Westminster, S. W

1889. tReed, Rev. George. Bellingham Vicarage, Bardon Mill, Carlisle.

1891. *Reed, Thomas A. Bute Docks, Cardiff.

1894. *Rees, Edmund 8. G. 15 Merridale-lane, Wolverhampton.

1891. §Rees, I. Treharne, M.Inst.C.E. Highfield, Penarth.

1891. {Rees, Samuel. West Wharf, Cardiff.

1891. {Rees, William. 25 Park-place, Cardiff.

1888. {Rees, W. L. 11 North-crescent, Bedford-square, W.C.

1875. {Rees-Moge, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol.

1897. {Reeve, Richard A. 22 Shuter-street, Toronto, Canada.

1881, §Reid, Arthur 8., M.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B.

1883. *Rerp, CLement, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

1892. {Rerp, E. Waymouru, B.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
University College, Dundee.

1889. {Reid, G., Belgian Consul. Leazes House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1876. {Reid, James. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

1897.§§Reid, T. Whitehead, M.D. St, George’s House, Canterbury.

1892. {Reid, Thomas. University College, Dundee.

1887. *Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.

1893. {Reinach, Baron Albert von. Frankfort s, M., Prussia.

1875. §Rurvozp, A. W., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E.

1863. {Renats, E. ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham.

1894. {Renpatt, Rev. G. H., M.A. Charterhouse, Godalming.

1891. *Rendell, Rev. James Robson, B.A. Whinside, Whalley-road,
Accrington.

1885. {Rennett, Dr. 12 Golden-square, Aberdeen.

1889. *Rennie, George B. 20 Lowndes-street, 8. W.

1867. {Renny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

1883, *Reynolds, A. H. Bank House, 185 Lord-street, Southport.

1871. {ReyNotps, James Emerson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.R.LA.,

Professor of Chemistry in the University of Dublin. The Labora-
tory, Trinity College, Dublin.

1870. *Reynotps, Osporne, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor
of Engineering in Owens College, Manchester. 19 Lady Barn-
road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

1858. §Reynotps, Ricwarp, F.C.S. Cliff Lodge, Hyde Park, Leeds.

1896. {Reynolds, Richard S. 73 Smithdown-lane, Liverpool.

1896. §Rhodes, Albert. Field Hurst, Liversidge, Yorkshire.

1883. {Rhodes, Dr. James. 25 Victoria-street, Glossop. %

1858. *Rhodes, John. Potternewton House, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

1877. *Rhodes, John. 360 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire.

1888. {Rhodes, John George. Warwick House, 46 St. George's-road,
S.W.

1890. {Rhodes, J. M., M.D. Ivy Lodge, Didsbury.

1884. {Rhodes, Lieut.-Colonel William. Quebec, Canada.

1899. *Ruys, Professor Jonn, M.A. Jesus College, Oxford.

1877. *Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Riva
Muro, 14, Modena, Italy.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 79

Year of
Election.

1891.
1891.

1889
1888

1883.
1894.
1861.
1889,
1884,
1881.
1883.
1892.
1875.

1892.
1867.
1889.
1869,
1898.
1869.

1887.
1859.
1870.

1894,
1881.
1879.
1879.
1896.
1868,

1883.
1884,
1883,
1883.

1869.
1882.
1884.
1889.
1884,
1896.

1870.
1889,
1881.
1876.
1891.
1891.
1886.
1868.

tRichards, D. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.

{Richards, H. M. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.

tRichards, Professor T. W., Ph.D. Cambridge, Massachusetts,
U.S.A.

*RicHARDSON, ARTHUR, M.D.

*Richardson, Charles. 6 The Avenue, Bedford Park, Chiswick.

§Richardson, Rey. George, M.A. Waleote, Winchester.

*Richardson, George Straker. Isthmian Club, Piccadilly, W.

tRichardson, Hugh. Bootham School, York.

*Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea.

*Richardson, Nelson Moore, B.A., F.E.S. Montevideo, Chickerell,
near Weymouth.

{Richardson, Ralph, F.R.S.E. 10 Magdala-place, Edinburgh.

{Richardson, Thomas, J.P. 7 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

{ Richardson, W. B. Elm Bank, York.

§Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

{Riches, Carlton H. 21 Dumfries-place, Cardiff.

'§Riches, T. Harry. 8 Park-grove, Cardiff.

§Richmond, Robert. Heathwood, Leighton Buzzard.

{Ricxerrs, Cuartes, M.D.,F.G.S. 19 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.

*RIDDELL, Major-General Cuartzs J. Bucnanan, C.B., R.A., F.R.S. -
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon.

*RipEAL, SAMUEL, D.Sc., F.C.S. 28 Victoria-street, S.W.

§Ripiey, E. P. 6 Paget-road, Ipswich.

{Ridley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, N.W.

tRidley, Thomas D. Coatham, Redcar.

tRidout, Thomas. Ottawa, Canada.

*Rige, Arthur. 152 Blomfield-terrace, W.

*Rieac, Epwarp, M.A. Royal Mint, E.

{Rintoul, D., M.A. Clifton College, Bristol.

tRipley, Sir Edward, Bart. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.

*Rrpon, The Most Hon. the Marquess of, K.G., G.C.S.1., O.LE.,
D.C.L., F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 9 Chelsea Embankment, 8. W.

{Ritchie, R. Peel, M.D., F.R.S.E. 1 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

Ritchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.

tRitson, U. A. 1 Jesmond-gardens, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Rivington, John. Babbicombe, near Torquay.

§Robb, Alfred A. Lisnabreeny House, Belfast.

*Ropsins, Joun, F.C.S. 57 Warrington-crescent, Maida Vale,
London, W.

*Roberts, Evan. 30 St. George’s-square, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

tRoberts, George Christopher. Hull.

*Roserts, Isaac, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Starfield, Crow-
borough, Sussex.

*Roberts, Miss Janora. 5 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

}Roberts, R. D., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. 17 Charterhouse-square, E.C,

tRoberts, Samuel. The Towers, Sheffield.

tRoberts, Samuel, jun. The Towers, Sheffield.

§Roberts, Thomas J. 33 Serpentine-road, Liscard, Cheshire.”

*RoBERTS-A USTEN, SirW. Cuanpier, K.C.B.,D.C.L.,F.R.S.,V.P.C.S.,
Chemist to the Royal Mint, and Professor of Metallurgy in the
Royal College of Science, London. (GENERAL SECRETARY.)
Royal Mint, E.

tRobertson, Alexander. Montreal, Canada.

{Robertson, I. Stanley, M.A. 43 Waterloo-road, Dublin,

tRobertson, George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.

{Robertson, Mrs. George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.

80

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.

of

Election.

1897. §RonErRtson, Sir Groner S., K.C.S.I. Care of Messrs. Wm. Watson

1897.

1892.
1888.

1886.
1898.
1861.
1897.
1887.
1888.
1863.
1878.
1895.
1876.
1899.
1887.
1881.
1875.
1884.
1865.
4891.

1888.
1870.

1872.
1890.

1896.
1896.
1885.
1885.
1866.

1898
1867

1890.

1883.
1882.
1884.
1889.
1897.
1876.

1892.
1891.
1894.
1869.
1881.
1855.

1883.
1894.
4885.

& Co., 7 Waterloo-place, S.W.
shobeeey Professor J. W. Department of Agriculture, Ottawa,
anada.
tRobertson, W. W. 3 Parliament-square, [dinburgh.
*Robins, Edward Cookworthy, F.S.A. 8 Marlborough-road, St.
John’s Wood, N.W.
*Robinson, C. R. 27 Elvetham-road, Birmingham.
§ Robinson, Charles E., M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Lodge, Torquay.
tRobinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.
tRobinson, Haynes. St. Giles’s Plain, Norwich.
§ Robinson, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 13 Victoria-street, S.W.
tRobinson, John. 8 Vicarage-terrace, Kendal.
{Robinson, J. H. 6 Montallo-terrace, Barnard Castle.
tRobinson, John L. 198 Great Brunswick-street, Dublin.
*Robinson, Joseph Johnson. 8 Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, Southport.
tRobinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.
*Robinson, Mark, M.Inst.C.E. Overslade, Bilton, near Rugby.
§Robinson, Richard. Bellfield Mill, Rochdale.
+Robinson, Richard Atkinson. 195 Brompton-road, S.W.
*Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E. Beechwood, Darlington.
{Robinson, Stillman, Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.
tRobinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.

University College, Nottingham.

{Robottom, Arthur. 3 St. Alban’s-villas, Highgate-road, N.W.

*Robson, I. R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster,
S.W.

*Robson, William. 5 Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edinburgh.

{Rochester, The Right Rev. E. 5. Talbot, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Kennington Park, 8.E.

§Rock, W. H. 73 Park-road East, Birkenhead.

tRodger, Alexander M. The Museum, Tay Street, Perth.

*Rodger, Edward. 1 Clairmont-gardens, Glasgow.

*Rodriguez, Epifanio. New Adelphi Chambers, Adelphi, W.C.

tRoe, Sir Thomas. Grove-villas, Litchurch.

.§$RogERs, Bertram, M.D. 11 York-place, Clifton, Bristol.

. tRogers, James 8. Tosemill, by Dundee.

*Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Yorkshire College,
Leeds. 13 Beech Grove-terrace, Leeds.

tRogers, Major R. Alma House, Cheltenham.

§ Rogers, Rev. Canon Saltren, M.A. Tresleich, St. Austell, Cornwall.

*Rogers, Walter. Hill House, St. Leonards.

tRogerson, John. Croxdale Hall, Durham.

tRogerson, John. Barrie, Ontario, Canada.

{Rorrir, Sir A. K., M-P., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon.
Fellow K.C.L. Thwaite House, Cottingham, East Yorkshire.

*Romanes, John. 3 Oswald-road, Edinburgh.

{Rénnfeldt, W. 43 Park-place, Cardiff.

*Rooper, T. Godolphin. 12 Cumberlond-place, Southampton.

{Roper, C. H. Magdalen-street, Exeter.

*Roper, W. O. Bank-buildings, Lancaster,

*Roscor, Sir Henry Enrrexp, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., FBS.
10 Bramham-gardens, S, W.

*Rose, J. Holland, M.A. 11 Endlesham-road, Balham, S.W.

*Rose, T. K., D.Sc. 9 Royal Mint, E.

tRoss, Alexander. Riverfield, Inverness.

{Robinson, William, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in’

LIST OF MEMBERS. 81

Year of
Election.

1897.
1887.
1880.

1897.
1859.
1869.

1891.
1893.
1865.

1876.
1899.
1884.
1861.

1861.
1883,
1881,
1865,
1877.

1890.
1881.
1881.
1876,
1885,
1899.
1875.

1892.
1869.
1882.

1896.
1887.
1847.

1889.
1875.
1884,

1890.
1883.
1852.
1876.
1886.
1852.

1886.
1897.
1891.
1887.

1899

fRoss, Hon. Alexander M. 3 Walmer-road, Toronto, Canada.

tRoss, Edward. Marple, Cheshire.

tRoss, Captain G. E. A., F.G.S. 8 Collingham-gardens, Cromwell-
road, S.W.

§Ross, Hon. G.W. Toronto, Canada.

*Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Wadworth Hall, Doncaster.

*RossE, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., B.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
E.RS., F.RAS., M.R.ILA. Birr Castle, Parsonstown,
Treland.

§Roth, H. Ling. 32 Prescot-street, Halifax, Yorkshire.

TRothera, G. B. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

*Rothera, George Bell, F.L.S. Orston House, Sherwood Rise,
Nottingham.

tRottenburgh, Paul. 13 Albion-crescent, Glasgow.

*Round, J. C., M.R.C.S._ 19 Crescent-road, Sydenham Hill, S.E.

*Rouse, M.L. 54 Westbourne-villas, West Brighton.

tRouru, Epwarp J., M.A., D.Sc. F.RS., FR.AS., F.G.S. St
Peter’s College, Cambridge.

Rowan, David. Elliot-street, Glascow.

tRowan, Frederick John. 134 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

tRowe, Rey. G. Lord Mayor's Walk, York.

tRowe, Rey. John. 13 Hampton-road, Forest Gate, Essex.

tRowz, J. Brooxine, F.L.S., F.S.A. 16 Lockyer-street, Ply-
mouth. .

tRowley, Walter, F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood, Leeds.

*RowntREB, JoHN S. Mount Villas, York.

*Rowntree, Joseph. 38 St. Mary’s, York.

tRoxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow.

tRoy, John. 33 Belvidere-street, Aberdeen.

§Rubie, G.S. Belgrave House, Folkestone-road, Dover.

“Rucker, A. W.,M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S., Professor of Physics in the
Royal College of Science, London. 19 Gledhow-gardens,
South Kensington, S.W.

§Riicker, Mrs. Levetleigh, Dane-road, St. Leonards-on-Sea.

§Rupter, F. W., F.G.S. The Museum, Jermyn-street, S.W.

tRumball, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Union-court Chambers, Old
Broad-street, F.C.

*Rundell, T. W., F.R.Met.Soc. 25 Castle-street, Liverpocl.

tRuscoe, John. Ferndale, Gee Cross, near Manchester.

tRusxrn, Jonn, M.A., D.C.L., F.G.S. Brantwood, Coniston, Amble-
side.

tRussell, The Right Hon. Earl. Amberley Cottage, Maidenhead.

*Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Dunrozel, Haslemere.

TRussell, George. 13 Church-road, Upper Norwood, 8.E.

Russell, John, 89 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.

tRussell, J. A., M.B. Woodville, Canaan-lane, Fdinburgh.

*Russell, J. W. 16 Bardwell-road, Oxford.

*Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Hanover-square, W.

fRussell, Robert, F.G.S. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth.

tRussell, Thomas H. 3 Newhall-street, Birmingham.

“Russet, Wit11aM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 34 Upper Hamilton-
terrace, St. John’s Wood, N. W.

tRust, Arthur. Eversleigh, Leicester.

tRutherford, A. Toronto, Canada.

§Rutherford, George. Dulwich House, Pencisely-road, Cardiff.

tRutherford, William. 7 Vine-groye, Chapman-street, Hulme, Man-

chester.
F

82

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1879.
1875.
1889.
1897.
1898.
1865.
1861.

1883.
1871,
1885.

tRuxton, Vice-Admiral, Fitzherbert R.N. 41 Cromwell-gardens, S.W,

{Ryalls, Charles Wagner, LL.D. 3 Brick-court, Temple, E.C.

f{Ryder, W. J. H. 52 Jesmond-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Ryerson, G.S., M.D. Toronto, Canada.

§Ryland, C. J. Southerndon House, Clifton, Bristol.

{Ryland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham.

*RyLanps, THomas GuazesrRoox, F.L.S., F.G.S. Highfields, Thel-
wall, near Warrington.

{Sadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{Sadler, Samuel Champernowne. 186 Aldersgate-street, E.C.
{Saint, W. Johnston. 11 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.

1886.§§St. Clair, George, F.G.S. 225 Castle-road, Cardiff.

1893.

1881.
1857.

1883.
1873.
1887.
1861.
1894.

1878.
1883.

1895.
1872.

1883.

1896.
1896.
1892.
1886.
1896.
1896.
1886.
1886.
1868.
1886.
1881.
1883.
1846.

1884.
i891.
1884,
1887.

1871.
1883.
1883.

jSauispuRy, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S.
20 Arlington Street, S.W.

{Salkeld, William. 4 Paradise-terrace, Darlington.

{Sarmon, Rev. Grorer, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Provost of
Trinity College, Dublin.

|Salnond, Robert G. Kingswood-road, Upper Norwood, S.E.

*Salomons, Sir David, Bart., F.G.S. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.

{Samson, C. L. Carmona, Kersal, Manchester.

*Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.

{Samurtson, The Right Hon. Sir Buernuwarp, Bart., F.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.E. 56 Prince’s-cate, 8. W.

{Sanders, Alfred, F.L.S. 2 Clarence-place, Gravesend, Kent.

{Sanderson, Deputy Surgeon-General Alfred. East India United
Service Club, St. James’s-square, 5. W.

{Sanderson, F. W., M.A. The School, Oundle.

§SanpeERson, Sir J. S. Burpon, Bart., M.D., D.Se., LL.D., D.C.L.,
E.R.S., F.R.S.E., Regius Professor of Medicine in the University
of Oxford. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.

{Sanderson, Lady Burdon. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.

Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.

§Saner, John Arthur, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Highfield, Northwich.

{Saner, Mrs Highfield, Northwich.

§Sang, William D. Tylehurst, Kirkcaldy, Fife.

§Sankey, Percy KE. Down Lodge, Fairlight, Hastings.

*Sargant, Miss Ethel. Quarry Hill, Reigate.

{Sargant, W. L. Quarry Hill, Reigate.

{Sauborn, John Wentworth. Albion, New York, U.S.A.

{Saundby, Robert, M.D. 834 Edmund-street, Birmingham.

{Saunders, A., M.Inst.C.E. King’s Lynn.

{Saunders, C. T. Temple-row, Birmingham.

{SsunpErs, Howarp, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 7 Radnor-place, W.

{Saunders, Rey. J.C. Cambridge.

{SaunpErs, TreLAwnry W., F.R.G.S. 3 Elmfield on the Knowles,
Newton Abbot, Devon.

{SsunpErs, Dr. Wittram. Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada.

{Saunders, W.H. R. Lilanishen, Cardiff.

{Saunderson, C. EK. 26 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.

§Savage, Rev. Canon E. B., M.A., F.S.A. St. Thomas’ Vicarage,
Douglas, Isle of Man.

{Savage, W. D. LHllerslie House, Brighton.

{Savage, W. W. 109 St. James’s-street, Brighton,

tSavery, G. M., M.A. The College, Harrogate.

LIST OF MEMBERS, &3

Year of

Election.

1887. §Saycr, Rev. A. H., M.A., D.D., Professor of Assyriolory in the
University of Oxford. Queen’s College, Oxford.

1884. {Sayre, Robert H. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

1883. *Scarborough, George. Whinney Field, Halifax, Yorkshire.

1884, {Scarth, William Bain. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

1879, *ScuArer, EK. A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.C.S., Professor of Physiology
in the University of Edinburgh. (GpmNpRAL SECRETARY.)

1888. *Scuarrr, Roser F., Pl.D., B.Sc., Keeper of the Natural History
Department, Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.

1880. *Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt
& Sons, Birmingham.)

1892. {Schloss, David F. 1 Knaresborough-place, S.W.

1842. Schofield, Joseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.

1887. {Schofield, T. Thornfield, Talbot-road, Old Trafford, Manchester.

1883. {Schofield, William. Alma-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1885. §Scholes, L. Ivy Dene, Oak-road, Sale, Cheshire.

Scuunck, Epwarp, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Oaklands, Kersal Moor,
Manchester.

1873. *Scuusrer, ArrHor, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Physics
in the Owens College, Manchester.

1847. *Sctarer, Puitie Luriry, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., Sec.Z.S. 3 Hanover-square, W.

1883. *Scrater, W. Lurtry, M.A., F.Z.S. South African Museum, Cape
Town.

1867. {Scorr, AruxanpER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.

1881. *Scorr, ArexanpER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Royal Institution, Albe-
marle-street, W.

1882. {Scott, Colonel A.deC.,R.E. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.

1878. *Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Science in St. David’s College, Lampeter.

1881.§§Scott, Miss Charlotte Angas, D.Sc. Bryn Mawr College, Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A.

1889. *Scorr, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. The Old Palace, Rich-
mond, Surrey.

1885. {Seott, George Jamieson. Bayview House, Aberdeen.

1897.§§Scott, James. 173 Jameson-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

1857. *Scorr, Roper H., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.Met.S., 6 Elm Park-gardens,
S.W.

1884. *Scott, Sydney C. 28 The Avenue, Gipsy Hill, 8.E.

1869. {Scott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon.

1895.§§Scott-Elliot, G. F., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. Newton, Dumfries.

1881. *Scrivener, A. P. Haglis House, Wendover.

1883. {Scrivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover.

1895. §Scull, Miss E. M. L. The Pines, 10 Langland-gardens, Finchley-=
road, N.W.

1890. §Searle, G. F. C., M.A. Peterhouse, Cambridge.

1859. {Seaton, John Love. The Park, Hull.

1880. {Sepewicx, Anam, M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College and 4 Craven-road,
Cambridge.

1861. *SreLzy, Harry Govirr, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.,
Professor of Geology in King’s College, Londen. 25 Palace
Gardens-terrace, Kensington, W.

1891. {Selby, Arthur L., M.A., Assistant Professor of Physics in University
College, Cardiff.

1893, {Setpy-Bieer, L. A., M.A. University College, Oxford.

1855. {Seligman, H. L. 27 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.

1879. {Selim, Adolphus. 21 Mincine-lane, E.C.

F2

84 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1897. tSelous, F. C., F.R.G.S. Alpine Lodge, Worplesden, Surrey.
1884, {Serwyyn, A. KR. C.,, C.ALG., F.R.S., F.G.8. Ottawa, Canada.
188&. {Semple, Dr. A. United Service Club, Edinburgh.
1887.§§Semple, James C., F.R.G.S., M.R.LA. 2 Marine-terrace, Kings-
town, Co. Dublin.
1888, *SENIER, ALFRED, M.D., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Galway.
1888. *Sennett, Alfred R., A.M.Inst.C.E. The Chalet, Portinscale-
road, Putney, 8. W.
1870. *Sephton, Rev. J. 90 Huslisson-street, Liverpool.
1892. {Seton, Miss Jane. 87 Candlemaker-row, Edinburgh.
1895. *Seton-Karr, H. W. Spencer House, Wimbledon, Surrey.
1892. §Sewarp, A. C,, M.A., F.RS.,F.G.S. Westfield, Huntingdon-road
Cambridge.
1891. {Seward, Edwin. 55 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1868. {Sewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.
1899. §Seymour, Henry, J. 16 Wellington-road, Dublin.
1891. {Shackell, E. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1888. {Shackles, Charles I’. Hornsea, near Hull.
1883. {Shadwell, John Lancelot. 380 St. Charles-square, Ladbroke Groye-
road, W.
1871. *Shand, James. Parkholme, Elm Park-gardens, S.W.
1867. {Shanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.
1881. {Shann, George, M.D. Petergate, York.
1878. {Suarp, Davin, M.A., M.B., F.RS., F.L.5. Museum of Zoology,
Cambridge.
1896. {Sharp, Mrs. EK. 66 Sankey-street, Warrington.
Sharp, Rey. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield.
1886. {Sharp, T. B. French Walls, Birmingham.
1883. {Sharples, Charles H. 7 Fishergate, Preston.
1870. {Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.
1896. {Shaw, Frank. Ellerslie, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.
1865. {Shaw, George. Oannon-street, Birmingham.
1870. {Shaw, John. 21 St. James’s-road, Liverpool.
1891. {Shaw, Joseph. 1 Temple-gardens, E.C.
1889. *Shaw, Mrs. M.S., B.Sc. Halberton, near Tiverton, Devon.
1887. {Shaw, Saville, F.C.S. College of Science, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
18838. goa N., M.A., F.R.S. Meteorological Office, Victoria-street,
.W.
1883. {Shaw, Mrs. W.N. Meteorological Office, Victoria-street, S.W.
1891. {Sheen, Dr. Alfred. 28 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1878. {Shelford, William, M.Inst.C.l. 35a Great George-street, West-
minster, S.W.
1865. {Shenstone, Frederick 8. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.
1881. {SHenstonz, W. A., F.R.S. Clifton College, Bristol.
1885. {Shepherd, Rev. Alexander. LKEcclesmechen, Uphall, Edinburgh.
1890. {Shepherd, J. Care of J. Redmayne, sq., Grove House, Heading-
ley, Leeds.
1883. {Shepherd, James. Birkdale, Southport.
1888. {Sherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.
1888. {Sherlock, Mrs. David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.
1883. {Sherlock, Rey. Edgar. Bentham Rectory, wd Lancaster.
1896. §SHERRINGTON, C.8., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in Uni-
versity College, Liverpool. 16 Grove-park, Liverpool.
1888. *Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A. Langridge Rectory, Bath.
1886. {Shield, Arthur H. 85a Great George-street, S.W.
1892, {Shields,sJohn, D.8c., Ph.D. Dolphingston, Tranent, Scotland.

>

LIST OF MEMBERS. 85

Year of
Election.

1883. *Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. 2 Frederick-place, Old Jewry, E.C.

1867. {Shinn, William C. 89 Varden’s-road, Clapham Junction, Surrey,S.W.

1887. *Sarptey, ArtHuR E., M.A. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

1889. {Shipley, J. A. D. Saltwell Park, Gateshead.

1885. {Shirras,G. F. 16 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

1883. {Shone, Isaac. Pentrefelin House, Wrexham.

1870. *SHoorsrep, J. N., M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, S.W.

1888. {Shoppee, C. H. 22 John-street, Bedford-row, W.C.

4897. {Shore, Dr. Lewis E. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1875. {SHorr, THomas W., F.G.S. 105 Ritherdon-road, Upper Tooting,
S.W

1882. {SHors, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
St. Bartholomew's Hospital. Heathfield, Alleyn Park, Dul-
wich, S8.E.

1897. {Shortt, Professor Adam, M.A. Queen’s University, Kingston,
Ontario, Canada.

1889, {Sibley, Walter K., B.A.,M.B. 8 Duke Street-mansions, Grosvenor-
square, W.

1883, {Sibly, Miss Martha Agnes. F'look House, Taunton.

1885. *Sidebotham, Edward John. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1883. *Sidebotham, James Nasmyth. Parkfield, Altrincham, Cheshire.

1877. *Sidebotham, Joseph Watson, M.P. The Thorns, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1885. *Srpewick, Henry, M.A., Litt.D., D.C.L., Professor of Moral Philo-
sophy in the University of Cambridge. Hillside, Chesterton-
road, Cambridge.

Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1873. “Sremens, ALEXANDER. 7 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, W.

1878. {SteeRson, Professor Guorer, M.D., F.L.S., MR.LA. 3 Clare
street, Dublin.

1859. {Sim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.

1871. {Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh.

1898.§§Simmons, Henry. Kingsland House, Whiteladies-road, Clifton,
Bristol.

1862. {Simms, James. 138 Fleet-street, E.C.

1874. {Simms, William. Upper Queen-street, Belfast.

1876, {Simon, Frederick. 24 Sutherland-gardens, W.

1847. {Smmon, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. 40 Kensington-
square, W.

1893. {Simpson, A. II., F.R.Met.Soc. Attenborough, Nottinghamshire.
1871. *Simpson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.

1883. {Simpson, Byron R. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1887. {Simpson, F. Estacion Central, Buenos Ayres.

1859, {Simpson, John. Maykirk, Kincardineshire.

1863. {Simpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgetield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne,

1857. {Smrpson, Maxwet, M.D., LL.D., F.R.8., F.C.S. 9 Barton-street,
West Kensington, W.

1894. §Simpson, Thomas, F.R.G.S. Fennymere, Castle Bar, Eaiing, W.

1883. {Simpson, Walter M. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport,

1896. *Simpson, W., F.G.S. The Gables, Halifax.

1887. {Sinclair, Dr. 268 Oxford-street, Manchester,

1874. {Sinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast.

1870. *Sinclair, W. P, Rivelyn, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

1897. §Sinnott, James. Bank of England-chambers, 12 Broad-street,
Bristol.

i864, *Sircar, The Hon. Mahendra Lal, M.D., C.I.E. 51 Sankaritola, Cal-
cutta.

86 LIST OF MEMBERS

Year of
Election.

1892. {Sisley, Richard, M.D. 1] York-street, Portman-square, W.

1879. {Skertchly, Sydney B. J. 3 Loughborough-terrace, Carshalton,
Surrey.

1883. {Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.

1885. {Skinner, Provost. Inverurie, N.B.

1898, §Skinner, Sidney. Cromwell House, Trumpington, Cambridgeshire.

1892. {Skinner, William. 35 George-square, Edinburgh.

1888. §Sxrivz, H. D., J.P., D.L. Claverton Manor, Bath.

1870. §StapEn, WALTER Percy, F.G.S.,F.L.S. 13 Hyde Park-gate, S.W. ;
and Northbrook Park, near Exeter.

1889. §Slater, Matthew B., F.L.S. Malton, Yorkshire.

1884, {Slattery, James W. 9 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

1877. {Sleeman, Rev. Philip, L.Th., F.R.A.S. 65 Pembroke-road, Clifton,
Bristol.

1891. §Slocombe, James. Redland House, Fitzalan, Cardiff.

1884, {Slooten, William Venn. Nova Scotia, Canada.

1849, {Sloper, George Elear. Devizes.

1887. §Small, Evan W., M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. The Mount, Radbourne-street,
Derby.

1887, §Small, William. Lincoln-circus, The Park, Nottingham.

1885. {Smart, James. Valley Works, Brechin, N.B.

1889. *Smart, William, LL.D. Nunholme, Dowanhill, Glasgow,

1898.§§Smeeth, W. F., M.A., F.G.S. Mysore, India.

1876. {Smellie, Thomas D. 213 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

1877. {Smelt, Rev. Maurice Allen, M.A., F.R.A.S. Heath Lodge, Chel-
tenham.

1890. {Smethurst, Charles. Palace House, Harpurhey, Manchester.

1876. {Smieton, James. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee,

1867. {Smieton, Thomas A. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

1892. {Smith, Adam Gillies, F.RS.E. 35 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

1892. {Smith, Alexander, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Chicago,
Illinois, U.S.A.

1897. {Smith, Andrew, Principal of the Veterinary College, Toronto,
Canada.

1872. *Suitn, Bastz Woopp, F.R.A.S. Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead
Heath, N.W.

1874, *Smith, Benjamin Leigh, F.R.G.S. Oxford and Cambridge Club,
Pall Mall, 8. W.

1887. {Smith, Bryce. Rye Bank, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester,

1873. {Smith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.

1887. *Smith, Charles. 739 Rochdale-road, Manchester.

1889. *Smith, Professor C. Michie, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. The Ob-
servatory, Madras.

1865. {Smith, David, F.R.AS. 40 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

1886. {Smith, Edwin. 33 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

1886. *Smith, Mrs. Emma. Hencotes House, Hexham.

1886. {Smith, EH. Fisher, J.P. The Priory, Dudley.

1886. {Smith, E.O. Council House, Birmingham.

1892. iSmith, E. Wythe. 66 College-street, Chelsea, S.W.

1866. *Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham.

1897. §Smith, Sir Frank. 54 King-street East, Toronto, Canada.

1885, {Smith, Rev. G. A., M.A. 21 Sardinia-terrace, Glasgow.

1897.§§Smith, G. Elliot, M.D. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1860. *Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 18 Harley-street, Cavendish-square, W,

1870. {Smith, H. L. Crabwal! Hall, Cheshire.

1889, *Smith, H. Llewellyn, B.A., B.Sc., F.S.S. 4 Harcourt-buildings,
Inner Temple, E.C.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 87

Election.

1888.
1885.
1876.

1883.

1837.
1885.
1870,
1873.
1867.
1867.
1859.

1894,
1884,

1892.

1885.
1896.
1852.

1875.

1876.
1885.

1883.
1885.
1882,
1874.
1850.
1883.

1857.

1888.

1888.
1878.
1889,
1898.
1879.

1892.

1859,
1879.
1892.
1888.
1886.

1865.
1887.
1883.

1890.
1863.
1893.
1887.

Smith, H. W. Owens College, Manchester.

tSmith, Rev. James, B.D. Manse of Newhills, N.B.

*Smith, J. Guthrie. 65 Kirklee-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, Coalport, tron Bridge,
Shropshire,

tSmith, M. Holroyd. Royal Insurance Buildings, Crossley-strect,
Halifax.

Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury.

{Saarg, Roperr H., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 52 Victoria-street, 8. W.

{Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.

{Smith, Sir Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.

{Smith, Thomas. Dundee.

tSmith, Thomas. Poole Park Works, Dundee.

{Smith, Thomas James, F.G.S., F.C.S. Hornsea Burton, East York-
shire.

§Smith, T. Walrond. 14 Calverley-park, Tunbridge Wells.

tSmith, Vernon. 127 Metcalfe-street, Ottawa, Canada.

{Smith, Walter A. 120 Princes-street, Edinburgh.

*Smith, Watson. University College, Gower-street, W.C.

*Smith, Rev. W. Hodson. 31 Esplanade-gardens, Scarborough.

{Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow.

*Smith, William. Sundon House, Clifton Down, Bristol.

{Smith, William. 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

{SmITHELLs, ArtHUR, B.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in the York-
shire College, Leeds.

tSmithson, Edward Walter. 13 Lendal, York.

tSmithson, Mrs. 13 Lendal, York.

{Smithson, T. Spencer. Facit, Rochdale.

{Smoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.

*SuyTu, Cuarzes Prazzi, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. Clova, Ripon.

tSmyth, Rey. Christopher. Firwood, Chalford, Stroud.

*SuytH, Jonny, M.A,, F.C.S., F.R.M.S., MInst.C.E.I. Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.

“Snape, H. Luoyp, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, Aberystwith.

{Snell, Albion T. Brightside, Salusbury-road, Brondesbury, N.W.

§Snell, H. Saxon. 22 Southampton-buildings, W.O.

tSnell, W. H. Lamorna, Oxford-road, Putney, S.W.

§Snook, Miss L. B. V. 13.Clare-road, Cotham, Bristol.

*Sottas, W. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor
of Geology in the University of Oxford. 169 Woodstock-road,
Oxford.

*SoMERVAIL, ALEXANDER. The Museum, Torquay.

*Sorsy, H. Cirrron, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.G.S. Broomfield, Sheffield:

*Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Ranmoor, Sheffield.

{Sorley, James, F.R.S.E. 18 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Sorley, Professor W. R. University College, Cardiff.

Let Alfred. Carrick House, Richmond Hill-road, Birming-

am.

*Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.

§Sowerbutts, Eli, F.R.G.S. 16 St. Mary’s Parsonage, Manchester.

{Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley,

Staffordshire.

{Spark, F. R. 29 Hyde-terrace, Leeds.

*Spark, H. King, F.G.S. Startforth House, Barnard Castle.

*Speak, John. Kirton Grange, Kirton, near Boston.

tSpencer, F. M. Fernhill, Knutsford.

88 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Y

1884, {Spencer, John, M.Inst.M.E. Globe Tube Works, Wednesbury.

1889. *Spencer, John. Newbiggin House, Kenton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1891. *Spencer, Richard Evans. The Old House, Llandaff.

1863. *Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co.
Durham.

1864, SED, Henry, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen Park, High-

ury, N.

1894. {Spiers, i H. Newton College, South Devon.

1864, *Srrnier, Jonny, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, N.

1864, *Spottiswoode, W. Hugh, F.C.S. 107 Sloane-street, 8. W.

1854, *Spracur, THomss Bonn, M.A., LL.D. F.R.S.E. 29 Buckingham-
terrace, Edinburgh.

1883. {Spratling, W. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. Maythorpe, 74 Wickham-road,
Brockley, S.E.

1888, {Spreat, John Henry. Care of Messrs. Vines & Froom, 75 Alders-
gate-street, F.C.

1884, *Spruce, Samuel, F.G.S. Beech House, Tamworth.

1897. {Squire, W. Stevens, Ph.D. Charendon House, St. John’s Wood
Park, N.W.

1888. *Stacy, J. Sargeant. 15 Wolseley-road, Crouch End, N.

1897, {Stafford, Joseph. Morrisburg, Outario, Canada.

1884. {Stancoffe, Frederick. Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.

1892. {Stanfield, Richard, Assoc.MInst.C.E., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Engineering in the Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh. °49
Mayfield-road, Edinburgh.

1883. *Stanford, Edward, jun., F.R.G.S. Thornbury, Bromley, Kent.

1865. {SranrorD, Epwarp C.C., F.C.S. Glenwood, Dalmuir, N.B. :

1881. *Stanley, William Ford, F.G.S. Cumberlow, South Norwood, S.E.

1883. {Stanley, Mrs. Cumberlow, South Norwood, 8.E.

1894. *STraNsFIELD, ALFRED, D.Sc. Royal College of Science, S.W.
Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.I.A. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.
1899.§§Srartine, EK. H., M.D., F.RS., Professor of Physiology in

University College, London. 8 Park-square West, N.W.

1876. {Starling, John Henry, F.C.S. 32 Craven-street, Strand, W.C.

1899. §Statham, William. The Redings, Totteridge, Herts.

1898.§§Stather, J. W., F.G.S. J6 Louis-street, Hull.

Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.

1894. {Stavert, Rev. W. J., M.A. Burnsall Rectory, Skipton-in-Crayen,
Yorkshire.

1873. *Stead, Charles. Red Barns, Freshfield, Liverpool.

1881. {Stead, W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, E.

1881. {Stead, Mrs. W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, E.

1884. {Stearns, Sergeant P. U.S. Consul-General, Montreal, Canada.

1892. *Sreppine, Rev. Tuomas R. R., M.A., F.R.S. Ephraim Lodge, The
Common, Tunbridge Wells.

1896. *Stebbing, W. P. D., F.G.S. 169 Gloucester-terrace, W.

1891. {Steeds, A. P. 15 St. Helen’s-road, Swansea.

1878. {Steinthal,G. A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1884. {Stephen, George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884. {Stephen, Mrs. George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884. *Stephens, W. Hudson. Low- Ville, Lewis County, New York, U.S.A.

1879. *StEpHENsON, Sir Henny, J.P. The Glen, Sheffield.

1880. *Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. Le Mayals, near Swansea.

1900. §SrEvens, Freprrick (LocaL Srecrerary), Town Clerk’s Office,
Bradford.

1892. {Stevenson, D. A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E.,” M.Inst.C.E. 84 George-street,
Edinburgh. :

i~
wacky

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS. &9
of

Election.

1863

. *Srevenson, James C. Westoe, South Shields,

1890. *Steward, Rey. Charles J., F.R.M.S, The Cedars, Anglesea-road,

1885.
1864,

1892.
1885.
1886.
1875.

1892.

Ipswich.

*Stewart, Rev. Alexander, M.D., LL.D. Heathcot, Aberdeen.

{Srewart, Cuartes, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Hunterian Professor of
Anatomy and Conservator of the Museum, Royal College of
Surgeons, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W.C.

{Stewart, C. Hunter. 38 Carlton-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Stewart, David. Banchory House, Aberdeen.

*Stewart, Duncan. 14 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.

*Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Dunmurry, Sneyd Park, near
Clifton, Gloucestershire.

{Stewart, Samuel. IKnocknairn, Bagston, Greenock.

1876. {Stewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George’s-road, Glasgow.
1867. {Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.

1876.

1867.
1865.
1890.
1885.

1898
1845

1898.
1887.
1899.
1888.
1886.
1886.
1874.

1876.
1857.

1895
1878

1861

1876
1883
1887
1884

1888.
1874.
1871.

1881.

tSyrrtine, Witrr1aM, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in the Owens College, Manchester.

*Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. Stamford-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Stock, Joseph 8. St. Mildred’s, Walmer.

tStockdale, R. The Grammar School, Leeds.

*Srockpr, W. N., M.A., Professor of Physics in the Royal Indian
Engineering College. Cooper's Hill, Staines.

.§§Stoddart, F, Wallis, F.1.C. Grafton Lodge, Sneyd Park, Bristol.

. *Sroxrs, Sir Grorcr GABRIEL, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc.,
F.R.S., Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Cambridge. Lensfield Cottage, Cambridge.

*Stokes, Professor George J., M.A. Riversdale, Sunday’s Well, Cork.

{Stone, LE. D., F.CS. 19 Lever-street, Piccadilly, Manchester.

§Stone, F. J. Chazey Farm, Mapledurham, Reading.

tSronz, Joun. 15 Royal-crescent, Bath.

tStone, Sir J. Benjamin, M.P. The Grange, Erdington, Birmingham.

qStone, J. H. Grosvenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

{Stone, J. Harris, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. 38 Dr. Johnson’s-buildings,
Temple, I.C,

tStone, Octavius C., F.R.G.S. Rothbury House, Westcliff-gardens,
Bournemouth.

{Sronry, Brypon B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., M.R.1.A., Engineer
of the Port of Dublin. 14 Elgin-road, Dublin.

. *Stoney, Miss Edith A. 8 Upper Hornsey Rise, N.

. *Stoney, G. Gerald. 7 Roxburgh-place, Heaton, Newcastle-upon-

Tyne.
. *StonEy, GrorcE Jounstone, M.A., D.Sc., F.RS., MRA. 8
Upper Hornsey Rise, N.

. §Stopes, Henry. 25 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.

. TStopes, Mrs. 25 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.

. “Storey, H. L. Lancaster.

. §Storrs, George H. Gorse Hall, Stalybridge.

*Stothert, Percy K. 3 Park-lane, Bath.

tStott, William. Scar Bottom, Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.

*Stracuty, Lieut.-General Str Ricwarp, R.E., G.C.S.1., LL.D.,
ERS., F.RGS., F.LS., IF.G.8. 69 Lancaster-gate, Hyde
Park, W.

{Srranan, Avuprey, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-
street, S.W.

1876. {Strain, John. 143 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
1863. {Straker, John. Wellington House, Durham.
1889. {Straker, Captain Joseph. Dilston House, Riding Mili-on-Tyne.

90 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1882. {Strange, Rev. Cresswell, M.A. Edgbaston Vicarage, Birmingham,

1898.§§Strangeways, C. Fox. Leicester.

1881.

1889.
1879.
1884,
1883.

1898.

1887.
1887.

1878.
1876.
1872.

1892.
1884.
1893.
1896.
1888.

1885.
1897.
1879.
1891.
1898.

1884.
1887.
1888.
1885.
1873.
1863.

1886.
1892.
1884

1863.
1889.

1898,

1891.

1881.
1881,
1897.
1879.
1887.
1870.

1887.

1890.
1891.
18738.
1895,

tSrraneways, C. Fox, F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
S.W.
{Streatfeild, H.S., F.G.8. Ryhope, near Sunderland.
{Strickland, Sir Charles W., Bart., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton.
{Stringham, Irving. The University, Berkeley, California, U.S.A.
§Strong, Henry J., M.D. Colonnade House, The Steyne, Worthing.
*Strong, W.M. Helstonleigh, Champion Park, Denmark Hill, 8.E.
*Stroud, H., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the College of
Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Stroup, Witir1AM, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Yorkshire Col-
lege, Leeds.
tStrype, W.G. Wicklow.
*Stuart, Charles Maddock. St. Dunstan’s College, Catford, S.E.
*Stuart, Rev. Edward A,, M.A. St. Matthew, Bayswater, 5 Prince’s-
square, W.
{Stuart, Morton Gray, M.A. Ettrickbank, Selkirk.
fStuart, Dr. W. Theophilus. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.
{Stubbs, Arthur G. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
{Stubbs, Miss. Torrisholme, Aigburth-drive, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
*Stubbs, Rev. E. Thackeray, M.A. Grove Lea, Lansdowne-grove,
Bath.
{Stump, Edward C. 16 Herbert-street, Moss Side, Manchester.
{Stupart, R. F. The Observatory, Toronto, Canada.
*Styring, Robert. 64 Crescent-road, Sheffield.
*Sudborough, J. J., Ph.D., B.Sc. University College, Nottingham.
§Sully, T. N. Avalon House, Priory-road, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton,
Bristol.
tSumner, George. 107 Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Sumpner, W. E. 37 Pennyfields, Poplar, E.
tSunderland, John E, Bark House, Hatherlow, Stockport.
{Sutcliffe, J. S., J.P. Beech House, Bacup.
{Sutclitfe, Robert. Idle, near Leeds.
{Sutherland, Benjamin John. Thurso House, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
{Sutherland, Hugh. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
{Sutherland, James B. 10 Windsor-street, Edinburgh.
tSutherland, J.C. Richmond, Quebec, Canada.
tSurron, Francis, F.C.S8. Bank Plain, Norwich.
{Sutton, Wiliam. Esbank, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§Sutton, William, M.D. 6 Camden-crescent, Dover.
fSwainson, George, F.L.S. North Drive, St. Anne’s-on-Sea, Lan-
cashire.
{Swales, William. Ashville, Holeate Hill, York.
§Swan, Josepx Witson, M.A., F.R.S, 58 Holland-park, W.
§Swanston, William, F.G.S. Mount Collyer Factory, Belfast.
{Swanwick, Frederick. Whittington, Chesterfield.

§SwInBURNE, James, M.Inst.C.E. 82 Victoria-street, S.W.

*Swinburne, Sir John, Bart. Capheaton Hall, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne. |

*Swindells, Rupert, F.R.G.S. Wilton Villa, The Firs, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

{SwiryHos, Colonel C., F.L.S. Avenue House, Oxford.
{Swinnerton, R. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Bolarum, Dekkan, India.
{Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. St. John’s House, Cleckheaton.
{Sykes, E.R. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C.

a

ee

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS, 91

* Election.

1887.

1896.

1887

1893.
1870.

1885.
1881.
1859.
1855.

*Sykes, George H., M.A., M.Inst.C,E., F.S.A. Glencoe, Elmbourne-
road, Tooting Common, 8. W.

“Sykes, Mark L., F.R.M.S. 19 Manor-street, Ardwick, Manchester.

*Sykes, T. H. Cringle House, Cheadle, Cheshire,

{Symes, Rev. J. E., M.A. 70 Redcliffe-crescent, Nottingham.

tSymes, Ricwarp Guascorr, M.A., F.G.S., Geological Survey of
Scotland. Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.

{Symineron, Jounson, M.D. Queen’s College, Belfast.

*Symington, Thomas. Wardie House, Edinburgh.

§Symons, G. J., F.R.S., Sec.R.Met.Soc. 62 Camden-square, N.W.

*Symons, Witt1am. Dragon House, Bilbrook, Washford, Taunton.

1886.§§Symons, W. H., M.D. (Brux.), M.R.C.P., F.C. Guildhall,

1896.

Bath

§Tabor, J. M. 20 Petherton-road, Canonbury, N.

1898.§§Tagart, Francis. 199 Queen’s-gate, 8. W.

1865.
1871.

1867.
1894,
1893.

1891.
1890.

1897.
1892.
1883.

1878.
1861.
1857.
1893,
1858.
1884.
1887.
1898.
1874.
1887.
1881.
1884,
1882.
1887.
1861.
1881.
1865.
1876.
1898.
1884.
1881.

1883.
1870.

1887,
1883.

{Tailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E, Newmanswalls, Montrose, Forfar-
shire.

{Tarr, Perer Gururig, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh. George-square, Edinburgh,

{Tait, P. M., F.S.S. 6 Rossetti-mansions, Cheyne-walk, 8. W.

{Takakusu, Jyun, B.A. 17 Worcester-terrace, Oxford.

{Talbot, Herbert, MILLE. 19 Addison-villas, Addison-street, Not-
tingham.

tTamblyn, James. Glan Llynvi, Maesteg, Bridgend.

Tanner, H. W. Luoyp, M.A., F.R.S,, Professor of Mathematics
and Astronomy in University College, Cardiff.

{Tanner, Professor J. H. Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

*Tansley, Arthur G. 49 Gordon Mansions, W.C.

*Tapscott, R. Lethbridge, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8., F.R.A.S.
62 Croxteth-road, Liverpool.

{Tarpry, Hvew. Dublin.

*Tarratt, Henry W. 190 Old Christchurch-road, Bournemouth.

*Tate, Alexander. Rantalard, Whitehouse, Belfast.

tTate, George, Ph.D. College of Chemistry, Duke-street, Liverpool.

*Tatham, George, J.P. Springfield Mount, Leeds.

*Taylor, Rev. Charles, D.D. St. John’s Lodge, Cambridge.

§Taylor,G. H. Holly House, 235 Kecles New-road, Salford.

§Taylor, Lieut.-Colonel G. L. Le M. 6 College-lawn, Cheltenham.

tTaylor,G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast.

tTaylor, George Spratt. 13 Queen’s-terrace, St. John’s Wood, N.W.

*Taylor, H. A. 69 Addison-road, Kensington, W.

*Taytor, H. M., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. Oxford-street, Nottingham.

{Taytor, Rey. Canon Isaac, D.D. Settrington Rectory, York.

*Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 32 Bruton-street, W.

*Taylor, John Francis. Holly Bank House, York.

{'Taylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham.

tTaylor, Robert. 70 Bath-street, Glasgow.

§Taylor, Robert H., M.Inst.C.E. 6 Maison Dieu-road, Dover.

*Taylor, Miss S. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham.

{ Taylor, Rev. S. B., M.A. Whisley Hall, York.

tTaylor, 8. Leigh. Birklands, Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Taylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon,

{Taylor, Tom. Grove House, Sale, Manchester.

tTaylor, William, M.D. 21 Crockherbtown, Cardiff.

92 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election. ;

1895. tTaylor, W. A., M.A., F.R.S.E. Royal Scottish Geographical
Society, Edinburg rh.

1893. {Taylor, W. F. Bicataa) Whitehorse-road, Croydon, Surrey.

. *Taylor, W. W. 30 Banbury-road, Oxford.
. {Taylor-Whitehead, Samuel, J.P. Burton Closes, Bakewell.
. TTesre, Tuomas Princiy, M.A., F.RS. 38 Cookridge-street,

eds.

. Tear, J.J. H., M.A.,F.2S., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, 8.W.

. §Tebb, Robert Palmer. Endertield, Chislehurst, Kent.

. TTemple, Lieutenant G. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. The Nash, near Worcester.
. [Teupre, The Right Hon. Sir Ricwarp, Bart., G.C.S.1., C.LE.,

D.C.L., LL.U., F.R.S., F.R.G.8. Athenzeum Club, $.W.

. {Tennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1889,

{Tennant, James. Saltwell, Gateshead.

1894.§§Terras, J. A.. B.Sc. 40 Findhorn-place, Edinburgh.

1882,
1896.

1892.
1883.
1883.
1882,

1889.

1885,
1871.
1871.

1870.
1891.
1891.

1891.
13891.
4891,
1884,
1869,
1875.
1881.
1869.

1880.
1899.

TTerrill, William. 42 St. George’s-terrace, Swansea.

*Terry, Rev. T. Rt., M.A.,F.R.A.S. The Rectory, East Isley, New-
bury, Berkshire.

*Tesla, Nikola. 45 West 27th-street, New York, U.S.A.

tTetley,C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

tTetley, Mrs.C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

*Tnane, Georce Dancer, Professor of Anatomy in University
College, Gower-street, W.C.

{Thetford, The Right Rey. A. T. Lloyd, Bishop of, D.D. North
Creake Rectory, 1 a epee Norfolk.

¢Thin, Dr. George. 22 Queen Anne-street, W.

tThin, James. 7 Rillbank: -terrace, Edinburgh.

}THISELTON- Pisa; Sir W. T.. K C.M.G. O. LE., M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D.,
LL.D., F.R. g., F.1.8. Royal Gardens, Kew.

tThom, Robert Wilson, Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.

1Thomas, Alfred, M.P. Pen-y-lan, Cardiif.

tThomas, A. Garrod, M.D., J.P. Clytha Park, Newport, Mon-

mouthbshire.
*Thomas, Miss Clara. Llwynmadoc, Garth, R.S.O.
tThomas, Edward. 282 Bute-street, Cardiff, \

tThomas, E. Franklin. Dan-y-Bryn, Radyr, near Cardiff.

TTnomas, F. Wotrerstay. Molson’s Bank, Montreal, Canada.

{Thomas,H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.

{Thomas, Herbert. Ivor House, Redland, Bristol.

TTnHomas, J. Brount. Southampton.

tThomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. 86 Breakspear’s-road, Brockley,
S.E.

*Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S. 2 Hampstead Hill-mansions,
N.W.
*Thomas, Mrs. J. W. 2 Hampstead Hill-mansions, N.W.

1898.§§Thomas, Rey. U. Bristol School Board, Guildhall, Bristol.

1883.
. 1Thomas, William. Lan, Swansea.

. TThomas, William. 109 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhamptoz.

. [Thomason, Yeoville. 9 Observatory-gardens, Kensington, W.

. TZhompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.

. *Thompson, Beeby, F.C.S., F.G.8. 55 Victoria-road, Northampton.
. {Thompson, Miss CE Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.

. 1Thompson, Charles F. Penhill Close, near Cardiff,

. 1Thompson, Charles O. Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.

. *Thompson, Clande M., M.A., Professor of Chemistry in University

TThomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Cardiff.

College, Cardiff.

ie a

LIST OF MEMBERS. 93

1885. {Thompson, D’Arcy W., B.A.,C.B., Professor of Zoology in University
College, Dundee. University College, Dundee.

1896. *Thompson, Edward P. Whitchurch, Salop.

1883. *Thompson, Francis. Lynton, Ialing Park-road, Croydon.

1891. tThompson, G. Carslake. Park-road, Penarth.

1893. *Thompson, Harry J., M.Inst.C.I., Madras. Care of Messrs. Grindlay
& Co., Parliament-street, S.W.

1870. {Tnomesoy, Sir Henry, Bart. 35 Wimpole-street, W.

1883. *Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 86 Lower Addiscombe-road, Croydon.

1891. ¢{Thompson, Herbert M. Whitley Batch, Llandaff.

1891. {Thompson, H. Wolcott. 9 Park-place, Cardiff.

1883. *T'nompson, Isaac Cooxr, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. 53 Croxteth-road,
Liverpool.

1897. {Thompson, J. Barclay. 37 St. Giles’s, Oxford.

1891. {Thompson, J. Tatham, M.B. 23 Charles-street, Cardiff.

1861. *THomprson, Joseru. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Cheshire.

1876. *Thompson, Richard. Dringcote, The Mount, York.

1883. {Thompson, Richard. Bramley Mead, Whalley, Lancashire.

1876. {Inompson, Srrvanvus Putiirs, B.A., D.Se., F.RS., F.R.AS.,
Principal and Professor of Physies in the City and Guilds of
London Technical College, Finsbury, J2.C.

1883, *Thompson, T. H. Redlynch House, Green Walk, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1896. *Inompson, W. H., M.D., Professor of Physiology in Queen's
College, Belfast.

1896.§§Thompson, W. P. 6 Lord-street, Liverpool.

1867. {Thoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.

1894, {THomson, Anruvr, M.A., M.D., Professor of Human Anatomy in
the University of Oxford. Exeter College, Oxford.

1889. *Thomson, James, M.A. 22 Wentworth-place, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

1868.§§THomson, James, F.G.S. 6 Stewart-street, Shawlands, Glasgow.

1876. tThomson, James R. Mount Blow, Dalmuir, Glasgow.

1891. tThomson, John. 704 Grosvenor-street, W.

1896. {Thomson, John. 3 Derwent-square, Stonycroft, Liverpool.

1890. §THomson, Professor J. AnrHUR, M.A.,V.R.S.E. Castleton House,
Old Aberdeen.

1883. {THomson, J. J., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Experimental
Physics in the University of Cambridge. 6 Scrope-terrace,

Cambridge.

1871. *Tnomson, Jonn Mitrar, LL.D., F.R.S., Sec.C.8., Professor of
Chemistry in King’s College, London. 85 Addison-road, W.

1874. §TnHomsox, WittiAM,F.R.S.E.,F.C.S, Royal Institution, Manchester.

1880. §Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helens.

1897. {Thorburn, James, M.D. ‘Toronto, Canada.

1871. {Thornburn, Rey. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith,

1887. {Thornton, John. 3 Park-street, Bolton.

1867. {Thornton, Sir Thomas. Dundee.

1898. an W.M. The Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-

e.

1£83. Sinearcignnoads Samuel, Castle-square, Brighton.

1881. tThorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.

1881. *Thorp, Josiah. Undercliffe, Holmfirth.

1898. §Thorp, Thomas. Moss Bank, Whitefield, Manchester.

1864, *Tnorp, Wittram, B.Se., F.C.8. 22 Sinclair-gardens, West Ken-
sington, W. ’

1871. {THorpy, T. E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Pres.C.8., Principal
of the Government Laboratories, Clement's Inn-passage, W.O,

1898. §Thorpe, Jocelyn Field, Ph.D, Owens College, Manchester,

94

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1883,
1899,
1896.

1868.

1889.
1870.

1873.
1874.

1873.
1888.
1883.
1865.
1896.
1899.

1876.
1891.
1897.
1889.
1857.
1896.
1888.
1887.
1865.

1865.
1873.
1875.

1886.
1884.
1884.
1873.
1875.
1861.
1877.
1876.

1885.
1870.

1868.

1891.
1884.
1868.
i891.

1887.
1883.

§Threlfall, Henry Singleton, J.P. 1 London-street, Southport.

§Threlfall, Richard. 259 Hagley-road, Birmingham.

§Thrift, at Edward. 80 Grosvenor-square, Rathmines,
Dublin.

{Tuururse, General Sir H. HE. L., R.A., C.S.1, F.RS., F.R.G.S,
Tudor House, Richmond Green, Surrey.

{Thys, Captain Albert. 9 Rue Briderode, Brussels,

{Tichborne, Charles R. C., LL.D., F.C.S., MR.LA. Apothecaries’
Hall of Ireland, Dublin.

*Tippeman, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28
Jermyn-street, S.W.

{TinpEn, Wrtr1aM A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the Royal College of Science, South Kensington, London.
9 Ladbroke-gardens, W.

{Tilzhman, B. C. Philadelphia, U.S.A.

tTillyard, A. I., M.A. Fordfield, Cambridge.

{Tillyard, Mrs. Fordfield, Cambridge.

{Timmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S.A. Hill Cottage, Fillongley, Coventry.

§Timmis, Thomas Sutton. Cleveley, Allerton, Yorkshire.

§Tims, H. W. Marett, M.D., F.L.S. Fairseat Cottage, Warwick-
road, Ealing, W.

{Todd, Rev. Dr. Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, 8.5.

tTodd, Richard Rees. Portuguese Consulate, Cardiff.

{Todhunter, James. 85 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.

§Toll, John M. 49 Newsham-drive, Liverpool.

}Tombe, Rey. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow.

{Toms, Frederick. 1 Ambleside-avenue, Streatham, S.W.

{Tomkins, Rev. Henry George. Park Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

{Tonge, James, F.G.8. Woodbine House, West Houghton, Bolton.

{Tonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwick-
shire.

*Tonks, William Henry. The Rookery, Sutton Coldfield.

*Tookey, Charles, F.C.8. Royal Schoo! of Mines, Jermyn-street, S.W.

{Torr, Charles Hawley. St. Alban’s Tower, Mansfield-road, Sher-
wood, Nottingham.

tTorr, Charles Walker. Cambridge-street Works, Birmingham,

{Torrance, John F. Folly Lake, Nova Scotia, Canada.

*Torrance, Rev. Robert, D.D. Guelph, Ontario, Canada,

tTownend, W. H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tTownsend, Charles. St. Mary’s, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

{Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.

tTozer, Henry. Ashburton.

*Trait, J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.RS., F.L.S., Regius Professor of
Botany in the University of Aberdeen.

{Traitt, A., M.D., LL.D. Ballylough, Bushmills, Ireland.

{Trartt, Witram <A. Giant's Causeway Electric Tramway,
Portrush, Ireland.

tTraquatr, Ramsay H., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the
Natural History Collections, Museum of Science and Art,
Edinburgh.

{Trayes, Valentine. Maindell Hall, Newport, Monmouthshire.

{Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.S. Hartlepool.

{Trehane, Jobn. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.

tTreharne, J. Ll. 92 Newport-road, Cardiff.

Trench, F. A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland.
*Trench-Gascoigne, Mrs. F. R. Parlington, Aberford, Leeds.
{Trendell, Edwin James, J.P. Abbey House, Abingdon, Berks,

ad ent wie Dy

SS) a ee

LIST OF MEMBERS, 95

Year of
Election.

1884,
1884,

1879.
1871.

1860.
1884.

1885.
1891.

1887.
1898.
1896.

1885.
1847.
1888.
1871.
1887.
1883.

1892.
1855.
1896.
1898.
1882.

1883.
1894.

1886.
1863.

1893.
1890.
1884.
1886.
1898.
1899.

{Trenham, Norman W. 18 St. Alexis-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Tribe, Paul C. M. 44 West Oneida-street, Oswego, New York,
USA

{Trickett, F. W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield.

{Trmen, Roranp, M.A., F.RS., F.LS., F.Z.S. Water Hall,
St. Aldate’s, Oxford.

§Tristram, Rey. Henry Baker, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Canon of

Durham. The College, Durham.
*Trotter, Alexander Pelham, Government Electrician and Inspector,
The Treasury, Cape Town.

§TRotrER, Courts, F.G.S.,F.R.G.S. 10 Randolph-crescent, Edinburgh.

tTrounce, W. J. 67 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*TROUTON, FREDERICK T., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Trinity College, Dublin.

§Trow, Albert Howard. Glanhafren, Penarth.

§Truell, Henry Pomeroy, M.B., F.R.C.S.I. Clonmannon, Ashford,

Co. Wicklow.

“Tubby, A. H., F.R.C.S._25 Weymouth-street, Portland-place, W.

*Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristol.

{Tuckett, William Fothergill, M.D. 18 Daniel-street, Bath.

tTuke, Sir J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire.

tTuke, W.C. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.

;TuppER, The Hon. Sir Cuarrzs, Bart., G.C.M.G., C.B. Ottawa,

Canada.

{Turnbull, Alexander R. Ormiston House, Hawick.

{Turnbull, John. 37 West George-street, Glasgow.

tTurner, Alfred. Elmswood Hall, Aigburgh, Liverpool.

§TurwER, Dawson, M.B. 37 George-square, Edinburgh.

{Turner, G. S. Pitcombe, Winchester-road, Southampton.

{Turner, Mrs. G.S. Pitcombe, Winchester-road, Southampton.

*Turver, H. H., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Astro-

nomy in the University of Oxford. The Observatory, Oxford.

*TuRNER, Tuomas, A.R.S.M., F.C.S., F.1.C. Ravenhurst, Rowley

Park, Stafford.

*Turver, Sir Witt14M, M.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Pro-
fessor of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh (PREsipENT
Etecr.) 6 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Turney, Sir Joun, J.P. Alexandra Park, Nottingham.

*Turpin, G. S., M.A., D.Sc. School House, Swansea.

*Tutin, Thomas. The Orchard, Chellaston, Derby.

*Twigg,G.H. 56 Claremont-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

§Twiggs, H. W. 65 Victoria-street, Bristol.

§Twisden, John R., M.A. 14 Gray’s Inn-square, W.C.

1888.§§Tyack, Llewelyn Newton. University College, Bristol.

1882.
1865.

1883.

1897.
1861.

1884,
1888.
1886,
1885.
1883,

{Tyer, Edward. Horneck, 16 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, Hampstead, N.W.

§Tytor, Epwarp Burnett, D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of
Anthropology, and Keeper of the University Museum, Oxford.

{Tyrer, Thomas, F.0.S. Stirling Chemical Works, Abbey-lane,
Stratford, E,

{Tyrrell, J. B., M.A., B.Sc. Ottawa, Canada.

*Tysoe, John. Heald-road, Bowdon, near Manchester.

*Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford,
tUnderhill, H. M. 7 High-street, Oxford.

tUnderhill, Thomas, M.D. West Bromwich.

§Unwin, Howard. 1 Newton-grove, Bedford Park, Chiswick.
§Unwin, John. Eastcliffe Lodge, Southport,

96 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1876. *Unwin, W. C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering at
the Central Institution of the City and Guilds of London In-
stitute. 7 Palace-zate Mansions, Kensington, W.

1887. {Upton, Francis R. Orange, New Jersey, U.S.A.

1872. {Upward, Alfred. 150 Holland-road, W.

1876. {Ure, John F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

1866. {Urquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee,

1898.§§Usher, Thomas. 3 Elmgrove-road, Cotham, Bristol.

1880.

1885.
1896.
1887.
1888.
1884.

1885.

1886.
1868.

1865.
1870.
1869.
1884.
1895.
1887.

1875.
1883.
1881.
18758.

1883.
1885.
1896.
1896.
1864.
1890.
1868.
1899,

1883.
1891.

1886,
1860.
1890.
1888,
1890.
1896.
1891.
1884,

t{Ussumr, W. A. E., F.G.S8. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

tVachell, Charles Tanfield, M.D. 88 Charles-street, Cardiff.

tVacher, Francis. 7 Shrewsbury-road, Birkenhead.

*Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.

{Vallentin, Rupert. 18 Kimberley-road, Falmouth.

{Van Horne, Sir W.C., K.C.M.G. Dorchester-street West, Montreal,
Canada.

*Vansittart, The Hon. Mrs. A. A. Haywood House, Oaklands-road,
Bromley, Kent.

tVarpy, Rev. A.R., M.A. King Edward's School, Birmingham.

{Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay-
avenue, Stoke Newington, N.

*VarteEy, 8S. ALFRED. 5 Gayton-road, Ilampstead, N.W.

{Varley, Mrs. S. A. 5 Gayton-road, Hampstead, N. W.

{Varwell, P. Alphington-street, Exeter.

tVasey, Charles. 112 Cambridge-gardens, W.

§Vaughan, D. T. Gwynne. Howry Hall, Llandrindod, Radnorshire.

*VauaHAN, His Eminence Cardinal. Carlisle-place, Westminster

S.W.

{Vaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.

Vaughan, William. 42 Sussex-road, Southport.

§Vetry, V. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. 20 Bradmore-road, Oxford.

*Verney, Sir Epmunp H., Bart., F.R.G.S. Claydon House, Winslow,
Bucks.

*Verney, Lady. Claydon House, Winslow, Bucks.

{Verwnon, H.H.,M.D. York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

*Vernon, Thomas T. 24 Waterloo-road, Waterloo, Liverpool.

*Vernon, William. Tean Hurst, Tean, Stoke-upon-Trent.

*Vicary, WittiaM, F'.G.8. The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter.

*Villamil, Lieut.-Colonel R. de, R.E. 55 Queensborough-terrace, W.

tVincent, Rev. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich.

*Vincent, Swarr, M.B. Physiological Laboratory, University

College, W.C.

*Vinus, SypNEyY Howarp, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S8., Professor of

Botany in the University of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.
{Vivian, Stephen. Llantrisant.

*Wackrill, Samuel Thomas, J.P. Leamington Spa.

{Waddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucestershire.

t Wadsworth, G. H. 3 Southfield-square, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tWadworth, H. A. Breinton Court, near Hereford.

§WaceErR, Harorp W.T. Bank View, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

{ Wailes, Miss Ellen. Woodmead, Groombridge, Sussex.

tWailes, T. W. 23 Richmond-yoad, Cardiff.

t Wait, Charles E., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Ten-
nessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.A.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 97

Year of
Election.

1886.
1870.
1892.
1884.
1891,
1891.
1894,
1882.
1885.
1893.
1890,
4897,
1885.
1883.
1891.
1897.
1894.
1866.
1896.
1890.
4894,
1866.
1855,
1886.
1866,
1884,
1888.
1887.
1883.

1895.
1896.
1896.
1883,
1863.

1897.
1892.
1887.

1889.
1895.

1885.
1884.
1886,

1894,
1887.
1891,
1883.
1895.

1881.
1884.
1887.
1881.

t Waite, J. W. The Cedars, Bestcot, Walsall.

{WaAke, CHARLES StanrLanp. Welton, near Brough, Hast Yorkshire.

t+ Walcot, John. 50 Northwnberland-street, Edinburgh,

}Waldstein, Professor C., M.A., Ph.D. King’s College, Cambridge.

tWales, H. T. Pontypridd.

{Walford, Edward, M.D. Thanet Ilouse, Cathedral-road, Cardiff.

{Watrorp, Epwin A., F.G.S. West Bar, Banbury.

*Walkden, Samuel. Downside, Whitchurch, Tavistock.

{ Walker, Mr. Baillie. 52 Victoria-street, Aberdeen.

§ Walker, Alfred O., F.L.S. Ulcombe-place, Maidstone, Kent.

t Walker, A. l'annett. Hunslet, Leeds.

*Watker, B. E., F.G.S. Canadian Bank of Commerce, Toronto.

{Walker, Mrs. Emma. 13 Lendal, York.

{ Walker, E. R. Pagefield Ironworks, Wigan.

{ Walker, Frederick W. Hunslet, Leeds.

§Walker, George Blake. Tankersley Grange, near Barnsley.

*Watxer, G.T., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Walker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.

{tWalker, Horace. Belvidere-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool,

{ Walker, Dr. James. 8 Windsor-terracs, Dundee.

*Walker, James, M.A. 30 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*WALKER, J. Francis, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S. 45 Bootham, York.

tWatker, J. J., M.A., F.RS. 12 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.

*Walker, Major Philip Billingsley. Sydney, New South Wales.

{Walker, S. D. 38 Hampden-street, Nottingkam.

{ Walker, Samuel. Woodbury, Sydenham Hill, 5.E.

tWalker, Sydney F. 195 Severn-road, Carditt.

{Walker, T. A. 15 Great George-street, S.W.

tWalker, Thomas A. 66 Leyland-road, Southport.

Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.

§Watker, WriirAw G., A.M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, S.W.

§ Walker, Colonel William Hall. Gateacre, Liverpool.

tWalier, W.J. D. Lawrencetown, Co. Down, Ireland.

{Wall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport.

¢Wattrace, Atrrep Russet, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S.. Corfe
View, Parkstone, Dorset.

tWallace, Chancellor. Victoria University, Toronto, Canada.

{ Wallace, Robert W. 14 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.

*WatterR, Aueustus D., M.D., F.R.S. Weston Lodge, 16 Grove
End-road, N.W.

*Wallis, Arnold J., M.A. 5 Belvoir-terrace, Cambridge.

tWattis, E. Warre, F.S.S. Sanitary Institute, Parkes Museum,

Margaret-street, W.

t Wallis, Rev. Frederick. Caius College, Cambridge.

t Wallis, Herbert. Redpath-street, Montreal, Canada.

tWallis, Whitworth, F.S.A. Chevening, Montague-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

*Watmistey, A. T., M.Inst.C.E. Engineer's Office, Dover Harbour.

{ Walmsley, J. Monton Lodge, Kecles, Manchester.

§ Walmsley, R. M., D.Sc. Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, E.C,

{ Walmsley, T. M. Clevelands, Chorley-road, Heaton, Bolton.

§WatsrncHam, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., F.R.S. Merton Hall,
Thetford.

{ Walton, Thomas, M.A. Oliver's Mount School, Scarborough.

tWanless, John, M.D. 88 Union-avenue, Montreal, Canada.

ft Ward, A. W., M.A., Litt.D.

§Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds,

1899, G

98

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Slection.

1879.

1890.
1874.
1887.
1857.
1880.
1884.
1887.
1882.
1867.
1858.
1884.
1887.

1878.

1882.
1884,
1896.
1896.
1875.
1887.

Warp, H. Marsuwatt, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany,
University of Cambridge. New Museums, Cambridge.

{Ward, Alderman John. Moor Allerton House, Leeds.

§Ward, John, J.P., F.S.A. Lenoxvale, Belfast.

+Warp, Jonny, F.G.S. 23 Stafford-street, Longton, Staffordshire,

{Ward, John 8. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland.

*Ward, J. Wesney. Red House, Ravensbourne Pari, Catford, 8.1.

*Ward, John William. Newstead, Halifax.

t{Ward, Thomas. Brookfield House, Northwich.

{Ward, William. Cleveland Cottage, Hill-lane, Southampton.

{Warden, Alexander J. 23 Panmure-street, Dundee.

{Wardle, Sir Thomas, F.G.S. St. Edward-street, Leek, Staffordshire.

{Wardwell, George J. 31 Grove-street, Rutland, Vermont, U.S.A.

*Waring, Richard 8. Standard Underground Cable Co., 16th-street,
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

§Warineron, Ropert, F.R.S., F.C.S. High Bank, Harpenden, St.
Albans, Herts.

fWarner, F.L., F.L.S. 20 Hyde-street, Winchester.

*Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A

t Warr, A. F. 4 Livingstone-drive North, Liverpool.

{Warrand, Major-General, R.E. Westhorpe, Southwell, Middlesex.

{ Warren, Algernon, Downgate, Portishead,

{WarrREN, Major-General Sir Cuartes, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Athenzeum Club, S.W.

1898.§§ Warrington, Arthur W. University College, Aberystwith.

1893.
1875.
1870.
1892.
1875.

1887.
1884.
1886.
1883.
1892,
1885.

1882.

1884.
1889.
1863.
1863.
1867.
1894.
1892.
1879.
1882.
1884,
1869.
1888.
1875.
1884.
1870.

1896.

{Warwick, W. D. Balderton House, Newark-on-Trent.

*Waterhouse, Major-Colonel J. Oak Lodge, Court-road, Eltham, Kent.

tWaters, A. T. H., M.D. 60 Bedford-street, Liverpool.

{Waterston, James H. 37 Lutton-place, Edinburgh.

{Watkerston, Rev. Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. The Grammar
School, Hinckley, Leicestershire,

{ Watkin, F. W. 46 Awriol-road, West Kensington, W.

{Watson, A. G., D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sussex.

*Watson, C. J. 384 Smallbrook-street, Birmingham.

{Watson, C. Knight, M.A. 49 Bedford-square, W.C.

§ Watson, G., Assoc.M.Inst.0.E. 21 Springfield-mount, Leeds.

{Watson, Deputy Surgeon-General G. A. Hendre, Overton Park,
Cheltenham.

{Wartson, Rev. Henry W., D.Sc., F.R.S. The Rectory, Berkeswell,
Coventry.

{Watson, John. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.

{Watson, John, F.1.C. P.O. Box 317, Johaunesberg, South Africa,

{ Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.

{Watson, R. Spence, LL.D., F.R.G.S. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.

{Watson, Thomas Donald. 16 St. Mary’s-road, Bayswater, W.

*Wartson, W., B.Sc. 7 Upper Cheyne-row, S.W.

§ Watson, William, M.D, Waverley House, Slateford, Midlothian.

*Warson, Witt1aAM Hevey,F.C.8.,1.G.8. Braystones, Cumberland.

+ Watt, Alexander. 19 Brompton-avenue, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

{Watt, D. A. P. 284 Upper Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Watt, Robert B. E. Ashley-avenue, Belfast.

t{ Warts, B. H. 10 Rivers-street, Bath.

*Warts, Joun, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford.

*Watts, Rev. Canon Robert R. Stourpaine Vicarage, Blandford.

§ Watts, William, F.G.S. Little Don Waterworks, Langsett, near
Penistone.

{Watts, W. H. Elm Hall, Wavertree, Liverpool.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 99

Year of
Blection.

1873.
1885.

1891.
1869.
1883.
1871.
1890.
1886.

1891.
1859.
1882.

1884.

1889.
1890.

1886.
1865.

1894,
1876.

1880.
1897.
1881.
1879.
1881.
1894,
1883.
1881.

1864.
1886,

1865.

*Warts, W. MarswaLt, D.Sc. Giggleswick Grammar Sehool, near
Settle. |

*Warts, W. W., M.A., Sec. G.S., Assistant Professor of Geology in
the Mason Science College, Birmingham.

{ Waugh, James. Higher Grade School, 110 Newport-road, Cardiff.

{Way, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia. .

{ Webb, George. 5 Tenterden-street, Bury, Lancashire.

{Webb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.

{ Webb, Sidney. 4 Park-village East, N.W.

{WesseER, Major-General C. E., C.B., M.Inst.C.E. 17 Egerton-
gardens, 8. W.

§ Webber, Thomas. Kensington Villa, 6 Salisbury-road, Cardiff.

tWebster, John. Edgehill, Aberdeen.

*Webster, Sir Richard Everard, LL.D., Q.C., M.P. Hornton
Lodge, Hornton-street, Kensington, S.W.

*Wedekind, Dr. Ludwig, Professor of Mathematics at Karlsruhe.

_ 48 Westendstrasse, Karlsruhe.

{Weeks, John G. Bedlington.

*Weiss, F. Ernest, B.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Owens
College, Manchester.

{Weiss, Henry. Westbourne-road, Birmingham.

Welch, Christopher, M.A. United University Club, Pall Mall
East, S.W.

§ Weld, Miss. Conal More, Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*Wexpon, Professor W. F. R., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. The Museum,

Oxford.

*Weldon, Mrs. Oxford.

{ Welford, A. B., M.B. Woodstock, Ontario, Canada.

§Wellcome, Henry 8. Snow Hill Buildings, E.C.

§Wetts, Cuartes A., A.LE.E. 219 High-street, Lewes.

§Wells, Rey. Edward, M.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury.

Wells, J. G. Selwood House, Shobnall-street, Burton-on-Trent.

{ Welsh, Miss. Girton College, Cambridge.

*Wenlock, The Right Hon. Lord. Escrick Park, Yorkshire.

‘Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near

Bernsley, Yorkshire.

*Were, Anthony Berwick. Hensincham, Whitehaven, Cumberland.

*Wertheimer, Julius, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S., Principal of and Professor
of Chemistry in the Merchant Venturers’ Technical College,
Bristol.

{Wesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington
House, W.

1855. { West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.
1898.§§ West, Charles D. Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan.

1853.
1897.
1882.

1882.
1882.

1885,

1853.
1884.

West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.

{Western, Alfred E. 36 Lancaster-gate, W. :

*Westlake, Ernest, F.G.S. Vale Lodge, Vale of Health, Hamp-
stead, N. W.

{Westlake, Richard. Portswood, Southampton.

ibe ory Epwarp B.,F.G.S. 4 St. Margaret’s-terrace, Chelten-

am.

*“Wuanrton, Admiral Sir W. J. L., K.C.B., R.N., F.RS., F.R.AS.,
F.R.G.S., Hydrographer to the Admiralty. Florys, Prince’s-
road, Wimbledon Park, Surrey.

{ Wheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.

Nes aaa L., M.D. 251 West 52nd-street, New York City,

G2

100

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1878.

1888.
1883.
1893.
1888.

1888.
1879.

1898.
1874.
1883.

1859.
1884,

1886.
1897.
1886.
1876.
1886.
1883.

*Wheeler, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Wyncote, Boston, Lincolnshire.

§Whelen, John Leman. 18 Frognal, Hampstead, N.W.

t{Whelpton, Miss K. Newnham College, Cambridge.

*WuerHam, W.C.D., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay.

*Whidborne, Miss Constance Mary. Charanté, Torquay.

*WaurmporneE, Rev. Grorcr Ferris, M.A., F.G.8. The Priory,

Westbury-on-Trym, near Bristol.

*Whipple, Robert 8. Scientific Instrument Company, Cambridge.

t{ Whitaker, Henry, M.D. Fortwilliam Terrace, Belfast.

*Whitaker, T. Walton House, Burley-in- Wharfedale.

* WHITAKER, Witram, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.8. Freda, Campden-road,
Croydon.

{Whitcher, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,
Canada.

t{Whitcombe, E. B. Borough Asylum, Winson Green, Birmingham.

§ Whitcombe, George. The Wotton Elms, Wotton, Gloucester.

tWhite, Alderman, J.P. Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

White, Angus. Easdale, Argyllshire.

tWhite, A. Silva. 47 Clanricarde-gardens, W.

{White, Charles. 28 Alexandra-road, Southport.

1898.§§White, George. Clare-street House, Bristol.

1882.

1885,
1873.
1859.
1883.
1865.
1895.

1884,

{White, Rev. George Cecil, M.A. Nutshalling Rectory, South-
ampton.

*White, J. Martin. Balruddery, Dundee.

{White, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.

{ White, John Forbes. 511 Union-street, Aberdeen.

tWhite, John Reed. Rossall School, near Fleetwood.

{White, Joseph. 6 Southwell-gardens, S.W.

{ White, Philip J., M.B., Professor of Zoology in University College,
Bangor, North Wales.

tWhite, R. ‘Gazette’ Office, Montreal, Canada.

1898.§§ White, Samuel. Clare-street House, Bristol.

1859.
1877.
1883.

1886.
1897.
1885.
1898.

1881.
1852.

1891.

1897.
1896.

1857.
1887

1874.
1883,
1870.
1892.
1897.
1888.

1865.
1886.

{White, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.

*White, William. 66 Cambridge-gardens, Notting Hill, W.

*White, Mrs. 66 Cambridge-gardens, Notting Hill, W.

*White, William. The Ruskin Museum, Sheffield.

*Wuuitr, Sir W.H., K.C.B.,F.R.S. The Admiralty, Whitehall, S.W.

t{ Whitehead, P. J. 6 Cross-street, Southport.

§Whiteley, R. Lloyd, F.C.S., F.C. 20 Beeches-road, West
Bromwich.

{ Whitfield, John, F.C.S. 113 Westborough, Scarborough.

t{Whitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast.

§ Whitmeil, Charles T., M.A., B.Sc. Invermay, Headingley, Leeds.

§ Whittaker, E. T., M. A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

§ Whitney, Colonel C, A. The Gr ange, Fulwood Park, Liverpool.

*Waritty, Rev. Jonn Inwine, M. A, D.C.L., LL.D. 11 Poplar-
road, Ramsgate.

~Whitwoll, William. Overdene, Saltburn-by-the-Sea.

*Whitwill, Mark. 1 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol.

{Whitworth, James. 88 Portland-street, Southport.

tWhitworth, Rev. W. Allen, M.A. 7 Margaret-street, W.

§ Whyte, Peter, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Clifton-terrace, Edinburgh.

tWickett, M., Ph.D. 339 Berkeley-street, Toronto, Canada.

t Wickham, Rey. F. D.C. Horsington Rectory, Bath.

{ Wiggin, Sir H., Bart. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birmingham.

{Wigein, Henry A. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 101

Year of

Election,

1896. { Wigglesworth, J. County Asylum, Rainhill, Liverpool,
1883. {Wigglesworth, Mrs. 23 Westbourne-grove, Scarborough.

1878,
1889.
1887.
1887.
1896.
1887.
1892.

1886,
1879.
1887.
1872.
1890.
1872.
1894,
1891.
1861.

1887.
1883.
1861.
1875.

1883.
1888,
1891.

1887.
1888.

1875.
1879.
1891.
1886,
1883.

1883.
1877.
1883.
1850.

1857.

1876.
1863.
1895.
1895.

1896,
1882.
1859,
1886.
1898.
1886,
1885.

}Wigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin.
* Wilberforce, L. R., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
tWild, George. Bardsley Colliery, Ashton-under-Lyne.
*Wixpe, Henry, F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge, Manchester.
{Wildermann, Meyer. 22 Parlk-crescent, Oxford.
t Wilkinson, C. H. Slaithwaite, near Huddersfield.
tWilkinson, Rey. J. Frome., M.A. Barley Rectory, Royston,
Herts.
*Wilkinson, J. H. Elmhurst Hall, Lichfield.
{Willinson, Joseph. York.
*Wilkinson, Thomas Read. Vale Bank, Knutsford, Cheshire.
Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.
{Willans, J. W. Kirkstall, Leeds.
{Wuerr, Henry. Arnold House, Brighton.
tWilley, Arthur, New Museums, Cambridge.
{Williams, Arthur J., M.P. Coedymwstwr, near Bridgend.
*Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 2 Upper Brook-street,
Grosyenor-square, W.
{ Williams, Sir IE. Leader, M.Inst.C E. The Oaks, Altrincham.
“Williams, Edward Starbuck. Ty-ar-y-graig, Swansea.
*Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 6 Heathfield, Swansea,
*Williams, Rev. Herbert Addams. Llangibby Rectory, near New-
port, Monmouthshire.
Williams, Rey. H. Alban, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.
{Williams, James. Bladud Villa, Entry Hill, Bath.
§Williams, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. Lingfield Grange, Branksome
Park, Bournemouth.
tWilliams, J. Francis, Ph.D. Salem, New York, U.S.A.
*Williams, Miss Katharine T. Llandaff House, Pembroke Vale,
Clifton, Bristol.
*Williams, M. B. Killay House, near Swansea.
t Wilhiams, Matthew W. 26 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool.
{Williams, Morgan. 5 Park-place, Cardiff.
fWilliams, Richard, J.P. Brunswick House, Wednesbury.
{Williams, R. Price. 28 Compayne-gardens, West Hampstead,
London, N.W.
tWilliams, T. H. 21 Strand-street, Liverpool.
*Wirtrans, W. Carterton, F.C.S. University College, Sheffield.
tWilliamson, Miss, Sunnybank, Ripon, Yorkshire.
*WILLIAMSON, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
High Pitfold, Haslemere.
he aes: Bensamiy, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. . Trinity College,
ublin.
fWilliamson, Rey. F.J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B.
tWilliamson, John. South Shields.
{Witiiwr, W. 14 Castle-street, Liverpool.
we John O., M.A., Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens,
eylon.
§Wittison, J §. Toronto, Canada.
Willmore, Charles. Queenwood College, near Stockbridge, Hants,
*Wills, The Hon. Sir Alfred. Chelsea Lodge, Tite-street, S.W.
tWills, A. W. Wylde Green, Erdington, Birmingham.
§Wills, H. H. Barley Wood, Wrington, R.S.O., Somerset.
tWilson, Alexander B. Holywood, Belfast.
tWilson, Alexander H. 2 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

102

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Election.

1878.

1876,
1894,

1874.

1876,
1890.
1863.
1847.
1899.
1899.
1875.

1874,
1863.
1895.
1883,

1879.
1885.
1890.
1865.
1884,

1896,

1879.
1876,
1847.
1883.
1892.
1861.
1887.
1871.

186].

1877.
1886.

1887.
1868,
1888.
1875.

1883.
1898.§
1884.

1881.
1885.
1863.
1883.

fWilson, Professor Alexander 8., M.A., B.Sc. Free Church Manse,
North Queensferry.

ft Wilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh.

*Wilson, Charles J., F.ILC., F.C.S. 14 Old Queen-street, Westmins
ster, S.W.

}Wutson, Major-General Sir C. W., R.E., K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.C.L.,
FE.RB.S., F.R.G.S. The Athenzeum Club, 8. W.

{Wilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.

{ Wilson, Edmund. Denison Hall, Leeds.

{ Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.

*Wilson, Frederick. 99 Albany-street, N.W.

§ Wilson, George. The Rosary, Wendover, Tring.

§ Wilson, Mrs. George. The Rosary, Wendover, Tring.

t{Witson, Grorcr Fercusson, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.L.S. Heatherbank,
Weybridge Heath, Surrey.

*Wilson, George Orr. Dunardach, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

tWilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N.B.

{Wilson, Grege. The University, Edinburgh.

*Wilson, Henry, M.A. Farnborough Lodge, Farnborough, R.S.0.,
Kent.

tWilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheffield.

tWilson, J. Dove, LL.D. 17 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

t Wilson, J. Mitchell, M.D. 51 Hall Gate, Doncaster.

}Wutson, Ven. James M., M.A., F.G.S. The Vicarage, Rochdale.

Wilson, James 8. Grant. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court=
buildings, Edinburgh. F

$ Wilson, John H., DSe., F.RSE., Professor of Botany, Yorkshire
College, Leeds.

tWilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, East Bank-road, Sheffield.

tWilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, 8. W.

*Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.

tWilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.

§ Wilson, T. Stacey, M.D. Wyddrington, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

t Wilson, Thos. Bright. 4 Hope View, Fallowfield, Manchester.

§ Wilson, W., jun. Hillocks of Terpersie, by Alford, Aberdeenshire.

*Witson, WitiiAm E., F.R.S. Daramona House, Streete, Rath-

owen, Ireland.

*WILtsHIRE, Rev. Tuomas, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.R.AS.,
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in King’s College,
London. 25 Granyille-park, Lewisham, 8.E.

tWindeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes.

{Winotez, Bertram C. A., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of
Anatomy in Mason College, Birmingham.

1 Windsor, William Tessimond, Sandiway. Ashton-on-Merscy.

*Winwoop, Rey. H.H., M.A., F.G.S. 1] Cavendish-crescent, Bath,

{Wopernovse, Right Hon. E. R., M.P. 56 Chester-square, S.W.

{Worrn- Barry, Sir Jonn, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-
street, Westminster, 8. W.

{Wolfenden, Samuel. Cowley Hill, St. Helens, Lancashire.

§Wollaston,G. H Clifton College, Bristol.

tWomack, Frederick, M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer on Physics and Applied

Mathematics at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. Bedford College,

Baker-street, W.
*Wood, Alfred John. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
tWood, Mrs. A. J. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
*Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.
tWood, Miss Emily F. Egerton Lodge, near Bolton, Lancashire.

himnb ie i ate ee —

ch dln Dik

LIST OF MEMBERS. 103

Year of
Election.

1875. *Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester.

1878. {Woop, Sir H. Trugwan, M.A. Society of Arts, John-street,
Adelphi, W.C.

1883. *Wood, J. H. Hazelwood, 14 Lethbridge-road, Southport.

1893. tWood, Joseph T. 29 Muster’s-road, West Bridgeford, Nottingham-
shire.

1883. {Wood, Mrs. Mary. Care of E. P. Sherwood, Esq., Holmes Villa,
Rotherham.

1864. {Wood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.

1871. {Wood, Provost T. Baileyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh,

1899. *Wood, W. Hoffman. Ben Rhydding, Yorks.

1872. {Wood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton.

1845. *Wood, Rey. William Spicer, M.A.,D.D. Waldington, Combe Park,

Bath.
1863. *Woopatt, Jomn Woopatt, M.A., F.G.S. 5 Queen’s-mansions,
Victoria-street, S. W.

1884. {Woodbury, C. J. H. 31 Milk-street, Boston, U.S.A.

1883. tWoodcock, Herbert 8. The Elms, Wigan.

1884, {Woodd, Arthur B. Woodlands, Hampstead, N.W.

1896, §WoopHEAD, Professor G. Sims, M.D, Pathological Laboratory,
Cambridge.

1888. *Woodiwiss, Mrs. Alfred. Weston Manor, Birkdale, Lancashire.

1872. { Woodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussew.

*Woops, Epwarp, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
Woops, Samvet. 1 Drapers’-gardens, Throgmorton-street, E.C.

1888. t{Woodthorpe, Colonel. Care of Messrs. King & Co., 45 Pall Mall,

S.W.

1887. *Woopwarp, ArtHuR Suit, F.L.S., F.G.S., Assistant Keeper of
the Department of Geology, British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, 8. W.
1869. *Woopwarp, C. J., B.Sc, F.G.S. 97 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
1886. { Woodward, Harry Page, F.G.S. 129 Beautort-street, S.W.
1866. {Woopwarp, Heysy, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Depart-
ment of Geology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-
road, S.W.

1870. {Woopwarp, Horace .B., F.RS., F.G.S. Geological Museum,
Jermyn-street, 5. W.

1894, *Woodward, John Harold. 13 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster,
S.W

1884. *Woolcock, Henry. Rickerby House, St. Bees.

1890, §Woollcombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F.LInst., F.S.S., MAR.LA.,
F.R.S.A. (Ireland). 14 Waterloo-road, Dublin,

1877. {Woollcombe, Surgeon-Major Robert W. 14 Acre-place, Stoke,
Devonport.

1883. *Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.

1856. {Woolley, Thomas Smith. South Collingham, Newark.

1874. t Workman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast.

1899. § Workman, Thomas. Craigdarragh, Co. Down.

1878. t{Wormell, Richard, M.A.,D.Sce. Roydon, near Ware, Hertfordshire.

1863. *Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.

1855, *Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A. Old Swintord, Stourbridge,

1856. {Worthy, George S. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent,
Hampstead-road, N. W.

1884. {Wragge, Edmund. 109 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.

1896. {Wrench, Edward M., F.R.C.S. Park Lodge, Bastow.

1879. {Wrentmore, Francis. 34 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, 8. W,

1883, *Wright, Rey. Arthur, M.A. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

104 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Electiou.

1883. *Wright, Rey. Benjamin, M.A. Sandon Rectory, Chelmsford.

1890. {Wright, Dr. C. J. Virginia-road, Leeds.

1857. | Wrieut, KE. Percevat, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., M.R.I.A., Professor
of Botany and Director of the Museum, Dublin University.
5 Trinity College, Dublin.

1886. { Wright, Frederick William. 4 Full-street, Derby.

1884. { Wright, Harrison. Wilkes’ Barré, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

1876. { Wright, James, 114 John-street, Glasgow.

1865. { Wright, J.S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham,

1884, {Wricut, Professor R, Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. University College,
Toronto, Canada.

1876. { Wright, William. 31 Queen Mary-avenue, Glascow.

1871. {Wricutson, THomas, M.P., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. Neasham Hall,
Darlington.

1898.§§ Wrong, Professor George M. The University, Toronto, Canada.

1897. {Wyld, Frederick. 127 St. George-street, Toronto, Canada.

1883. § Wyllie, Andrew. Sandown, Southport.

1885. {Wyness, James D., M.D. 349 Union-street, Aberdeen.

1871. { Wynn, Mrs. Williams. Plas-yn-Cefn, St. Asaph.

1862. |Wynnz, ARTHUR BeeEvor, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.

1899. §Wrnnz, W. P., D.Sc., F.R.S. 10 Selwood-terrace, South Ken-
sington, S.W.

1875. {Yabbicom, Thomas Henry. 23 Oalktield-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster.

1894. *Yarrow, A. F. Poplar, E.

1883.§§ Yates, James. Public Library, Leeds.

1896. {Yates, Rev.S. A. Thompson. 43 Phillimore-gardens, S.W.

1867. {Yeaman, James. Dundee.

1887. {Yeats, Dr. Chepstow.

1884, {Yee, Fung. Care of R. E. C. Fittock, Esq., Shanghai, China..

1877. {Yonge, Rev. Duke. Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon.

1891. TYorath, Alderman T. V. Cardiff.

1884. {York, Frederick. 87 Lancaster-road, Notting Hill, W.

1891. §Young, Alfred C., F.C.S. 64 Tyrwhitt-road, St. John’s, S.E.

1886. *Youne, A. H., M.B., F.R.C.S., Professor of Anatomy in Owens:
College, Manchester.

1884, { Young, Sir Frederick, K.C.M.G. 5 Queensberry-place, S.W.

1894. *Young, George, Ph.D. Firth College, Sheffield.

1884. {Young, Professor George Paxton. 121 Bloor-street, Toronto, Canada..

1876. {Youne, Joun, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the University
of Glasgow. 38 Cecil-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.

1896. {Young, J. Denholm, 88 Canning-street, Liverpool.

1885. {Young, R. Bruce. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

1886. §Young, R. Fisher. New Barnet, Herts.

1883. *Youne, Sypyzy, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in University:
College, Bristol. 10 Windsor-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

1887. tYoung, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, E.C.

1890. {Young. T. Graham, F.R.S.E. Westfield, West Calder, Scotland.

1868. {Youngs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich. :

1886. {Zair, George. Arden Grange, Solihull, Birmingham.
1886. {Zair, John. Merle Lodge, Moseley, Birmingham.

CORTESPONDING MEMBERS. 105

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887. Professor Cleveland Abbe. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, U.S.A.

1892. Professor Svante Arrhenius. The University, Stockholm. (Bergs-
gatan 18),

1881. Professor G. F. Barker. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
U.S.A. (8909, Locust-street).

1897. Professor Carl Barus. Brown University, Providence, R.I., U.S.A.

1894, Professor F. Beilstein. 8th Line, No. 17, St. Petersburg.

1894, Professor E. van Beneden. 50 quai des Pécheurs, Liége, Belgium.

1887. Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Mannheim, L 11, 4, Germany.

1892. Professor M. Bertrand. L’Kcole des Mines, Paris.

1894. Deputy Surgeon-General J. S. Billings. 40 Lafayette Place, New
York, U.S.A.

1893, Professor Christian Bohr. Bredgade 62, Copenhagen, Denmark.

1880. Professor Ludwig Boltzmann. IX/I. Tiirkenstrasse 3, Vienna.

1887. Professor Lewis Boss. Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York,
U.S.A.

1884. Professor H. P. Bowditch, M.D. Harvard Medical School, Boston,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.

1890. Professor Dr. L. Brentano. Maximilian-platz 1, Miinchen.

1893. Professor Dr. W. C. Brégger. Universitets Mineralogske Institute,
Kristiania, Norway.

1887. Professor J. W, Briihl. Heidelberg.

1884. eer George J. Brush. Yale College, New Haven, Conn.,.

A

U.S.A.

1894. Professor D. H. Campbell. Stanford University, Palo Alto, Cali-~
fornia, United States.

1897. M. C. de Candolle. 8 Cour de St. Pierre, Geneva, Switzerland.

1887. Professor G. Capellini. 65 Via Zamboni, Bologna.

1887. Hofrath Dr. H. Caro. C. 8, No. 9, Mannheim.

1894, Emile Cartailhac. 5 Rue de la Chaine, Toulouse, France.

1861. Professor Dr. J. Victor Carus. Universitiitstrasse 15, Leipzig.

1894, Dr. A. Chauveau. Rue Cuvier 7, Paris.

1887. F. He Sapam United States Geological Survey, Washington,
S.A.

1873. Professor Guido Cora. Via Goito 2, Rome.

1880. Professor Cornu. Rue de Grenelle 9, Paris.

1870, J. M. Crafts, M.D. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.

1876. Professor Luigi Cremona, 5 Piazza S. Pietro in Vincoli, Rome.
1889. W. = ae United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.,
1872. Professor G. Dewalque. Liége, Beleium.

106 CORRESPONDING MEMBERS,

Year of

Election.

1870. Dr. Anton Dohrn, D.C.L. Naples.

1890. Professor V. Dwelshauvers-Dery. 5 Quai Marcellis, Liége, Belgium.

1876. Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.

1894, Professor Dr. W. Einthoven. Leiden, Netherlands.

1892. Professor F. Elfving. Helsingfors, Finland.

1894. Professor T. W. W. Engelmann. Neue Wilhelmstrasse 15, Berlin,
N.W.

1892. Professor Léo Errera. 38 Rue de la Loi, Brussels.

1874. Dr. W. Feddersen. 9 Carolinenstrasse, Leipzig.

1886. Dr. Otto Finsch. Leiden, Netherlands,

1887. Professor Dr. R. Fittig. Strassburg.

1894. Professor Wilhelm Foerster, D.C.L. Encke Platz 3a, Berlin, S.W.

1872. W. de Fonvielle. 50 Rue des Abbesses, Paris.

1894, Professor Léon Fredericq. Rue de Pitteurs 20, Liége, Beloium.

1887. Professor Dr. Anton Fritsch. 66 Wenzelsplatz, Prague.

1892. Professor D1. Gustav Fritsch. Roon Strasse 10, Berlin.

1881. Professor C. M. Gariel. 6 Rue Edouard Detaille, Paris.

1866. Dr. Gaudry. 7 bis Rue des Saints Péres, Paris.

1861. Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden.

1884, Professor J. Willard Gibbs. Yale University, New Haven, Conn.,
U.S.A.

1884, Professor Wolcott Gibbs. Newport, Rhode Island, United States.

1889. G. K, Gilbert. United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.,
U.S.A.

1892. Daniel C. Gilman. President of the Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, U.S.A.

1870. William Gilpin. Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.

1889. Professor Gustave Gilson. 1l’Université, Louvain.

1889. A. Gobert. 222 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels.

1884. General A. W. Greely, LL.D. War Department, Washington, D.C.,

USA
1892. Dr. C. JE. Guillaume, Bureau International des Poids et Mesures,
Pavillon de Breteuil, Sévres.

1876, Prater Ernst Haeckel. Jena.

1881. Dr. Edwin H. Hall. 37 Gorham-street, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

1895. Professor Dr. Emil Chr. Hansen. Carlsberg Laboratorium, Copen-
hagen, Denmark.

1887. Fr. von Hefner-Alteneck. Berlin.

1893, Professor Paul Heger. Rue de Drapiers 35, Brussels.

1894, Professor Ludimar Hermann. The University, Kénigsberg, Prussia.

1893. Professor Richard Hertwig. Zoologisches Institut, Alte Akademie,
Munich.

1893. Professor Hildebrand. Stockholm.

1897. Dr. G. W. Hill. West Nyack, N.Y., U.S.A.

1887. Professor W. His. Kénigstrasse 92, "Lei zig.

1881. Professor A. A. W. Hubrecht, LL.D., C. M.Z.8. The University,
Utrecht, Netherlands.

1887. Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Cloyne House, Newport, Rhode Island,
U.S.A.

1884. Professor C. Loring Jackson. 6 Boylston Hall, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.

1867. Dr. J. Janssen, LL.D. L’Observatoire, Meudon, Seine-et-Oise.

1876. Dr. W. J. Janssen. Villa Frisia, Aroza, Graubiinden, Switzer-
land.

1881. W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States
Naval Academy. 32 Hast Preston Street, Baltimore, U.S.A.

1887. Professor C. Julin. Liége.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 107

Year of
Election.

1876, Dr. Giuseppe Jung. 9 Via Borgonuovo, Milan.
1884, Professor Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokyo,
Japan.
1873. Professor Dr. Felix Klein. Wilhelm-Weberstrasse 3, Gottingen.
1894, Professor Dr. L. Kny. Kaiser-Allee 92, Wilmersdorf, bei Berlin.
i896. Dr. Kohlrausch, Physilalisch-technische Reichsanstalt, Charlot-
tenburg, Berlin.
1856. Professor A. von Kolliker. Wiirzburg, Bavaria.
1894. Professor J. Kollmann. St. Johann 88, Basel, Switzerland.
1887. Professor Dr. Arthur Kénig. Physiological Institute, The Uni-
versity, Berlin, N.W.
1894. Maxime Kovalevsky. Beauiieu-sur-Mer, Alpes-Maritimes.
1887. Professor W. Krause. Knesebeckstrasse, 17/I, Charlottenburg, bei
Berlin.
1877. Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. The University, Bern,
Switzerland.
1887. Professor A. Ladenburg. Kaiser Wilhelm Str. 108, Breslau.
1887. Professor J. W. Langley. 77 Cornell Street, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A,
1882. Dr. S. P. Langley, D.C.L., Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, U.S.A.
1887. Dr. Leeds, Professor of Chemistry at the Stevens Institute, Hoboken,
New Jersey, U.S.A.
1872. M. Georges Lemoine. 76 Rue Notre Dame des Changes, Paris.
1887. Professor A. Lieben. IX. Wasagasse 9, Vienna.
1883. Dr. F. Lindemann. Franz-Josefstrasse 12/I, Munich.
1877. Dr. M. Lindemann, Hon. Sec. of the Bremen Geographical Society.
Bremen.
1887, Professor Dr. Gecrg Lunge. The University, Zurich.
1871. Professor Jacob Liiroth, The University, Freiburg-in-Breisgau,
Germany.
1871. Professor Dr. Liitken. Nérregade 10, Copenhagen, Denmark.
1894, Dr. Otto Maas. Wurzerstrasse 1b, Munich.
1887. Dr. Henry C. McCook. 3,700 Chestnut-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A,
1867. Professor Mannheim. 1 Boulevard Beausejour, Paris.
1887. Dr. C. A. Martius. Voss Strasse 8, Berlin, W.
1890. Professor E. Mascart, Membre de l’Institut. 176 Rue de l'Université,
Paris,
1887. Professor D. I. Mendeléeff, D.C.L. St. Petersburg.
1887. Professor N. Menschutkin. St. Petersburg.
1884, Professor Albert A. Michelson. The University, Chicago, U.S.A.
1848, Professor J. Milne-Edwards. 57 Rue Cuvier, Paris,
1887. Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
1894, Professor G. Mittag-Leffler. Djuvsholm, Stockholm.
1893. Professor H. Moissan. The Sorbonne, Paris (7 Rue Vauquelin).
1877, Professor V. L. Moissenet. 4 Boulevard Gambetta, Chaumont, Hte,
Marne, France.
1894, Dr. Edmund von Mojsisovics. Strohgasse 26, Vienna, III/3.
1897. Professor Oskar Montelius. St. Paulsgatan 11, Stockholm, Sweden.
1897. Professor E. W. Morley. Adelbert College, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.
1864, Dr. Arnold Moritz. The University, Dorpat, Russia.
1887. FE. S. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A.
1889. Dr. F. Nansen. Lysaker, Norway.
1894, tet R. Nasini. Istituto Chimico dell’ Universiti, Padova,
taly.
1864, Dr. G. Neumayer. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg.
1884, Professor Simon Newcomb, 1620 P.-street, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
1887. Professor Emilio Noelting. Miihlhausen, Elsass, Germany,

108

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Biection.

1894. Professor H. F. Osborn. Columbia College, New York, U.S.A.
1894. Baron Osten-Sacken. Heidelberg.
1890. Professor W. Ostwald. Linnestrasse 2/8, Leipzig.

1889.

Professor A. 8. Packard. Brown University, Providence, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.

1890. Maffeo Pantaleoni. 20 Route de Malagrou, Geneva.

1895
1887
1890
1894

. Professor F. Paschen. Nelkenstrasse 14, Hannover.

. Dr. Pauli. Feldbergstrasse 49, Frankfurt a. M., Germany.

. Professor Otto Pettersson. Stockhoms Hogslola, Stockholm.
. Professor W. Pfeffer, D.C.L. The University, Leipzic.

1870. Professor Felix Plateau. 152 Chaussée de Courtrai, Gand, Belgium.
1884, Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological Survey of the

1886
1887

1868.

United States. Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
. Professor Putnam. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts,

. Professor Georg Quincke. Hauptstrasse 47, Friederichsbau, Heidel-

erg.
L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich
(Sonnenstrasse 7).

1895. Professor Ira Remsen. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A.
1886. Rey. A. Renard. 6 Rue du Roger, Gand, Belgium.

1897. Professor Dr. C. Richet. 15 Rue de J’Université, Paris, France.
1873. Professor Baron von Richthofen, JKurfiirstenstrasse 117, Berlin, W-
1896. Dr. van Rijckevorsel. Parklaan 7, Rotterdam, Netherlands.

1892. Professor Rosenthal, M.D. Erlangen, Bavaria.

1890.

A. Lawrence Rotch. Blue Hill Observatory, Readville, Mass., U.S.A.

1881. Professor Henry A. Rowland. Baltimore, U.S.A.

1895.
1894,
1897.
1883.
1874.

1846,

1873.
1892.

1887.
1887.
1888.
1889,
1881,
1894.
1881,
1884,

1864.

1887,
1887,

1890.

1889,
1886.

Professsr Karl Runge. K6rnerstrasse 194, Hannover.

Professor P. H. Schoute. The University, Groningen, Netherlands.

Professor W. B. Scott. Princeton, N.J., U.S.A.

Dr. Ernst Schréder. Gottesanerstrasse 9, Karlsruhe in Baden.

Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Potsdamerstrasse 75,, Berlin.

Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium.

Dr. A. Shafarik. Vinokrady 422, Prague.

Dr. Maurits Snellen, Chief Director of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands, de Bilt, near Utrecht.

Professor H. Graf Solms. Bot. Garten, Strassburg.

Ernest Solvay. 25 Rue du Prince Albert, Brussels.

Dr. Alfred Springer. 32 East 2nd St., Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.

Professor G. Stefanescu. Stradaverde 8, Bucharest, Roumania.

Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos, ‘The University, Athens.

Professor EH. Strasburger. The University, Bonn.

Professor Dr. Rudolf Sturm. The University, Breslau.

Professor Robert H. Thurston. Cornell University, Ithaca, New
York, U.S.A.

Dr. Otto Torell, Professor of Geology in the University of Lund,
Sweden.

Dr. T. M. Treub. Buitenzorg, Java.

Professor John Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A.

Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.

Professor Dr. J. H. van’t Hoff. Uhlandstrasse 2, Charlottenburg,
Berlin.

Wladimir Vernadsky. Mineralocical Museum, Moscow.

Professor Jules Vuylsteke. 59 Rue du Coneres, Brussels, Belgium.

1887. Professor H. F. Weber. Zurich.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 109

Year of
Election.

1887.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1887.

1887.

1887.
1887.
1876.
1887.
1896,
1887,

Professor Dr. Leonhard Weber. Moltke Strasse 60, Kiel.

Professor August Weismann, Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Baden.

Dr. H. C. White. Athens, Georgia, United States.

Professor H. M. Whitney. Beloit College, Wisconsin, U.S.A.

Professor E. Wiedemann. Erlangen. [O/o T. A. Barth, Johannis-

gasse, Leipzig. |

Professor Dr, R. Wiedersheim. Hansastrasse 3, Freiburg-im-Breisgau,
Baden.

Professor Dr. J. Wislicenus. Liebigstrasse 18, Leipzig.

Dr. Otto N. Witt. 21 Siegmundshof, Berlin, NW. 23.

Professor Adolph Wiillner. Aureliusstrasse 9, Aachen,

Professor C. A. Young. Princeton College, New Jersey, U.S.A.

Professor E. Zacharias. Botanischer Garten, Hamburg.

Professor F. Zirkel. Thalstrasse 33, Leipzig.

110

LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Belfast, Queen’s College.

Birmingham, Midland Institute.

Brighton Public Library.

Bristol Naturalists’ Society.

Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Cardiff, University College.

Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of.

Dublin, Geological Survey of Ireland.

, Royal College of Surgeons in

Ireland.

» Royal Geological Society of
Ireland.

—-, Royal Irish Academy.

——, Royal Society of.

Dundee, University College.

Edinburgh, Royal Society of.

, Royal Medical Society of.

—-—, Scottish Society of Arts.

Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum.

Glasgow Philosophical Society.

, Institution of Engineers and
Shipbuilders in Scotland.

Leeds, Institute of Science.

, Philosophical and Literary
Society of.

Liverpool, Free Public Library.

, Royal Institution.

London, Admiralty, Library of the.

, Anthropological Institute.

—, Arts, Society of.

——,, Chemical Society.

—, Civil Engineers, Institution of.

, East India Library.

, Geological Society.

, Geology, Museum of Practical,
28 Jermyn Street.

—. Greenwich, Royal Observatory.

— , Guildhall, Library,

——, Kew Observatory.

——.,, King’s College.

——, Linnean Society.

London, London Institution.

, Mechanical Engineers, Institu-

tion of.

, Physical Society.

—., Meteorological Office.

——,, Royal Asiatic Society.

——., Royal Astronomical Society.

——, Royal College of Physicians.

——., Royal College of Surgeons.

——, Royal Engineers’ Institute,
Chatham.

, Royal Geographical Society.

—-, Royal Institution.

, Royal Meteorological Society.

——, Royal Society.

, Royal Statistical Society.

——, Sanitary Institute.

——.,, United Service Institution.

——., University College.

——, War Office, Library.

, Zoological Society.

Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society.

, Mechanics’ Institute.

Neweastle-upon-Tyne, Literary and
Philosophical Society.

, Public Library.

Norwich, The Free Library.

Nottingham, The Free Library.

Oxford, Ashmolean Society.

——, Radcliffe Observatory.

Plymouth Institution.

——, Marine Biological Association.

Salford, Royal Museum and Library.

Sheffield, University College.

Southampton, Hartley Institution.

Stonyhurst College Observatory.

Swansea, Royal Institution of South
Wales.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

The Corresponding Societies.

pint

EUROPE.

Borlin ......0..<.- Die Kaiserliche Aka- | Milan ............ The Institute.

demie der Wissen- | Modena ......... Royal Academy.

schaften. Moscow ......... Society of Naturalists.
SOVIN Veer. cnnaness University Library, | —— ——--eeweeee University Library.
Brussels ......... Royal Academy of | Munich ......... University Library.

Sciences. INSIGS eccses scree Royal Academy of
Charkow ......... University Library. Sciences.
Coimbra. ......... Meteorological Ob- | Nicolaieff......... University Library.

servatory. Paris) soccussece Association Frangaise
Copenhagen ...Royal Society of pour l’Avancement

Sciences. des Sciences.
Dorpat, Russia... University Library, = sig vcasese eee Geographical Society.
Dresden .........Royal Museum. ———sececeeeeees Geological Society.
Frankfort ...... Natural History So- | —— ....-....++ Royal Academy of

ciety. Sciences.
Geneva............ Natural History So- | —— ........... School of Mines.

ciety. oltOvarascnscecte Imperial Observatory.
Gottingen ...... University Library. TRON Ne ge acreecacer Accademia dei Lincei.
AG TOLL) \cevsss cee Naturwissenschaft- = | ——_ es. seeeaeeee Collegio Romano.

licher Verein. = eveeeeceees Italian Geographical
Isla) ateecpeoodee Leopoldinisch-Caro- Society.

linische Akademie. | ——_ ....-.---+e Ttalian Society of
ifarlem! —. <<... Société Hollandaise Sciences.

des Sciences. St. Petersburg . University Library.
Heidelberg ...... University Library. ...Lmperial Observatory.
Helsingfors...... University Library. Stockholm ...... Royal Academy.
JQ espagaaepaar cae University Library. iMimineerccscosend Royal Academy of
Kazan, Russia ... University Library. Sciences.
WMGlsuicweecosscsscees Royal Observatory. (Wiirechtieenec---4 University Library.
GIG Veecoeos-caceses University Library. Vienna..........+. The Imperial Library.
Lausanne......... The University, § | ———_eeeeeeeveees Central Anstalt fur
Leyden ......... University Library. Meteorologie und
TIE F6) 2... ceeees University Library. Erdmagnetismus.
iii: 10/0) Tene eoeeeene Academia Real des | Zurich............ General Swiss Society.

Sciences.

ASIA.

PAOTH) esas dedaasas The College. Calcutta ......... Medical College.
Bombay ......... Elphinstone Institu- | —— —....--es Presidency College.

tion. Ceylon............ The Museum,Colombo.
—$—eevaseaee Grant Medical Col- | Madras............ The Observatory.

lege, =§- «| ten eee eee eee University Library.
Calcutta ......... Asiatic Society. MOKyO! Gesecascoees Imperial University.
— aedeeteee Hooghly College.

AFRICA,

Cape of Good Hope .

» The Royal Observatory.

AMERICA.

Albany gicsesc-b00 The Institute.
Boston............ American Academy of
: Arts and Sciences.

‘New Work i>
.Lyceum of Nat

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...American Society of
we

Civil Engineers

California ...... The University. * History. t
Sobek Lick Observatory. Ottawa .........Geological Survey of
Cambridge ...... Harvard University Canada.0)\. ae
Library. Philadelphia... American Philosophical f
Chicago ........./ American Medical Society. baal
Association. ...Franklin Institute,
——eeveeenee Field Columbian Mu- | Toronto ..... The Observatory.
seum. ; ... The University.
Kingston ...... ..-Queen’s University. Washington ...Bureau of Ethnology,
Manitoba ........ .-Historical and Scien- ...Smithsonian Institu- —
tific Society. tion. Ay
MOxte 1 6 5226.55 08 Sociedad Cientifica | —— ... The Naval Observatory. —
‘ Antonio Alzate.” | —— ...United States Geolo-
prep tits Council of Arts and gical Survey of the
Manufactures. | Territories, ,
ie «McGill University. |
AUSTRALIA.

Adelaide. . . . The Colonial Government,

Brisbane . . Queensland Museum.
Sydney . Public Works Department.
Victoria . . The Colonial Government.
NEW ZEALAND,
Canterbury Museum.
FREAN “nny
1/ Lyi vii. ISU
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