Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science

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REPORT

SEVENTY-FIRST MEETING

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

GLASGOW IN SEPTEMBER 1901,

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1901.

Office of the Association: Burlington House, London, W,

"* ioe G Be alle od

Ad!

BUAIOG ih

sg hay Pe .

CONTENTS.

——
Page
Oxssects and Rules of the Association ........ seieuaeusee deapentadcs cash «deveney pinta eLX
Places and Times of Meeting, with Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local
Secretaries from ComMMencCeMent ...srereececcserscccececcsecreressseueeecs dean xl
Trustees and General Officers, from 1881 ................++ ICSE CL DARE ee hii

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from 1832.... _ liv

List of Evening Discourses ..........seseeseees | copGE ECE aGROC Shraavateesce ar eet atea ny REX
Lectures to the Operative Classes ....... soplebpigaaet dete -pcieoten ecls asiaass Qusel «antes lxxvi
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Glasgow Meeting ......... lxxvii
Committee of Recommendations at the Glasgow Meeting .................000+ Ixxix
Beare EPR NREL Ch Serta ticc so eckSclesaghcc re a rete eee Ixxx

Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings ....... lxxxii

Officers and Council, 1901-1902 ...............6. Thc sta tnd crise qefeiialap's cited ech a lxxxiv
Report of the Council to the General Committee .............:sccceeeeeeseeneeeee Ixxxv
Committees appointed by the General Committee at the Glasgow Meet-

Ra eeT TAD COL Teac en acacia atesla sige pune cirsle(dan Cassar eisllssaleleius'seiticjc cies a5 “GE xe
Resolution relating to the Committee on Traction of Vehicles ............... X¢ix
Communications ordered to be printed 27 evtenso .........s.cesseceeenceeees sake xcix
Byprionsis of Grantaigt Money s..cesessserwcessg ex sep sccnsenspersenswssccsanadpeasssass ce
Bilacesiot Meeting 1902 and LAOS) cc .bavoss.:-ncoceepsesedarovedonpassscanesoscoes ci
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants for

SCION THC MAUL DOSES ace acacceaocec tasncoacccesinriseceitaveventescesers soetaae vacnees cii
General Meetings .........seesecsesececeecneweeees SasenOCLCAC Sep nO asrarrerees | Se

Address by the President, Professor A, W. Ricxer, D.Sc., Sec. F.R.S. ... Be

iv REPoRT—1901,

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

[An asterisk * indicates that the title only is given. The mark + indicates the same,
but with a reference to the Journal or Newspaper in which it is published in extenso.]

Page

The Determination of the Components of Magnetic Force on Board Ship.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. W. Ricker (Chair-
man), Dr. C. H. Lures (Secretary), Lord Ketviy, Professor A. ScuustEr,
Captain E. W. Creaxk, Professor W. Stroup, Mr. C. Vernon Boys, and
BMW co WAMOON 5555855 ct 45sec cdicdee decors sevens dvdedenveds eeOWiae sleet 29

On a New Form of Instrument for observing the Magnetic Dip and Intensity
on Board Ship at Sea. By Captain E. W. Creak, C.B., R.N., F.RS. .....

Experiments for Improving the Construction of Practical Standards for
‘lectrical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord
Rayieien (Chairman), Mr. R. T. Guazesroox (Secretary), Lord KELvIn,
Professors W. E. Ayrton, G. Carzy Foster, J. Perry, W. G. Anas, and
Oxtver J. Loner, Dr. J. A. Murrmean, Sir W. H. Preece, Professors J. D.
Everett, A. Scuusrer, J. A. Fremine and J. J. Tuomson, Mr, W. N.
Suaw, Dr. J. T. Borromiey, Rev. T. C. Frrzparricx, Dr. G. Jomystone
Stoney, Professor S. P. ‘'xompson, Mr. J. Rennie, Mr. E. H. GRIFFITHS,
Professors A. W. Ricker, H. L. Cattenpar, and Sir Wm. C. Roperts-
AuerEn, and Mr. Gronee MATTHBY, ........00.0.c050s-crsersosigcend aden 31

APPENDIX.—Note on a Comparison of the Silver deposited in Volta-
meters containing different Solvents. By 8S. Skuvwur... 32

Note on the Variation of the Specific Heat of Water. By Professor H. L.
RIM TAMMA HS Chora Fsnasee5nanexteess enn indzsseoutvasnsactdacyeseete coe ae eee 54

Radiation in a Magnetic Field.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
the late Professor G. I. FirzGrrarp (Chairman), Professor W. EB. THRIFT
(Secretary), Professor A, Schuster, Principal O. J. Lopax, Professor

S. P. THowrson, Dr. GERALD Mornoy, and Dr. W. E. ADENEY ............... 39
Interference and Polarisation of Electric Waves. By Professor Dr. G.
POTION a tapas vc isicescenyesivorsdiatins pn baeg poe vanes cnsessadbanetsncaekodaban tae 39

Seismological Investigations.—Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor J. W. Jupp (Chairman), Mr. J. Mine (Secretary), Lord Kexviy,
Professor T. G. Borner, Mr. C. V. Boys, Professor G. 'H. Darwin, Mr.
Horace Darwin, Major L. Darwiy, Professor J. A. Ewrnc, Professor
C. G. Knorr, Professor R. Menpota, Mr. R. D. OLDHAM, Professor J,
Perry, Mr. W. E. PLumMer, Professor J. H. Poynttyc, Mr. CLement
Rei, Mr. Netson Riewarpson, and Professor H. II. Turner

I, On Seismological Stations abroad and in Great Britain nae
Analyses of Records for the Year 1900 0...........cscesscscseecseeeeee, 4]

On the Approximate Frequency of Earthquakes at different Sta-
tions, By J. Minne

Bs

CONTENTS. »

Il. On the Comparison-of Earthquake Registers from Kew, Shide,

Bidston, and Edinburgh. By J. MIUNE....... ccc eee ee ene eee

IIT. On the Records obtained from two similar Seismographs at Kew,
sy rn CHARLES OCHRE | sans sadsePe datccariaeaes sah =taenehia cso. 60.

IV. Movements of Horizontal Pendulums in relation to Barometric
IPresqires Dy JH MIGNE tect tecgrecercahdee. chee desicodensaccres rete

V. An Attempt to Measure Earth Movements at Ridgeway Fault.

By; FORAGE) DARWIN oh esid. dente toceaeets belsectechinaeskbs den cdsecavweKanetd

Tables of Certain Mathematical Functions.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Lord Kervin (Chairman), Lieutenant-Colonel ALLAN CUNNING-
Ham, R.E.(Secretary), Dr. J. W. L. Grarisiter, Professor A.G. GREENHILL,
Professor W. M. Hicks, Professor A. Loner, and Major P. A. MacManon,
R.A., appointed for calculating Tables of Certain Mathematical Functions,

“and, if necessary, for taking steps to carry out the calculations, and to
publish the results in an accessible form ...............ccsscreceeeseeecsseeaseeaerans

Metecralogical Observations on Ben Nevis.—leport of the Committee, consist-
ing of Lord M‘Laren, Professor A. Crtum Brown (Secretary), Sir Joun
Murray, Professor R. Corrtann, and Dr. ALEXANDER Bucnwan. (Drawn
BRE IIELESUOTAN | Sc. pasgs a sapaesa cee nnnasstne ct avscasencusacdsenstecntee seadtnaedyean

The Clearing of Turbid Solutions, and the Movement of Small Suspended
Particles by the Influence of Light. By Professor G, QUINCKE...............

Underground Temperature.—Twenty-second Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor J. D. Evererr (Chairman and Secretary), Lord KELvIN,
Sir ARCHIBALD GuEIk1E, Mr. JAMES GLAISHER, Professor KpwarD HULL,
Dr. C. Le Neve Fostmr, Professor A. 8. Herscren, Professor G. A.
Lenovr, Mr. A. B, Wynne. Mr. W. Gattoway, Mr. Josep Dickinson,
Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. E. Wernerep, Mr. A. Syraman, Professor Micu1e
Smitn, and Professor H. L. CaLuenpar, appointed for the ae of
investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards
in various Localities of Dry Land and Under Water. (Drawn up by Pro-
PERSUPIPIVERET TS SECKGLALY |. ccescgressssst tes ccucsencuietes seudseseesase-d doraceeetesnss

Note sur l'Unité de Pression. Par le Dr. C. E. GUILLAUME ...........264 eau

Alloys.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. F. H. Nevine (Chair-
man and Secretary), Mr. C. T. Hrycocx, and Mr, IX. Il. Grirrirus, ap-
» pointed to investigate the Nature of Alloys .......ssccssseeseesssseeessseeetesaes
Isomorphous Derivatives of Benzene.—Second Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor H. A. Miers (Chairman), Dr. W. P. Wrynwnp, and
Dr H. E. Armstrone (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.) .........

On Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscob (Chairman), Dr. Mar-
SHALL Warts (Secretary), Sir J. N. Lockyrr, Professor J. Dewar, Pro-
fessor G. D. Livetne, Professor A. Scuusrer, Professor W. N. Harrrey,
Professor WoLcotr Gibbs, and Captain Sir W. DE W. ABNEY ..........00055

Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.—Report of the Committee, consisting of

Professor W. A. TrnpEN (Chairman) and Dr. H. E. Arnmsrrone (Secretary).
1

Pernt ay BNE SOGECLALY «) csiws <5 soles inlewuoloe ax sa queneivabse sdddiusdrecatbaaTeess

Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro-
fessor H. McLeop (Chairman), Sir W. C. Rosperts-AustTEeN (Secretary),

Mo Ef, -G, ce MADAN, and) Mr. oD. Ei, NAGEY i1id..cceocearsandsdscacsosaveue’saraceone 1

Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances.—Third
Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. Nort Hartley
(Chairman and Secretary), Professor F. R. Japp, Professor J. J. Dossre,
and Mr. ALEXANDER LAUDER. appointed to investigate the Relation between

54

ot

GO

the Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances 208

vi REPORT—1901.

; Page
List of Substances the Absorption Spectra of which have been studied in
connection with the Chemical Constitution of Organic Compounds ... 226

The Methods for the Determination of Hydrolytic Dissociation of Salt-Solu-
tions. By R. C. FARMER, Ph.D., M.Sc. .........cccccoscesscosscescscceeceescnsseecs 240

The Relative Progress of the Coal-tar Industry in England and Germany
during the past Fifteen Years, By ArtHuR G. Grean, F.LC., F.C.8S, ... 252

The Application of the Equilibrium Law to the Separation of Crystals from
Complex Solutions and to the Formation of Oceanic Salt Deposits. By
Dr. H. FRANKLAND ARMSYRONG ........ccscccecsnecncccerensenceeseuscenseecneeneree 262

Keish Caves, co. Sligo.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr.
R. F. Scuarrr (Chairman), Mr. R. Lu. Praneur (Secretary), Mr. G.
Corrry, Professor A. G. Cole, Professor D. J. Cunninenam, Mr. A.
McHenry, and Mr. R. J. Ussuer, appointed to explore Irish Caves ......... 282

Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. J. E. Marr (Chairman), Mr. P. F. Kenpatt (Secretary), Professor
T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. E. DE Rancsg, Professor W. J. Sorzas, Mr. R. H.
TrppemaN, Rey. S. N. Harrison, Mr. J. Horns, Mr. F. M. Burton, Mr.
J. Lomas, Mr. A. R. DwerRyHouse, Mr. J. W. SrarHer, and Mr. W. T.
TUCKER, appointed to investigate the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles,
and to take measures for their preservation. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) 283

Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. J. E. Marr (Chairman), Dr. Waaruron Hinp (Secretary),
Mr. F. A. Baruer, Mr. G. C. Crick, Dr. A. H. Foorp, Mr. H. Fox,
Professor E. J. Garwoop, Dr. G, J. H1npr, Professor P. F. Kenpant, Mr.
J. W. Kirgsy, Mr. R. Kinston, Mr. G. W. Lamprven, Professor G. A.
Lezour, Mr. B. N. Pracu, Mr. A. Srrawan, and Dr. H. Woopwarp.
(Drawnup) by the Secretary.) css.cc-vetesvetse sca onc. sasecrses oncgseueceece teeta 288

The Structure of Crystals.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
N. Story Masxetyneé (Chairman), Professor H. A. Miprs (Secretary), Mr.
L. Fretcuer, Professor W. J. Sortas, Mr. W. Bartow, Mr. G. F. Her-
BERT SmitH, and the Karl of BERKELEY, appointed to report on the Present
State of our Knowledge concerning the Structure of Crystals. (Drawn up
by Mr. Bartow and Professor Miurs, assisted by Mr. HERBERT SMITH.)

Part I,—Report on the Development of the Geometrical Theories of
Orystal Structure, 1666—LOOD oi ice. cel ccecceeeeeeusene 297

The Movements of Underground Waters of North-west Yorkshire.—Second
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. W. Warts (Chair-
man), Mr, A. R. DwerryHouse (Secretary), Professor A. SMITHELLS, Rev.

E. Jones, Mr. Watrer Morrison, Mr. G. Bray, Rev. W. Lownr Carter,
Mr. W. Farriey, Mr. P. F. Kenpatt, and Mr. J. H. Marr .............. 0+ 337

Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—T'welfth Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor JAMES Grrxin (Chairman), Dr.
T. G. Bonney, Professor EK. J. Garwoop, Dr. Truprst AnpuRson, Mr.
Goprrey Binetry, Mr. H. Coates, Mr. C. V. Croox, Mr. J. G. Goop-
cHiLp, Mr. Wititiam Gray, Mr. Ropert Kipston, Mr. A. 8. Rei, Mr.
J.J. H. Tear, Mr. R. Wetcu, Mr. H. B. Woopwarp, Mr. F. WooLtnoven,
and Professor W. W. Warts (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)... 339

Ossiferous Caves at Uphill.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
C. Luoyp Morean (Chairman), Mr. H. Botton (Secretary), Professor W.
Boyp Dawxtns, Mr. W. R. Barger, Mr. S. H. Reynoxps, and Mr. E. T.
NEw‘ron, appointed for the pnrpose of excavating the Ossiferous Caves at
Uphill; near. Weéston-supet=Marel...5...5).sesvews sane donccadeslas sues tbesbaibuniiaall 352

The Zoology ot the Sandwich Isiands.—Eleventh Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor Newton (Chairman), Dr. W. T. Bianrorp,

CONTENTS. vil

Professor S. J. Hiexson, Mr. F. Du Canz Gopmay, Dr. P. L. Scrater,
Mr. E. A. SuirH, and Mr. D. Swarp (Secretary) ..........:.csscsseeeeeceeseeeees 352

Plankton and Physical Conditions of the English Channel, 1899-1900.—
Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor EK. Ray Lan-
KESTER (Chairman), Mr. W. Garsrane (Secretary), Professor W. A, Hrrp-
MAN, and Mr. H. N. Dickson. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ............... 353

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor. W. A. Hrrpman (Chairman), Pro-
fessor E. Ray LanxestEr, Professor W. F. R. Wetpon, Professor 8. J.
Hicxson, Mr. A. Sepewicx, Professor W. C. McIntosu, and Professor G. B,
LEVONUER TM SECKCLALY Ey estacnercte vine. socecccanetsetotidsaseaeusetereicecsnccsearaastucses cities 854

ApprenpiIx I.—-a. Report on the Occupation of the Table. By Dr. R.
Hamiyn-Harris, F.R.M.S., F.Z.S., ‘On the
Statocysts of Cephalopoda’ . ...........ccecees sense es 300
b, Report on the Occupation of the Table. By Dr.
A. H. Reeinatp Burier, B.Sc., ‘The Fertilisa-

tion Process in Hchinoidea’ ............-scssesesceeens 356
IL—A List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoo-
logical Station from the end of June 1900 till the end

Of DUMOM OO Bia Fgesisahhcmndebier de Jedd asa cat dmeenleasanee 358
» II1.—A List of Papers which were published in the Year
1900 by the Naturalists who have occupied Tables in

”

the Zoolosical Station: £22)... 0c1.ccee.sceeesaiuseelatee se caneb = 360
» IV.—A List of the Publications of the Zoological Station
during the Year ending June 30, 1901 .................. 361

Index Animalium.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Henry Woop-
WARD (Chairman), Mr. W. E. Hoyrz, Mr. R. McLacunan, Dr. P. L,
Scrater, Rey. T. R. R. Stessine, and Dr. F. A. BarHer (Secretary) ...... 362

Coral Reefs of the Indian Regions.—Second Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Mr. A. Sep@wick (Chairman), Mr. J. Granam Kerr (Secretary),
Professor J. W. Jupp, Mr. J. J. Lister, and Dr. S. F. Harmer, ap-
pointed to investigate the Structure, Formation, and Growth of the Coral
Reefs of the Tndiam Region 2.0.74 isace veh seve dea te ances s veddveug st adeeotahes 363

Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.—Fourth Interim Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor Newton (Chairman), Rev. E. P.
Knustery (Secretary), Mr. Joan A. Harviz-Browy, Mr. R. M. Barrine-
ton, and Mr. A. H. Evans, appointed to work out the details of the Obser-
vations of Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Lightships, 1880-87 ...... 364

Migrations of the Skylark (Alauda arvensis). By Wm. Eacir CrarKe 365
Migrations of the Swallow (Hirundo rustica). By Wm. Eacre CLARKE 372

Investigations made at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. C. BournE (Chairman), Mr. W.
GarsTANG (Secretary), Professor E. Ray LANKESTER, Professor Sypney H.
Vines, Mr. A. Sepa@wick, and Professor W. F. R. Weldon. (Drawn up

DIMMU eY PNUNATIE) Wiitatutce ceeeitarnuls cade aecetesccedes reek teach ot aeices oes shecten eet cees 376
Some Notes on the Behaviour of Young Gulls artificially hatched. By Pro-
eRe AEE Le MOMMA) NEN ran cceassussdctgg sense cnacietae sei: suseandiessesrece 378

Changes of the Land Level of the Phlegrean Fields.—Report of a Committee
consisting of Dr. H. R. Mixt (Chairman), Mr. H. N. Dickson (Secretary),
Dr. Scorr Kexriz, and Mr. R. T. Ginruer. (Drawn up by Mr. R. T.
GUNTHER.) ..... eaten deta isles shiencenhsnakict Vgdeateemeay sMisebietess sh 2 5 Oak Sao tdnat ch . 382

-

viii REPORT-—1901.

Page
The Climatology of Africa.—Tenth and Final Report of a Committee con-
sisting of Mr. E. G. Ravensrern (Chairman), Dr. H. R. Mitt, and Mr.
H. N. Dickson (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Chairman.) ............:004 383

The Survey of British Protectorates.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Sir T. H. Hotptcw (Chairman), (ol. G. E. Cnurcu, Mr. E. G. Raven-
sTEIN, and Mr. H. N. Dickson (Secretary), appointed to draw up a Scheme
for the Survey of British Protectorates .........:.sssscseeseenseseeereesseceaenens 396

Terrestrial Surface Waves.—First Report of the Committee, consisting of
Dr. J. Scorr Kerri (Chairman), Lieut.-Col. Barter, late R.E. (Secretary),
Dr. VaugHan CornisH, Mr. A. Roopa Hun, F.G.S., Mr. W. H.
Wrereter, M.Inst.C.E., and Mr. i. A. Foyer. (Drawn up by Dr.
WAG EUAN AO ORNISH, Vice -scctaveses dey. wdeis ot ucwsaa y+ deere .seaes\sseaspanessedswemetaerann 398

Women’s Labour.—First Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. E. W.
Brawroox (Chairman), Mr. A. L. Bowiey (Secretary), Miss A. M. ANDER-
son, Mr. C. Boorn, Professor S. J. Caarman, Miss C. KE, Cotter, Professor
F. Y. Epeeworts, Professor A. W. Frux, Mrs. J. R. MacDonaxp, Mr.

L. L. Price, Professor W. Smart, and Mrs. H. J. Tennant, appointed
to investigate the Economic Effect of Legislation regulating Women’s
NERO ii at eetese sce sse eden secsncpincdtmtanc once reas secswceesee’e saanreensessh ents eekam 399

The Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Sir ALEXANDER BryniE (Chairman), Professor Hete-Saaw
(Secretary), Mr. Arrken, Mr. T, C. Averine, Mr. J. Brown, Professor
Hupson Bearr, Mr. W. W. Beaumont, Colonel Crompron, Mr. A. MAt-
Lock, Sir Davip Satomons, Mr. A. R. Sryyerr, Mr. KE. SHRAPNELL SMITH,
and Mr. J. l. Taornycrorr. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ..........:0e000+ 402

APrenDix.—A bstract of Suggestions ............sssecsccscssscenceesenseeneses 404

Small Screw Gauge.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W, H.
Preeck (Chairman), Lord Ketviy, Sir F. J. BRamwe tt, Sir H. TRUEMAN
Woop, Major-Gen. Weber, Col. Warkiy, Lieut.-Col. Crompron, A.
Strou, A. Le Neve Fosrsr, C. J. Hewirt, G. K. B. Evpursrons, E,
Riee, C. V. Boys, J. Marsuatt Gorusm, O. P. CLements, W. Taytor,

Dr. R. T. GuazeBrRook, and W. A. Pricz (Secretary), appointed to consider
means by which Practical Kffect can be given to the introduction of the
Screw Gauge proposed by the Association in 1884 ......ccessceeeeeeeeeeeeeenees 497

Ethnological Survey of Canada.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor D. P. PENHALLOW (Chairman), the late Dr. GzorczE M. Dawson
(Secretary), Mr. E. W. Brasrook, Professor A. C. Hapvon, Mr. E. 8.
Harrtann, Sir J. G. Eovrinor, Mr. B. Suzrz, Mr. C. Hirt1-Tovr,
Mr. Davin Bortz, Mr. C. N. Bett, Professor E. B. Tytor, Professor J.
Mavor, Mr. ©. F. Hunter, and Dr. W. F. GANONG.........0...sscceocceeeeeses 409

Natural History and Ethnography of the Malay Peninsula.—Second Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. C. H. Reap (Chairman), Mr. W.
CrookE (Secretary), Professor A. MAcaListER, and Professor W,. RiDGE-

MV AVatesaay cote renat seme caiceecetete eae wenccic taschreteccarcacsacts eens saree teal ene
Second Report on Cambridge Exploring Expedition to the Malay Pro-
vinces of Lower Siam, drawn up by W. W. SKBAT .........csseeeneeeeeues 411

Silchester Excavation.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. AnrHurR
J. Evans (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myres (Secretary), and Mr, E. W. Bra-
BROOK, appointed to co-operate with the Silchester Excavation Fund
Committee ain GheingHixcavatlons ei su.-'ec.caksbide jaser-achantaoh savin snsmldeteneneme 425

The Age of Stone Circles.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. G.

Garson (Chairman), Mr. H. Batrour (Secretary), Sir Joun Evans,
Mr, C. TH. Reap, Professor R. Metpoza, Mr, A, J. Evans, Dr. R. Munro,

CONTEN'TS. ix

Page
Professor Boro Dawkrys, and Mr. A. L. Lewis, appointed to conduct
Explorations with the object of Ascertaining the Age of Stone Circles.

(Drawn up by the Chairman.) .........cccseeesseceseecseeeenee ereaeneeeneceeeeseee ees 427
On the Excavations at Arbor Low. By H. Sr. Georcz GRay ............ 427

The Stone Implements excavated at Arbor Low. By Henry Batrour 437

Report on the Human Skeleton found in the Stone Circle of Arbor Low.
May J. Ge GARSON, MDs. .ccccen..ssderentesenaneder seins snagnsedetcdaiianday enares'e 438

Explorations in Crete.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Joun
Kyans, K.C.B., F.R.S. (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Mr.
A.J. Evans, Mr. D. G. Hocarru, Professor A. MAcALIsrER, and Pro-
FORE OEM Pe LD GEN VAGS cea tiemeniscccweh veces asievenacee «<cnaenceecstencieeaanteses sevujarsan's 440

The Micro-chenistry of Cells—Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro-
fessor E. A. Scuirpr (Chairman), Professor E, Ray Lanxester, Professor
W. D. Hatrrsurroy, Mr. G. C. Bourne, Professor J. J. Mackenzie, and
Professor A. B. Macattum (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ... 445

The Chemistry of Bone Marrow.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor E. A. Scuirrr (Chairman), Dr. R. Wourcnison (Secretary),
Dr. Leonarp IItrz, and Professor F. GOrcH ............ ccc cc eee ncec senor ee eenoe ees 447
The Morphology, Ecology, and Taxonomy of the Podostemaceze.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor MarsHatt WARD (Chairman), Pro-
‘fessor J. B. FARMER (Secretary), and Professor F. O. BOWER .........see0000+ 447

Fertilisation in the Pheophycese.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor J. B. Farmer (Chairman), Professor R. W. PHILLIPs (Secretary),

Professor F, O. Bowsr, and Professor LLARVEY GIBSON .....cseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 448
The Influence of the Universities on School Education. By the Right Rev.
Joun PercrvaL, D.D., Lord Bishop of Hereford .........ccceeeeeeec ners nee ee net 448

The Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. J. H. Guapsrone (Chairman), Professor H. E. ARMSTRONG
(Secretury), Lord Avrsury, Professor W. R. Dunstan, Mr. Grorer
‘Gapstone, Sir Puitre Macnvs, Sir H. E. Roscon, Professor A, SMITHELLS,

and Professor S. P. THoMPsON........... SPB coR Re Cobre Ey OCC Sa Cen eODaC ase eC cue 458
Apprnpix.—Irish National Schools: Object Lessons and Elementary
STS LYS aarepiadbeceictohe Bosuanorisanceacur BE COLD: Cee aconGe eC oeRo 464

Corresponding Societies Committee.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. W. Wuiraker (Chairman), Mr, ‘I’. V. Hoxmgs (Secretary), Professor
R. Mertpora, Mr. Francis Garroy, Sir Jounn Evans, Dr. J. G. Garson,
Mr. J. Horxrnson, Professor T. G. Bonney, the late Sir Curunert PEEK,
Dr. Horace T. Brown, Rev. J. O. Brvay, Professor W. W. Warts,
Rey. T. R. R. Sressrye, Mr. C. H. Reap, and Mr. F. W. Rvuprer ......... 465

Report of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies held at
Glasgow, September TOOL 2.052101 2 fh) cecsveasunsstenseeseededsnotsuelyeccerrv orcs 466

REPORT—1901.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section A.—-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE,

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
Page

Address by Major P. A. MacManon, D.Sc., F.R.S., President of the Section 519

il

2

9
Vv.

*On Elastic Fatigue, as shown by Metals and Woods. By Professor A.
GRAY HE ECS, Jes. DUNLOP, and A. WOOD) }......0c.-0<sdeasemneteessnepenis 529

. The Clearing of Turbid Solutions, and the Movement of Small Suspended

Particles, by the Influence of Light. By Professor G. QuINcKE (p. 60) 529

*On the Relation between Temperature and Internal Viscosities of Solids.
Byabrofessor A. GRAY, HR iSo.:200s.i.lecesciesscceescsedeveseseeseeseengteetaamtmmeEeyoD

me

. Note on Hydrostatic Pressure. By W. Ramsay, F.R.S., and G.

SUNTDR DSCs seesA eeu vonererocsccascocsasdussestesccuceveleites s: att ate 529

. “The Freezing Points of certain Dilute Solutions. By E, H. Grir-

UDELS) MU AEUASo) iccely hoe ecr oceans tsetse csmiad vecaves beocuc cessation. setter aeaennn 530

. “The Buildings of the National Physical Laboratory. By Dr. R, T.

GLAzEBROOK, F.R.S, 630

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
Department J.—Puysics.

. Report on Electrical Standards (p. 31)........... oiddidisasecteouhihn ene enn 531

. Note on a Comparison of the Deposits in Silver Voltameters with

different Solvents. By S. SKINNER, M.A. (Pp. 32) ......ccscccscseesoesenrees 531
. The Discharge of Electricity through Mercury Vapour. By ARTHUR

SOMMISTER, THES: «ccc cients cisions civivuascuiassecmowcaewacs se sp oem tenors aan 531
. “Sur les Effets magnétique de la Convection électrique. Par Dr. V.

OSE MIE Types pee. bo sasttercast ope at an aoiisinsseon¥asiran + duews nels passes te er 531

. Photoelectric Cells. By Professor G. M. Mincuin, M.A., F.R.S. ......... 531
. On the Necessity for Postulating an Ether. By B. Hopxinson ............ 584
. On the Change of Conductivity of Metallic Particles under Cyclic Electro-

motive Variation. By Professor Jacapis CHUNDER Boss, M.A., D.Sc.... 534

DEPARTMENT IJ,.—AsTRONOMY

Address by Professor H. H. Turner, D.Sc., F.R.S., Chairman ...............6+5 5385

1.

On the eyed of Systematic Ae in Photographs of a Moying
Objecten eB As. Re oEUINICS) MA. .5.ce0desrnescsevesses see eren dada eeneetet animate 540

CONTENTS. xi

Page
2. The Essentials of a Machine for the Accurate Measurement of Celestial
Photographs. By A. R. HInks, M.A. ......cccecceeseceeceneeerneeneeees aQnche 541

8. Note on the Singkep Commutator. By DAvip P. TODD ..........-eseeeee ees 541

4, The Drift in Longitude of Groups of Facule on the Sun’s Surface. By
GHOUNC VA. Us OOBTIE, Sid gp ERGAU Se t.tecvevcrstacscecscotedcansess se deuescine 542

5. On an Exceptional Case in the determination of the Constants of a Photo-
graphic Plate from known Stars. By Professor H. H. Turner, F.R.S. 543

6. “On the Position of a Planet beyond Neptune. By G. Forses, F.RS. ... 543

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

DEPARTMENT I.— MATHEMATICS.

*A joint Discussion with Section L on the Teaching of Mathematics, opened
Dy Professor JOHN PERRY, FURS. fo iccc ccc sccceccssnccnesesccseeansecccensconseees 543

DEPARTMENT II.—Puystcs.

1. Report on Radiation in a Magnetic Field (p. 39) .......:sccssceeeeseeeeaeeeees 544
2. Note on a Method of determining Specific Heats of Metals at Low Tem-
peratures. By T. G. Beprorp, M.A., and C, F. Gruen, M.A. ............ 544
8. A New Gauge for Small Pressures. By Professor Epwarp W. Morey
ST OMAR GES, Uo) SBUSH vas00n¢use ogaateeudivadatewkishyddeheanel adhne Geis dieicbeenes 44
4, The Transmission of Heat through Water Vapour. By CHaArizs F.
Brusu and Professor EDWARD W. MORLEY .........cceccsseeeeeteerentenecens 546

5. Comparison of the Constant Volume and Constant Pressure Scales for
Hydrogen between 0° C. and —190°C. By Morris W. Travers, D.S8c.,

HNGAG EORGHAMSEMUHE ESCs, 2,00 die. sidce »- -clfcsied- desea sees tcitce sonsevgenedeedeoate 546

6. Note on the Variation of the Specific Heat of Water. By Professor
Ela Li. CAREEND AR, HES. (Pr 4)\iccncccasnsantnancsdsscteseudnadtacesdec ct ssebaseine 547

7. The Laws of Electrolysis of Alkali Salt Vapours. By Harozp A.
VrSONS 1) Se), IMESCy WB As vasa, aca canataaasdchanatetattehind dade eche tener snmmaeiceutr 547

_ 8. Preliminary Note on the Theory of the Lippmann Electrometer and
related Phenomena. By F. G. CovrRenn, ............-.sc-ceererscececccesessees 648

9. *Effect of Non-Electrolytes on the Lippmann Electrometer Curve. By
Dep Aa OBA soc .dosiiens Hontindcloanadboot Sancce as ocbbanberdeeocebddn cna Jep see aoreeeeeneee 549

10. *Determination of the Surface Tension of Mercury by the Method of
ESI DlOSet ESV? Ure A\a ORAWe cas cececcssccmeussaceastinnsvsessssuechosscscee soseubaeicane 549
11, *The Potential Differences of Allotropic Silver. By J. A. CRAW..........4: 549

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

DEPARTMENT I,.— MATHEMATICS.

1, Report on Tables of certain Mathematical Functions (p. 54)...........060008. 549
2. A Criterion for the Recognition of the Irregular Points of Analytic
Functions. By Professor Mirrac-LErFLEB, Foreign Member B.S. ...... 549

3. Poincaré’s Pear-shaped Figure of Equilibrium of Rotating Liquids By
G. H. Darwin, F.R.S............... Medd Rcd ut tdanderds babe ctpce becker 550

wae
X11

. The Fourier Problem of the Steady Temperatures in a thin Rod. By

REPORT—1901.

Page

. "The Simple Pendulum without Approximation. By Pyofessor A. G,

AREA HIT pH Pecks, <ccesdasaeevesse«s24ec0hs <Jeedesaue «cso ve Ane hee ans eb Anau p Ramee s 551

*Spherical Trigonometry. By Professor A. G, Greenuitt, F.R.S., and
WrIVERNON BOYS, HRS. anciccsce cade dessecsasansendaoccedecstancsos ondoomdna@eusiss 551

. #On the Partition of Series each Term of which is a Product of Quanties.

By Major DP. A. MAcMAUon, FURS. ....cceeeceecenseeceeecteceeteeseeceenoeenece 551

. On Idoneal Numbers. By Lt.-Col. ALLAN CunninenaM, R.E,, and the

REVM IV OMILUBN: (S:Jlezcccqu cn sieaseicme eis demos fosieiieeWlel ons Sisnscis -hirie csi emm ane 552

. Determination of Successive High Primes. (Second Paper.) By Lieut.-

Colonel ALLAN CunnineuamM, R.E., and H. J. Woopatt, A R.C.Se. ...... 553

. The Equation of Secular Inequalities. By T. J. VA. Bromwici ......... 558
. The Puiseux Diagram and Differential Equations. By R. W. H. T.

ILEDSON, Wi Als acc.cscreseeeaetaedadccesassvids siete eds oneddsolahin sepieeee's <a canavameeee 555

BIAMIEISY WY EPEC cascode shee odiyee icons « visio u's aa ws cps toblu'ate vos slprrea Ae as ale sahara 555

. Note on the Potential of a Surface Distribution. By T. J. VA. Bromwicn 556
. The Applications of Fourier’s Series to Mathematical Physics. By

TANS; CARSEAW « DISG..atecseskne.mccasat<dtraneddesscesveccosnecsrssten dapwenemnnas 557

DepartwEnt II],—Pnrysics.

1. Report on Underground Temperature (p. G4)........-cseeeeee eens icGeb Oana 558
2. Report on Seismological Investigation (p. 40).....ssecsseeeseeeneeeneeneceereens 558
3. On the Seasonal Variation of the Atmospheric Temperature of the
British Isles and its Relation to Wind-direction, By W. N. SHaw,
MBA, ERAS, and Ry WaAULEY Coen, BiAwe 42: ..c0.00ss-000s0nsneneasne meee 558
4, On the Effect of Sea Temperature upon the Seasonal Variation of Air
Temperature of the British Isles. By W.N. Smaw, M.A., F.RS. ...... 560
5. A New Point of View about Gravitation, and a proposed Experiment.
ByeDri MiiCREMUBU: <pacced secs dovsevencereattesha uasauedhscteeddet cranes tidy einem 561
6. A Discussion on the proposed New Unit of Pressure, opened by a Paper
by Dr. CB GuILEAUMD: (pC) censracdsvsecessadeeessvastcta-wasenten ates areal . 562
7. The Michelson-Morley Effect. By W. M. Hroxs, F.RS.......... hicks insane 562
&. *The Law of Radiation. By Dr. J. Larson, F.R.S. . ...........sccsecenees os SLY
), Radiation of Tleat and Light from a Heated Solid Body. By Dr. J. T.

Lo

oo

BOT TOMER THs Rares Matner nn deter ca one caes cee sebeoties cesdiderisaca olive (Connie 562

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

DEPARTMENT I.—Puysics,

. On the Clustering of Gravitational Matter in any part of the Universe.

By dcord Wemving GC VO Melts. t0¢-nccedena ces dantaciednadeencaeeonen saan 563

*A Discussion on Glass used for Scientific Purposes. Opened by a Paper
by. Dr. RK. TP Graz per oor BRISig 2. Sesivebs fis. seco seses oe. aaah sac dee a 568

. The Brush Grating and the Law of its Optical Action, By Jomn

Raster, ELD iy TORUS stern on tease bei ET) ae hala 568

. The Effect of Ervors in Ruling on the Appearance of a Diffraction

Grating. . By H..S. ALtEN, M.A.,.B.Sc........s.ceeceees hgdsapas Fah Se es 568

CONTENTS. xili

Page
*On a new Electromagnet and an [Nchelon Spectroscope for Magneto-optic
Observations. By Professor A. Gray, F.R.S., and Dr. W. Srpwarr ... 569

6. On Resolving Power in the Microscope and Telescope, By Professor
ee SAV MEET BRED, is escaqee csennznnancacuscessucersusenencseansdcreeitenss 569

7. On the Interference of Light from Independent Sources, By G. Jouy-
sToNE Stoney, M.A., D. Se., RSH A eeaes eee ene abasthelescundseas eee eaeeetens 570

8. A Long Period auay iiuitnstan, By Wi.itam J. 8, Lockyer ...,........ 576

DEPARTMENT IJ.-—-METEOROLOGY.

1. Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis (p. 54) ...,......e000 577

2, The Seismograph as a Sensitive Barometer. By F. Narrer Denison ... 577

3. *On Meteorological Phenomena in Relation to Changes in the Vertical.

pul.

iy Eroseasial RENE MH, ICIS: 3 saacloegase! sdelnehinay do sgcnes dea appceds pad ppbintat 578

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

. Report on the Determination of Magnetic Force on Board Ship (p. 29)... 578
. On a New Form of Instrument for Observing the Magnetic Dip and In-

tensity on Board Ship at Sea. By Captain E. W. Creak, C.B., F.RS.

BURA atc Wet cists dnc ce fas voit lds'ea cin anicle Se ave cid dus Hae lagins din doues adeseanicswcar caer 579
*Note on some Results obtained with the Self-recording Instruments for
the Antarctic Expedition. By Dr. R. T. GQLAZEBROOK, BEE Ss wtaas odsdae 579

On a Determination by a Thermal Method of the Variation of the Critical
Velocity of Water with Temperature. By H.T. Barnes, M.A.Sc., D.Sc,

PHAME Urs COKER MGA.) DISC hist cvedsteuettesctseedeseassssoseeretasseosdecdore 579

5. The Interference and Polarisation of Electric Waves. By Professor
oe UENOme (PHS) 7 0s i.0c lh eRe oA Ma eect, A Ad 581

6. On the Effects of Magnetisation on the Electrical Conductivity of Tron
and Nickel. By Guy BEREOW, UDISG. 1.04. dacvw swatch vinden sel nacbeninadetleete e. 581

7. *The Influence of a Magnetic Field on the Viscosity of Magnetisable
diquida..: By: Professor AS Grays RS, «,0.0.0n ead. 582

- 8. *The Influence of a Magnetic Field on the Viscosity of Magnetisable
Solids. By Professor An GRAS y NB RES es ©, aces Nee bend toa steom aoe 5 ictotodeas 582

9. Magnetisation of Electrolytic Nickel. By James W. Prox and Roserr
SRM EOUIN) crrdhise Caechgeqebalerneve Cocvan erases ont re<atsartiina aclu ial adecessqasyacens 582
10, A New Form of Permeameter. By Professor F. G. Barry, M.A. ......... 582
Note on the Coherer. By Professor James Biryru, M.A., LL.D. ......... 583

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12,

Address by Professor Percy F, FRANKLAND, Ph.D., F.R.S., President of the

(SIK6. TOT Logcnpbgadtcstindnidl abe pcan ca Renu nop aMdaa Pin) sae Gs eshte On Se aga 584
1. Duty-free Alcohol for Chemical Research. By W.T. LAwReENCcr ......... 597
2. The Coal Tar Industry. By Dr. A. G. GREEN [p. 252) .............00ccc00s 600
3. Report on a New Series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the

AME ARITD Vy duc dead .qtsceveetesstuatengsstcaibersstesevese so cewa dodasssvageers 600

xiv REPORT—1901.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
Page
1. Enzyme Action. By ADRIAN J. BROWN...........++ avady ciagieoateg Sep kagiotae 600
2. *Radium. By Professor W. MARCKWALD ...........04 S SBis opep atnapae eer 601
DEPARTMENT I.
1. Report on the Relation between the Absorption Spectra and Chemical
Constitution of Organic Substances (p. 208) .......ceeceseeeeeeseneneeeeeneseees 601
2. On the Chemical and Biological Changes occurring during the Treatment
of Sewage by the so-called Bacteria Beds. By Professor E. A. Letts,
D.Se., Ph.D., and R. F. Brare, F.0.8., FLUC. ........cccscsseceesenseccesspess 601
3. *Humus and the Irreducible Residue in the Bacterial Treatment of
Sewage. By Dr. S. RIDEAL.........:::ssecceeseceeeserreeseeaneeeecnssannessaeasees 603
4, *Sulphuric Acid as a Typhoid Disinfectant. By Dr. S. Rrpeat........ ..-- 608
5, On the Inverse Relation of Chlorine to Rainfall. By W1ii1t1Am AckRoyp,
TERI OP onaaddsasdonanc PAE see ceban cosstesns sexs ces conse accsecasean op ners ssa 603
6. On the Distribution of Chlorine in Yorkshire. Part II. By Witii1am
INGHROWD BL, Cizeeaes eee cesses ba tone coon so'esoiestaes bala dvobabs carla es ines Seem 603
DeparTMENT II.
1. Hydration of Tin, including the Action of Light. By Dr. J. H. Gtap-
STONE, F'.R.S., and GEORGE GLADSTONE ..........ceeceseeseeeerseceseeeeceeenene 603
2. Transitional Forms between Colloids and Crystalloids. By Dr, J. H.
GuapsTone, F.R.S., and WALTER HiBBERT, F.I.C. ...........cceeceeeseeeeee . 604
8. Report on the Nature of Alloys (p. 75) .....ssseesseeesseeceenereeeneessnereeaees 604
4, The Minute Structure of Metals. By G. T. BEIDBY..............2-:.:eceeeees 604
5. On the Action of Ammonia on Metals at High Temperatures. By G. G.
HENDERSON, D.Sc., and G. T. BEIDBY ........0.0eeeceseecnececrecteeeceeenecses 605
6. Aluminium-Tin Alloys. By W. Carrick AnprRson, M.A., D,Sc., and
GHORGR [HAN B.SC, c.ccsessescceon-onk cnvesscesdenseadevancnrncsinenescw dlpeas eluate 606
7. *Aluminium-Antimony Alloys. By W. CAMPBELL ............cseeeeeeeeneeee 606
8. *Aluminium-Copper Alloys. By W. CAMPBELE ........seseeseeeeeneeceneees 606
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
1. *On the Three Stereomeric Cinnamic Acids. By Professor A. MicHann 607
2. *On the Genesis of Matter. By Professor A. MICHAEL ... ....:seeeeceeeees 607
*On the Process of Substitution. By Professor A. MICHAEL ............... 607

. *On the Synthetical Formation of Bridged-rings. By Professor W. H.

ORs are Dope DML RS Het, soe doamencdl rancor doo 7AubOD0 3or 0 eee cedeccouga corks 607

. The Condensation of Benzil with Dibenzyl Ketone. By G. G. Hmnpur-

son, D.Sc., and R. H. CorsTORPHINE, B.Sc. ........sscsecersesenceeeeneeeees ... 607

. Some Relations between Physical Constants and Constitution in Ben-

zenoid Amines, Part III. By W. R. Hopexinson and L. Limpacn ... 608

7. The Existence of Certain Semicarbazides in more than one Modification.
By GHORGE YOUNG, PH.D. .......,..-.,eosreossenescsevesrseseensasennessagons conus 609
8. Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives (p. 152) ..........seeeesseeeeeee 611

. Report on Isomorphous Derivatives of Benzene (p. 78)......... isetepwcsbaspas 611

CONTENTS, XV

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
Page

. Some Points in Chemical Education. By Professor Jos1 Saxurat, LL.D, 612
. *On the Detection and Estimation of Arsenic in Beer and Articles of

Food. By W. THomson, F.R.S.E. ..............0..05- SAnaCCR a PET Oe : 6138

Tee eeeeees

. *Onthe Nomenclature of the Ions. By Professor Jamus WALKER, F.R.S. 613
. On the Equilibrium Law as applied to Salt Separation and to the Forma~

tion of Oceanic Salt Deposits. By Dr.. E. Franxnanp ARMSTRONG
DPPAUEY Mac cen saerr ergs cay d-pay cates Acree maddores p4ic4de asc Auth nnd: uidted ccant 613

. Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy (p. 155) ......ceecceeseeseeceeee 613

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

. *The Electrolytic Conductivity of Halogen Acid Solutions. By Dr. J.

LESTE RON aM ER eas nace ate scien Od hceean a aa Glomad sctui olsiea Lew ckDtdeRe aaiock RT Ceh coe 613

. On the Flame Coloration and Spectrum of Nickel Compounds. By P. J.

LEUMEINGC(ERO SS |e RR Se ee ee ee ee eae ca ene Tee SC ee, Rema A 613

. The Methods of Determining the Hydrolytic Dissociation of Salts. By

BESO Biesnr min Gp: D40): 5:55. sheds tear tacktinl oceae tal ees ad 614

. *The Influence of Solvents on the Rotation of Optically Active Com-

peers ee tay Pit st. 0k AUTHRBON osnckcresensotets «acewiievicasteiveudereevenves 614

Section C.—GEOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Address by Joun Horne, F.RS., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., President of the

SEATON Bede Saute codon ea De RaC PEE ORES SEOCE ATE PONE a isc MO HCE HEAR SIRES seta Mie edie! i 615
1. Recent Discoveries in Arran Geology. By WittraAm Gunn ............... 631
2. On Variation in the Strata in the Eastern Highlands. By GroreE
EVRIDO WE ernete eettc acne Seer cena auiecrs skadastecnas eat toar emote mare ee 633
3. On the Crystalline Schists of the Southern Highlands, Their Physical
Structure and its Probable Manner of Development. By Prrer
MCA ONPALTIR' i hactine ache 2ateioreradoot «cases accent dee ccs bie EME ae ceE a: den, Sues ah E 633
4, The Granite of Tulloch Burn, Ayrshire. By Professor Jamzs Grrxrm,
E.R.S., and Joun 8S. Frerr, M.A., D.Sc. ...........cccesececucscecesevcecececes 634
5. *On Crystals dredged from the Clyde near Helensburgh, with Analyses
byDr; W..Portarp., By J..S. PLErt, MoA., DiSes, cs. cccesssesseosoeses Je 635
6. Note on a Phosphatic Layer at the Base of the Inferior Oolite in Skye.
by HORAGH BAW OODWARD,, DeRaSc. cs: vasa dauseccnpasatleacal ssomeseie Aaeaeacth 635
7. Further Note on the Westleton Beds. By Horace B. Woopwarp,
BARS sicssss ase teaae seduce natesncs eee sacs dscnsavaacndee mast ache sie, oe 635
8. Report on the Collection and Preservation of Photographs of Geological
TILES APRs) cece an eaowansey dacecsopaace-ee aogeuetadaentce Seeeckecte es caseee, tone, 635
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
1. *Time Intervals in the Volcanic History of the Inner Hebrides, By Sir
pene bA TN Casement, WOU, PRS, <2. cers asscusccdancasMicnlwdeadeshesewi..:. 686

. The Sequence of the Tertiary Igneous Eruptions in Skye. By ALFRED

PEM Reee ger Na SNS BF GRES y's dh «ys Soin os th <a vepen'dde hs dda sidoaecabe dd iacpe dedeveuseoss 636

xvi

co

REPORT—1901.

Page

. On the Relations of the Old Red Sandstone of North-west Ireland to the

adjacent Metamorphic Rocks, and its similarity to the Torridon Rocks of
Sutherland, By Arex. McHenry and Jas. R. KomRop....................5 636

4, On the Relation of the Silurian and Ordovician Rocks of North-west
Treland to the Great Metamorphic Series. By Jas. Tt. Kitrop and Arpx.
BVT MUPK SPE Selene ew ts ves siteedeustssocendulebee abineet #ebGh tte t/t aise 636

5. Notes on the Irish Primary Rocks, with their associated Granitie and
Metamorphic Rocks. By G. H. Kinawan, M.R.LA, ....ceeseeceeseeeeceenee 637

6. Some Irish Laccolithic Hills. By G. H. Kinaman, MRA... 640

7. *The Geological Distribution of Fishes in the Carboniferous Rocks of
Scotlands By Dr. Re H. TRAQUATR, F.R.S. ..........00.ccceenesent ann 640

8. *The Geological Distribution of Fishes in the Old Red Sandstone of
Scotland, By Dr, KR, H. TRAQUAIR, FES, .....2..000000000s000080e) ae . 640

9, Perim Island and its Relations to the Area of the Red Sea, By CarHe-
RINE PAGMIVATSIN MDS SGst io ceaceetessoscrarcecssesscsssseeassactessecsvash ses teem 640

10. Artesian Water in the State of Queensland, Australia. By R. Logan
EF AcsreMe TO Earn, Mena Uoperativeccsnasscisansoaveeessnsuevtvaseher <¢ssecneseaemamm 641
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

1. The Cambrian Fossils of the North-west Highlands. By B. N. Pracn,
TRUS soph coeBduncadh tos oncrideoc spc paac Ade ace eeeeCneC ce teneerer reac cerns vose 643

2. The Investigation of Fossil Remains by Serial Sections. By Professor
RVers eS OLTIAG DIS Gr MHuivacye tes eeer ce lat Fekk sith cieuleivs foo. daneeacaeswineesammes 643

8. *Notes on some Fossil Plants from Berwickshire. By KR. Krpston ...... 643

4, Report on Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks (p. 288) ......4+ 643

5, Geology regarded in its Economic Application to Agriculture by Means

OM SOU Maps! s Wy Wks NSUGROE S.ccsapccc: sens soseentsenner nace s-o sree amen 643

. Plants and Coleoptera from a Deposit of Pleistocene Age at Wolvercote,

Oxfordshire. By A. M. BELL, M.A., F.G.S. ......+5- 5.cconss-scesm eee 645

. Report on the Terrestrial Surface Waves and Wave-like Surfaces (p. 898) 646

8. Report on the Exploration of Keish Caves, Co. Sligo (p. 282) .........::00+ 646
9. Evidences of Ancient Glacier-dammed Lakes in the Cheviots. By Prrcy

F. Kenpatt, F.G.S., and Herpert B. Murr, B.A., F.G.S. ........2..+. 646

10. Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles (p. 283) .......:....seee 647
11. *Interim Report on the best Methods for the Registration of all Type

bo

co

Specimens of Fossils in the British Isles..............:ssceeseseneeeeeneeeseenees 647

. Report upon the Present State of our Knowledge of the Structure of

Crystals (p: 297) iccvicceese.ssiessesectsevooallysosete desis satiate anaens aemmnn aaa 647

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 1i.

. The Scottish Ores of Copper in their Geological Relations. By J. G.

GOODCHILD, F.G.S..0. 0. cece cccenecncnseneneeneaseusceereeaeeneesansesseseeaneaeneaes 647

_ A Revised List of the Minerals known to occur in Scotland. By J. G,

GOODCHILD, F.G.S.........ccceceecnecneeneeaeeeeeseeeenreesseneeeccsecesaeeeeceeeeecnns 648

. The Occurrence of Barium Sulphate and Calcium Fluoride as Cementing .

Substances in the Elgin Trias. By Wa. Mackin, M.A., M.D. ......0.., .. 649

CONTENTS, XVil

Page

4, The Pebble-band of the Elgin Trias and its Wind-worn Pebbles. By
reine ASHE T NS NG seg, NEED oa a cuaele ds ethnicdidenace ts avec odes ite vuudedqntessacaedecsans 650

5. The Occurrence of Covellite in Association with Malachite in the Sand-
stone of Kingsteps, Nairn. By Ww. Macgtn, M.A., M.D. .........cecseeeee 651

6, The Source of the Alluvial Gold of the Kildonan Field, Sutherland. By
JeMancoum. MACLAREN, BiSG. 22.55 Gel eee set lk seen caken cuabscdagceauuanes 651

7. Field Notes on the Influence of Organic Matter on the Deposition of Gold
in Veins. By J. MaLconM MACLAREN, B.Sc..........ccccccssceeeesceseetceseces 652
8. The Source of Warp in the Humber. By W. H. Wuzetur, M.Inst.C.E. 652

9. On the Alterations of the Lias Shale by the Whin Dyke of Great Ayton,
in Yorlishire.» By GuoRGE BARROW ..e...cecccecceeceeceecececceseceeeeeneeecere 654
10. On Cairngorms. By E. H. Cunninewam Crate, BvAs......cceeecceeeeeeeees 654
11. On the Circulation of Salt and its Geological Bearings. By Witt1am

12.

18.

bo

10

PRGIGROYD HL, ©o.: 5 conan ts Tats Rtas Reels $2 M ERA Sibdcia vod secteweuesacotcvengete 654

Notes on the Occurrence of Phosphatic Nodules and Phosphate-bearing
Rock in the Upper Carboniferous Limestone (Yoredale) Series of the
West Riding of Yorkshire and Westmorland Border. By JoHn RuopEs 655
Note on the Discovery of a Silicified Plant Seam beneath the Millstone
Grit of Swarth Fell, West Riding of Yorkshire. By Jon Ruopzs...... 656

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

- On the Bone-beds of Pikermi, Attica, and on Similar Deposits in Northern

Eubeea. By A. Suira Woopwarpd, LL.D., F.R.S. oo. cece cecec eee eee ees 656

. The Fayum Depression: A Preliminary Notice of the Geology of a Dis-

trict in Egypt containing a New Palzogene Vertebrate Fauna, By Hucu
Mie Ws. DEADNETE ¢ FG.S: 5, Buikvsi Gy vic sscthae ns dofecendeomecmaldeaes vacowaddoease’ 659

. Report on the Movements of Underground Waters of N.W. Yorkshire

ME) ho A EO AEE er UIST G8 660

. On the Physical History of the Norwegian Fjords. By Professor EDwaRD

PANELED sg OH Be Sg Bas an'cascia isan dgud odes Fonssneeuchvassnescanenons® 660

. On the Origin of the Gravel-flats of Surrey and Berkshire. By Horace

Vig MON CKICONS HAMS s VibiGiS. 3.0000 sense otddeouedseeebecasdes eeructementaats 662

. On the Occurrence of Diorite associated with Granite at Assouan, Upper

Egypt. By ALEXANDER SOMERVAIL.............cscosccsesscsstescsccecocsseasens 663

PS TERI/UN Geeta dte wot oie cscko cn ceonndsc et enokE < ocucsindece Tones be ee pees te eaten chic ls 663

. “Note on some Anthropods from the Upper Silurian. By Matcozm

NE PANUHESIEES gt ce chars cefate cia’ oyraiaala dete So ects Da eae eT eae es Gia a Cae elses Mle hee ATO TNS 665

. The Copper-bearing Rocks of South Australia. By F. P. Mennett...... 665

Report on the Excavation of the Ossiferous Caves at Uphill, near Weston-
AUPCTS MARC) (POO2)H vcoanancchasAles tesnsons sa’ queesded sovosncashite dae ats Sdsctowesest 665

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Address by Professor J. Cossar Ewart, M.D., F.R.S., President of the

1.

IBC LION aa suaaecccececassstGanve NOR Sear hath bi eee aye A ceadeeeeaus SR. tOs Soule RA 1.1 666

The Pelvic Cavity of the Porpoise (Phocaena communis) as a guide to the
determination of a Sacral Region in Cetacea. By Davip HupBury, M.D.,
¥.R.S.E., and Davin Warerrston, M.A., M.D., FLRS.B. cccecesseeeseeeees 680
1901. a

XViil REPORT—1901.

Page
. The Relationships of the Premaxilla in Bears. By Professor Ricarp J.
ANDERSON, MLD! scesesaisccacrcosseauecwshessseonseusee stows ae dgaee se sipnacbHOTES Tee 681

3. Report on the Migration of Birds in Great Britain and Ireland (p. 364). 682
4, Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station, Naples

to

(De BOL) cesnnnceonssunenvessscanantesuqneraasnscudenwsstpaosnesenonssnvenoesansenaiane ts 682
5. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Marine Biolagictl Laboratory,

Plymouth (p, 376 )isodavess> ss speteitopdeenances~enscns ace ssinecl= poly pace anaemia 682
6. Report on the ‘ Index Animalium’ (p. 862)...........ssceesseeeseeeeeneeereneeeee 682

7. Report on the Plankton and Physical Conditions of the English Channel
(p. 353)

8. Eleventh Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands (p. 362) ......... 685
9. Report on the Coral Reefs of the Indian Region (p. 363) cis.ccecscceeseeeneee 683

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

1. The Coral Islands of the Maldives. By J. Srantey Garpinur, M.A. ... 685

2. On a Method for Recording Local Faunas. By Epwarp J. Buss, B.A.,
SSG pare fe mat asa citacitecis tenons aanadéaesbieaiiceadtpac sven aieslmemaite neste iia ates 685

5. Some Notes on the Behaviour of young Gulls artificially and naturally
hatched. By Professor J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A. (p. 578) .......0sceeeee 685

4, The Theory of ‘Germinal Selection’ in Relation to the Facts of Inherit-
ance. By Professor J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A. .........secesscsseeecnesesons 685

5. The Heterotypical Division in the Maturation Phases of the Sexual Cells.
Byslromas hl, “BRycn, (MlA. ) M.D), :..0,, sce .>a0: spmacensacenel tore tewereR tea 685

6. The Fishes of the Coats Arctic Expedition. By W. 8. Brucsz, F.R.S.G.S. 687
7. The Fauna of Franz Josef Land. By W.S. Brucs, F.R.S.GS............. 687

8. *On the Mechanism of the Frog’s Tongue. By Professor Marcus Hartoa
and Nevin Masxetyne 688

POOR Hee Hee HHO HEHE HHH EHO E EN HEHEHE HEHE HEHE EE HEHE EEE EES

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

1, *Dimorphism in Foraminifera. By J.J. Lister, FURS. .....cccceeeeceeeeees 688

2. The Relation of Binary Fission and Conjugation to Variation. By J. Y.
DLMPRON SSC: cansionisceaty nice cgwaivansastecst masegteas hast Maen eee 688

3. “On a new Form of Luminous Organ. By Wixram E. Hoynn, M.A. ... 689
4, Notes on Some Bornean Insects. By R. SHELFORD, M.A. ......ececceeeeee 689
5

. “Zebras and Zebra Hybrids. By Professor J. Cossar Ewart, M.D.,
JED} Sr panop ada ShabeneDteb ODO BeR Ano ace URS OSE MRREE EMMA Rp immete ee! 691

6. On Echinonema grayi, a large Nematode from the Perivisceral Cay ity of
the Sea-urchin. By J AMES Gummy MA MD es eeck tt oe 691

7. *Exhibition of Abnormal Specimens of Nephrops. By F. H. Marsuann 692
8. “Exhibition of Microscopic Preparations of Mammalian Hairs. By F. H.

MARSHALL © sercten scavenge hPetabtene i ucewsdeks ROWER EC 000i «ivene ty sale shove 692
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

1, The Fauna of an Atoll. By C. Forsrer Cooper... ........sccsecsescsscceeces 692

2. The Land Crustaceans of a Coral Island. By L. A. Borrapaizy, M.A.... 693

co

» On the Anatomy of the Laryal Polypterus. By J. S. Bupenrr, M.A, ...

=

CONTENTS. xix

Page

. The Origin of the Paired Limbs of Vertebrates. By J. Granam Kerr 693
. The Story of Malaria. By Ronatp Ross, BURGOS: gE aS. ce nscppocesanasiee - 695
. *Exhibition of Photographs of Fossils in the La Plata Museum. By Dr.

Francisco P. MorENO ...... MOEN en ne ce ene snie caoeiisans seer camestcins 696

. A New Sounding and Ground-collecting Apparatus. By Professor G.

GRRESON re rE ho, CRT IRI Bae i IEE NER ie Sele bila eben o elise 696

_ “Exhibition of a New Orienting Apparatus for the Cambridge Microtome.

By JAMES RANKIN. ......ceccccsscncccseccsonsecssesencccsccsscesencesenssenenscuces ee 697

Suction E—GEOGRAPHY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Address by Huen Roserr Mixx, D.Sc, LL.D, F.R.S. E., F.R.GS., Presi-

Gent of the Section ..........ccccescecseceeecactcecnaseeserscsereneucsaceeseresecees .. 698
1. Martin Behaim of Niirnberg, 1459-1507. By E. G. RAVENSTEIN ......--- 714
2. Final Report on the Climatology of Tropical Africa (p. 883) .....-ese0-+ 715
3. “Morphological Map of Europe. By Dr. A. J. HERBERTSON ...-..--.+++++ 715
4, Geographical Conditions affecting British Trade. By Gxo. G. CHISHOLM,

Me ESC rc cp atscrscccd-epiacessdeasecamsccuusangencs eens saves savacadnccosmorgerieanacs 715
5. The Influence of Geographical Environment on Political Evolution. By

ALLEYNE TRELAND........00. ccccceccceccnseeeseceeceesee sSeeepeceeawencasereccsecoans 716
G. Itineraries in Portuguese Congo. By Rev. THomas LEWIS.............+5 dat TUE

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

1. The Effects of Vegetation in the Valley and Plains of the Clyde. By —

G. F. Scorr-Extior, M.A., B.Sc., F.LS., FAR.GiS. .....cceeeeseeeeeee ee ereees 718
2, The Scottish Natural History Society’s Scheme for the Investigation of

the Forth Valley. By Marton NEWBIGIN, D.Se....see.s.ssseeeneeeeeesseeeees 719
3. Methods and Ce of a Botanical Survey of Sealand: By W.G.

GMrrH, B.Sc.; Ph.D. .....cccsccseseccesseeeeusecscwemecseersecweeeceaeaecsssenseees vi. 120
4, Notes on Argentine Anthropo-geography. By F. P. eed Director

of the La Plata Museum ..........ccccseceseereeeeeeceeneaeeesseceeaeessneeeaeuenens 720
5. Some Explorations of Andean Lakes. By HuskntH PRICHARD............ 721
6. *M. Elisée Reclus’ Map on Natural Curvature. By M. Rucrus-Guron .. . (21

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

1. The Belgian Scientific Expedition of Ka-Tanga. By Captain Lemarrs... 722
2, Report on Terrestrial Surface Waves (p. 398)......-ceececcceeeeesereeseesserees 722
3. The Mean Temperature of the Atmosphere and the Causes of Glacial

Periods. By H. N. DIcKSON, B.SC.......cc.seceeneeseeeeee cerereeeeeseneeenaneees 722
4, Report on a Survey of British Protectorates (p.396)........-+::esresessseeees 725
5. Northern Ontario: Its Geography and Resources. By Ronert Bert,

M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., FURS. s.ecccscecsereecteperneedeeasteescaeceeeeeeseencresenees 725

. On the Systematic Exploration of the Atmosphere at Sea by means of

Kites. By A. LAWRENCE ROTCH..........-..seeeseeerneeee neers ees eee read ade dete 724

. Report on Changes of the Land-level of the Phlegraan Fields (p. 382) ... 725

3 2

&X REPORT—1901.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

Page
1. Weather Maps. By W. N. SHAW, F.RBAS. ........cseecceeee AcuoauhtOneAMEnccode 725
2, *The National Antarctic Expedition. By Dr. J. Scorr Kurrie ...,........ 725
3. *With the ‘ Discovery’ to Madeira. By Dr. H. R. Mint, F.R.S.E, ...... 725

4, *The Methods and Plans of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition.
By W.S. BRUCE............6 stavéseusiudinncegs tied enlesdeiomseeee heen ace Eee Eamee 725

5, *The Experimental Demonstration of the Curvature of the Earth’s Surface.
By H. Yune Orpwam, M.A..........00006 sce anisuoussmenisen teams eee ee naeee » 725
6. Travels in China. By R. Logan Jack, LL D., FLAGS. .......000c-neeeneven 726
7. *The Crux of the Upper Yangtse. By ARCHIBALD LITTLE .............006+5 727

8. *The Representation of the Heavens in the Study of Cosmography. By
Ay GALBRON scssesseconsessieddescvsassenesneessasecsseresseoavesenraeeby Perec 727

‘Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Address by Sir Rosurt Gurren, K.C.B., F.R.S., President of the Section ... 728

1. The Postulates of the Standard. By Wittram Warranp CaRtize, M.A. 741
2. Some Notes on the Output of Coal from the Scottish Coalfields. By
ROBERT We DRON, A. Melnsti© Bs « i .ahs0se-cc-+sacsscsteasovessgescedecommnteaee 741
3. The Growth and Geographical Distribution of Lunacy in Scotland. By
GE SU LEM RUAND: Mc eecccertivarteres en ava SEORNO AOE SOO In ascenuciosn cas ure 742
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
1, Shipping Subsidies. By Bsnepicr Wrttiam Ginspure, M.A., LL.D. ... 748
2. Thirty Years’ Export Trade, British and Irish Produce, 1870-99. By
SEPAGEN AR DH GUN GER roe, o as asanas ons aceeeens spss sh apcaeiss eosin -bllonee- sees aera 744
8. The Theory of Progressive Taxation. By G. CASSEL...........cscceeeeeeees we 745
4, British Agriculture. By Professor ROBERT WALLACE .........0:cceeeeeseees . 747
5. *Food and Land Tenure. By HE. ArKinson ....... iba is dbteeued ees eee 748
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
1, A Business Man on Supply and Demand. By T.S. Crue ..........c0.c00 748
2, The Decline of Natality in Great Britain. By Epwin Cannan, M.A.,

ELD eRe tet PU ap Li Wistie ctv be nite ch howe eewdide verses Bascid(Ueanesicus svadesenseee oi 49

8. The Significance of the Decline in the English Dither By Cuar.es

Sa DEWAB asscscome hn uia ined Selaacheciiacern' 'ss nadesesiavcultenis's isis seen cvkscee eam 750
4, Correlation of the Marriage-rate and Trade. By R. H. Hooxer, M.A.... 750
6. Economics and Commercial Education, By Li Li PRICH............ccccecees 761

to

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

. *A Discussion on Housing was opened by Piofessor W: SMart 753

. ‘fhe Economic Effect of the Tramways Act; 1870, By E. F, Vesry Knox,

CONTENTS, XXxl1

Page

3, Notes on Glasgow Wages in the Nineteenth Century. By A. L. Bowrny,
nth to po ntGURDdRBREDeCOgee hoe BBdnEDdO sd chen CORECHET NeOBOCaE DaDOnLorIndEN ino un onCeneCrictiac 754
4, The Poor Law and the Economic Order, By 'T. MACKAY ,.....seeeeeseeees 755

mo tH

. British Colonial Policy in its Economic Aspect. By Arcurpatp B. Crark,

RNa cstien ace sacwecc/siecssinannoansserssiacscaactsetscesacosssuaceprpegecessauevence 755

. The Present Position of Woman as a Worker. By Miss M. H. IRw1y... 756

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

. The Real Incidence of Local Rates. By Cameron Corsert, M.P.......... 757
. Recent Results of Farm Labour Colonies. By Harozp EH. Moors, F.S.I. 757
. Feebleness of Mind, Pauperism, and Crime. By Miss Mary DEnDyY ...... 758
. Report on the Economic Effect of Legislation regulating Women’s Labour

EIN og cso ML SACL DT inns, WY occa ieee! aka eoee. 760

Section G.—ENGINEERING.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Address by Colonel R. E, Crompton, M.Inst.C.E., President of the Section... 761

1. *The Mechanical Exhibits in the Glasgow Exhibition. By D. H.

SUQTETINST candies ioe cannodtirbbe plonnosconbbne 2Ol SnERSE SC AGE Bacob SEEUNOSaacHee ee roe. Norrens 768
2. *Long continuous burning Petroleum Lamps for Buoys and Beacons. By
UR PaTOTIR Ee VIO TAM 5055552 72a san saeeaes a sadseemess ss aeaaaveqisb anes | dash Khovesdcaees 768
3. *New Scintillating Lighthouse Light. By Jonn R. WIGHAM..........05 768
4. A Recording Manometer for High-pressure Explosions. By J. E

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

. Report on the Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction (p. 402)........0... 769
. Railway Rolling Stock, Present and Future. By Norman D. Mac-

ANAT ec coat tra tein y ibaa stare oe ta ninis Sealstlts acon ewe o kat poten can eee ten eee vlavaenete Mas 769

. *The Panama Canal. By P. BUNAU VARILEA ..........00005 cpoarcodctct sete 769
. On a Leaf-arrestor, or Apparatus for removing Leaves, &c., from a Water

Supply. By Tie Harn or Rosse, F.RAS, ........csssteccsecseseccscesceeenevens 769

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

1. The Protection of Buildings from Lightning. By KittinewortH Hepes,
Pease ha eM Dy crashes sx ci snassedsseivesaresaase Misc cong tein Gide s Sils's ch ods ahh 770
2. The Commercial Importance of Aluminium. By Professor Ernest WI1-
BON ce Me Br Bic ane ac anita da divopaics as se soueceusaiauses cadceteacsaecomossesensecenceras V1
3. Recent Observations on Bridges in Western China. By R. Locknarr
Reena ade Ata prign snare Ja ako gel daca en wanghn qoysceannncsca=ans cap ies eeees 772
4, *On Recording Soundings by Photography. By J. DItton..............06+- 773
5. On the Size of Waves as observed at Sea. By Vavenan Cornisu, D.Sc. 778

Xx REPORT—1901.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

Page

1. Report on the Small Serew Gauge (p. 407)........+.+++ ige cee cltanee oerentemte ns 774
2, *A Portable folding Range-Finder, for Use with Infantry. By G. Forsxs,

UES cna coh te ccece soee ee cst saccheddvvecelet cenncese sosltcteniotlesteaeattet tata i—Eatm 774

3. *Machinery for Engraving. By MARK BARR..........:sssssseeeeeeeseeeeeeenens 774

4. *Recent Developments of Chain Driving. By C. R. GARRARD ............ 774
5. *Measurement of the Hardness of Materials by Indentation by a Steel

Sphere. By T. A. HEARSON.......cccccessccessecnscensesctaesensseseeeteseecceuanes 774

6. On the Critical Point in Rolled Steel Joists. By E. J. Epwapps ......... 774
7. On Alternating Air Currents in Churches and Public Buildings. By J. W.

ABSEay te Nepl O8) Ff Oo) Off OS Rant penppeeePesrinecHcydo-icoodbe cece cdagdserckonagasne crn: 775

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Addyess by Professor D. J. Cunnrnenam, M.D., D.Se., LL.D. , D.C.L., F.B.S.,

President Of the Nechion.<...--2--c00-pceecaesesnsssnseceaeccnrabuercnncas+ aeeeneemae 776
1. *The Cartilage of the External Ear in the Monotremata in relation to the
Human Ear. By Professor Ji. CLELAND, AER. .n.saceo0-cecovesencavessesete 788
2. On the Origin of the Cartilage of the Stapes and on its Continuity with
the Hyoid Arch. By J. F. ‘GEMMILL, MID? ii iec ac buatecceet teen one aa 788
8. The President’s Address was delivered (p. 776) ....cccscecesneeceveeeececnensnes 789
4, Some Notes on the Morphology of Transverse Vertebral Processes. By
Professor A MACALIStER, MIND; LAD. URS, 02 eee reais 789
5. A Note on the Third Occipital Condyle. By Professor A. MAcALISTER,
MD 5 dbl DIG RASS, 222. Sot A occ uidea bance tecuds Leewethe atts Geel at ee tna 789
6. Notes on a Haaian Skull found in Peat in Bed of the River Orwell,
Ipswich. By Miss Nina F. LAYARD ..0.....ccccccsreursssnesveevecvecsonderdubes 789
7. “Interim Report of the Committee on Anthropological Teaching............ 789
8. “Interim Report of the Committee on the Preservation and Registration

of Photographs of Anthropological Interest ..............:ssceseeceeeeeneeeenes 789

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

J, Notes on the Excavation of an ancient Kitchen Midden recently dis-
covered on the St. Ford Links, near Elie, Fifeshire. By Ropmrr
NETRAZO g IMECDD 5 des seis seamen’ bo sidescie st caresaeek menaced weeds od ae eee a ae nee amt!)

2. Report on the Excavations of the Roman City at Silchester (p. 425)...... 790

3. Excavations at Ardoch. By J. H. CunnrnaHam, Sec.S.A.Scot............. 790

4, Excavations at the Roman Camp at Inchtuthill, in Perthshire. By
HOMAS Ross; M.D, ES.A.Scot:;:.c..0.gesccternsces oceescese antes aneses eee 791

5. Ixternal ESiventbuan bearing on the Age of Ogham Writing in Ireland,

By Hit cA’, Si NRAOATISTHE 1 .7,.885.teaenetnareesseeesuniaetest «sc oee santo ne ceee amma 792

G. Report on Explorations in Crete (p. 440). 0.2... co.cc. cc sereoero>snceeveeesgeetens 792

7. The Neolithic Settlement at Knossos and its Place in the History of Early

x ©

‘Kgean Culture. By Arruur J. Evans, M.A., LL.D., F.RS, ............ 792

. Explorations at Zakro in Eastern Crete. By D. G. Hocarru, M.A. ...... 793

Some Results of Recent Excavations in Palestine. By R. A. S.
DUA GRMISTHR? s..cf2a0cudecus camrtnceeatertcctcecewecesaeraecoscceerscciy nem Netsch nn een 794

CONTENTS. xxiii

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

Page
1. Report on the Age of Stone Circles (p. 427) ....cccssssseeeseccnseeceeeeeesenes 794
2. +On the Chronology. of the Stone Age of Man, with especial reference to ;
his Co-existence with an Ice Age. By W. AxLEen Sruree, M.D.......... 794
8. Naturally Chipped Flints for Comparison with certain Forms of alleged
pemineiar Ohippina, Ey G. CORMEY icc: cc. .ccesrcccsecbassacscccetonconseosaae 795
4, Prehistoric Man in the Island of Arran, By Exsen. Duncan, M.D., and
ROM AS ES ERYOE, OV sy DED)) Pe, ccesccsuchsscotacacagscsstsuanse aces ssesces aster 795
5. The Bones of Hen Nekht. By Cuartus 8S. Myurs, M.A............00c0ecee ee 797
6. Paleolithic Implement with alleged Thong-marks. By Miss Nina F,

10.

11.

HAWEATDY so' tas sec ccncteaee. BF oe rac a lu NGe ais o eaemh cae has ae wana te inde sh ce 798

. On a Piece of Yew from the Forest Bed on the East Coast of England,

apparently cut by Man. By F. D. LONGE ...........c.secscseeecseccsecensereenes 798

. *Exhibition of Manufactured Objects from Irish Caves. By G. Corrry... 798
. On the Temporary Fissures of the Human Cerebral Hemispheres, with

Observations on the Development of the Hippocampal Fissure and
Hippocampal Formation. By Professor J. Symineron, M.D.............665 798

*On Supra-sternal Bones in the Human Subject. By Principal Mackay,
DE pal) eters cictrsatcssscaccsasrcctenddstatssscers «nesecrsnrne sudaiyt) cerioee inane 799

The Frequency and Pigmentation Value of Surnames of School Children
in East Aberdeenshire. By J. F. Tocuer, F.I.C., and J. Gray, B.Sc, ... 799

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

1. On the Functions of the Maternal Uncle in Torres Straits. By W.H.R.
PAVE VES N Os ooeseesstiNeecachicstccstes sc ssceecatecsers acsavbcrsadtienpoeessser cede 800
2. On the Functions of the Son-in-Law and Brother-in-Law in Torres Straits.
EISEN ROLY EULVEIRA WMG ID cue cstsscsearacestecnseseseddesssee@sacccescnassesceceates 800
8. Some Emotions in the Murray Islander. By Cuartzs 8. Mymrs ......... 801
4, Notes on Some Customs of the Fellahin of West Palestine. By R. A.S.
AVPAGAESES US Eas «5 owe seaiieneeesar oases “sia sits) smaelceemacen ee Shige deeb shane oes esees ae 802
5. Report on the Ethnological Survey of Canada (p. 409)..........2...cceeeeeees 802
6. Dekanawideh, the Law-giver of the Caniengahakas. By Jonn Osr1sa~-
BKMAS BRANT SEHRO s+ iccssassassdadeasaicssietsccdoccettctetevessecercorstnseseetcacties 802
7. The Tehuelche Indians of Patagonia. By HEeskrrH PRICHARD ............ 802
8. The Lengua Indians of the Gran Chaco. By Snrmour HAwTeer ......,.. 803
9. Report on the Skeat Expedition to the Malay Peninsula (p. 411)............ 803
10. The Wild Tribes of the Malay Peninsula. By W. W. Sxuat, M.A. ...... 803

2,

. *Anthropological Notes on Sai Kau, a Siamo-Malayan Village in the State

of Nawnchik (Tojan). By Netson ANNANDALE, B.A., and Herpert C.
SERODUNBONee tes sertcs fccdssseenetasseres coc ranacdotasesseseneansecteaesesaes dieetetenaens 804

. A Provisional Classification of the Swords of the Sarawak Tribes. By

He SHELEORD MGA 6 so .45 vin usage da gSiscsphage steed agate costes waduemadsases wunpid 804.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

. Personal Identification: A Description of Dr. Alphonse Bertillon’s System

of Identifying Fugitive Offenders, called by him ‘ Le Portrait Parlé.’ By
RRP Re MRCP ROUTER onc Srene <cpoccsadencttadecacPuancvanvscddessardhecocskven sneae 805

“Notes on the Proposed Ethnographic Survey of India. By W, Crooxr... 806

Xxiv REPORT—1901,

Page

3. Horn and Bone Implements found in Ipswich. By Miss Niwa F. Layarp 806
4, Hints of Evolution in Tradition. By Davip MACRITCHIE ...,,......,...... 806
5. *Magic, Religion, and Science. By J. S. STUART GLENNIB..,......:00000008 807
Address from the Section of Anthropology to Professor Rupotr VircHow ... 807

Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExPERIMENTAL PaTHoLogy and
EXPERIMENTAL PsycHoLoey),

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12,
Address by Professor Joun G. McKernpricx, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., President

OL the Section! iiirvle. ceieie cece a clebeweaeeevce ces ce oceans teen ans Ob eetelen tocthh te aeenenee 808

1, *On the Use of the Telephone for investigating the Rhythmic Phenomena
in Muscle. By Sir Joun Burpon Sanverson, Bart., F.R.S. .........c0000. 816

2, *An Experiment on the ‘Motor’ Cortex of the Monkey. By Professor
OS +SHPRRINGTON, URIS. 26ek caseen dsl sales es aaedencd cao baneoena meena 816

8. Arsenical Pigmentation. By Professor J. A. WAnKtYN, M.R.C.S. ...... 816

4, *The Physical Properties of Caseinogen Salts in Solution, By W. A.
WOBRORNED PSC. Van ceccesnesnasecadscensine case nastheserseesaacencese ht tant ‘osinecsnteeae 817

5, Colour Vision. By F. W. Epriper-Green, M,D,, FLR.CS. oo... cece eee 817

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

1, tA Demonstration of Apparatus employed in Researches on the Subject

of Phonetics. By Professor J. G. McKenprick, F.R.S.....,.... banneya eee 817
2. Restoration of Voluntary Movement aiter Alteration of the Nerve-supply
by Nerve-crossing, or Anastomosis. By R. Kunnupy, M.D, ........... we G17

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

1. *Note on the Action of Oxalates upon the Relationship of Calcium Salts
to Muscle. By W. Bropre Broprn, M.B...............- wid giode doeise coe aoyeitereee 818

2. *Can Solutions of Native Proteids exert Osmotic Pressure ? By Professor
EK, WAYMOUTH REID, FURIS., .cs..ssccqaceageseessnccnescbdasereresiaeete eee 818

5. *An Ionic Effect in the Small Intestine. By Professor E. WaymMourH

WMD, B'S, setiags) cciancnas assesses vsspentyedntenniesdeGs, xcaspsenaysqateeannn 818
4, *Has the Spleen a Hemopoietic Function? By D. Nort Paton, Loven.

GULLAND; andl, J, SissBOWLER ssccoctcsccocscceoactessssc-tae sare sesecereeeeeeeen 818
5, *The Measurement of Visual Illusion. By Dr. W. H. R. Rrvers......... 818

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

1, *Observations with Galton’s Whistle. By ©. S. MYBRS .......ccccecsscseeee 818
2. “Demonstration of a Model showing the Mechanism of the Frog’s Tongue.
By Professor Mimors HAA RRO. .oc-2ie0.cc sts vsvecdeaes oSven shes benscesanteaniaaeene 818
Reports received by the Committee :—
1. Report on the Micro-Chemistry of Cells (p. 445)..........cccsecceeceene coseeees 818
2. “Interim Report on the Physiological Effects of Peptone ..........s.eseeeeeee 818

3, The Chemistry of Bone Marrow (p. 447),.......0s000 sexed te os see case reapedes 818

CONTENTS, XEV

Srotron K.—BOTANY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER (2.

Address by Professor I. Barney Batrovr, D.Sc., F.R.S., President of ieee

SUL THT nae ace tOneOc OSC RO RC OSD UREIRE COP OF ERNE O AOCOREDEACH CE PE RUCC DE DAOACcmCE RE aC HOP occ 819

1, *The International Association of Botanists. By Dr. J. P. Lorsy......... 830

2. Cytology of the Cyanophyceze. By HaRonD WAGER ...........:esecseereees 830

3. *Some Botanical Photographs from the Malay Peninsula. By R. H. Yapr 8381

4. The Diameter Increment of Trees. By A. W. Bortuwick, B.Sc. ......... 831
6. On the Absorption of Ammonia from Polluted Sea-water by the Ulva

latissima. By Professor E. A. Lerrs, D.Sc., Ph.D., and Joun Haw-
THORNE, B.A. ...... JoaeD EMO R su ccdnwalaveldalédectdelesecdece’as's'ss salc/astter ss aceiaabisg cuss'es 831

. Notes on Stellaria holostea and Allied Species. By Jonn PareErson.....- 833
. The Morphology of the ‘ Flowers’ of Cephalotarus. By W.C. WorsDELL 834
. The Morphology of the Ovule. An Historical Sketch. By W.C. Wors-

TNBIETD .oanonos na sanded cance icacb open ose onc btSenoe: Gach. {dee dseecbor cd gesahupogeaceh Jas 83
The Histology of the Sieve Tubes of Pinus. By A. W. HItt............... 835

. Report on Fertilisation in Phgeophyceze (p. 448) .eccecceesceeeeceeeeeeeeueees 83
: ried on the Morphology, Keology, and rapanony, of the Podostemacese

“LLLP hk aM cp nll teppei tore 0 aes Sohne debe: Mabie oe nlp APS

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
On Correlation in the Growth of Roots and Shoots. By Professor L. Kny 856

. The Bromes and their Brown Rust. By Professor MARSHALL WARD, F.R.S, 836
. The Past History of the Yew in Great Britain and Ireland. By Professor

H. ConwWENTz ..... Re aeh CARE SEAT CA ANCERE DE TEAR NES SUMORE AES LA Sta cametn vt mestaameneee

On the Distribution of Certain Forest Trees in Scotland, as shown by the
Investigatien of Post-Glacial Deposits. By W. N. NIVEN..........-se0000 839

*A Lecture on ag ga a Plants. By Professor J. RryNoLpDs GREEN,
DVR Al SE CEU ASE Med nncta ado Sette esectdaelant. cauiadeiisaa oasWaseteaees suebcastah aadeaeentadoedss 841

839

. Bontedbtiods to our Maowledys of the Gametophyte in the Ophioglossales

Stee e eee eeeeeeeseeee

and Lycopodiales. By Witt1am H. Lane, M.B., D.Sc.

7. Note on an 0; phaeaeoseine collected by Mr. Ridley. By Professor F. O.
IEMowiatee Babee Sone cease car adsccesgcasncuacasgsaesiua cha ttaresssnceaceneadetuar ess teaada 842
8. Abnormal Sonia Thickening in Kendrickia Walkeri, Hook. f. By
Miss A. M. CLARK ..,,........ Fr am Sei Suse exch ania cane dgtaeacanpass’ ss 842
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
A joint Discussion with Section L on ‘The Teaching of Botany,’ opened by
the reading of the following Papers :—
i, The Teaching of Botany in Schools. By Harnotp WAGBR............ 843
ii. The Teaching of Botany in Universities. Notes by Professor F. O.
aR ENE SA aie ces adie. TAS Oievaes 10, sake eseOgUD. ake 845
1. Notes on Preserving and Preparing Plants for Museum Purposes. By
Uap NreR SEILER Stn one tee sea Seles unc ea sa tate des bata read trust aveddeadeonicecvcseeds 844
2.

The Anatomy of Ceratopteris thalictroides (Brongniart). By Sreinzz O.
ORD race snc t ei Kor) «sho Po oid, «274k Str ou sates Lies pevealde wit des saath planed: waih 845

XXvl REPORT—1901.

Page
3. An Apparatus for Studying the Rate of Flow of Solutions in Plant Stems.
By RicHarp J. ANDERSON, M.A., M.D. .........ssecsceseeseneesneneereeesceeess 846

4, On the Anatomy of Todea, with an Account of the Geological History
of the Osmundacee. By A.C. Sewarp, F.R.S., and Miss Syprine O.

IBIORID Psa ae ooce ones oases sccssec.ssahe-cnaseososossnetsesotesbccereencet saat ane 847

5, The Glossopteris Flora of Australia. By E., A. N. ARBER, B.Ay.cseces eth 847
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

1. Heterogenesis in Conifers. By Dr. T. P. LOTSY................:00008 ave Raaseiees 848
2. On a Primitive Type of Structure in Calamites. By D. H. Scorr, M.A,

RED) ORAS. SOIR cieeessstness odecssapcosthenosenscs se gecteees taut sae a= =eneEe 849
3, Remarks upon the Nature of the Stele of Equisetum. By D. T. Gwynne-

WVIATIGIHAIN foe cc cesscrcececcbecsastecpsencpespiee sess. neseetaasaas axoreacte pewepen cose ..- 850
4, *Die Silur- und Culm-Flora des Harzes. Von Professor H. Potonié ... 851
5. On two Malayan ‘ Myrmecophilous’ Ferns. By R. H. YArr ............... 851
6, *The Vegetation of Mount Ophir. By A. G. TANSIBY..................ceeere 851
7. On Certain Points in the Structure of the Seeds of thiotesta, Brongn.,

and Stephanospermum, Brongn. By Professor F. W. OLIVER ............ 851

8. *Natural Surgery in Leaves. By Dr. F. F. Buackman and Miss Marruar 851
9. *On the Relation between CO, Production and Vitality. By Dr. F. F.

BT ACMA arid) MISS MIAMTH AUT. 025 .. cores eaccsrcvececesseccectereeeccteenae ste seeeEe 851
10. On the Strength and Resistance to Pressure of Certain Seeds and Fruits.
ByiG. H. Scorp WnuoT, MeAS Bisc., H.019., BARsG:S. ...-resces-eoees ». 8O2

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
1. Cuticular Structure of Euphorbia Abdelkuri. By Professor I. BayLEY

SAT NOUR aE So ctaers aa oaiic 5s tic Mesine twine ss sackceescees eae oka sasias Oot ee pani cae meee 854
2. Some Observations upon the Vascular Anatomy of the Cyatheacee. By

D. PG WYNNE-VAUGHAN 2 f00054-+-.ocisasnanehnb osdacb> ta teed Saari hate 854
3. On the Anatomy of Danca and other Marattiaceex. By Gztoran Bresyer 855
4, A Chapter of Plant-evolution: Jurassic Floras, By A. C. Srwarp, F.R.S. 856
5. On the Structure and Origin of Jet. By A. C. Sewarp, F.R.S............. 856
6. On Government Planting in the Isle of Man. By G. P. Hughes, F.R.G.S. 857
7. *On Spore-formation in Yeasts. By T. BARKER ..........ccssesseseeeeeeceees 857
8. *On a Diplodia parasitic on Cacao and on the Sugar Cane, By A.

BUSA Gr oueeseeciaccrsstucsieesys tees soacevesae cet eme sta ceca geen teat ea 857

9. *On Abnormal Catkins of the Hazel. By Professor F. E. Weiss, B.Sc, 857

Section L—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Address by the Right Hon. Sir Jonn E. Gorsr, K.C., M.P., F.R.S., President

OP Elie Sechion, xp 25.4. c.on0ivts+csuabosaanpetaet es aparpma ted: snarsastaeary D madeeoeiee 858
1, “The Organisation of Secondary Education. By Sir Hxyry E. Roscon,

oe cay wzeian seuss ctaoes Sony Sane nc egns cbse unise gare diaces 3 /eaes a eee 863
2. The Mechanism for Education in Scotland. By JoHN ADAMS........0.+... 863
3. “Organisation of Education in Glasgow. By Dr. W. JACKS...........000000- 865

4, The Training of the Practical Man. By Dr. Jon G, Kerr ........ ion. 885

bo

CONTENTS. XXVil

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
Page

. *The Future Work of the Section. By Professor Henry E. ARM-

BERONG, EWES. cve--s-eseecees-occoscccnesstacvocscetasaceeseesnrecascacesnsnnsncerss 866

. *The Experimental Method of Teaching. By Professor L.C. Mratt, F.R.S. 866
. On the Scope of the Science of Education. By Professor H. L. WirHurs,

WVU ee arena te cee oen cats ten cdevcscedeerecideeahenss cusseeateesinnsseedenepecin=nm secs 866

. *Some Considerations bearing on the Practical Study of Educational

Science. By P. A. BARNETT, M.A...........cc0sccsseeceeeees etisceddccacterss , 869

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

. tA joint Discussion on the Teaching of Mathematics, opened by Pro-

fessor JOHN PERRY, FLAS. ..............0cececssceconestecercsgneesceraseeyeneseass 869

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

1. Joint Discussion with Section K on the Teaching of Botany (p. 845)...... 869
2. Joint Discussion with Section F on Commercial Education, opened by
MPEP IG ERIM (P. FOL) ssvesece.<s5ccrnuccntnswinaslsneneensyacan scans ccs sndnams 869
3. Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools (p. 458)......... 869
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 1i.
1. The Influence of Universities and Examining Bodies upon the Work of

Elementary Schools. By the Right Reverend JoHn Prrcivat, D.D.,

Lord Bishop of Hereford (p. 448).......ccceecsseccesecccesecneeecssseceeceancssenes 869
2. Liberal Education for Boys leaving School at Sixteen or Seventeen. By
Tees iyi eM A Sens conc cae secencvatcepecasens sores nctsioseastnasssiostescciioseaense 869
RTA ceeccieccid-js cms 5nscvaiee) sees’ siseenes ene ae deacons sceecuicdoeres sptisteglesten aes Roce teil!
PLATE

Illustrating Dr. Percy Frankland’s Address to the Chemical Section
to face 593.

wn (aed any re
< ca, ot

biel dag v4

OBJECTS AND RULES

OF
THE ASSOCIATION.

—-+—.

OBJECTS.

Tue Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and
- @ more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.

RULES.
Admission of Members and Associates.

All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled
to become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation
to conform to its Rules.

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
General Committee or Council to become Life Members of the Asso-
ciation, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.

Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.

Lire Mempers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association. '

AnnNvAL SupscriBers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of OnePound. They shall receive

XXX REPORT—1901.

gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis ; but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any
subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the
sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the offices of the Association.

Assocratss for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratwitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.

The Association consists of the following classes :—

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Poundannually. [May resume their Membership after
intermission of Annual Payment. |

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. |

5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’)
price, according to the following specification, viz. :—

1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845,
a further sum of Five Pounds,

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

2. At reduced or Members’ Price, viz., two-thirds of the Publication Price.
—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book
Subscription.

Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only.]

38. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up to 1874,
of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per volume.!

Application to be made at the Office of the Association.

Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries,

) A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, at £10 the set.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Xxxi

Meetings.

_ The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee not
less than two years in advance!; and the arrangements for it shall be
entrusted to the Officers of the Association.

General Committee.

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—

Crass A. Permanent Members.

1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.

2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must be
sent to the Assistant General Secretary at least one month before the Meeting
of the Association. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member
of the Association to be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final.

Crass B. Temporary MremBers.?

1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the
conditions hereinafter explained. Claims under this Rule to be sent to the
Assistant General Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.

2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.

3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.

4, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.

Organising Sectional Committees.’

The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
‘tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to exercise the func-
tions of Sectional Committees until their names are submitted to the
General Committee for election.

From the time of their nomination they constitute Organising Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,! and of preparing Reports

1 Revised by the General Committee, Liverpool, 1896.

? Revised, Montreal, 1884.

% Passed, Edinburgh, 1871, revised, Dover, 1899.

* Notice to Contributors of Memoirs—Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which

XXXL REPORT—1901.

thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
read. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ex officio members
of the Organising Sectional Committees.’

An Organising Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
2 p.M., to appoint members of the Sectional Committee.”

Constitution of the Sectional Committees.*

On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section, who will be appointed by the
General Committee at 4 p.u., and those previous Presidents and Vice-
Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at 2 P.M.,
in their Committee Rooms, and appoint the Sectional Committees by
selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. Any
Member who has intimated the intention of attending the Meeting, and
who has already served upon a Committee of a Section, is eligible for
election as a Member of the Committee of that Section at its first
meeting. The Sectional Committees thus constituted shall have power
to add to their number from day to day.

The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.

Business of the Sectional Committees.

Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday, and on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday,? Monday, and Tuesday, for the
objects stated in the Rules of the Association. The Organising Committee
of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours of meeting of the Section
and the Sectional Committee except for Saturday.°

The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—

1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.

they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organising Committees
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. 1t has therefore become
necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
several Communications, that each author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
WWCTOLG..cc ss c.seces senescence , addressed to the General Secretaries, at the office of
the Association. ‘For Section......... ’ Ifit should be inconvenient to tlle Author
that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send in-
formation thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors who send in their
MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers are accepted,
will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their Reports and
abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual Volume
unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Assistant Geheral
Secretary before the conclusion of the Meeting.

1 Sheffield, 1879. 2 Swansea, 1880, revised, Dover, 1899.

3 Edinburgh, 1871, revised, Dover, 1899. 4 Glasgow, 1901.

5 The meeting on Saturday is optional, Southport, 1883, © Nottingham, 1893.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXili

2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the
Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly.

8. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organ-
ising Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Committees. !

At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association
and printed in the last volume of the Report. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organising Committee. The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed.? At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday
in the Journal.

On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 A.m. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.

Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.

Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the
Sectional Meetings, to the Assistant General Secretary.

The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ea officio

temporary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxxi), and will
receive, on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets
entitling them to attend its Meetings.
_ The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association, and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the
state and progress of which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or
Committees for the execution of such Reports or researches ; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by applicaticn to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.

In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and

1 Plymouth, 1877. 2 Edinburgh, 1871.
1901.

XXX1V REPORT—1901.

one of them appointed to act as Chairman, who shall have notified per-
sonally or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Chairman to have
the responsibility of receiving and disbursing the grant (if any has been made)
and securing the presentation of the Report in due time; and, further, it is
expedient that one of the members should be appointed to act as Secretary, for
ensuring attention to business.

That it is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve on a
Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient working.

That a tabular list of the Committees appointed on the recommendation
of each Section should be sent each year to the Recorders of the several Sec-
tions, to enable them to fill in the statement whether the several Committees
appointed on the recommendation of their respective Sections had presented
their reports.

That on the proposal to recommend the appointment of a Committee for a
special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional Committee, the
number of Members of such Committee be then fixed, but that the Members to
serve on such Committee be nominated and selected by the Sectional Com-
mittee at a subsequent meeting.'

Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.

The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant General Secretary
for presentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be
done, the Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.

N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can
be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the
General Committee.

Notices regarding Grants of Money.

1. No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of
the British Association without special permission from the General
Committee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended
except in accordance with the Rules of the Association.

2. In grants of money to Committees the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the Members.

8. Committees to which grants of money are entrusted by the Association
for the prosecution of particular Researches in Science are ap-
pointed for one year only. If the work of a Committee cannot be
completed in the year, and if the Sectional Committee desire the
work to be continued, application for the reappointment of the
Committee for another year must be made at the next meeting of
the Association.

4, Hach Committee is required to present a Report, whether final or in-
terim, at the next meeting of the Association after their appoint-
ment or reappointment. Interim Reports must be submitted in
writing, though not necessarily for publication.

' Revised by the General Committee, Bath, 1888.
? Revised by the General Committee at Ipswich, 1895.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXV

5. In each Committee the Chairman is the only person entitled to
call on the Treasurer, Professor G. Carey Foster, F.R.S., for
such portion of the sums granted as may from time to time be ©
required.

6. Grants of money sanctioned at a meeting of the Association expire on
June 30 following. The Treasurer is not authorised after that
date to allow any claims on account of such grants.

7. The Chairman of a Committee must, before the meeting of the Asso-
ciation next following after the appointment or reappointment of
the Committee, forward to the Treasurer a statement of the sums
which have been received and expended, with vouchers. The
Chairman must also return the balance of the grant, if any, which
has been received and not spent ; or, if further expenditure is con-
templated, he must apply for leave to retain the balance.

8. When application is made for a Committee to be reappointed, and to
retain the balance of a former grant which is in the hands of the
Chairman, and also to receive a further grant, the amount of such
further grant is to be estimated as being additional to, and not
inclusive of, the balance proposed to be retained.

9. The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting
to whom a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the
Committee of Recommendations in every case where no such
report has been received.

10. Members and Committees who may be entrusted with sums of money
for collecting specimens of any description are requested to re-
serve the specimens so obtained to be dealt with by authority of
the Council.

11. Committees are requested to furnish a list of any apparatus which
may have been purchased out of a grant made by the Association,
and to state whether the apparatus will be useful for continuing
the research in question, or for other scientific purposes.

12. All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Asso-
ciation are to be deposited at the Office of the Association when
not employed in scientific inquiries for the Association.

Business of the Sections.

The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation shortly
before the meeting commences. The Section looms and approaches thereto
can be used for no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the
Association.

At the time appointed the Chair will be taken,’ and the reading of
communications, in the order previously made public, commenced.

Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.

1 The Organising Committee of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours
of meeting of the Section and of the Sectional Committee, except for Saturday.
b2

XXXVI REPORT—1901.

A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.

Duties of the Doorkeepers.

1. To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.

2. To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Assistant General Secretary.

3. Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.

No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the Official Programme, p. l.

Duties of the Messengers.

To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.

Comiuttee of Reconvmendations.

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

The ex officio members of the Committee of Recommendations are the
President and Vice-Presidents of the Meeting, the General and Assistant-
General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents
of the Association in former years.

All Recommendations of Grants of Muney, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations.

All proposals for establishing new Sections, or altering the titles of
Sections, or for any other change in the constitutional forms and funda-
mental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of
Recommendations for a report.!

If the President of a Section is unable to attend a meeting of the
Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Committee shall be
authorised to appoint a Vice-President, or, failing a Vice-President,
some other member of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice
of the appointment being sent to the Assistant General Secretary.”

1 Passed by the General Committee at Birmingham, 1865,
? Passed by the General Committee at Leeds, 1890,

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Xxxvil

Corresponding Societies.'

1. Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga-
tions, and publishes notices of the results.

2, Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the
List of Corresponding Societies. Applications must be addressed to the
Assistant General Secretary on or before the 1st of June preceding the
Annual Meeting at which it is intended they should be considered, and
must be accompanied by specimens of the publications of the results of
the local scientific investigations recently undertaken by the Society.

3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi-
nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the
purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping
themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers
published by them. This Committee shall make an annuai report to the
General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the
List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable.

4, Every Corresponding Societyshall return each year, on or before the
Ist of June, to the Assistant General Secretary of the Association, a
schedule, properly filled up, which will be issued by him, and which will
contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society as may
be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee.

5. There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association
a list, in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre-
sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the
results of the local scientific work conducted by them ; those papers only
being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of
one or other of the various Sections of the Association.

6. A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any
one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele-
gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time
a Member of the General Committee.

Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.

7. The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies is em-
powered to send recommendations to the Committee of Recommen-
dations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee.

8. The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con-
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre-
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the
General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding
Societies Committee shall be ew officio members.

9. The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries
to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of tho Associa-
tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take
part in the meetings.

10. The Secretaries of each Section shall be instructed to transmit to

1 Passed by the General Committee, 1884.

XXXVIiL REPORT—1901.

the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommen-
dations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee of
Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of
Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference
of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend
the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them
carried into effect.

11. It will be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer-
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be
able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear-
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera-
tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of pubiishing results.

Local Committees.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

Officers.

A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.

Council.

In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.

(1) The Council shall consist of !

. The Trustees.

. The past Presidents.

. The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.

. The President and Vice-Presidents elect.

. The past and present General Treasurers, General and
Assistant General Secretaries.

- The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing
Meeting.

. Ordinary Members,

IO owner

(2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the
General Committee.

Passed by the General Committee at Belfast, 1874.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXX1X

(3) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, of
whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council,
as Ordinary Members, in the previous year.

(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary
Members of the outgoing Council shall at each annual election -
be ineligible for nomination :—1st, those who have served on
the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years ; and,
Qnd, those who, being resident in or near London, have
attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year
—observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by
seniority to two by least attendance.

(5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their
Annual Report the names of the Members of the General
Committee whom they recommend for election as Members of
Council.

(6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the
Officers of the Association.

Papers and Communications.

The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to
reserve his right of property therein.

Accounts.

The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.

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res «| ape ae

iy

1901.

REPORT

ae

lu

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ord “GW “be Tqtug Jeqiwg some

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‘MSW “Ta “aA'TT SMorMaeyy “Cd “fats er eee eee eee ween mosse[y jo A418
~ToaTuy) ayy jo yedioung om) “a'1T “ad “£1098 q10q.10H “yz aay A104
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“SSIYVLAYOAS 1V9O071 *SLN3OISSYd-S50lA ‘SLNAGISAYd

liti

TRUSTEES AND GENERAL OFFICERS, 1831—1902.

TRUSTEES.
1832-70 (Sir) R. I. Murcuison (Bart.), - 187 Sir J. LUBBOCK, Bart. (now Lord

RS. AVEBURY), E.R. 8.
1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S. | 1881-83 W. SPOTTISWOODH, Hsq., Pres,
1832-39 C. BABBAGE, Esq., F.R.S, | RS.
1839-44 F. Barty, Esq., F.R.S. 1883 Lord RAYLEIGH, F.R.S.
1844-58 Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S. | 1883-98 Sir Lyon (now Lord) PLAYFAIR,
1858-82 General E. SABINE, F.RS. | ERS.
1862-81 Sir P. EGERTON, Bart., F.R.S. | 1898 Prof, A. W. RUcKER, F.R.S.

GENERAL TREASURERS.

1831 JONATHAN GRAY, Esq. | 1874-91 Prof. A. W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S.
1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S. | 1891-98 Prof. A. W. Riicknr, F.R.S.

1862-74 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., F.R.S. | 1898 Prof. G. C. Fostmr, F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.
1832-35 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT, | 1866-68 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S., and

E.R.S. Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S.
. 1835-36 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT, | 1868-71 Dr. T. A. Hrrst, F.R.S., and Dr.
E.R.S., and F. BArIny, Esq., : T. THOMSON, F.R.S.
F.R.S. 1871-72 Dr.T. THomson,F.R.S.,and Capt.
1836-37 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT, DOUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.
F.R.S., and R. I. MurcHIsoNn, | 1872-76 Capt. D. GALTON, F.RB.S., and
Ksa., F. R.S. Dr. MICHAEL FOSTER, F.R.S.
1837-39 R. I. “MURCHISON, Esq., F.R.S., | 1876-81 Capt. D. GALTON, F R.S., and
and Rev. G. Peacock, F.R.S. Dr. P. L. SCLATER, F.R.S.
1839-45 Sir R. I. Murcutson, F-.R.S., | 1881-82 Capt. D. GAuTon, F.R.S., and
and Major E. SABINE, F.R.S. Prof. F. M. BALFOUR, F.R.S.

1845-50 Lieut.-Colonel E.SABINE,F.R.S. | 1882-83 Capt. DOUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.
1850-52 General E. SABINE, F.R.S.,and | 1883-95 Sir DoucLias GALTON, F.RB.S.,

J. F. RoYLE, Esq., F.B.S. and A. G. VERNON HARCOURT,
1852-53 J. F. Royie, Esq., F.B.S. Esq., F.R.S.
1853-59 General EK. SABINE, F.R.S. 1895-97 A. G. VERNON HARCOURT, Esq.,
1859-61 Prof. R. WALKER, F.R.8. AUR Sipe cilitee Perot ate eA
1861-62 W. HopxKIns, Esq., F.R.S. SCHAFER, E.RS.
1862-63 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S.,and | 1897~ Prof. ScHAFER, F.R.S., and Sir
Prof. J. PHILLIPS, F.R.S. 1900 W.C.ROBERTS-AUSTEN,F.R.S.
1863-65 W. Hopxins, Esq., F.R.S., and | 1900 Sir W. C. ROBERTS-AUSTEN,
F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.8. F.RS., and Dr. D. H. Scort,
1865-66 F, GALTON, Esq., F.R.S. F.B.S.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES.
1831 JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., Secretary. | 1881-85 Prof. T. G. Bonnuy, F.B.S.,

1832 Prof. J. D. FORBES, Acting Secretary.

Secretary. 1885-90 A. T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A.,
1832-62 Prof. JOHN PHILLIPS, F.RB.S. Secretary.
1862-78 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A. 1890 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A. Acting
3878-80 J. E. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A., Secretary.

Assistant Secretary. 1890 G, GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A.

1881 G, GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting
Secretary.

liv

nEport—1901.

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.

Date and Place

1832.

1833.
1834.

1835,
1836,
1837.
1838.
1839,

1840

1841.
1842,

1843,
1844.
1845.
1846,
1847.

1848.

1849
1850
1851
1852

1853.

1854
1855

1856.
1857.

Presidents

Secretaries

|

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.

Cambridge
Edinburgh

Dublin

Bristol......
Liverpool... |
|
Newcastle

Birmingham
Glasgow ...

Plymouth
Manchester

ee eeeseee

Cambridge

Southamp-
ton.

Oxford

Swansea ...
. Birmingham

. Edinburgh
. Ipswich ...
. Belfast

. Liverpool...
. Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

Dublin

\Rey. Dr. Robinson

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.8.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ..
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.

Rey. H. Coddington,
Prof, Forbes.
Prof, Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

seen eeeeeree

|Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S.

Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S,...

Prot: POLOES, wi tioy cases caer

Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S8. ......

Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
F.R.S.

Prof, M‘Culloch, M.R.I.A. ...

The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S8.

The Very Rey. the Dean of
Ely.

‘Sir John F. W. Herschel,

Bart., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Powell,
F.R.S.
Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ......
William Hopkins, F-.R.S.......

M.A.,

Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S.H.

Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
F.RBS.

Prof. W. Thomson, M.A.,
E.R.S., F.R.S.E.

The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely, F.R.S.

|Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstone.

Prof, Forbes, W. S. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.

|W. S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,

| Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.

J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.

Rey. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith,

Prof, Stevelly.

Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.

J. Nott, Prof, Stevelly.

...| Rev, Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly,
G. G. Stokes.

John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.

Rev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.

Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.

Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.

W.J.Macquorn Rankine, Prof.Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
\$. Jackson, W. J, Macquorn Rankine,

| Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
‘Prof. Dixon, W, J. Macquorn Ran-
| kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
| Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.

Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec. J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.

B.S. Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A., | Rey. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.
F.R.S., F.R.S.E. | Tyndall.

Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S. C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,

| Prof. Stevelly, Rey. J. C. Turnbull,

Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,|Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P, A.

F.R,S., M.R.LA, Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof, Stevelly,

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lv

Date and Place Presidents

1858. Leeds ...... Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
V.P.B.S.

1859. Aberdeen... |The Earlof Rosse, M.A., K.P.,
F.RB.S.

1860. Oxford...... Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S.

1861. Manchester'G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L.,

| EBS,

1862. Cambridge |Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A.,
F.R.S.

1862, Newcastle |Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine, |
C.E., F.B.S.

1864. Bath......... Prof. Cayley, M.A. F.B.S.,
F.R.AS.

1865. Birmingham |W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S.,

| F.R.A.S.

1866. Nottingham |Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,
E.RB.S.

1867. Dundee ...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
F.B.S.

1868. Norwich ...|Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,
F.RB.S.

1869, Exeter...... Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
E.R.S.

1870, Liverpool...|J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A,
LL.D., F.RB.S.

1871. Edinburgh | Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E.

1872. Brighton ...|W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1873. Bradford ...|Prof. H. J. §. Smith, F.R.S.

1874. Belfast...... Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,
M.R.LA.

1875. Bristol...... Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,
LL.D., F.B.S.

1876. Glasgow ...| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
D.G:b ERS:

1877. Plymouth... |Prof.G.C. Foster, B.A., F.B.S.,
Pres. Physical Soc.

1878. Dublin.... |Rev. Prof. Salmon, D-D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

1879. Sheffield ...|George Johnstone Stoney,
M.A., F.R.S.

1880. Swansea ...| Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A.
F.R.S.

RBBLS VOLK. s..c0000:| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S8.

1882. Southamp- | Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh,

ton.

. Southport

. Montreal...

M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. O. Henrici, Ph.D., F.B.S.

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S.

| Secretaries

J. P. Hennessy,
Prof, Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof.
| Tyndall.

J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
J. 8. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

..| Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.

Prot. Rav Be Clifton, Profeis de Sc
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

| Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof: H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Rey.N.Ferrers,Prof. Fuller, F.Jenkin,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T. Whitley.

Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
8. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.

Fleeming Jenkin,Prof.H.J.8. Smith,
Rey. S. N. Swann.

Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.

Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.

Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.

Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,

rof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.

.|Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,

Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.

Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher,
Prof, A. 8. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.

.| Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.

) W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S. Herschel.

J.W.L.Glaisher, Prof.Herschel, Ran-

| dal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F. Rodwell.

| Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley.
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir,

(Prof, W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Je We LL. Glaisher, F. @. Landon.
Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.
A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.

O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.

»|W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,

Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Dr. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh.
W. M. Hicks, Dr. O..J. Lodge, D.
MacAlister, Rev. G. Richardson.
|W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.
\C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, A. John-

son, O. J. Lodge, D, MacAlister.

Ivi

REPORT—1901.

Date and Place

1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.

1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.

1991.

1832.
1833.
1834,

1835.
1836.

1837.
1838.

Aberdeen...
Birmingham
Manchester

eeeeeeaee

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds

eeeeee

seeeee

Edinburgh
Nottingham
Oxford ......

Ipswich

Liverpool...

Toronto ...

eeeeee

Bradford ..,

Glasgow ...

Edinburgh

Liverpool...

Newcastle

1839. Birmingham

1840.

1841.
1842,
1843.
1844.
1845,

Glasgow ...

Plymouth...
Manchester

Cambridge | Rsy. Prof. Cumming

w.|Prof, W. M.

Presidents

Prof. G. Chrystal, M.A.,
F.RB.S.E.

Prof. G. H. Darwin,
LD; H.R.S.

Prof. Sir R. 8. Ball,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald,
E.R.S.

Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B.,
R.E., F.R.S.

J. W. L. Glaisher,
HEEB heb AS.

Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.8c.,
LL.D., F.B.S.

Prof. A. Schuster,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S.

M.A.,
M.A.,
M.A.,

Sc.D.,

Ph.D.,

Prof.A.W.Riicker, M.A.,F.RB.S.

Hicks, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. J. J. Thomson, M.A.,

D.8e., F.R.S.
Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, I’.R.S. ...
Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.

Dride armors HRS cosscess,

Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S.

Secretaries

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.

J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw.

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
Lodge, W. N. Shaw.

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A,
Lodge, W. N. Shaw, H. Stroud.
R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge,

W.N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud.

R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
Lodge, Prof. A. L. Selby.

Rt. EH. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.

W. T. A. Emtage, J. Larmor, Prof.
A. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.

Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,
J. Walker.

Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,
G. T. Walker, W. Watson.

Prof. W. H. Heaton, J. L. Howard,
Prof. A. Lodge, G. T. Walker, W.
Watson.

Prof. W. H. Heaton, J.C. Glashan, J.
L. Howard, Prof. J.C. McLennan.

A, P. Chattock, J. L. Howard, C. H.
Lees, W. Watson, E. T, Whittaker.

J. L. Howard, C. H. Lees, W. Wat-
son, E. 'T. Whittaker.

P. H. Cowell, A. Fowler, C. H. Lees,
C. J. L. Wagstafie, W. Watson,
E. T. Whittaker.

H.S.Carslaw,C H. Lees, W. Stewart,
Prof. L. R. Wilberforce.

CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.

Oxford... John Dalton, D.C.L., F.B.S.
Cambridge |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Dr. Hope

SOO ee errr

Drew. Lhomson, HRS. ve...
Rev. Prof, Cumming

eee aeeene

Michael Faraday, F.R.S.......

Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S.

Dr Danbeny, FR.S. .......0.
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.B.S.
Prof, Apjohn, M.R.1.A.........

Prof. DiGraham, HaRIS. 2...

Rev. William Whewell,F.R.8.

James I. W. Johnston.
Prof. Miller.
Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison,

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.

| Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.

‘Dr. Apjobn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.

\Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.

| Reynolds.

Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.

Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson,

Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.

J. Prideaux, R. Hunt, W. M. Tweedy.

Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham,

R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.

| Dr. L, Playfair, H. Solly, T. H. Barker.

R. Hunt, J. P, Joule, Prof. Miller,
E. Solly,

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1846.
1847.

1848.
1849.
1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.

1855.
1856.

1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.

1861.
1862.

1863.
1864,

Southamp-
ton.

Oxford

Swansea ...
Birmingham
Edinburgh
Ipswich ...
Belfast......

Liverpool

Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

a eeeee

Aberdeen...
Oxford

Manchester
Cambridge

Newcastle

1865. Birmingham

1866.
1867.
1868.
1869,
1870,
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874,
1875.
1876.
1877.

1878, Dublin......!
| E,RB.S,

Nottingham
Dundee
Norwich ...
Hxeter ivy ..s
Liverpool...
Edinburgh

Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Belfast......
Bristol......

Glasgow ...
Plymouth...

. | Prof.

Presidents

Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,
E.R.S.
Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,

F.R.S.

|Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ......

John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......
Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.H. ...
Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S.
Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.

Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
F.R.S.
|Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.

Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S.
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...

|Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,

| M.R.LA.

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.

Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S.

Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S......

Prof. W.A. Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. W.H. Miller, M.A.,F.R.S.

Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,
F.R.S.
W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S.......

Prof. W. A. Miller,
V.P.B.S.
H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S.

M.D.,

T. Anderson,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. E. Frankland, F.R.S.

M.D.,

DrPH D eos, HH Se acces ene

Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof, T, Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.

'Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....

Prof. W. J. Russel}, F.R.S....

Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.

A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,
E.R.S.

We HeePerkim, RVR S sy aie.

BreAr A Delete RcGedsdsesexctes das

Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,

Secretaries

lvii

Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.

B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.

T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.

R. Hunt, G. Shaw.
Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wil
T. J. Pearsall, W. 8. Ward.

son.

Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.

Ronalds.

H. 8S. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.

Pearsall.
Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone,
Price.

Dr

Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.

J. Horsley, P. J.

Voelcker.

Worsley,

Prof,

Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-

livan.

Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-

nolds.

J.S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G.

Liveing, Dr. Odling.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Live
A. B. Northcote.

D.

ing,

A, Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.
H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.

Roscoe.

Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.

Stevenson. ,
A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing
Biggs.

Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.

5 Le,

A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof,

J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.

Russell, J. White.
A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Live
W. J. Russell.

ing,

Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-

sell, F. Sutton.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.

Russell, Dr. Atkinson.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher,

Dr. W. J. Russell.

J. Y. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.

E. Thorpe.

Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.

W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.

Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-

ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.

Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-

ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.

Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler

Roberts, W. A. Tilden.

W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,

J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.

Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,

J. M. Thomson.

W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills,

lviii

REPORT—190

1.

I

Dat

1879. Sheffield ...|
1880.

1881.
1882.

1883.
1884.
1885.

1886
1887

1888.

1889
1890

1891.

1892
1893
1894

1895

1896
1897

1898
1899

1900
i901

e and Place

Swansea ...

atte wees

Southamp-
ton,
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen...
, Birmingham
. Manchester

. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
. Leeds

. Edinburgh

. Nottingham
So Obakorge laa
. Ipswich

. Liverpool...
. Toronto

. Bristol
. Dover

. Bradford ...

. Glasgow

|

Presidents

Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S. ...

Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D..,

| E.R.S.

Prof. A. W. Williamson, F'.R.S.

Prof. G. D, Liveing, M.A.,
E.R.S.

Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...

Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., Sec. C.S.

|W. Crookes, F.R.8., V.P.C.S.

Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S.......
Prof. W. A. Tilden, D.Sc.,
ee LOGE Seri ial be ORC

\Sir J. Lowthian Bell, Bart.,
D.C.L., F.B.S.

Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas. C.S.
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
C.B., F.RB.S.
Prof. H. McLeod, F’.R.S.......

Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds,
M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Prof. H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S. |

Prot, Wh. “Uhorpe, B.8c.,|

Secretaries

H. S. Beli, W. Chandler Roberts,

| J. M, Thomson.

|P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, W. R. E.

Hodgkinson, J. M. Thomson.

|P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, T. Gough.

P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
J. L. Notter.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.
Prof, P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
H.ForsterMorley,Dr.W.J.Simpson.

P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, H. F. Mor-
ley, W.W. J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster
Morley, W. Thomson.

| Prof. H. B. Dixon, H. Forster Morley,
R. E. Moyle, W. W. J. Nicol.

H, Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel, W.
W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattinson, jun.

C. H. Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.
C. H, Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,
W.W. J. Nicol, GS. Turpin. ~
J. Gibson, H. Forster Morley, D. H.
Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

J. B. Coleman, M. J. R. Dunstan,
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

A. Colefax, W. W. Fisher, Arthur
Harden, H. Forster Morley.

SECTION B (contimwed),—-CHEMISTRY.
.|Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S. ......

E. H. Fison, Arthur Harden, C. A.
Kohn, J. W. Rodger.

Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S. |Arthur Harden, C. A. Kohn.

.| Prof. W. Ramsay, F.RB.S....... |Prof. W. H. Ellis, A. Harden, C. A.

Kohn, Prof. R. F. Ruttan.
Prof. F. R. Japp, F.B.S. ......|C.A.Kohn,F. W. Stoddart, T. K. Rose.
Horace T. Brown, F.R.S....... A. D. Hall, C. A. Kohn, T. K. Rose,
| Prof. W. P. Wynne.
Prof, W. H. Perkin, F.R.S....|W. M. Gardner, F. S. Kipping, W.
| J. Pope, T. K. Rose.

...|Prof. Percy F. Frankland,|W.C. Anderson, G. G. Henderson,

E.B.S.

W. J. Pope, T. K. Rose.

GEOLOGICAL (ann, untin 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. :

1832.
1833.
1834.

1835.
1836.

1837.

Cambridge ,
Edinburgh .

Dublin
Bristol

eeeeee

Liverpool...

R. I, Murchison, F.R.8. ......|John Taylor.
G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. ......| W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
Prof. Jameson J. Phillips, T. J. Torrie, Rev, J. Yates.

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

R. J. Griffith | Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.
|Reyv. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—) William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury,
Geog.,R.I.Murchison,F.R.S.| TT. J. Torrie.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.— Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.— Geo-
Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.| graphy, Capt. H. M. Denham, R.N.

et rnd

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lix

Date and Place

1838.
1839.
1840.
1841.
1842,
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
£847.

1848.
1849.

1850.

1851.

1852

1853.
1854.

1855
1856

1857.

1858
1859

1860.
1861.

1862
1863

1864.

1865
1866

1867
1868

Presidents

Secretaries

Newcastle.,
Birmingham
Glasgow
Plymouth...
Manchester

seeteeeee

se reweeee

Cambridge.
Southamp-
tor.

Swansea ...
Birmingham

Edinburgh!

Ipswich ...
. Belfast

Hull
Liverpool..

. Glasgow ...
. Cheltenham

eeeeee

. Leeds

Manchester
. Cambridge
. Newcastle

. Birmingham
. Nottingham

. Dundee
. Norwich ...

...| Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geog.,

C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—|
Geography, Lord Prudhoe.
Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— |
Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.8.

G. B. Greenough, F-.R.S.
H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...

R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.

W.C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Geography, Capt. Wasnington.
George Lloyd, M.D., H. EH. Strick-

land, Charles Darwin.
W. J. Hamilton,D. Milne, H. Murray,
H. E. Strickland, J. Scoular.
W.J. Hamilton, Kdward Moore, M.D.,
| RR. Hutton.
E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.

Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S....
Henry Warburton, Pres. G. 8.

Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.
|F. M. Jennings, H. E. Strickland.
Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A. | Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
F.R.S. |_ Rev. W. Thorp.
Leonard Horner, F.R.S. ......| Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,
| Prof. Oldham, Dr. C. T. Beke.
Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.S.| Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
| Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
Sir H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S, | $.Benson,Prof.Oldham, Prof.Ramsay
Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S........\J. B. Jukes, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Ramsay.
Sir Roderick I, Murchison, A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
F.R.S. Prof. Nicol.

SECTION C (continued).—GnHOLOGY.
William Hopkins, M.A,,F.R.8./C, J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,

Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E.,
E.R.S.
Prof. Sedgewick, F.R.S.........

Prof. Edward Forbes, F,R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S....
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S....

The Lord Talbot de Malahide

William Hopkins,M.A., F.R.S.

Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S5...

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
UL.D., F.R.S.
J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.RB.S.

Prof. Warington W, Smyth,
F.B.S., F.G.S,

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,
RS: EGS:

Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,
K.C.B.

Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,
E.R.S.

.|Archibald Geikie, F.B.S.......

R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.8.

Searles Wood,
|\James Bryce, James MacAdam,
Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.
Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
J. Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof. Nicol.
Rey. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.

Prof. Harkness, G. Sanders, R. H.
Scott.

Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, HE. W.Shaw.

Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir
H. C. Sorby.

Prof. Harkness, HE. Hull, J. W.
Woodall,
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T.
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert
Jones, H. C. Sorby.

E. F, Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.
Sorby, Thomas Sopwith.

W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.
Sorby, W. Pengelly.

Rey. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.

R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.

Ki. Hull, W. Pengelly, H. Woodward.

Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.

1 Geography was constituted a separate Section, see page Ixv.

lx

Date and Place

1869.

1870.
1871.
1872.

1873.
1874.

1875.
1876,
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.

1883.

1884.
1885.

1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.

1896.
1897.

1898.
1899.
1900.

1901.

Exeter ......
Liverpool...
Edinburgh

Brighton...

Bradford ...
Belfast......

Bristol...
Glasgow ..

Plymouth...
Dublin

Sheffield ...
Swansea ...

Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham
Manchester

erry

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
WECOS hears.
Cardiff ......
Edinburgh
Nottingham
Oxford...

Ipswich

Liverpool...
Toronto
Bristol

seeees

Bradford ...

Glasgow ...

REPORT—1901.

Presidents

Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,
F.G,S.

Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.

R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,

F.RB.S., F.G.8.
Prof. J. Phillips, FUR.S. ..+..
Prof. Hull, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

Dr. T. Wright, F.R.S.E., F.G.8.
Prof. John Young, M.D.......
W. Pengelly, F.B.S., F.G.S.

John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S.

Prof. P. M. Duncan, F.R.S.

H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., F.G.S....

A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.RB.S.,
F.G.S.

R. Etheridge, F.R.S8., F.G.S.

Prof. W. C. Williamson,
LL.D., F.B.S.

W. T. Blanford, F.R.S., Sec.
G.S.

Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.
G.S.

Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.R.8., F.G.S.

Henry Woodward, LL.D.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. J. Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. A. H. Green,
E.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

Prof. C. Lapworth, LL.D.,
ERIS: LUGS,

J. J. H. Teall, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S

L. Fletcher, M.A., F.B.S.

M.A.,

W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S. ...
J. EK. Marr, M.A., F.RB.S.......

.|Dr. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G.,

F.R.S.
W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S.......

Sir Arch. Geikie, F.R.S. ......
Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.

John Horne, F.RB.S. .....seccee

Secretaries

W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
Rev. H, H. Winwood.

W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.

R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.

L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.

L.C. Miall,R.H.Tiddeman,W.Topley.

F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R. H. Tiddeman,

L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Topley.

J.Armstrong,F,W.Rudler,W.Topley.

Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.

E. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.

W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.

W. Topley, W. Whitaker.

J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
W. Whitaker.

T. W. Shore, W. Topley, HE. West-
lake, W. Whitaker.

R. Betley, C. E. De Rance, W. Top-
ley, W. Whitaker.

F. Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W.
Topley, W. Whitaker.

C. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H.
Teall, W. Topley.

W. J. Harrison, J. J. H. Teall, W.
Topley, W. W. Watts.

J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top-
ley, W. W. Watts.

Prof. G. A. Lebour, W. Topley, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.

Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.

J. E. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J.
E. Marr, W. W. Watts.

W. Galloway, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

H. M. Cadell, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

J. W. Carr, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

.../E. A. Bather, A. Harker, Clement

Reid, W. W. Watts.

F. A. Bather, G. W. Lamplugh, H.
A. Miers, Clement Reid.

J. Lomas, Prof. H. A. Miers, C. Reid.

Prof. A. P. Coleman, G. W. Lamp-
lugh, Prof. H. A. Miers.

G. W. Lamplugh, Prof. H. A. Miers,
H. Pentecost.

J. W. Gregory, G. W. Lamplugh,
Capt. McDakin, Prof. H. A. Miers.

.|H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. Lower

Carter, G. W. Lamplugh, H. W.
Monckton.
H. L. Bowman, H. W, Monckton,

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Txt

Date and Place

Presidents

Secretaries

ee

1832.

Oxford

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.

|Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.5. ...

1833. Cambridge'| Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S.

1834. Edinburgh .| Prof. Graham

seem ete ee eeeeeereeee

Rev. Prof. J. 8. Henslow.
C. C. Babington, D. Don.
W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

1835. Dublin...... Dee Aullrnia rie ieseassersssaessences's
1836. Bristol...... Rev. Prof. Henslow ......ss+008
1837. Liverpool...|W. S. MacLeay.,.....++..sseee
1838. Newcastle Sir W. Jardine, Bart. .......6.
1839. Birmingham | Prof. Owen, F.R.S. .......060+
1840. Glasgow ...|Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.......
1841. Plymouth... | John Richardson, M.D.,F.R.S.
1842. Manchester |Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her-
bert, LL.D., F.L.S.
1843. Cork......... William Thompson, F.L.S....
1844. York......... Very Rev. the Dean of Man-
chester.
1845. Cambridge |Reyv. Prof. Henslow, F.L.8....
1846. Southamp- |Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,
ton. F.R.S.
1847. Oxford......

H. EH. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S.

Rootsey.
C. C. Babington, Rev. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson.

\J. EH. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,

Dr. Richardson.

|E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.

|Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.

J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.

|Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.

| Turner.

iG. J. Allman, Dr.
Patterson.

Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
Dr. Lankester.

|Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.

| Wooldridge.

Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
Wollaston.

Lankester, R.

SECTION D (continwed).—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.

[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Sub-
sections and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. lxiv.]

1848.

Swansea

1849. Birmingham

1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.

1857.

Edinburgh

Ipswich ...
Belfast......
15 hd eran ree
Liverpool...
Glasgow
Cheltenham

Dublin......

...)L. W. Dillwyn, FLB.S. os...

William Spence, F.R.S. ......
Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E.

Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Wit Of DY: Givonccccsseence Seeaenes

C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....

...|Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E.

Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres. L.8.

Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,
F.R.S.

Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hens
frey, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.

Lankester.
| Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.
Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.
Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
| Dr. Lankester.
| Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. EH. Lankester,
| Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele.

1 At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. lxziv.

Ixil REPORT— 1901.
Date and Place | Presidents Secretaries
1858. Leeds ...... C. C, Babington, M.A., F.R.S.|Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
1859. Aberdeen... Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E. | Prof. hidke, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
| Dr. Ogilvy.
1860. Oxford...... ‘Rev. Prof. Hensiow, F.L.S....|W. 8. Church, Dr. EH. Lankester, P.
| L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
1861. Manchester | Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S8.|Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
| P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.
1862. Cambridge | Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. ......... Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
1863. Newcastle Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....| Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.
| | B, Tristram, Dr. HE. P. Wright.
WBGLs Bath ee .ans. |Dr. John H. Gray, F.R.S. ...|H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.
; | | Stainton, Dr. HE. P. Wright,
1865. Birming- 7, Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ...| Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.

1866.

1870.

1871.

1872.

1873. Bradford ...

. Dundee

. Norwich ...|

. Exeter

ham ! |

SECTION D (continued),

Nottingham | Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.—Dep.
of Physiol., Prof. Humphry,
¥.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
A. R. Wallace.
.| Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. B.S.
| —Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
| George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.
tev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.5.
—Dep. of Physiology, W.
H. Flower, F.R.8.

George Busk, F.R.5., F.L.8.
—Dep. of Bot. and Zool.,
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Ethno., E. B. Tylor.
Liverpool... Prof.G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,
F.R.S., F.L.S.—Dep. of
Anat. and Physiol., Prof. M.
Foster, M.D., F.L.5.—Dep.
of Etino., J. Evans, F.R.S.
Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and
Zool.,Prof. WyvilleThomson,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthrepol.,
Prof. W. Turner, M.D.
Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol,
Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S8.
Prof. Allman, F.R.8.— Dep. of
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof. Ru-
therford, M.D.—Dep. of An-
thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.

Edinburgh .

Brighton ..,

H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.

— BIOLOGY.

Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H,
B. Tristram, W. Turner. b. B,
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.

C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8. Cobbold, Dr.
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.

Dr. T. 8S. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H.T.
Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. EH. P. Wright.

Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M, Foster,
i. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T, Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
tram.

Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
kester.

Dr. T. Bek raser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
EK. iM Lankestes, Prof. Lawson,
H. T’Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne +
King. |

Prof. Thiselton- Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, H. Ray
Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.

Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F, W. Rudler, J.
H. Lamprey. ’

1 The title of Section D was changed to Biology.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lx

Date and Place

Presidents

Secretaries

1874. Belfast

wees

1875. Bristol

1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...

1878. Dublin

sector

1879. Sheffield ...

1880. Swansea ...

MBO OTK cscs tis

1882. Southamp-
ton.

1883. Southport?

1884. Montreal ...
1885. Aberdeen...

1886, Birmingham

1887. Manchester

|

Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.—Dep. of An-
throp., Sir W.R. Wilde, M.D.

P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of
Anat. and Physiol., Prot.

Cleland, F.R.S.—Dep. of|

Anth.,Prof.Rolleston,F.R.S.

A. Russel Wallace, F.L.S.—
Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. A. Newton, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. J. G. MeKendrick.

J. Gwyn Jefireys, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Prof. Macalister—Dep. of
Anthropol.,F.Galton,F.R.S.

Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.
of Anat. and Physiol., R.
MeDonnell, M.D., F.RB.S.

Prof. St. George Mivart,
F.R.S.-—Dep. of Anthropol.,
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.

A.C. L., Giinther, F.R.S.—Dep.
of Anat. § Physiol., F. M.
Balfour, F.R.S.—Dep. of

Anthropol., F. W. Rudler. |

R. Owen, I. R.S.— Dep. of An-
thropol., Prof. W.H. Flower,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and}
Physiol., Prof. J. 8. Burdon
Sanderson, F.R.S.

Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S.|
— Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,|
Prof. M. A. Lawson, F.L.S.
—Dep.of Anthropol., Prof.
W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,|
W. Pengelly, F.R.S.

Prof. H. N.. Moseley, M.A.,|
F.R.S.

Prof. W. C. M‘Intosh, M.D.,|
LL.D., F.RB.8., F.R.S.E.

W. Carruthers, Pres. L.S.,
E.B.S., F.G.S.

W.'T. Thiselton- Dyer, R. 0. Cunning- .
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler.

K. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof.
W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W. Spencer.

E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.
Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.
Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
son.

EK. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
I. W. Rudler. 4

Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.

Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
Schiifer.

G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley,
Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg-

wick.

|G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.
W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
W. North, John Priestley, Howard
Saunders, H. H. Spencer.

G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B.
Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg-
wick, T. W. Shore, jun.

iG. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,

W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr.
G. A. Woods.

Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders, A.
Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright.

W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson,
J. Duncan Matthews, Howard
Saunders, H. Marshall Ward.

Prof. T. W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof.
W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof,
H. Marshall Ward.

Prof. A. Newton, M.A., F.R.S8.,
FE.L.S., V.2.2.8.

C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Har-
mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,
Prof. H. Marshall Ward.

1 Anthropology was made a separate Section, see p. lxxi.

Ixiv

REPORT—1901.

Secretaries

1888.

1889.

1890.

1891.

1892.

1894.

1895.
1896.
1897.
1898,

1899.
1900.

1901.

1833.
1834.

1835.
1836.
1837.

1838.
1839.
1840.

1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.

Fr, KE. Beddard, S. F. Harmer, Prof.

|" SET Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner,

| Prof. Wied: Halliburton.

C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Har-
mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar-

| shall Ward.

8S. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman,

8. J. Hickson, F. W. Oliver, H.

| Wager, H. Marshall Ward.

'F. E, Beddard, Prof. W.A. Herdman,

Dr. 8. J. Hickson, G. Murray, Prof.

W.N. Parker, H. Wager.

|G. Brook, Prof. W. A. Herdman, G.

| Murray, W. Stirling, H. Wager.

iG. C. Bourne, J. B. Farmer, Prof.

| W. A. Herdman, 8. J. Hickson,

| W.B. Ransom, W. L. Sclater.

W. W. Benham, Prof. J. B. Farmer,
Prof. W. A. Herdman, Prof. 8. J.
Hickson, G. Murray, W. L. Sclater.

—ZOOLOGY.

G. C. Bourne, H. Brown, W. EH.

| Hoyle, W. L. Sclater.

H. O. Forbes, W. Garstang, W. E.
Hoyte.

W. Garstang, W. E. Hoyle, Prof.
HE. E. Prince.

Prof, R. Boyce, W. Garstang, Dr.
A. J. Harrison, W. EH. Hoyle.

W. Garstang, J. Graham Kerr.

.)W. Garstang, J. G. Ker, Sen:

Taylor, Swale Vincent.
J. G. Kerr, J. Rankin, J. Y. Simpson.

ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCHS.

SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
.|Dr. H. J. H. Bond, Mr. G. E. Paget.

Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson,

SECTION E (uNn«rIL 1847),.—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.

Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.

Dr. Symonds,

Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,
Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

...|Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.

Dr.J. Brown, Prof, Couper, Prof Reid.

J. Butter, J. Fuge, R. 8. Sargent.
Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 5. Sargent.

.| Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.

J. Erichsen, Dr. R. 8S. Sargent.

Date and Place Presidents
(BEI sree see W. T. Thiselton- nies: C.M.G.,
F.RBS., F.L.S
Newcastle -| Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson,
upon-Tyne} M.A., M.D., F.R.S.
Leeds ...... Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,
M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Cargiiiee..'. Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B.,
E.R.S., F.L.8.
Edinburgh |Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D.,
E.R.S., F.R.S.E.
1893. Nottingham'| Rev. Canon H. B. Tristram, |
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
Oxford? ...| Prof. I. Bayley Balfour, M.A.,
| ¥.RB.S.
SECTION D (continued).
Ipswich ...| Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.8.
|
Liverpool... fe E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. ...
Toronto ... Prof, L. O. Miall, F.R.S. ......
|
Bristol......! Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S. |
Dover ...... | Adam Sedgwick, F.R.8. ......
Bradford ...| Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.R.S. .
Glasgow ...|Prof. J. Cossar Ewart, F.R.S.
COMMITTEE OF
Cambridge |Dr.J. Haviland........... B...
Edinburgh |Dr. Abercrombie .....-........-
Dublin ...... Drs Cosbmbehard......cscses
Bristol ...... Dre. Meenocet, WOR. aces
Liverpool,..|Prof. W. Clark, M.D. «........
Newcastle |T. E. Headlam, M.D. .........
Birmingham |John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S.
Glasgow ...)James Watson, M.D. .........
SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.
Plymouth...|P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S.
Manchester |Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.
Cork As cnssee Sir James Pitcairn, M.D.
NWorke. snes: we Onbricchard, M.D. ..5.0..6,
Cambridge Prof. J. Haviland, MD eeees

1845.

ee R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster.

’ Physiology was made a separate Section, see p. lzxii.
® The title of Section D was changed to Zoology.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

|

Date and Place |

Presidents

Ixv

Secretaries

1846.
1847.

1850.
1855.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.

1846.Southampton| Dr. J. C. Pritchard
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea

Southamp- |
ton.
Oxford? ..:

Edinburgh
Glasgow ...
Dublin......

Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle

Birming-
ham ?

‘Prof. Owen, M.D., F.B.S. ...
| Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......

C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-
gent.
T. K, Chambers, W, P, Ormerod.

PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.

Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.
Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S.
Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ......
Sir B. Brodie, Bart., F.R.S.

Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.8.
Prof.G.Rolleston,M.D.,F.L.S.
Dr. John Davy, F.R.S. L.& E.
Gs He ParetyiMeD. swash <cssness
Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.
Dr. Edward Smith, F.R.S8.

Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,

F.R.S.

Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.

C. G. Wheelhouse.

Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.

Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith.
Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.
'G, F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.

Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
J.S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.

|Dr. A, Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,
| Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner,

GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C,
p- lviii.]

seeeee

1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh /|Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm! Daniel Wilson,

1851,
1852.
18538.

Ipswich

Belfast......

Glasgow ...

ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.

Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A.

Cee | eee e eres e ree ee reese eee etneeeseeeseeee

eee e ewe e ewer tenet ene neeeyesepeses

Dr. King.

Prof. Buckley.

G. Grant Francis.
Dr. R. G. Latham.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.,

Pres. R.G.S.

Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,
F.RB.S.

R. G, Latham, M.D., F.R.S.

. Liverpool,..|Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,

F.R.S.
Sir J. Richardson,
F.R.S.

M.D.,

Cheltenham|Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson,

Dublin......

K.C.B.

Rev. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,
Pres. R.LA.

Sir R.I. Murchison, G.C.St.S.,
F.R.S.

R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.
Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
Shaw.

R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.
Norton Shaw.

Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
Thne, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr.
Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, 8. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.
Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, F. Galton, P. O’Callaghan,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.

* Sections D and E were incorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology

and Botany, including Physiology’ (see p. 1xi.),

was assigned in 1851 to Geography.
2 Vide note on page 1xii,

1901,

Section E, being then vacant,

d

lxvi

Date and Place

REPOoRT—1901.

Presidents

1859.

1860. Oxford

1861. Manchester

1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864.
1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee

Aberdeen...| Rear - Admiral Sir James

| Francis Galton, F.R.S..........

.|Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.

Secretaries

| (Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
John Crawfurd, F.R.S.......... |

\Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,)

| ER.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.

Major-General Sir H. Raw-
linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.

Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,|
LL.D.

1868.

1869. Exeter

eeeeee

1870. Liverpool... |

1871. Edinburgh

1872. Brighton ...

1873. Bradford ...

1874. Belfast

1875. Bristol

1876.
1877.
1878

Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
. Dublin

seeeee

1879. Sheffield ...

1880. Swansea ...

1881.

see eernne

1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal ...

1885. Aberdeen...

1886. Birmingham

1887. Manchester

F.R.S. |

Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.

Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.

J.W.Clarke, Rev. J.Glover, Dr. Hunt,
Dr. Norton Shaw, 'T. Wright.

©. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson.

H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.
R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet,
C. R. Markham, Thomas Wright.

H. W. Bates, Rev. HE. T. Cusins, R.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R.

Markham, 8S. J. Mackie, R. Sturrock.

Norwich ...| Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,|T. Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements R.

Markham, T. Wright.

SECTION E (continwed).—GHOGRAPHY.

Sir Bartle Frere,
LL.D., F.R.G.S.
Sir R.I. Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S. |
Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S. |

Ke C.B5,

Francis Galton, F'.B.S..........
Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.

Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S.

Lieut. - General Strachey,
R.E., C.8.1., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.

Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S.......

Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.

Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-
son, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

Clements R. Markham, C.B.,|
F.R.S., Sec. B.G.S8.

Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,|
C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.R.S.

'Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.8.L,

C.B., F.RBS.

|Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.L,

| F.R.G.S. |

Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-
Austen, F.R.S.

Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,
K.C.M.G., F.R.8.,V.P.R.G.S.
LL.D., F.RB.S.

Maj.-Gen. Sir. F. J. Goldsmid,
K.C.8.1., C.B., F.R.G.S.

Col. Sir C. Warren, R.E.,
G.C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.

H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,
J. H. Thomas.

H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
Mott, Clements R. Markham.

A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.

E.G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
Thomas.

H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, F. F.
Tackett.

H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. O. Wood.

H. W. Bates, F, E. Fox, H. C. Bye.

John Coles, E. C. Rye.

H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C,
Rye.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye.

J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates.

E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye.

John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, E. C,
Rye.

Rev. Abbé Lafiamme, J.S. O'Halloran,
BE. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance.

Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,| J. S. Keltie, J. 8. O'Halloran, E. G.

Ravenstein, Key. G. A. Smith.
F. T. §. Houghton, J. S. Keltie. .
KE. G. Ravenstein.
Rey. L. ©. Casartelli; J. 8. Keltie,
H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein.

— 7

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS Ixvii
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
é
1888. Bath.........| Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, R.E.,|J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E. G.
| K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Ravenstein.
1889. Newcastle- Col. Sir F. de Winton,|J..S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, R.
upon-Tyne; K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S. Sulivan, A. Silva White.
1890. Leeds ...... Lieut.-Col. Sir R. Lambert|A. Barker, John Coles, J. 8. Keltie,
| Playfair, K.C.M.G.,F.R.G.S8.} A. Silva White.
1891. Oardiff ...:.. E. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S.,|John Coles, J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mac-
E.S.8. kinder, A. Silva White, Dr. Yeats.
1892. Edinburgh | Prof. J. Geikie, D.C.L., F.R.S.,|J. G. Bartholomew, John Coles, J. 8.
: V.P.R.Scot.G.8. Keltie, A. Silva White.
1893. Nottingham H. Seebohm, Sec. B.S., F.L.S.,|Col. F. Bailey, John Coles, H. O.
| ¥.ZS. | Forbes, Dr. H. R. Mill.
1894, Oxford...... Capt. W.J. L. Wharton, R.N., John Coles, W. S. Dalgleish, H. N.
FE.R.S. Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill.
1895. Ipswich ....H. J. Mackinder, M.A., John Coles, H. N. Dickson, Dr. H.
ly BB G.S: | RK. Mill, W. A. Taylor.
1896. Liverpool... Major L. Darwin, Sec. R.G.8.|Col. F. Bailey, H. N. Dickson, Dr.
| H.R. Mill, E. C. DuB. Phillips,
1897. Toronto ...|J. Scott-Keltie, LL.D. Col. F. Bailey, Capt. Deville, Dr.
| H. R. Mill, J. B. Tyrrell.
1898. Bristol...... Col. G. Earl Church, F.R.G.8.|H. N. Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill, H. C.
Trapnell.
1899. Dover ...... Sir John Murray, F.R.S. H. N. Dickson, Dr. H. O. Forbes,
Dr. H. R. Mill.
1900. Bradford ...| Sir George §. Robertson,}H. N. Dickson, E. Heawood, E. R.
K.C.8.1. Wethey.
1901. Glasgow a0 DE. H. RB. Mill, F.R.G.S. H. N. Dickson, E. Heawood, G.
Sandeman, A. C. Turner.
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS.
1833. Cambridge | Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. .........;J. E. Drinkwater.
1834. Edinburgh | Sir Charles Lemon, Bart.......| Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean,
SECTION F.—STATISTICS,
1835. Dublin...... Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......)W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.
1836. Bristol...... Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.|Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
; James Heywood.
1837. Liverpool...|Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon......... W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
1838. Newcastle | Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........| W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood.
1839. Birmingham | Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........| F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
; Tayler.
1840. Glasgow ...| Lord Sandon, M.P., F.R.S. |C. BR. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
Rawson.
1841. Plymouth...) Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S....... Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.
1842, Manchester |G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...|Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.
Mon COLK) cc.scxs Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...| Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
1844. York......... Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S.,/J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
mes cock.
1845. Cambridge | Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam|J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.

1846
1847
1848

1849 Birmingham

. Southamp-
ton.
PUXEOLG ceesek

. Swansea ...

Gi RGpPOrber, WHWRISs., «00200 one
Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.

J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.B.S. ...
Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton......

J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
C. Tayler, Rey. T. L. Shapcott.
Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.

P. Neison.
J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede,
Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. P. G.
Neison,
dz

Ixvili

REPORT-——190

lis

Date and Place

1850. Edinburgh

1851.
1852.

Ipswich ...}
Belfast...... |

Hull
Liverpool...

see neeeee)

|Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. .........

1853.
1854.

1855. Glasgow .

Presidents

Secretaries

Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,
V.P.R.S.E.

Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...

His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin.

| James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.

.|R. Monckton Milnes, M.P....

Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.

| Stark.

J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.

Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
MacAdam, jun.

Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch.

KE. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.

J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-

| march, Prof, R. H. Walsh.

SECTION F (continwed).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

. Cheltenham)

seneee

1859. Aberdeen...

1860, Oxford

weeeee

1861. Manchester

1862.
1863.

Cambridge
Newcastle .

1864. Bath
1865, Birmingham

1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee

1868,

1869. Exeter

1870. Liverpool...
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.

Edinburgh

Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Belfast

1875.

weeeee

1876.

"1877.
1878.
1879.

Sheffield ...

1880.
1881.

Swansea ...

1882. Southamp-
ton.

1883. Southport

His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin, M.R.LA.

| Nassau W. Senior, M.A, ......

William Newmarch, F.R.S....

| Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ........
William Tite, M.P., F.R.S....

W. Farr, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P.

Prof. J. E. T. Rogers

M. E. Grant-Duff, M.P. .......

DAMES! LOW Noo. ee spspeaestetes

Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.

Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.

Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves.........

| Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....

Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.

Mord QO Hasan Giescavcecssesunene

James Heywood, M.A.,F.R.S.,
Pres. 8.8.

... | Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.L,

M.P.

.| Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue

Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D.

G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.
8.8.

G, W. Hastings, M.P...........

Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant-Duff,
M.A., F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth,
M.P., F.R.S.

R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.8.

Edward Baines......... nectar |

Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ......|

Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. | Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr,

W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
M. Tartt.

Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Newmarch.

T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, S. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
Prof, Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M,

Smith, Dr. John Strang.

eee eeooeeeee

|Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,

| Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.

| David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,

| HK. Macrory, Prof. J. H. T. Rogers.

'H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory,

'T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.

i. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy.

G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
E. Macrory.

R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.

Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.

Rey. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.

i. Macrory, E. Pordyjec.. to.
Acland.

Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.

J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.

J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.

J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.

Prof. Donnell, F. P. Fellows, Hans
MacMordie.

F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Macrory.

A, M‘Neel Caird, T.G. P. Hallett, Dr.
W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack.

W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim.

W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.

Prof. Adamson, R. EH. Leader, C.
Molloy.

N. A. Humphreys, C, Molloy.

C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
Moss.

G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. 8. Fox-
well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy.

Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. S.
Foxwell, J. N, Keynes, C. Molloy.

\

Date and Place

1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.

1888,
1889.
1890,

1891.

1892.

1893.

1894.
1895.
1896.

1897.
1898.

1899.
1900.
1901.

1836.

1837.

1838.
1839. Birmingham |

1840.

1841.
1842.

1843.
1844,
1845.
1846.
1847.

1848.
1849.

1850.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Montreal ...
Aberdeen...
|

Birmingham

Manchester

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds

Cardiff

Hdinbarpt |
N piinebarn|

@xford’......
Ipswich
Liverpool... |

Toronto
Bristol...

Bradford...

Glasgow

iJ. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.S.

Rt. Hon.

seen SRriGe MRA... Ssccwsssacters E. Cannan, Prof. HE. C.

...| Sir R. Giffen, K.

lxix

Presidents Secretaries

eS es ee Ee Ee ee ee eee
|
Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,| Prof. H.S. Foxwell, J. S. McLennan,
G.C.S.L, C.LE., F.R.G.S. | Prof. J. Watson.
Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D.,|Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. S.
Litt.D. | Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F. Moss.
\F. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,
Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, J. F. Moss.
Robert Giffen, LL.D.,V.P.S.8.| Rev. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge-
| worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes,
J. EH. C. Munro, G. H. Sargant.
Lord Bramwell, Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, T. H. Elliott,
1. De RRS: | H. S. Foxwell, L. L. F. R. Price.
[eagoyeye 12, Y. Edgeworth, M.A., ‘Rev. Dr. Cunningham, T. H. Elliott,
F.8.5,. ¥F. B. Jevons, L. L. F. R. Price.
Prof, A. Marshall, M.A.,F.8.S. W. A. Brigg, Rev. Dr. ee ee
T. H. Elliott, Prof. J. E. C. Munro,
iy iy Ws. Ris Price;
'Prof. W. Cunningham, D.D., Prof. J. Brough, H. Cannan, Prof.
D.8ce., F.S.S. E. C. K. Gonner, H. Ll. Smith,
| Prof. W. R. Sorley.
‘Hon. Sir C. W. Fremantle, Prof. J. Brough, J. R. Findlay, Prof.
K.C.B. HE. C. K. Gonner, H. Higgs,
L. L. ¥. R. Price.

Prof. J. 8. Nicholson, D.Sc.,' Prof. E C. K. Gonner, H. de B.

Gibbins, J. A. H. Green, H. Higgs,

: L. L. Ff. R. Price.

Prof. C. F. Bastable, M.A.,|E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner
F.8.8. | W.<A.S. Hewins, H. Hees

K. Gonner,

FSS.

fe wat Higgs.
'H. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
W. A. S. Hewins, H. Higgs.

Rt. Hon. L. Courtney, M.P....

.|Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A. E. Cannan, H. Higgs, Prof. A. Shortt.
.|J. Bonar, M.A., LL.D.

|E. Cannan, Prof. A. W. Flux, H.
Higgs, W. E. Tanner.

A. L. Bowley, E. Cannan, Prof. A.
W. Flux, Rev. G. Sarson.

enna ener neee

H. Higgs, LL.B.

|Major P. G. Craigie, V.P.8.8.|A. L. Bowley, EH. Cannan, 8. J.

Chapman, FE’. Hooper.
. W. Blackie, A. L. Bowley, E.
Cannan, 8. J. Chapman.

C.B., F.R.S. |W

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

Bristol...... |
Liverpool...
Newcastle

Glasgow ....

Plymouth
Manchester

eee eeeee

Cambridge
South’mpt’n
Oxtord .3.4..
Swansea ...
Birmingham

‘Sir John Robinson

Edinburgh

T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.

Rey. Dr. Robinsor ‘Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.

Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ...... | R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T.Webster.

Prof. Willis, F.R.S8.,and Robt.) W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.
Stephenson. Webster,

J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,
C. Vignoles.

....| Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.

J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J,
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.

| James Thomson, Robert Mallet.”

Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.

.| Rev. W. T. Kingsley.

William Betts, jun., Charles Manby.

J. Glynn, Ri. A. Le Mesurier.

R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.

Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.

.| Dr. Lees, David Stephenson,

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.

John Taylor, F.R.S. ......0
Rev. Prof. Willis, F.R.S. ......

Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.IA....
John Laylor, HRis. «.cetste<tes
George Rennie, F.R.5..
Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A.,
Rey. Prof.Walker, M. rs
Rev. Prof.Walker, M.A.
Robt. Stephenson, M.P.
Rey. RK, Robinson ,...

ERS.
»t.R.S.
ALES
,F.R.S.

lxx

Date and Place Presidents

1851. Ipswich ...| William Cubitt, F.R.S..........

1852. Belfast...... John Walker, C.H., LL.D.,
F.B.S.

1653. EU eee ces William Fairbairn, F.R.S.

1854. Liverpool...|John Scott Russell, F.R.S.

1855. Glasgow ...|W. J. M. Rankine, F.R.S. ...

1856. Cheltenham|George Rennie, F.R.S. .........

1857. Dublin...... Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
F.R.S.

1858. Leeds ...... William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ...

1859. Aberdeen...| Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A.,F.R.S.

1860. Oxford ...... Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine, |
LL.D., F.R.S.

1861. Manchester |J. F. Bateman, C.H., F.R.8....

1862. Cambridge. | William Fairbairn, F.R.S.

1863. Newcastle . | Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A.,F.R.S.

1864. Bath......... J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S. .......

1865. Birmingham | Sir W. G. Armstrong, oa om
F.R.S.

1866. Nottingham | Thomas Hawksley, V.P. Inst.
C.E., F.G.8.

1867. Dundee...... Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine, |
LL.D., F.B.S.

1868. Norwich .../G. P. Bidder, C.H., F.R.G.S.

1869. Exeter ...... C. W. Siemens, F.R.S..

1870. Liverpool...) Chas. B. Vignoles, C.., F. RS

1871. Edinburgh | Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.

1872. Brighton ...|F. J. Bramwell, C.H. .........

1873, Bradford ...|W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. .........

1874. Belfast...... | Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.H., F.R.S.E.

1875. Bristol ...... W. Froude, C.EH., M.A., F.R.S.

1876. Glasgow .../C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. .

1877. Plymouth...) Edward Woods, C.E. .........

1878. Dublin ...... Edward Haston, C.H. .........

1879. Sheffield ...| J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech.
Eng.

1880. Swansea ...|J. Abernethy, AR Salis seecaswes

LSS Work.tac8: Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

1882. Southamp- | John Fowler, C. E., F.G.S.

ton,
1883. Southport . | J. Brunlees, Pres.Inst.C.E.
1884. Montreal... Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.,
| V.P.Inst.C.E.
1885. Aberdeen... |B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. ....
1886. Birmingham Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst.|

REPORT—1901.

Secretaries

C.E.

John Head, Charles Manby.

John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.

J. Oldham, J. Thomson, W.S. Ward.

...(J. Grantham, J. Oldham, J. Thomson.

L. Hill, W. Ramsay, J. Thomson.

QO. Atherton, B. Jones, H. M. Jeffery.
Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.
J. ©. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.
R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H.

| Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison,
Henry Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,
H. Wright.

W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster.

P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F. Spencer.

....|P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.

|P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea,
W. P. Marshall, Walter May.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M,
O. Tarbotton.

P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,

| W. W. Urquhart.

|P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, ©.
Manby, W. Smith.

.._P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.

.|H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.
King, J. N. Shoolbred.

/H. Bauerman, A. Leslie, J. P. Smith.
'H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,
J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
C.Barlow,H. Bauerman. E.H.Carbutt,

J. C. Hawkshaw, J. N. Shoolbred.
A. T. Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.
iW. RB. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
..|W. Bottomley, jun., W. v. Millar,
| J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.
|A. T. Atchison, ir, Merrifield, J. N.

Shoolbred.

lA. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.

A. T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,

| H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood.

|A- T. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson,
H. T. Wood.

a re T. Atchison, F Churton, H. T.

|

| Wood.

\A. T. Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J.
Kennedy, H. T. Wood.

-..../A. T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, E.

Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred.
C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B.
| Mayshall, E. Rigg.

. a

PRESIDENTS AND. SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Ixxi

Date and Place

1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894,
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.

1884,
1885,

1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.

1894.
1895.
1896.
1897.

Presidents

Manchester

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds

Cardiff ......
Edinburgh
Nottingham
Oxford......
Ipswich
Liverpool...
Toronto
Bristol

tenes

weeeee

Bradford ...

Glasgow ...

Montreal...

Aberdeen... !

Birmingham

Manchester

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.
Leeds

Edinburgh

Nottingham |

Oxford':,.:; |

Ipswich
Liverpool...

Toronto

.|Prof. L. F.

2. |Sir W. Turner, F.R.S. .....000-
: ‘Prof, A. C. Haddon, J. L. Myres.

Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,

| LL.D., F.B.S.

W. H. Preece, F.RS.,
M.Inst.C.£.

/ W. Anderson, M.Inst.C.E. ...

|

Capt. A. Noble, C.B., F.RB.S.,
F.R.A.S.

T. Forster Brown, M.Inst.C.H.

Prof. W. ©. Unwin, F.B.S.,
M.Inst.C.E.

Jeremiah Head, M.Inst.C.E.,
¥.C.S8.

Prof. A. B. W. Kennedy,
F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.

Vernon-Harcourt,
M.A., M.Inst.C..

Sir Douglas Fox, V.P.Inst.C.E.

ie F. Deacon, M.Inst.C.E.

Sir J. Wolfe-Barry, K.C.B.,
ines:
Sir W. White, K.C.B., F.B.S.

C.E.
R, E. Crompton, M.Inst.C.H.

|H. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.B.S, ...
Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S8.

Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S.L,
MEP Ee C.tt.. BB Gs
| Prof. A. H. Sayce, M.A. ....:.

|Lieut.-General Pitt-Rivers,

2D ClE,,, HBAS:

‘Prof. Sir W. Turner, M.B.,
LL.D., F.B.S.

Dr. J. "Evans, Treas.

| RS.,
| PSA, F.LS. BGS.

| Prof. A. Macalister,
ee Mie HRS.
Dr. R. Munro, M.A., F.B.S.E.

M.A,

Sir W. H. Flower,
F.RB.S.

K.C.B,,

.-.| Prof, W. M. Flinders Petrie,

D.C.L.
| Arthur J. Hvans, F.S.A. ......

Sir Alex. R. Binnie, M.Inst.}

Prof. F. Max Miiller, M.A. ...|

Secretaries

C. F. Budenberg, W. B, Marshall,

| HE. Rigg.

|C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E.
Rigg, P. K. Stothert.

GC. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Hon.
C. A. Parsons, HE. Rigg.

|B. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.

Cc. W. Cooke, Prof, A. C. Elliott,
W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg.

C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, W. C

| Popplewell, E. Rigg.

C. W. Cooke, W. B.
Rigg, H. Talbot.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, Rev. F. J. Smith.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, P. G. M. Stoney.

| Prof, T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
§. Dunkerley, W. B. Marshall.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, Prof. Callen-

| dar, W. A. Price.

Prof. T. H. Beare, Prof. J. Munro,
H. W. Pearson, W. A. Price.

Prof. T. H. Beare, W. A, Price, H.
E. Stilgoe.

Prof. T. H. Beare, C. F. Charnock,
Prof. §. Dunkerley, W. A. Price.

H. Bamford, W.E. Dalby, W. A. Price,

Marshall, E.

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

|G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.

| Hurst, Dr. A. Macgregor.

|G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.

| Hurst, Dr. R. Saundby.

iG. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G, Garson, Dr.
A. M. Paterson.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J.
Harris Stone.

'G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
R. Morison, Dr. R. Howden.

'G. W. Bloxam, Dr. C. M. Chadwick,
Dr. J. G. Garson.

G. W. Bloxam, Prof. R. Howden, H.
Ling Roth, E. Seward.

G.W. Bloxam, Dr. D. Hepburn, Prof.
R. Howden, H. Ling Roth.

G. W. Bloxam, Rev. T. W. Davies,
Prof. R. Howden, F. B. Jevons,
J. L. Myres.

H. Balfour, Dr. J. G.Garson, H. Ling ©
Roth.

J. L. Myres, Rev, J. J. Raven, H.
Ling Roth.

Prof. A. ©. Haddon, J L.
Prof. A. M. Paterson.

A. F. Chamberlain, H. O. Forbes,

Myres,

lxxil

REPORT—1901.

Date and Place

Presidents

1898.
1899.

1900.
1901.

. Oxford

. Ipswich
. Liverpool...

. Bristol
. Dover

. Bradford...
. Glasgow

. Glasgow

Bristol
Dover

Bradford ...

Glasgow ...

Secretaries

i. W. Brabrook, C.B. ....
C. H. Read, F.S.A.

Prof. John Rhys, M.A..........

Prof.
E.R.S.

D. J. Cunningham, |

...|H. Balfour, J. L. Myres, G. Parker.

H. Balfour, W. H. East, Prof. A. C.
Haddon, J. L. Myres,

Rev. E. Armitage, H. Balfour, W.
Crooke, J. L. Myres.

W. Crooke, Prof. A. F. Dixon, J. F.
Gemmill, J. L. Myres.

SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExprermmentTat
PATHOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL PsyCHOLOGY).

. Liverpool...
. Toronto ...

. Glasgow ...

. Toronto ...

Prof. EH. A. Schafer, F.R.S.,
M.R.C.S.

Dr. W. H. Gaskell, F.R.S.

Prof. Michael Foster, F.R.S.

iJ. N. Langley, F.R.S.
Prof. J. G. McKendrick. ......

Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S.

Prof. Marshall Ward, F.R.S.

Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S. ..
Sir George King, F.R.S. ......
BrOt. Se cEbeVANES cH IRA Os ovccc.

...| Prof. I. B. Balfour, F.R.S. ...

Prof. F. Gotch, Dr. J. 8. Haldane,
M. §. Pembrey.

Prof. R. Boyce, Prof. C.S. Sherrington.

Prof. R. Boyce, Prof. C. 8, Sherring-
ton, Dr. L. HE. Shore,

‘Dr. Howden, Dr. L. E. Shore, Dr. E,

| 4H. Starling.
|W. B. Brodie, W. A. Osborne, Prof.
| W.H. Thompson.

SECTION K.—BOTANY.
...|W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, F.R.S,

A. C. Seward, Prof. F. E. Weiss.

Prof. Harvey Gibson, A. C. Seward,
Prof. F. E. Weiss.

|Prof. J. B. Farmer, EH. C. Jeffrey,

A. C. Seward, Prof, F. E. Weiss.

.| A.C, Seward, H. Wager, J. W. White.

G. Dowker, A. C. Seward, H. Wager.

A. C. Seward, H. Wager, W. West.

G. F. Scott Elliot, D. T. Gwynne-
Vaughan, A. C. Seward, H. Wager.

SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

...| Sir John H, Gorst, F.R.S.

...|R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller, R. Y.

Howie, C. W. Kimmins, Prof.
H. L. Withers.

LIST OF EVENING DISCOURSES.

Date and Place

Lecturer

Subject of Discourse

1842, Manchester | Charles Vignoles, F.R.S......

1843, Cork

1844. York .......55

1845, Cambridge

Sir M. I. Brunel
Ramee mre hisOMle ie ccscerecesincse
Prof, Owen, M.D., F.RB.S.......
Prof. EH. Forbes, F.RB.S..........

ee eeecrereeesee

DrPRODINSOMmaaccarrecesicsesses
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........

The Principles and Construction of
Atmospherie Railways,

The Thames Tunnel.

The Geology of Russia.

The Dinornis of New Zealand.

The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Aigean Sea.

The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.

Geology of North America.

Preble CONED We pOse ssc stccesee
G,B, Airy, F.R,S.,Astron, Royal

The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India,
Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism,

LIST OF EVENING DISCOURSES.

Ixxiii

Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Discourse
1845. Cambridge |R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......|Geology of Russia.
1846. Southamp- | Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...| Fossil Mammaliaof the British Isles.
ton, Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........| Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
W. R. Grove, F.R.S............. | Properties of the ExplosiveSubstance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.
1847. Oxford...... Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S. |Shooting Stars.
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S....... Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.
Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S....|The Dodo (Didus ineptus).
1848, Swansea ...|John Percy, M.D., F.R.S....... Metallurgical Operations of Swansea

1849. Birmingham

1850. Edinburgh

1851. Ipswich

1852. Belfast......

1853. Hull.........

. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow

1856. Cheltenham

1857.
1858.

Dublin......

1859. Aberdeen...

1860. Oxford

1861. Manchester

1862, Cambridge

W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....
Dr. Faraday, F.R.S. ............
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.8.

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,
¥.R.S8.E.

Dre Mantel HORGS. <cceacssseet

.|Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal

Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,
E.R.S.

Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.

Prof, J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

Robert Hunt, F.RB,S............
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S.

...|Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.

Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson

Col. Sir H, Rawlinson .........

Wits Grove, Hih Seucacctsecsas
Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ...
Rey. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L.
Prof, J. Phillips,LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L....
Rey. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...

Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...

Captain Sherard Osborn. R.N.

Prof. W. A. Miller, M.A.,F.R.S.

G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron.
Royal.

Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F'.R.S.

and its Neighbourhood.

Recent Microscopical Discoveries.

Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.

Transit of different Weights with
varying Velocities on Railways.
Passage of the Blood through the
minute vessels of Animals in con-

nection with Nutrition.

Extinct Birds of New Zealand.

Distinction between Plants and
Animals, and their changes of
Form.

Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.

Recent Discoveries in the properties
of Light.

Recent Discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.

Some peculiar Phenomena in the
Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.

The present state of Photography.

Anthropomorphous Apes.

Progress of Researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.

Characters of Species.

Prot, Odling, WE HS. ..vs.cccsses

. | Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities

and Ethnology.

Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform Research up to the
present time.

Correlation of Physical Forces.

The Atlantic Telegraph.

Recent Discoveries in Africa,

The Ironstones of Yorkshire.

The Fossil Mammalia of Australia,

Geology of the Northern Highlands.

Electrical Discharges in highly
rarefied Media.

Physical Constitution of the Sun,

Arctic Discovery.

Spectrum Analysis.

The late Eclipse of the Sun,

The Forms and Action of Water,
Organic Chemistry.

lxxiv

Date and Place

1863. Newcastle

1864. Bath.........

1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee..,....

1868. Norwich

1869. Exeter ...

1870. Liverpool..

1871. Edinburgh

1872. Brighton ...

1873. Bradford .
1874. Belfast......

1875. Bristol

eencee

any

1876. Glasgow
1877. Plymouth...

1878. Dublin

1875. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea

SSG WOLK esc.

.|Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S,

.| Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.S.

(Prof, Dewar, WRG. scccc0cesc-c |

..| Prof. Huxley, Sec. B.S.

lJ. Fergusson, F.R.S.....0....0+

| W. Crookes, F.R.S. ......

REPORT—1901.

Lecturer

Prof. Williamson, F.R.6......

James Glaisher, F.R.S....

Prof. Roscoe, F'.R.S. ......0cee0e
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ..
J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S... 2000.

William Huggins, F’.R.S.......

Dr, J. D. Hooker, F.RB.S.......
Archibald Geikie, F.RB.5.......

Alexander Herschel, F.R8.A.5. |

Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S.. ssl
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D. =F. Res.
J. Norman Lockyer, F. R. S.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R. 8.
F, A. Abel, F.R

1
5 nce nceoors

E. B. Tylor, F.R.S.

ececere

|

Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,|
F.R.S.

Prot. Wao &.; Clifford :25i2e,ccce.

Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart..M.P.,
F.R.S.
Pret Hpsley, ERS. ...<cerd.
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
Bey. wramwell, BR Sii.cccccs |
Pree Vat tve Sse cccceSees cot
Sir Wyville Thomson, F.R.S.
W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,
F.RB.S.
Prot. OGNE, PIB Sc. s.2 i...
G. J. Romanes, F.L.S. .........

|

eaaces

Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S.
Prof.W.Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. |
Krancis Galton, WR. S..,.1..<.

|W. Spottiswoode, Pres. B.S... |

]
(

Subject of Discourse

.| The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-

tery considered in relation to
Dynamics.

.|@he Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.

The Chemical Action of Light.

.|Recent Travels in Africa.
.|Probabilities as to the position and

extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.

The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.

Insular Floras.

The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.
The present state of Knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
Archeology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.

Reverse Chemical Actions.

Vesuvius.

.|The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebulee.

The Scientific Use of the Imagina-
tion.

Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
tion with Naval Architecture.

Some Recent Investigations and Ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.

...| The Relation of Primitive to Modern

Civilisation.
Insect Metamorphosis,

"The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.

Coal and Coal Plants.

Molecules.

Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects.

|The Hypothesis that Animals are

Automata, and its History.

The Colours of Polarised Light.

Railway Safety Appliances.

Force.

The * Challenger’ Expedition,

Physical Phenomena connected with
the Mines of Cornwall and Devon,

The New Element, Gallium.

Animal Intelligence.

Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.

Radiant Matter.

| Degeneration.
Primeval Man.

Mental Imagery.

The Rise and Progress of Palon-
tology.

The Electric Discharge, its Forms
and its Functions.

LIST OF EVENING DISCOURSES.

Ixxv

Date and Place

Lecturer

Subject of Discourse

1882.
1883.

1884.

1885.

1886.
1887.
1888.

1889.

1890.

1891.

1892.
1893.

1894.

1895.

1896.
1897.
1898,

1899.

1900.
1901.

Southamp-
ton.
Southport

Montreal...

Aberdeen..

Birmingham
Manchester

ste eeeaes

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne

seoaee

Edinburgh

Nottingham

Oxford

aeeeee

Ipswich

Liverpool...
Toronto ...

Bristol

arenes

seneee

Bradford ...

Glasgow ...

Prof. Sir Wm. Thomsen, F'.R.8.} Tides.

Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S.
Prof. R. 8. Ball, F.R.S.

Prof. J. G. McKendrick. .....

.|Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.S....

John Murray, F.R.S.E.........

A.W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D...

Prof. H. B. Dixon, F'.R.5.
Col. Sir F. de Winton

Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.

F.R.S.

Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,

F.R.S.

Walter Gardiner, M.A........
E. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S...

Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.

Prof. L. C. Miall, F.L.8.,F.G.8.
Prof. A.W. Riicker, M.A.,F.R.S.

Prof. A. M. Marshall, F.R.S.

Prof. J.A. Ewing, M.A., F.R.S.)

Prof. A. Smithells. B.Sc.

Prof. W. EH. Ayrton, F.R.S. .../ The

Pelagic Life.

.| Recent Researches on the Distance

of the Sun.

.|Galvanic and Animal Electricity.
»| Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc. ......
Rev. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.S.

Dust.

The Modern Microscope in Re-
searches on the Least and Lowest
Forms of Life.

|The Electric Light and Atmospheric

Absorption.

.|The Great Ocean Basins.

|Soap Bubbles.

.|The Sense of Hearing.

...| The Rate of Explosions in Gases.

.| Explorations in Central Africa.
Electrical Transmission of

Power. ;

,| The Foundation Stones of the Harth’s
Crust.

The Hardening and Tempering of
Steel.

.| How Plants maintain themselves in

the Struggle for Existence.

.| Mimicry.

Quartz Fibres and their Applications.

Some Diffculties in the Life of
Aquatic Insects.

Electrical Stress.

Pedigrees.

Magnetic Induction.

Tlame.

Prof. Victor Horsley, F.R.S.) The Discovery of the Physiology of

J. W. Gregory, D.Sc., F.G.S.
Prof. J.Shield Nicholson, M.A.|

.| Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.8.
Prof. Perey F. Frankland,|

E.R.S.

Dr.-E; Hoar HARB: c<sss.c:
Prof. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L.
s.

Prof. Roberts Austen, F.R.

MING TR Mrecoaensssccs dee

Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S8.

Herbert Jackson

Prof. Charles Richet...........
Prof. J. Fleming, F.R.S. .....

Prof. . Gotch;, F.R.8.........

Prof W. Stroud) wis... 2h.c. ee.
Prof. W. Ramsay, F.R.S......

F. Darwin, F.RB.S.......... peace

the Nervous System..
Experiences and _ Prospects
African Exploration.
Historical Progress and Ideal So-
cialism.
| Magnetism in Rotation.
The Work of Pasteur and its various
Developments.

of

., Safety in Ships.

| Man before Writing.

Canada’s Metals.

Earthquakes and Volcanoes.

. Funafuti: the Study of a Coral
| Island.

.| Phosphorescence.

. La vibration nerveuse.

. The Centenary of the Electric

| Current. :

. Animal Electricity.

. Range Finders.

. The Inert Constituents of the
Atmosphere.

..| The Movements of Plants.

Ixxvi

REPORT—1901.

LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.

Date and Place

Lecturer

1867.
1868.
1869.

1870.
1872.
1873.
1874,
1875.
1876.
1877.
1879.
1880.
1881,

1882.

1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.

1887.
1888.
1889.

1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894,
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.

1900.
1901.

Dundee......
Norwich ...
Exeter ......
Liverpool...

Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Belfast
Bristol ......
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Sheffield ...
Swansea
York

Southpor

Montreal ...
Aberdeen ...
Birmingham

Manchester
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
Cardiff
Edinburgh
Nottingham

Ipswich ee
Liverpool...
Toronto

Bradford ...
Glasgow ...

.|Dr. A. H. Fison
...|Dr. H. O. Forbes

Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.S8. ...

SirJohn Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.
W.Spottiswoode, LL.D.,F.R.S.
C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Prot Odline shh Oreaves.ccsces
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.

Commander Cameron, C.B....
W. H. Preece
W. E. Ayrton

| H. Seebohm, F'.Z.S. .........0.

Prof. Osborne
F.R.S.
John Evans, D.C.L.,Treas. B.S.

Reynolds,

Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S. ...
Brom Rao e allseHon Oercccccas.
Beeb Dione i A ss 2.. 2. ca6
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
F.R.S.

Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S. ......
SirJohn Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.
B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .........
Prof. J. Perry, D.Sc., F.R.S.

Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.S.
Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.
Prof. Vivian B. Lewes.........
|Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.8.

|Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S....

sete e steer eenne

|Prof. S. P. Thompson, F.R.S.
H. J. Mackinder, M.A

Subject of Discourse

Matter and Force.

A Piece of Chalk.

The modes of detecting the Com-
position of the Sun and other
Heavenly Bodies by the Spectrum.

Savages.

Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.

Fuel.

The Discovery of Oxygen.

A Piece of Limestone.

A Journey through Africa.

Telegraphy and the Telephone.

Electricity as a Motive Power.

The North-East Passage.

Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-

| flakes.

Unwritten History, and how to
read it.

Talking by Electricity—Telephones.

Comets.

The Nature of Explosions.

The Colours of Metals and their
Alloys.

Electric Lighting.

The Customs of Savage Races,

The Forth Bridge.

Spinning Tops.

Electricity in Mining.
Electric Spark Photographs.
Spontaneous Combustion.

.|Geologies and Deluges.

Colour.

The Harth a Great Magnet.

New Guinea.

The ways in which Animals Warn
their enemies and Signal to their
friends.

Electricity in the Industries.

The Movements of Men by Land
and Sea.

Ixxvii

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT
THE GLASGOW MEETING.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

President.—Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. A. Gray, LL.D., F.R.S. ; Prof. A. G. Greenhill,
E.R.S. ; E. H. Griffiths, M.A., F.R.S.; Prof. W. Jack, LL.D. ;
Lord Kelvin, F.R.S.; Joseph Larmor, D.Sc., F.R.S.; Prof. G.
Mittag-Leffler, For. Mem. R.S. ; Prof. G. Quincke, For. Mem. R.S. ;
Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S.

_Secretaries.—H. 8. Carslaw, M.A., D.Sc. ; C. H. Lees, D.Se. (Recorder) ;
W. Stewart, M.A., D.Sc. ; Prof. L. R. Wilberforce, M.A.

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY,

President.—Prof. Percy F, Frankland, F.R.S8.

Vice-Presidents.—Dr. E. Divers, F.R.8.; Prof. J. Fergusson, LL.D.,
F.R.S.E. ; Prof. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. ; Prof. James Walker, F.R.S. ;
Or. Ey Thorpe; \FeRS.; Drag WA; Tilden, “FUReSi;, Prof. A.
Michael ; Prof. E. W. Morley.

Secretaries.—Dr. W. C. Anderson, M.A.; Dr. G. G. Henderson, M.A. ;
Prof. W. J. Pope ; Dr. T. K. Rose (fecorder).

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.

President.—John Horne, F.R.S8., F.R.S.E., F.G.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. Lapworth, F.R.S.; Prof. A. F. Renard, LL.D. ;
B. N. Peach, F.R.S. ; Prof.. W. J. Sollas, M.A., F.R.S. ; Prof. John
Young, M.D.

Secretaries.—Herbert L. Bowman, M.A.; H. W. Monckton (Recorder),

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY.

President.—Prof. J. Cossar Ewart, M.D., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. T. W. Bridge ; Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S. ;
Prof, G. B. Howes, F.R.S. ; Prof. W. C. M‘Intosh, F.R.S. ; Prof.
M. Laurie, D.Sc.; Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S.; R. H. Traquair,
LL.D., F.R.S. ; Canon Tristram, F.R.S8.

Secretaries—J. Graham Kerr, M.A. (Recorder) ; James Rankin, M.B.,
B.Sc. ; J. Y. Simpson, D.Sc.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.

President.—Dr. H. R. Mill, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S.
Vice-Presidents.—J. Scott Keltie, LL.D. ; H. J. Mackinder, M.A. ; E.G.
Ravenstein ; Rev. Prof. George Adam Smith, D.D.
Secretaries—H. N. Dickson, B.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. (Recorder) ;
ee Heawood, M.A., F.R.G.8.; G. Sandeman; A. Crosby
urner.

Ixxvill REPORT—1901.

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President.—Sir Robert Giffen, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—J. Bonar, LL.D. ; Rev. W. Cunningham, D.D., LL.D. ;

Major P. G. Craigie, V-P.S.S.; L. L. Price, M.A. ; Prof. W. Smart,
LL.D.

Secretaries.—W. W. Blackie, B.Sc.; A. L. Bowley, M.A.; E. Cannan,
LL.D. (Recorder) ; Prof. 8. J. Chapman, M.A.

SECTION G.—ENGINEERING.

President.—Colonel R. E. Crompton, M.Inst.C.E.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. Archibald Barr, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E.; Prof. T.
Hudson Beare, F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. ; Sir Alexander R. Binnie,
M.Inst.0.E., F.G.8.; Robert Caird, LL.D.; H. Graham Harris,
M.Inst.C.E.

Secretaries—Harry Bamford, M.Sc. ; Prof. W. E. Dalby, M.A.; W. A.
Price, M.A. (fecorder).

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

President.—Prof. D. J. Cunningham, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents:—H. Balfour, M.A. ; Prof. J. Cleland, M.D., F.R.S.

Secretaries—_W. Crooke; J. F. Gemmill, M.A., M.D.; Prof. A. F.
Dixon, Se.D. ; J. L. Myres, M.A., F.8.A. (Recorder).

SECTION I,—PHYSIOLOGY.

President.—Prof. J. G. M‘Kendrick, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. A. E. Schafer, F.R.S. ; Prof. C. 8. Sherrington,
M.D., F.R.S.; Sir M. Foster, K.C.B., M.P.,-Sec.R.S.; Sir J.
Burdon Sanderson, Bart., F.R.S. ; Prof. F. Gotch, F.B.S.

. Secretaries.—W. B. Brodie, M.B.; W. A. Osborne, D.Sc. ; Prof. W. H.
Thompson, M.D. (fecorder).

SECTION K,—BOTANY.
President.—Prof. I. Bayley Balfour, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S.; F. Darwin, F.R.S.; Dr.
D. H. Scott, F.R.S. ; Prof. J. W. H. Trail, F.R.S. ; Prof. Marshall
. Ward, F.R.S.

Secretaries.—A. C. Seward, F.R.S. (Recorder) ; Prof. G. F. Scott Elliot ;
D. T. Gwynne- Vaughan ; Harold Wager.

SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

President.—The Right Hon. Sir John E. Gorst, K.C., M.P., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S8. ; Dr. J. H. Gladstone
F.R.S. ; Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S.; Prof. John Perry, F.R.S. :
The Very Rev. Principal Story, D.D.; Sir John Neilson Cuthbertson,
LL.D., D.L. ; Sir Philip Magnus.

Secretaries.—Prof. R. A. Gregory; W. M. Heller, B.Sc.; Robert Y.

Howie, M.A. ; Dr. C. W. Kimmins ; Prof. H. L. Withers, M.A.
(Recorder).

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS. lxxix

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.

The President ; the Vice-Presidents of the Meeting ; the Presidents of
former years; the Trustees ; the General and Assistant General
Secretaries ; the General Treasurer.

The Presidents of the Sections.

Prof. A. R. Forsyth ; Prof. Schuster ; Prof. H. H. Turner; Dr. Thorpe ;
Prof. Harold Dixon ; W. Whitaker ; G. W. Lamplugh ; Prof. Miall ;
W. E. Hoyle; Dr. J. Scott Keltie ; E. W. Brabrook ; E. Cannan ;
Sir W. H. Preece; Prof. T. H. Beare; H. Balfour ; J. L. Myres ;
Prof. F. Gotch ; Prof. Waymouth Reid ; Prof. F. O. Bower ; Prof.
Marshall Ward; Prof. H. E. Armstrong; Dr. C. W. Kimmins ;
F, W. Rudler.

lxxx

Pr.
1900-1901.

REPORT—1901.

THE GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT,

RECEIPTS.

G. CAREY FOSTER, General Treasurer.

er S., wrths
Balance ibLOUP Mb LOLWANG vosc.. nade. suscls ses sey ese ascennecuneubaeyens Glo) 6 to
Life Compositions (including Transfers) .............cseesseeees 267 0 0
New Annual Members’ Subscriptions ....... aresids Rn waders ant cae 110 0 0
PACA SMO SEL UP bLOUS wr erelclsaipca's'ctiskielsnaactwicwccecigysceslasivecsneeee 557 O 0
NAILETOR AGS OCIALES| MUICKGUS scigec sae vcect d cashiOty apseaiwiensacsssieeseren 794 0 0
Haleroh MacdicemlUiCkeusarsces sce cuseecesueses eriene sis cies cisaseecnceeee 481 0 0
BalesOcsP Pl GAtlONs) geaidcrsiovess cling vsstinjcs se aeaelicoces «neh eceaeehets La: 2s
Maen CONSOLSs.. sci enarieg dase cieseene aces ascites anncaretaateh cei eel am BOOP) 16
WD IVECENAKONM CONSOIS Ti eeack snscs viasiacpiesislteais'eswalsipat clone sec eet GNM Men 190 3 2
DividendronwIndia sper Cents. hc. s-.c.ceseee cebewasepsmeeetes 102 12 0
Interest on Deposit at Bradford District Bank.................. 37 6 11
Unexpended Balance of Grant returned by Committee on
Electrolytic Quantitative Analysis ............. sbeapepere 15x. Boe
ye
P:
ak
£920 17 9
Investments.

£ s. d.

Console en..<.ssvsctndss Sdnccenpocacc cecesamurerenrmacs 6501 10 5

Andigis Per Cents Siascnsercsaccecdeoevemeeeeotieees 3600 6 O

£10,101 10 5

ii

;

SS OOO Cm OO CC ee ee le,” rr

’ 4
GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. ]xxxi
from July 2, 1900, to June 29, 1901. Cr.
1900-1901. EXPENDITURE.
May | Gx
Expenses of Bradford Meeting, including Printing, Adver-
tising, Payment of Clerks, &c, &c.. 5 ite
Rent and Office Hxpenses ............s000+ 7 §&
Dalartecasnceneess caveats Sethe. nies Baer 0 0
PEIN TIN BINGING Pi ACh higeceveccs¥chaveterssaye sennsaseseas ane
Payment of Grants made at Bradford:
: as hs
Hlectrical Standards. ......2c.0scseccs vecees 45 0 0
Seismological Observations... 75 0 0
Ware-len eth Paples ie cccendaccaclensccvscusundcwccees 414 0
Isomorphous Sulphonie Derivatives of Benzene ....... pao OL O
Life-zones in British Carboniferous Rocks ...........+ 20 0 O
Underground Water of North-west Yorkshire ....... 50 0 0
fixploration of Tish’ Caves. ecsnccacanssasvs véleenedacs 15 0 0
Table at the Zoological Station, Naples ............+0.- 100 0 0
Table at the Biological Laboratory, Plymouth as ee Oe
Index Generum et Specierum Animalium .............. 75 0 0
Ripration Of BITGsw. s'cicca- ca witha sia eas ena steele cies eae TOF O60
Derrestrial Surtace: WAVES. «.'ccaes.se«snieldaci sa coatiee ce a 0
Changes of Land-level in the Phlegrwan Fields ........ 50 0 0
Legislation regulating Women’s Labour .............. 15 0 0
Rial) Screw GEuee toc aster sd ae cee = eWidaled eo nebo aca 45 0 0
Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction ...+.......... 75 0 0
Silchester Excavation ......... Bore Beno 10 0 0
Ethnological Survey of Canada............ re 30! 00
Anthropolopieal Teacghine: 2. .j.\.e1c<.-scceasic nics ccm nces BF Ob 0
Maxplorahionmiut Creteeso25:.5 canes mea. caval ce omipaee'e . 146 0 @
Physiological Effects of Peptone ..........-.sceeceeees 30 6 O
Chemistry of Bone Marrow .....cc..ccccecsccsccccecle 5 15 11
Suprarenal Capsules in the Rabbit ....-.......+e++-e 5 0 0
Fertilisation in Pheeophyces ......csccccccscascecccces 15 0 0
Morphology, Ecology, and Taxonomy of ee 20 0 0
Corresponding Societies Committee..........cececeeees 15 0 0
— J20 oe:
In hands of General Treasurer:
At Bank of England, Western Branch £357 5 8
Less Cheques not presented ............ 211) Te 4:
——. 145 14 4
On Deposit at Bradford District Bank ............ 1532 3 1
Cash iis. cas raW epielastehia tajenitadise decals Weaesp cher sees eneties 6 Tare §

————— 1684 11

£4403 17 9

I have examined the above Account with the books and vouchers of the Associa-

tion, and certify the same to be correct.
Bankers’, and have ascertained that the Investments are registered in the names
of the Trustees.

Approved—
E. W. BRABROOK, : 3 Church Court, Old Jewry, E.C
HORACE T. Brown, } Auditors.

1901,

I have also verified the balance at the

W. B. KEEN, Chartered Accountant,

July 26, 1901.

e€

Ixxxti REPORT—1901,
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts

Dateot Mesting | Where | Presidents Magers | Mente
Brain Gare Sr MGR ASS aceos | The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.O.L.. RRS) — =
1832, June 19......) Oxford .. | The Rey. W. Buckland, F.R.S. ... —= =
1833, June 25 .| Cambridge . The Rey. A. Sedgwick, Roe = _—
1834, Sept. 8 ...... Edinburgh ..| Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O.L., F.RB.5. ... — _—
1835, Aug. 10...... Dublin ..... ..| The Rey. Provost Lloyd,LL.D., F.R. 8. | —_— —
1836, Aug. 22...... Bristol ..... .., The Marquis of Lansdowne, F.R.8.. — —
1837, Sept. 11.. Liverpool ..... ..| The Earl of Burlington, F’.R.S.......... _— —
1838, Aug. 10...... Newcastle-on-Tyne,,.. The Duke of Northumberland, F.R.S. = _
1839, Aug. 26...... Birmingham ......... | The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S. | — —_—
1840, Sept. 17...... QGlasgow........ .| The Marquis of Breadalbane, I'.R.8. — —_
1841, July 20 Plymouth .. _.| The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. ......... 169 65
1842, June 23 Manchester .| The Lord Francis Egerton, F.GS ... 303 169
1843, Aug. 17...... Cork .3:.. ..| The Earl of Rosse, i RSs . ataee 109 28
1844, Sept. 26...... Work 2.2 .| The Rey. G. Peacock, D.D., ERS 226 150
1845, June 19...... Cambridge .... Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., ERS. 313 36
1846, Sept.10 ... Southampton : _.| Sir Roderick I.Murchison, Bart., sF.R.S. 241 10
1847, June 23 ...... Oxtord. Jc: .| Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., F. R. Beate 314 18
1848, Aug.9 ...... Swansea....... ..| TheMarquis of Nor thampton, Pres.R.S. 149 3
1849, Sept. 12...... Birmingham .| The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D.. F.R.S. 227 12
1850, July 21 Edinburgh Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.R.S....... 235 9
1851, July 2... Ipswich .. .. | G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, F.R.S. 172 8
1852, Sept. 1 .| Belfast .| Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. ......... 164 10
1853, Sept.3 ... Teele Be ...| William Hopkins, F.R.S... 141 13
1854, Sept. 20 .| Liverpool .. .| The Earl of Harrowby, F.R. 238 23
1855, Sept. 12 .| Glasgow....... ...| The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ae 194 33
1856, Aug. 6 ......) Cheltenham . .| Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S.... 182 14
157, Aus. 26 22...) Dublin ...... ...| The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D., B.RS. ...... 236 15
1858, Sept. 22 ......) Leeds ..... .| Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L., T.B.S.... 222 42
1859, Sept. 14......) Aberdeen ...| H.R.H. The Prince Consort ............ 184 27
1860, June 27 Qxtord 7.7... .| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., F.R.S. . 286 21
1861, Sept. 4 .| Manchester . .| William Fairbairn, LL.D. fF. R.S... 321 113
1862, Oct. 1 ...... Cambridge ............| The Rev. Professor Willis, MA. oH. RS. 239 15
1863, Ang. 26 .,....) Newcastle-on-Tyne...| SirWilliam G. ‘Armstrong.0. B., F.R.S. 203 36
1864, Sept. 13...... Raia. ahem cosa Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A., F.R.S. 287 40
1865, Sept.6 ..... Birmingham, ...| Prof. J. Phillips, 2 M. AG LL.D. Is RRS. 292 44
1866, Aug. 22...... Nottingham. .| William R. Grove, Q. CG, ERS. . 207 31
1867, Sept.4 ...... Dundee .... The Duke of Buccleuch, K.0 167 25
1868, Aug. 19......) Norwich ...| Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, ERS. 196 18
1869, Aug. 18...... Exeter .| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L., F.R.§ 204 21
1870, Sept. 14......, Liverpool . Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL. D., F.R.S. 314 39
IST. Aug. 2) .....: Edinburgh Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LLD., ERS. 246 28
1872, Aug. 14...... Brighton .... Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ey 245 36
1873, Sept. 17...... Bradford . ...| Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R. 212 27
1874, Aug. 1$ Belfast .... .| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R. 162 13
1875, Aug. Bristol .... Sir John Hawkshaw, FERS. 239 36
1876, Sept. 6 Glasgow . ...| Prof. T. Andrews, M.D. » ER 221 35
1877, Aug. Plymouth . .| Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F. RS. 173 19
1878, Aug. soe.) Dalia 7... ...| W. Spottiswoode, M.A., . 201 18
1879, Aug. 2 .| Sheffield. ...| Prof. G. J. Allman, M.D., 184 16
1880, Aug. .| Swansea, .| A. CO. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R 144 11
1881, Aug. NV OFCn a: Bees ...| Sir John Lubbock, Bart., 272 28
1882, Aug. 2 Southampton . Dr. O. Wis Siemens F.R. g. EA, 178 17
1883, Sept. Southport ....... .| Prof. A. Oayley, D.O.L., F.R 203 60
1884, Aug. Montreal .... Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F R. Bare. 235 20
1885, Sept. Aberdeen Sir Lyon Playfair. K.O.B., F.R.S. 225 18
1886, Sept. Birmingham Sir J. W. Dawson, O.M.G., F.R.S. 314 25
1887, Aug. Manchester ... Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F. Rs 428 86
1888, Sept. } BatHe carvecateeaes- | bite. J. doramyyell, HUES. esses 266 36
1889, Sept. ; ine paeantame ba .| Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B., P. R. 277 20
1890, Sept. .| Leeds .... Sir F. A. Abel, O.B., F.R. 3. 259 21
1891, Aug. Cardiff ....... .| Dr. W. Huggins, F. RS 189 24
1892, Aug. ¢ Edinburgh . .| Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., F. R. S: ‘Ss 280 14
18938, Sept. 13...... Nottingham... .| Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson, 5. 201 17
1894, Aug.8 ...... Gxferd 0.5 .| The Marquis of Salisbury,K.G. F. RS. 327 21
1895, Sept. 11...... Tpswich ...| Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., F.R.S. 214 13
1896, Sept. 16 ...... Liverpool .| Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres, RIB: Le 330 31
897, Aug. 18...... Toronto ...| Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.RB.S. ......... 120 8
898, Sept. 7 Bristol | Sir W. Crookes, FBS. 2° 2 prec meeeecans 281 19
1899, Sept. 13......) Doyer.... Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., Sec.R.S.... 296 20
1900, Sept. 5 ......) Bradford . .| Sir William Turner, D.C.L., F.R.S. ... 267 13
1901, Sept. 11 GIaSeOW coo iliscescees Prof. A, W. Riicker, D.Sc., Sec.R.5. ... 310 37

* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843.

e

+ Tickets of Admission to Sections only

ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS,

at Annual Meetings of the Association.

Amount
Old New 1
Annual | Annual Aas: Ladies /Foreigners| Total eee
Members | Members ABBE v4 ing pe
eeting
— — — _— — 353 =
— —_— 900 -—
—_ —_ a — — 1298 —
_— — = — — 1350 —
— — _ = —_— 1840 —=
— — — 1100* — 2400 os
— _— _ _ 34 1438 —
= =_ = “= 40 1553 —
46 317 = 60* — 891 —
75 376 B3p 3381* 28 1315 _
71 185 _ 160 — — —_
45 190 oF 260 — — —
94 92 407 172 35 1079 —
65 39 270 196 36 857 —
197 40 495 203 53 1320 —
54 25 376 197 15 819 £707 0 0
93 33 447 237 22 1071 963 0 0
128 42 510 273 44 1241 1085 0 0
61 47 244 141 37 710 620 0 0
63 60 510 292 9 1108 1085 0 0
56 57 367 236 6 876 903 0 0
121 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0
142 101 1094 543 26 2133 Pel ety at)
104 48 412 346 9 1115 1098 0 0
156 120 900 569 26 2022 2015 0 0
111 91 710 509 13 1698 1931 0 0
125 179 1206 821 22 2564 2782 0 0
177 59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 0
184 125 1589 791 15 3138 3944 0 0
150 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 0
154 209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 0
182 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 0 0
215 149 766 508 23 1997 2207" (Og
218 105 960 771 11 2303 2469 0 0
193 118 1163 771 ‘i 2444 2613 0 0
226 117 720 682 45t 2004 2042 0 0
229 107 678 600 17 1856 1931 0 0
303 195 1103 910 14 2878 3096 0 O
311 127 976 754 21 2463 257 © @
280 80 937 912 43 2533 2649 0 0
237 99 796 601 11 1983 2120 0 0
232 85 817 630 12 1951 1079" 09
307 93 884 672 17 2248 2397 0 0
331 185 1265 712 25 2774 3023 0 0
238 59 446 283 ll 1229 1268 0 0
290 93 1285 674 17 2578 2615 0 0
239 74 529 349 13 1404 1425 0 0
171 41 389 147 12 915 s99 0 0
313 176 1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 O
253 79 516 189 21 1253 1286 0 0
330 323 952 841 5 2714 TP ap69) 10) @
317 219 826 74 |26&60H.8| 1777 1855 0 0
332 122 1053 447 6 2203 2256 0 0
428 179 1067 429 1d 2453 2532 0 0
510 244 1985 493 92 3838 4336 0 0
399 100 639 509 12 1984 2107 0 0
412 113 1024 579 21 2437 2441 0 0
368 92 680 334 12 1775 1776 0 0
341 152 672 107 35 1497 1664 0 0
413 141 733 439 50 2070 2007 0 0
328 57 773 268 17 1661 1653 0 0
435 69 941 451 77 2321 2175 0 0
290 31 493 261 22 1824 1236 0 0
883 139 1384 873 41 3181 3228 0 0
286 125 682 100 41 1362 1398 0 0
327 96 1051 639 33 2446 2399 0 0
324 68 548 120 27 1403 1328 0 0
297 45 801 482 9 1915 1801 0 0
374 131 794 246 20 1912 2046 0 0

Ixxxlii

Grants
for Scientific) Year
Purposes

tes 1831

ae) 1832

Tk 1833
£20 0 0 1834
167 0 O 1835
435 0 0 1836
92212 6 1837
932 2 2 1838
1595 11 0 18389
1546 16 4 1840
1235 10 11 1841
144917 8 1842
1565 10 2 1843
98112 8 1844
831 9 9 1845
685 16 0 1846
208 5 4 1847
275 1 8 1848
15919 6 1849
345 18 0 1850
391 9 7 1851
304 6 7 1852
205 0 0 1853
38019 7 1854
480 16 4 1855
73413 9 1856
507 15 4 1857
61818 2 1858
68411 1 1859
76619 6 1860
1111 510 1861
1293 16 6 1862
1608 310 1863
1289 15 8 1864
1591 710 1865
175013 4 1866
1739 4 0 1867
1940 0 0 1868
1622 0 0 1869
1572 0 0 1870
1472 2 6 1871
1285 0 0 1872
1685 0 0 1873
115116 0 1874
960 0 0 1875
1092 4 2 1876
1128 9 7 1877
72516 6 1878
1080 11 11 1879
Talo 7 1880
476 § 1 1881
1126 111 1882
1083 3 3 1883
1173 4 0 1884
1385 0 0 1885
995 0 6 1886
1186 18 0 1887
1611° 0 5 1888
1417 011 1889
789 16 8 1890
1029 10 0 1891
864 10 0 1892
907 15 6 1893
583 15 6 1894
977 15 5 4895
1194 6 1 1896
1059 10 8 1897
1212 0- 0 1898
1430 14 2 1899
1072 10 0 1900
945 0 0 1901

+ Including Ladies. § Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting.

e2

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1901-1902

PRESIDENT.
Prorssson ARTHUR W. RUCKER, M.A., LL.D., D.Se., See.R.S,

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Right Hon. the EARL or GLascow, G.C.M.G.

The night Hop. the Lorp Biytaswoop., LL.D.,
D.L

The Right Hon. the Lorp Ketyiy, G.C.V.O.,
D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S.

SAMUEL OuISHOLM, Esq., the Hon. the
Provost of Glasgow.

Very Rev. R. Herbert Story, D.D., LL.D., the
“Principal of the University of Glasgow.

Lord

| Sir JoHN MAXWELL SIIRLING-MAXWELL, Bart,,

M.P., D.L.
Sir ANDREW NostF, K.C.B., D.O.L,, F.R.S.
Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIR, D. C. L., LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir W. T. THISELTON-DYER, K.G.M.G., OLE., F.R.S.
JAMES PARKER SMITH, Esq., M.P., D.L.
JouN INGLIS, Esq., LL.D.
Professor JOHN CLELAND,
F.RS.

M.D., LL.D., D.Sc.,

PRESIDENT ELECT.
Professor JAMES DrwAR, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

His Grace the DukE or ABERcoRN, K.G., H.M.
Lieutenant of the County of Donegal.

The MaRQuEss oF DUFFERIN AND Ava, K.P.,
F.R.S., H.M. Lieutenant of the County ot
Down.

The Manqugss or Lonpoyprrry, K.G., H.M.

The Right Hon. the EARL or SHArTESBURY, D.L.
The Right Hon. the HAR oF Rosss, K.P., F.R.S.
The Right Hon. THOMAS SINCLAIR, D. Lit.

Sic WILLIAM Quartus EWART, Bart., M.A.

The Lornp Mayor oF BELFAST.

The PRESIDENT of Queen's College, Belfast.

Lieutenant of the City of Belfast.
Sir FRANCIS MACNAGHTEN, Bart.,
tenant of the County of Antrim.

Professor E. Ray LANKESTHR, M.A, FBS.

H.M. Lien- | Professor PETER REDFERN, M.D.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Professor Sir W. C. Roperts-AUSTEN, K.C.B., D.O.L., F.R.S.
Dr. D. H. Sco1t, M.A., F.R.S.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Harrow, Middlesex.

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor G. CAREY Foster, B.A., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BELFAST.
Joun Brown, Esq. | Professor MAURICE FirzGEraLp, B.A. | GopFREY W. FERGUSON, Esc.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BELFAST.
R. Kytm Knox, LL.D.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
ArMstTRONG, Professor H. E., F.R.S. MacaisTER, Professor A., F.R.S.

Bonak, J., Esq., LL.D. MacManon, Major P. A., F.R.S.
Bower, Professor F. O., F.R.S. Marr, J. E., Esq., F.R.S.
CALLENDAR, Professor H. L., F.R.S, PERKIN, Protessor W. H., F.R.S.
OREAK, Captain E, W., R.N., C.B.. F.R.S. PERRY, *Professor John, F.R.S.
Darwin, Major L., Sec.R.G.S8. PREECE, Sir W. H., K.O.B., F.R.S.

FREMANTLE, Hon. Sir C. W., K.O.B.
GotcH, Professor F., F.R.S,
HALLIBURTON, Professor W. D., F.R.S.
KeE.tin, J. Scort, Esq., LL.D.
LANKES?ER, Professor E. Ray, F.R.S.
LockyYeEr, Sir J. NoRMAN. K.C.B., F.R.S.
LonpG#, Principal O. J., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and ‘Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years_
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Lord Avesury, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.

The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A., Di C.L., LL.D., "EBS. » F.R.AS,

Professor A. W. RUCKER, M.A., D. Sc., See. R. Ss

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.

Sir H. f. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S. | The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G.,
Sir F. J. Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S. F.R.S.

Sirk. A, Abel,Bart.,K.0.B.,.F.R.S. | Lord Lister, D.O.L., F.R.S.
SirWm.Huggins,K.0.B.,Pres.R.&. | Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S,

B.
Prics, L. L., Esq., ™M. A.
SEWARD, A. O., Esq., F.R.S.
SoLuas, Professor W. J., F.R.S.
TILDEN, Professor W. A., F.R.S.
Ty or, Professor E. B., F.R.S.
Wo.re- BARRY, Sir Jouy, K.C.B., F.RS.

Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.1.

Sir George Gabriel Stokes, Bart.,
E.R.S.

Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., F.R.S,

Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S, Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D., | Sir William Crookes, F.R.S.
Lord Avebury, D.C.L., F.R.S. F.R.S. Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B.,
Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.8. Prof. Sir J.S. Burdon Sanderson, M.P., F.R.S.

Bart., F.R.S. Sir W. Turner, K.C.B., F.R.S.

GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.

£. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. | Prof. A. W. Riicker, Sec.R.S.
Prof. Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B.,| Prof. T. G. Boney, D. Se., F.R.S. | Prof. B. A. Schiifer, F.RS.
M.P., Sec.R, S. Prof. A. W. Williamson, FRS. |
G. Griffth, Esq., M.A. A. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., F.RS. |

AUDITORS.

3. W. Brabrook, Esa, C.B. } L. L. Price, Esq, M.A.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxxv

Report of the Council for the Year 1900-1901, presented to the General
Committee at Glasgow on Wednesday, September 11, 1901.

In presenting their Annual Report the Council have, in the first place,
to inform the General Committee that they resolved that an Address
should be presented to the King on his accession to the Throne, and that
the following Address was presented by the President on behalf of the
Council :—

To vHe Kine’s Most Excettent Masesty.
May it please Your Majesty,

We, the President and Council of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, most respectfully desire to be permitted to
express to Your Majesty our deepest sympathy in the great loss which
Your Majesty and the Empire have sustained by the death of Her
Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria.

The British Association will always bear in grateful remembrance
the fact that your illustrious Father, His Royal Highness the Prince
Consort, to whose scientific knowledge and guidance the Nation owes so
much, was pleased to accept the oftice of President for the Meeting held
at Aberdeen in 1859. His Royal Highness then, as in so many other
ways, revealed his appreciation of the importance of the advancement of
science which has exerted so beneficial an influence throughout Her
Majesty’s glorious reign.

We confidently and fervently hope that the progress of science will
continue during the reign of Your Majesty to promote the prosperity of
your people throughout the Empire.

We beg leave to be permitted to offer to Your Majesty the humble
expression of our sincere congratulation and loyal homage and devotion
on your succession to the throne of your Ancestors.

Signed on behalf of the Council,
Wma. Turner, President.

To this Address the following gracious reply has been received :—

Home Office, Whitehall,
March 11, 1901.

Sir,—I am commanded by the King to convey to you His thanks
for the Loyal expressions of sympathy and devotion which have been
addressed to him by the President and Council of the British Associa-
tion.

His Majesty is further deeply gratified by the tribute paid to the
memory and the influence of His Royal Highness the Prince Consort ;

Ixxxvl REPORT—1901.

and he fully shares in the hope that the advancement of science, which
has been so great a glory of Her Majesty’s reign, may be continued
throughout His own.
I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,
Cuas. T. Rircnie.

The President of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science, Burlington House, W.

The Council have heard with much regret of the death of Dr. Andrew
Stewart, one of the Vice-Presidents-elect for the Glasgow meeting, and
the founder of the Adam Smith Chair in the University.

The following reply from the India Office regarding the suggestion
made by the Council, that opportunity should be taken to collect Ethno- —
graphical information by means of the Indian Census of 1901, has been
received :—

India Office, Whitehall, London, 8.W.,
December 1900.

Sir,—With reference to your letter of December 1899 and my reply No. R. and8.
3539, of the 16th January, 1900, I am directed to inform you that the Secretary of
State for India in Council has now received the remarks of the Government of
India on the suggestion of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
that opportunity should be taken to collect ethnographical information by means of
the Indian Census of 1901.

2. The Government of India entirely agree with the Secretary of State’s recogni-
tion of the importance of the investigations which the Association suggested, but
find themselves constrained to say that it is impossible (except to the limited extent
indicated in paragraph 4 of this letter) to make these investigations by means of, or
in connection with, the Census. They consider that the addition to the Census
Schedule of Columns relating to even a small number of ethnographic facts would
expand it to unwieldy dimensions; the enumerating agency is wholly unfitted to
conduct such an inquiry, and the facts recorded by it would be worthless ; and they
apprehend that there would be grave risk, not only that the accuracy of the entries
in the essential columns would be impaired by the additional burden imposed on
the enumerators, but also that the unusual nature of the questions asked would give
rise to rumours and excite apprehensions which would seriously interfere with the
ordinary operations of the Census.

3. The Government of India also deem it impracticable to carry out the sug-
gestion that photographers should be placed at the disposal of the Census officers,
as this, besides being very expensive, would hinder the officers’ proper duties, and
would delay the submission of the reports, which it is desired to complete as soon
as possible.

4, With the view, however, of taking action, as far as may be practicable, in the
direction of collecting ethnographical information, the Census Commissioner has
instructed the Census Superintendents to endeavour, in the districts which they visit,
to obtain, from the most trustworthy sources, particulars under uniform headings
regarding the history, structure, traditions, and religious and social usages of the
various tribes and castes. The Commissioner considers that nothing beyond this
can be undertaken in connection with the Census operations, and the Government of
India accept his opinion; but they have considered the question how far it is pos-
sible and advisable apart from the Census to encourage and assist ethnographic in-
vestigations in India, and have submitted a scheme by which it is hoped that in the
course of a few years a fairly complete account of the ethnography of the larger
provinces may be obtained.

This scheme has received Lord George Hamilton’s approval.

I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,
(Signed) A. GODLEY.

Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., F.R.S., Burlington House, Piccadilly, W.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxxvii

The Council have nominated Professor John Cleland, F’.R.S8., Vice-
President for the Meeting at Glasgow.

The Council have elected the following men of science, who have
attended Meetings of the Association, to be Corresponding Members :—

Professor T. C. Chamberlin, Chicago. Professor Philipp Lenard, Kiel.
Dr. Yves Delage, Paris. Professor A. Penck, Vienna.
Professor W. G. Farlow, Harvard. Gen.-Major Rykatchew, St. Petersburg.

Professor A. P.N. Franchimont, Leiden.

The Council, having received an invitation to appoint Delegates to
attend the Ninth Jubilee Celebrations of the University of Glasgow on
June 12, 13, and 14, requested the President and the General Secretaries
to represent the Association at the Celebrations, and to present the
following Address to the University :—

We, the President and Council of the British Association for the
‘Advancement of Science, offer our cordial congratulations to the Univer-
sity of Glasgow on the occasion of the celebration of the four hundred
and fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the University.

The British Association has since its birth in 1831 been brought from
time to time into close relations with the University of Glasgow. It has
‘on three occasions held highly successful meetings within your City, and
is looking forward with pleasurable anticipation to a fourth meeting in
the autumn of the present year. The success of these gatherings has
been largely due to the earnest co-operation of the able men of science
who have filled and adorned the Chairs in the University, three of whom
at meetings in other Cities have occupied the Presidential Chair of the
Association itself.

In presenting our congratulations we would at the same time express
the hope that the University may continue to prosper and to extend in
influence and usefulness. The efforts which you are making to add to
the Professoriate, to obtain new buildings and appliances for the continued
development of your teaching and for the encouragement of research,
show that you mean to retain a foremost place amidst the Universities of
the United Kingdom.

Signed on behalf of the Council,

Wiu1AmM Turner, President.

The Council were invited to appoint Delegates to attend the British
Congress on Tuberculosis, which was held on July 22—26, in London.

The Council requested Lord Lister and Sir Michael Foster to represent
the Association at the Congress.

The following resolutions referred to the Council by the General
Committee have been considered and acted upon :—-

(1) That in connection with the Resolution relating to the admission of women
to Committees, as well a8 on general grounds, the Council is requested to reconsider
the present mode of electing members of Sectional Committees.

The Council appointed a Committee, consisting of Sir F'. J. Bramwell,
Professor H. E. Armstrong, Mr. E. H. Griffiths, Mr. A. V. Harcourt

lxxxyviil REPORT—1901.

Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, Professor W. A. Tilden, and the General Officers,
to report on this Resolution.

In accordance with the recommendation of the Committee, the. Council
recommend that the present practice of electing members of Sectional
Committees be continued subject to the following modification :—

‘That any Member of the Association who has intimated the inten-
tion of attending a particular Meeting of the Association, and who has
already served upon a Committee of a Section, shall be eligible for
election as a Member of the Committee of that Section at its first
meeting.’

(2) That the Council be requested to consider the appointment of a separate
Section for education.

The Council considered this proposal, and resolved that a Section of
Educational Science be established, to be entitled Section L, but that the
Section shall not necessarily meet each year.

The following resolution, which was passed at the Conference of
Delegates at Bradford, and accidentally not forwarded to the Committee
of Recommendations, was brought before the Council and considered :—

That the proposed Copyright Bill, so far as it affects the copyright of Scientific
Societies in their transactions, and the publication of abstracts of Scientific papers,
be referred to the General Committee; and that they be requested to take such
action as will protect Scientific Societies.

The Council authorised the General Officers to co-operate with other
Societies in regard to the question of copyright if a Bill is again brought
before Parliament.

The Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee for the past
year, consisting of the list of the Corresponding Societies and the titles
of the more important papers, and especially those referring to Local
Scientific Investigations, published by those Societies during the year
ending June 1, 1901, has been received.

The Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis
Galton, Mr. W. Whitaker (Chairman), Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir J. Evans, Mr.
J. Hopkinson, Professor R. Meldola, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. T. V.
Holmes, Mr. Horace T. Brown, Rev. J. O. Bevan, Professor W. W.
Watts, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, Mr. C. H. Read, and Mr. F. W. Rudler,
is hereby nominated for reappointment by the General Committee.

The Council nominate Mr. F. W. Rudler, Chairman, Mr. W. Whitaker,
F.R.S., Vice-Chairman, and Dr. J. G. Garson and Mr. Alexander Somer-
ville, Secretaries, to the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies
to be held during the Meeting at Glasgow.

The Council have received Reports from the General Treasurer during
the past year, and his accounts from July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901,
which have been audited, are presented to the General Committee.

In accordance with the regulations the retiring Members of the
Council will be :—

Mr. Francis Darwin. Professor E. B. Poulton.
Dr. W. H. Gaskell. Professor J. M. Thomson.
Professor L. F. Vernon Harcourt.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

lxxxix

The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary Members
of the Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are dis-
tinguished by an asterisk in the following list :—

Armstrong, Professor H. E., F.R.S.
Bonar, J., Esq., LL.D.
Bower, Professor F. O., F.R.S.
Callendar, Professor H. L., F.R.S.
Creak, Captain HE. W., R.N., B.S.
Darwin, Major L., Sec. R.G.S.
Fremantle, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B.
*Gotch, Professor F., F.R.S.
Halliburton, Professor W. D., F.R.S.
Keltie, J. Scott, Esq., LL.D.
Lankester, Professor E, Ray, F.R.S.
Lockyer, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.

Lodge, Professor Oliver, F’.R.S.
*Macalister, Professor A., F.R.8.
MacMahon, Major P. A., F.R.S.
Marr, J. E., Esq., F.R.S.
*Perkin, Professor W. H., F.R.S.
*Perry, Professor John, F.R.S.
Preece, Sir W. H., K.C.B., F.R.S.
Price, L. L., Esq., M.A.
*Seward, A. C., Esq., F.R.S.
Sollas, Professor W. J., F.R.S.
Tilden, Professor W. A., F.R.S.
Tylor, Professor E. B., F.R.8.
Wolfe-Barry, Sir John, K.C.B., F.R.S.

XC

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT

REPORT—1901.

GLASGOW MEETING IN SEPTEMBER 1901.

1. Receiving Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Making Experiments for improv-
ing the Construction of Practical
Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements.

[And balance in hand.]

Seismological Observations.

To co-operate with the Royal
Meteorological Society in ini-
tiating an Investigation of the
Upper Atmosphere by means
of Kites.

To co-operate withthe Committee |
of the Falmouth Observatory |
in their Magnetic Observations.

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Lord Rayleigh.

Secretary.—My. R. T. Glazebrook.

Lord Kelvin, Professors W. E.
Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Adams,
Oliver J. Lodge, and G.

Carey Foster, Dr. A. Muirhead,

Sir W. H. Preece, Profes-
sors J. D. Everett and A.
Schuster, Dr.
Professor J. J. Thomson, Mr.
W. N. Shaw, Dr. J. T. Bot-
tomley, Rev. T. C. Fitzpatrick,
Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney, Pro-
fessor 8. P. Thompson, Mr. J.
Rennie, Mr. E. H. Griffiths,
Professors A. W. Riicker, H. L.
Callendar, and Sir
Roberts-Austen, and Mr.
Matthey.

Chairman.—Prof. J. W. Judd.

Secrctary.—Professor J. Milne.

Lord Kelvin, Professor T. G.
Bonney, Mr. C. V. Boys, Pro-
fessor G. H. Darwin, Mr.
Horace Darwin, Major L. Dar-
win, Professor J. A. Ewing,
Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, Professor
C. G. Knott, Professor R.
Meldola, Mr. R. D. Oldham,
Professor J. Perry, Mr. W. E.
Plummer, Professor J. H.
Poynting, Mr. Clement Reid,
Mr. Nelson Richardson, and
Professor H. H. Turner.

G.

Chairman.—Mr. W. N. Shaw.

| Seeretary.—Mr. W. H. Dines.

Mr. D. Archibald, Mr. C. Ver-
non Boys, Dr. A. Buchan, and
Dr. H. R. Mill.

Chairman.—Sir W. H. Preece.
Secretary. — Dr. R. T. Glazebrook.

J. A. Fleming, |

Wi Cl

| Professor W. G. Adams, Captain |

Creak, Mr. W. Fox, Professor
A. Schuster, and Principal
Riicker,

|

|

THE

Grants
we 8. tt:
40 00
a5. 40)'0

}

}
75 0:0

}
80 00

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xcl
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose Members of the Committee | Grants
|
| a a '
ee Seer eae ek
The relation between the Absorp- | Chairman and Seeretary.—Pro- | 290 00
tion Spectra and Chemical Con- fessor W. Noel Hartley.
stitution of Organic Substances. | Professor F, R. Japp, Professor J.J.
Dobbie, and Mr. Alexander
Lauder. |
Preparing a new Series of Wave- | Chairman.—Sir H. B. Roscoe. 5 00
length Tables of the Spectra | Secretary.—Dr. Marshall Watts. |
of the Elements. , Sir J. N. Lockyer, Professors J.
Dewar, G. D. Liveing, A. Schus- |
| ter, W. N. Hartley, and Wol- |
| cott Gibbs, and Sir W. de W. |
Abney. |
The action of Gases dissolved in | Chairman.—Sir Wm. C. Roberts- | 40 00):
Metals and Alloys on their Austen. !
Properties. Secretary.—Dr. T. K. Rose. |
Mr. W. Carrick-Anderson, Pro- |
fessor H. B. Dixon, Mr. C. T. | |
| Heycock, Mr. F. H. Neville, |
| and Professor W. Ramsay. ) |
The Collection, Preservation, and Chairman.—Professor J. Geikie. 5 00}
Systematic Registration of | Secretary.—ProfessorW.W. Watts.
Photographs of Geological In- | Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. T. An-
terest. , | derson, Professor E. J. Gar-
wood, and Messrs. A. S. Reid, |
W. Gray, H. B. Woodward, R. |
Kidston, J. J. H. Teall, J. G. |
Goodchild, H. Coates, C. V. |
| Crook,G. Bingley,and R.Welch. |
|
To study Life-zones in the British | Chairman.—Mv. J. BE. Marr. 10 00

Carboniferous Rocks.

The movements of Underground
Waters of North-west York-
shire.

[Balance in hand.]

Secretary.—Dr. Wheelton Hind.

Mr. F, A. Bather, Mr. G. C. Crick,
Mr, A. H. Foord, Mr. H. Fox,
Professor E. J. Garwood, Dr.

G. J. Hinde, Professor Percy F. |

Kendall, Mr. Robert Kid-
ston, Mr. G. W. Lamplugh,
Professor G. A. Lebour,
B. N. Peach, Mr. A. Strahan,
and Dr. H. Woodward.

Chairman.—ProfessorW.W. Watts.
Secretary.—Captain A. R. Dwerry-
house.

Mr. |

Professor A. Smithells; Rev. EB. |

Jones, Mr. Walter Morrison,
Mr. G. Bray, Mr. W. Lower
Carter, Mr. W. Fairley, Pro-
fessor P. F. Kendall, and Mr.
J. E. Marr.

xX

Cli

REPORT—1901.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose | Members of the Committee Grants
ie 8. dk
To explore Irish Caves. Chairvman.—Dy. R. F. Scharff. 45 00
[Collections to be placed in the | Seeretary.—Mr, R. Lloyd Praeger.
Science and Art Museum, Dub- | Mr. G. Coffey, Professor Grenville |
lin.] Cole, Dr. Cunningham, Mr. G.
W. Lamplugh, Mr. A. McHenry, |
and Mr. R. J. Ussher. |
To consider the best Methods for | Chairman.—Dr. H. Woodward. —
the Registration of all Type | Secretary—My. A. Smith Wood- |
Specimens of Fossils in the ward. |
British Isles, and to report on | Rev.G. '. Whidborne, Mr. R. Kid-
the same. ston, Professor H. G. Seeley, Mr. |
[Balance in hand. ] | H. Woods, and Rey. J. F. Blake.
To enable Mr. R. Gurney to work | Chairman.—Professor W. A. | 100 0 0
at Excretion in Crustacea, Mr. Herdman.
Wallace to investigate WVivi- | Secretary.—ProfessorG.B. Howes.
parous Fishes, and to aid other | Professor E. Ray Lankester, Pro-
competent investigator, to carry fessor W. F. R. Weldon, Pro-
on definite pieces of work at the fessor 8. J. Hickson, Mr. A.
Zoological Station at Naples. Sedgwick, and Professor W. C. |
McIntosh. |
To enable Mr. R. C. Punnett to | Chairman.—Mr. W. Garstang. —
continue his investigations on | Seeretary.—Mr. W. Garstang.
the pelvic plexus of Hlasmo- | Professor E. Ray Lankester, |
branch fishes, and to enable Professor Sydney H. Vines, Mr.
other competent naturalists to A. Sedgwick, and Professor W.
perform definite pieces of work F. R, Weldon. :
at the Marine Laboratory, |
Plymouth. |
[ Balance, 87. 5s., in hand. ]
Compilation of an Index Generum | Chairman.—Dr, H. Woodward. 100 00
et Specierum Animalium. Secretary.—Mr. ¥. A. Bather.
| Dr: P. L. Sclater,: Rev. T. R. R-
Stebbing, Mr. R. McLachlan,
and Mr. W. E. Hoyle.
To work out the details of the | Chairman.—Professor A. Newton. 165 00
Observations on the Migration | Secretary.—Rev. E. P. Knubley.
of Birds at Lighthouses and | Mr. John A. Harvie-Brown, Mr.
Lightships, 1880-87. R. M. Barrington, Mr. A. H. |
Evans, and Dr. H. O. Forbes. |
To investigate the structure, for- | Chairman.—Mr. A. Sedgwick. 50 00

mation, and growth of the Coral

Reefs of the Indian Region,

with special observations on the |
inter-relationship of the reef

organisms, the depths at which

they grow, the food of corals,

effects of currents and character

of the ocean bottom, &c. ‘The

land flora and fauna will be

collected, and it is intended

that observations shall be made

on the manners, &c., of the

natives in the different parts |
of the Maldive group.

Secretary.—J. Graham Kerr,

Professor J. W. Judd, Mr. J. J.
Lister, Mr, Francis Darwin, Dr.
S. F. Harmer, Professors A.
Macalister, W. A. Herdman, and
S. J. Hickson.

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE,

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

To enabie Mr. James Rankin to in-

of the Clyde area, and to en-
able other competent natural-
ists to perform definite re-
searches in the Laboratory of
the Marine Biological Asso-
ciation of the West of Scotland
at Millport.

|

Terrestrial Surface-waves and

Wave-like Surfaces.

The Economic Effect of Legisla-

To consider means by which better
practical effect can be given to
the Introduction of the Screw
Gauge proposed by the Associa-
tion in 1884.

To investigate the resistance of
Road Vehicles to Traction.

To co-operate with the Silchester
Excavation Fund Committee in
their explorations,

vestigate Compound Ascidians |

tion regulating Women’s Labour.

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Sir John Murray.
Secretary.—Dr. J. F. Gemmill.
Professor F. O. Bower, Professor

Cossar Ewart, Professor W. A.

Herdman, Professor M. Laurie,

Mr. Alex. Somerville, and Mr.

J. A. Todd.

Chairman.—Dry. Scott Keltie.

Secretary.—Colonel F. Bailey.

Mr. Vaughan Cornish, Mr. A. R,
Hunt, and Mr. W. H. Wheeler.

Chairman.—Mr. E. W. Brabrook.

Secretary.—Mr. A. L. Bowley.

Miss A.M. Anderson, Mr. C. Booth,
Mr. 8. J. Chapman, Miss C.
H. Collet, Professor Edgeworth,
Professor Flux, Mrs. J. R. Mac-
Donald, Mr. L. L. Price, Pro-
fessor Smart, and Mrs. H. J.
Tennant.

Chairman.—Sir W. H. Preece.

Secretary.—Mr. W. A. Price.

Lord Kelvin, Sir F. J. Bramwell,
Sir H. Trueman Wood, Maj.-
Gen. Webber, Mr. R. E. Cromp-
ton, Mr. A. Stroh, Mr. A. Le
Neve Foster, Mr. C. J. Hewitt,
Mr. G. K. B. Elphinstone, Col.
Watkin, Mr. E. Rigg, Mr. Vernon
Boys, Mr. J. Marshall Gorham,
Mr. O. P. Clements, Mr. W.
Taylor, and Dr. R. T. Glaze-
brook.

Chairman.— Sir Alexander Binnie.

Secretary.—Professor H. 8. Hele
Shaw.

Mr. Aitken, Mr. T. C. Aveling,
Professor T. Hudson Beare,

A. Mallock, Sir D. Salomans, Mr.
A. Sennett, Mr. Shrapnell Smith,
and Mr. J. I. Thornycroft.

Chairman.—Mtz. A. J. Evans.
Secretary.—Mr. John L. Myres.
Mr. E. W. Brabrook.

Mr. W. W. Beaumont, Mr. J. |
Brown, Col. R. HE. Crompton, Mr. |

Xciil
Grants |
|
L ghd,
25 0 0
15 00
30 0 0
20 00
|
50 00)
|
i COON

xcly

REPORT—1901.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

| [Balance in hand.]

To organise an Ethnological Sur-

vey of Canada. |
|

|
|
|

To conduct Explorations with the
object of ascertaining the age of
Stone Circles.

The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration of Pho-
tographs of Anthropological
Interest.

The Present State of Anthropo-
logical Teaching in the United
Kingdom and Elsewhere.

To conduct Explorations at

Knossos in Crete.

To conduct Anthropometric In-
vestigations among the Native
Troops of the Egyptian Army.

To co-operate with the Cardiff |
Naturalists’ Society in its Bx- |
cavations on the Roman Site |
at. Gelligaer.

Members of the Committee

| Mr. E. W.

Chairman.—Professor D. P. Pen-

hallow.
Secretary.—Myr. C. Hill-Tout.
Brabrook, Professor
A.C. Haddon, Mr. E. 8. Hart-
land, Sir J. G. Bourinot, Mr. B.
Sulte, Mr. David Boyle, Mr.
C. N. Bell, Professor HE. B.
Tylor, Professor J. Mavor, Mr.
Cc. F. Hunter, and Dr. W. F.
Ganong.

Chairman.—Dr. J. G. Garson.

Secretary.—My. H. Balfour.

Sir John Evans, Mr. C. H. Read,
Professor Meldola, Mr. A. J.
Evans, Dr. R. Munro, Pro-
fessor Boyd-Dawkins, and Mr.
A. L. Lewis.

Chairman.—My. C. H. Read.

Secretary.—Mr. J. L. Myres.

Dr. J. G. Garson, Mr. H. Ling Roth,
Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. E. 8. Hart-
land, and Professor Flinders
Petrie.

Chairman.—Professor B. B. Tylor.

Secretary.—Mr. H. Ling Roth.

Professor A. Macalister, Professor
A.C. Haddon, Mr. C. H. Read,
Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. F. W.
Rudler, Dr. R. Munro, and Pro-
fessor Flinders Petrie.

Chairman.—Sir John Evans.

Secretary.—Mr. J. L. Myres.

Mr. A. J. Evans, Mr. D. G. Ho-
garth, Professor A. Macalister,
and Professor W. Ridgeway.

Chairman.—Professor A.
alister.

Secretary.—Mr. C.S. Myers.

Sir John Evans and Professor
D. J. Cunningham.

Chairman.—Professor J. Rhys.

Secretary.—Mr. J. L. Myres.

Mr. A. J. Evans and Mr, E. W.
Brabrook.

Mac- |

|
|
|

|
}

30

, 100

15

00)

00

00

00}

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, xev
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose Members of the Committee | Grants
: cS CAGE
To study the power of the Mam- | Chairman. — Professor J. G.| 20 00
malian Heart for performing McKendrick.
work under varying external | Secretary.—Mv. T. Grigor Brodie. |
conditions and under the in- | Professor W. H. Thompson. |
fluence of Drugs. | |
The changes occurring in Hemo- | Caairman. — Professor J. G. 15,0 0:
globin and the supposed de- McKendrick.
struction of Red Corpuscles in | Secretary.—Mr. W. Brodie Brodie.
the Spleen. | Professor Ralph Stockman. |
Investigation of the Cyano- | Chairman. — Professor J. B.| -10: 00
phycer. Farmer.
Secretary.—Dr. ¥. F. Blackman.
Professor Marshall Ward and Mr.
W. Gardiner.
Investigation on the Respiration | Chairman.— Professor Marshall | 15 0 0
of Plants. Ward.
Secretary.—Mr. H. Wager.
Mr. Francis Darwin and Professor
J. B. Farmer.
To consider and report upon the | Chairman.—Dr. H. E. Armstrong. 5 00
influence exercised by Univer- | Secretary.—Mr. W. H. D. Rouse.
sities and Examining Bodies on | The Bishop of Hereford, Sir
secondary school curricula, and Michael Foster, Sir P. Magnus,
also of the schools on university Principal Ricker, Principal
requirements. Lodge, Mr. H. W. Hive, Mr.
W. A. Shenstone, Mr. Eggar,
| Professor Marshall Ward, Mr.
| . H.-Neville, Mrs. W.N. Shaw,
Professor H. L. Withers, and
Dr. C. W. Kimmins.
The conditions of Health essen- | Chairman.— 2.09
tial to the carrying on of the | Secretary.—Mr. E. White Wallis.
' work of instruction in schools. | Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Professor
L. C. Miall, Professor H. L.
Withers, and Professor Sher-
rington; and that the Council
be authorised to appoint a
Chairman.
Corresponding Societies Com- | Chairman—Mr. W. Whitaker. tea Oko

mittee for the preparation of
their Report.

| Mr. Francis Galton, Professor R.

Seeretary.—Dr. J. G. Garson.

Meldola, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Sir
John Hvans, Mr. J. Hopkinson,
Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr.
Horace T. Brown, Rev. J. O.
Bevan, Professor W. W. Watts,
Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, Mr. C.
H. Read, and Mr. F. W. Rudler.

xevi

REPORT—1901.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money.

|

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee.

| Radiation from a Source of Light ina
Magnetic Field.

To establish a Meteorological Ob-

| Co-operating with the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society in making Meteoro-
logical Observations on Ben Nevis.

servations.

| The Rate of Increase of Underground
Temperature downwards in various

Water.

Considering the best Methods of Re-
cording the Direct Intensity of Solar
Radiation.

That Miss Hardcastle be requested to
draw up a Report on the present
state of the Theory of Point-Groups.

The Nature of Alloys. '

servatory on Mount Royal, Montreal.

| Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Ob- |

Localities of Dry Land and under |

\

Chairman.-—Professor A. Schuster.

Secretary.—Mr. W. E. Thrift.

Professor O. J. Lodge, Professor 8. P:
Thompson, Dr. Gerald Molloy, Dr.
W. E. Adeney, and Mr. E. P. Calver-
well,

~

Chairman.— Professor H. L. Callendar.

Seceretary.—Professor C. H. Mcleod.

Professor F, Adams and Mr. R. IF. |
Stupart.

Chairman.—Lord McLaren.

Secretary.—Professor Crum Brown.

Sir John Murray, Dr. A. Buchan, and
Professor R. Copeland.

Chairman.—Professor W. G. Adams.

Secretary.—Dr. C. Chree.

Lord Kelvin, Professor G. H. Darwin,
Professor G. Chrystal, Professor A.
Schuster, Captain E. W. Creak, the
Astronomer Royal, Mr. William Ellis,
and Professor A. W. Riicker.

Chairman.—Professor J. D. Everett.

Secretary.—Professor J. D. Everett.

Lord Kelvin, Sir Archibald Geikie, Mr.
James Glaisher, Professor Edward
Hull, Dr. C. Le Neve Foster, Professor
A.§S. Herschel, Professor G. A. Lebour,
Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr. W. Galloway,
Mr. Joseph Dickinson, Mr. G. F.
Deacon, Mr. E. Wethered, Mr. A.
Strahan, Professor Michie Smith, Pro
fessor H. L. Callendar, and Mr. B. H.
Brough.

Chairman.—Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney.

Secretary.—Professor H. McLeod.

Sir G. G. Stokes, Professor A. Schuster,
Sir H. E. Roscoe, Captain Sir W. de
W. Abney, Dr. C. Chree, Professor
H. L. Callendar, Mr. W. E. Wilson,
and Professor A. A. Rambaut.

Chairman and Secretary. Mr. ¥. H.
Neville.

Mr. C. T. Heycock and Mr. E. H.
Griffiths.

td

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAI, COMMITTEE.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

-

xevil

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.

The Study of Isomorphous Sulphonic
Derivatives of Benzene.

trained chemists employed in Eng-
' lish Chemical Industries.

To approach the Inland Revenue Com-
missioners to urge the desirability

duty free for the purposes of scien-
tific research.

To investigate the Erratic Blocks of the
British Isles, and to take measures
for their preservation.

To report upon the Present State of
our Knowledge of the Structure of
Crystals.

| The Periodic Investigation of the
Plankton and Physical Conditions of
the English Channel.

To continue the investigation of the

with power to co-operate with the

themselves of such assistance in their
| investigations as may be offered by
the Hawaiian Government or the
Trustees of the Museum at Honolulu.
The Committee to have power to dis-
pose of specimens where advisable.

| To promote the Systematic Collection
of Photographic and other Records
of Pedigree Stock.

1901,

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—-Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.

Chairman.—Professor H. A. Miers.
Secretary.—Professor H. EZ. Armstrong.

| Dr. W. P. Wynne and Mr. W. J. Pope.

To collect Statistics concerning the

Chairman.—Professor W. H. Perkin.

Secretary.—Dr. G. G. Henderson.

Professor H. EH. Armstrong and Mr. G. T.
Beilby.

| Chairman.—Sir H. E. Roscoe.

| of securing the use of pure alcohol |

Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, |

Dr.
Committee appointed for the purpose |
by the Royal Society, and to avail ,

Secretary.—Professor H. B. Dixon.
Sir Michael Foster, Principal Riicker,
Dr. T. E. Thorpe, Professor W. H.

Perkin, and Professor W. D. Halli- |

burton.

Chairman.—Mr. J. E. Marr.

Secretary.—Prof, P. F. Kendall.

Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. E. De
Rance, Professor W. J. Sollas, Mr. R. H.
Tiddeman, Rev. 8. N. Harrison, Mr.
John Horne, Mr. F. M. Burton, Mr.
J. Lomas, Mr. A. R. Dwerryhouse,
Mr. J. W. Stather, Mr. R. D. Tucker,
and Mr. F. W. Harmer.

Chairman.—Professor N. Story Maske-
lyne.

Secretary.—Professor H. A. Miers.

Mr. L. Fletcher, Professor W. J. Sollas,
Mr. W. Barlow, Mr. G. F. H. Smith,
and the Ear] of Berkeley.

Chaivman.—Professor E. Ray Lankester.

Secretary.—Mr. Walter Garstang.

Professor W. A. Herdman and Mr, H. N.
Dickson.

Chairman.—Professor A. Newton.
Secretary.—Dr. David Sharp.

W. T. Blanford, Professor S. J.
Hickson, Dr. P. L. Sclater, Mr. F.
Du Cane Godman, and Mr. Edgar
A, Smith.

Chairman.—Mr. Francis Galton.

Secretary.—Professor W. F. R. Weldon.

Professor J. C. Ewart, Professor J. A.
Thomson, and Professor R. Wallace.

f

XGCVill

REPORT—1901.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose.

Members of the Committee

The Lake Village at Glastonbury.

To organise a Pigmentation Survey of
the school children of Scotland.

The Physiological Effects of Peptone
and its Precursors when introduced
into the circulation.

The Micro-chemistry of Cells.

Fertilisation in Phaeophycea.

To consider and report upor:. a scheme
for the registration of negatives of
Botanical Photographs.

The Teaching of Natural Science in
Elementary Schools.

To report upon improvements that
might be effected in the teaching of
Mathematics, in the first instance in
the teaching of Elementary Mathe-
matics, and upon such means as they
think likely to effect such improve-
ments.

To examine the Natural History and |
Ethnography of the Malay Peninsula. |

| Seerctary.—Mr. J. Gray.

| Chairman.—Professor E. A. Schiifer.
| Secretary.—Professor W. H. Thompson.

Chairman.—Mr. C. H. Read.
Secretary.—Mr. W. Crooke.

Professor A. Macalister, Professor W.
Ridgeway, and Dr. H. O. Forbes.

Chairman.—Dr. R. Munro.

Secretary.—Mr. A. Bulleid. |

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Sir John
Evans, Mr. Arthur J. Evans, and Mr.
C. H. Read.

7

Chairman.—Myr. Ei. W. Braybrook. \

Dr. A.C, Haddon, Professor A. Macalister,
Professor D. J. Cunningham, Mr. J. F.
Tocher, and Dr. W. H. R. Rivers.

Professor R. Boyce and Professor C. 8.
Sherrington.

Chaiymar. —Professor EH. A. Schifer.

Secretary —-©rofessor A. 5. Macallum.

Professor £. Ray Lankester, Professor
W. D. Halliburton, Mr. G. C. Bourne,
and Profzssor J. J. Mackenzie.

Chairman.—-Professor J. B. Warmer.

Secretary.—Professor R. W. Phillips.

Professor F. O. Bower and Professor
Harvey Gibson.

Chairman.-—Professor L. C. Miall.

Secretary.-— Professor F. EB. Weiss.

Mr. Francis Darwin and Professor G. F.
Scott Elliot.

Chaivman.—Pr. J. H. Gladstone.

Seeretary.—Professor H. BE. Armstrong.

Lord Avebury, Mr. George Gladstone,
Professor W. R. Dunstan, Sir Philip
Magnus, Sir H. H. Roscoe, Dr. Sil-
vanus P. Thompson, and Professor A.
Smithells.

Chairman.— Professor A. R. Forsyth.

Secretary.—Professor J. Perry.

Principal A. W. Riicker, Principal O. J.
Lodge, Major P. MacMahon, Professor
W. H. H. Hudson, Dr. J. Larmor, Pro-
fessor 8. P Thompson, Professors G.
Chrystal, O. Henrici, A. Lodge, A. G.
Greenhill, G. M. Minchin, Mr. W. D.
Eggar, Mr. H. W. Eve, Dr.. Glad- |
stone, Professor G. Gibson, Professor
Robert Russell, and Mr. R. A. Gregory.

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Xcix

Resolution relating to Committee on Traction of Vehicles.

That in accordance with the Rules of the Association the Committee on the
Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction be authorised to obtain further subscriptions
in aid of its work.

Communications ordered to be printed in extenso.

The Clearing of Turbid Solutions, by Professor Georg Quincke.

The Polarisation of Electric Waves, by Professor Georg Quincke.

Note sur l’unité de pression, par M. C. HE. Guillaume.

Note on the Variation of the Specific Heat of Water, by Professor H. L.
Callendar, F.R.8.

On the Behaviour of young Gulls artificially and naturally hatched, by Professor
J. Arthur Thomson.

£2

e REPORT—1901.

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated lo Scientific Purposes by the
The

Names of the Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer

General Committee at the Glasgow Meeting, September, 1901.

jor the respective Grants are prefixed.

Mathematics and Physics.

£
*Rayleigh, Lord—Hlectrical Standards ..........2..seeseeeeeeenes 40
*Judd, Professor J. W.—Seismological Observations ............ 30
Shaw, Mr WW. IN: —Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere
Woy, TELE OD RARER | 0. 2S. Masia s abe cde slbusha- 6e> Ree 75
Preece, Sir W. H.—Magnetic Observations at Falmouth 80
Chemistry.
*Hartley, Professor W. N.—Relation between Absorption

Spectra and Constitution of Organic Substances............ 20
*Roscoe, Sir H. E.—Wave-length Tables ..... i)

Roberts- Austen, Sir Wm. C.—Properties of Metals and

Alloys affected by dissolved Gases av stay «hie es Se

Geology.
*Geikie, Professor J.—Photographs of Geological Interest ... 5
*Marr, Mr. J. E.—Life-zones in British Carboniferous Rocks 10
*Watts, Professor W. W.—Underground Water of North-
west Yorkshire (Balance in hand)........ ...........2 sesso eee
*Scharff, Dr.—-Exploration of Irish Caves ......... wee 4D
*Woodward, Dr. H.—Type Specimens (Balance in hand)... wee
Zoology.
*Herdman, Professor W. A.—Table at the Zoological Station,

IW EPOB ses nns nae db Sasa cby cue ab s'eveaa stile <pens + aettaeh be eae eee eee 100
*Garstang, Mr. W.—Table at the Biological Laboratory,

Plymouth (Balance £8 5s. Od. in hand) ...............--+0+
*Woodward, Dr. H.—Index Generum et Specierum Ani-

BA SED os Scio aa a icky enews ain-viv» vc be Setaets oy ace tea hae ee 100
*Newton, Professor A.—Migration of Birds .............::sc000 15
*Sedgwick, Mr. A.—Structure of Coral Reefs of Indian Region 50

Murray, Sir John—Compound Ascidians of the Clyde Area 25
Geography.

*Keltie, Dr. J. Scott—Terrestrial Surface Waves ..... 15

Heononie Science and Statistics.

*Brabrook, E. W.—Legislation regulating Women’s Labour 30
Enginecring..

=Preece, sir. W.. H.—Small’ Screw Gaugen, 12-20 -2-e0rtmieea eves 20

*Binnie, Sir A.—Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction ... 50

Carmed forward .1...,s.i.qeeeilevs eves en ae ane ne

* Reappointed.

(St) Spleaits

oo

oOo COR

=)

ooo°o

oo

SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. ci

£ 8. d,
PaO LOT WAP) | ae\ shy catsy says celaas MMos de sieurRirenrense 760 0 0
Anthropology.
*Evans, Mr. A. J.—Silchester Excavation ........... ccc cee cee vee a 50°eC
*Penhallow, Professor D. P.—Ethnological Survey of Canada 15 O 0
*Garson, Dr. J. G.—Age of Stone Circles. 30 0 0
*Read, Mr. C. H.—Photographs of Anthropological ‘Interest
(Balance i im hand). ..,..5) oheaomiaadiaes —
*Tylor, Professor E. B. — Anthropological ‘Teaching sci Hctn dy OOO
*Evans, Sir John—Exploration in Crete ............ ee eee neers £00) 0" 0
Macalister, Professor A.—Anthropometric Investigations on
iNeretye, Hey ulate SOIGIOES? 5 os Acca.cscose SoueacneSs coeagabintys Wika Loy Oe GG
Rhys, Professor J.—Excavations on the Roman Site at
PRA SACE sanataae/taGninady dearer Qh oacdtashh savin css <vatadene ddghos oe Le
Physiology.
McKendrick, Professor J. G.— Work of Mammalian Heart
Hamer WHUMeHeS Of DEUS: Laie 008... shanties Jetniwion dsnonqnre Ld. 0
McKendrick, Professor J. G.—Changes in Hemoglobin ...... 20% ):OrG
Botany.
Farmer, Professor J. B.—Investigations of the Cyanophycee 10 0 0
Marshall Ward, Professor—The Respiration of Plants ...... LomsOr FO
. Educational Science.
Armstrong, Dr. H. E.—Reciprocal Influence of Universities
STEM OOM Fer sol eachdisce cola hde obese Sac dd coleed «Sa coeous onesies DOO
Sherrington, Professor C. 8.t—Conditions of Health essen-
tial to carrying on work in Schools .............c0ccesseceeees 2 Ov, Q
Corresponding Sozieties.
*Whitaker, Mr. W.—Preparation of Report ..........:0.0.cc0 eee Tor 'O
£1,015 0 0
* Reappointed. + Appointed by the Council. ~

The Annual Meeting in 1902.
The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1902 will be held at
Belfast, commencing on September 10.
The Annual Meeting in 1903.

The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1903 will he held at
Southport,

REPORT—1901.

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes

1834.
£ ss, a.
Tide Discussions ......sess.+: 20 0 0
1835
Tide Discussions ........s+.+++s 62° 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
#167 0 0
1836.
Mide Discussions ....<....secce0 163 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0
Thermometric Observations,

USOR, Risa cavern scncsrs+=\siemceanete 50 0
Experiments on Long-con-

UMMC SELCa he asesee tne sn scssens a eae b
Rain-gauges .......essseeeee ies oe te
Refraction Experiments ...... 15 0
DNMALINUTAGLON.. cc. csccecrse ese 60 0
THETMOMELETS .ercsresceccecerey 15 6

£435 0
1837.

Tide Discussions .........+65 .. 264 1 0
Chemical Constants ........... 7 oes t6
Lunar Nutation .,.......cccc00e (Qe KOEI 0)
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 0
Tides at Bristol)c.r2<sssetae.s 0a. LbO's O).:0
Meteorology and Subterre-

nean Temperature.,.......... 93-3 0
Vitrification Experiments 150 0 O
Heart Experiments ............ 8 4 6
Barometric Observations ...... 30) 0 0
IBHTOMPELETS S40. sacecoscsunen exes) GL FER RG

£922 12 6
1838.
Tide Discussions ..... bauigepee ae 29850 20.
British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0 0
Meteorological Observations

and Anemometer (construec-

LOT) aie ee cies weecaianse ce eka baw 100 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0
Animal and Vegetable Sub-

stances (Preservation of)... 19 11
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 1
Bristol TaGes’ .csesvsseees esac ,oeeeOOe 10:
Growthot Plants) cece: (a
WEG HMRIVETS “satecetece ss sas ct 3G
Education Committee ......... 50 O
Heart Experiments ............ 5 3
Land and Sea Level........ aeeeeeOu) ae
Steam-vessels.......0cc.cecesscers 100 O
Meteorological Committee ak = 8)

£932 »

:

lcoroococsd i=) oo

wplaoonoonaqcodeo oo

1839.

£3. a.
Fossil Ichthyology ............ £10.00

Meteorological Observations
at- Plymouth, &¢, ..c.s.cpe0e 63 10 0
Mechanism of Waves ......... 144 2 0
Bristol Tides ..ps--cspesacetee mes 35 18 6

Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature........,... PAN Ts lei 6)
Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 O
Cast-iron Experiments......... MO 3ee0 7,
Railway Constants ........... 28 7 0
| Land and Sea Level............ 274 1 2
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 O 4
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 17118 0
Stars in Lacaille ............... UE SO (3)
Stars in R,A.S. Catalogue 166 16 0
Animal Secretions......... tte DO) 6
Steam Engines in Cornwall,,. 50 0 O
Atmospheric Air .......... rg (ees iL
Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3740) 10
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 JO52G:

Hourly Meteorological Ob-

servations, Inverness and
FIMO USSIC I cece actinn ens tenmetenes 49 7 8
Fossil Reptiles ......... caskesewte 118 .2._.9
Mining Statistics ............... 50 0 0
£1595 11 0

1840.

(DrIsbOv LNG CH. scancoesae-nneeee 100 0 0
Subterranean Temperature... 1313 6
Heart Experiments .......... -- 18190
Lungs Experiments ............ 813 0
Tide Discussions .......s.esse0e 50 0 0
Land and Sea Level...... Poros er ilile sak
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10 0
Stars (Lacaille) ......0..srce-.ons 415 0
Stars (Catalogue) ......ssccse0- 264 0 0
| Atmospheric Air ........se0sees 15 15 0
Waterion Iron) ..2.....0..cssae 10 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... oe) 00)
Meteorological Observations. 52 17 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population ............ 100 0 O
School Statistics ........seeee 560 0 O
Forms of Vessels .........0000+. 184 7 0

Chemical and Electrical Phe-
MOMCNA Ap atssiencee eae ents ean 40 0 0

Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth ..........esssse0e 80 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 9
£1546 16 4
ee ee eee

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1841.
8. Sa
Observations on Waves ..,... 30 0O
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature. ........... 8 8
ACHINOMETETS .........00c00e-ceese 10 Oe (0
Earthquake Shocks ............ 17 7
PACMMMEOISONE..cescceccecsieeccesee §~0
Veins and Absorbents ......... 3 0
ME MOP ERIVOTS: .ccsesesceceasess 5 0
Marine Zoology .......c.sscse..06 15 12
Skeleton Maps) .............c0008 20 0
Mountain Barometers ......... 6 18
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 185 0
Stars (Lacaille)............. sastiahOenit
Stars (Nomenclature of) ..... al 7as
Stars (Catalogue of)............ 40 0
Wrareron Iron si.id......tvecss. 50 0
Meteorological Observations

BI MEAVGINICES) sodesdesedctcesces 20 0
Meteorological Observations

@eduction‘ol£) «.......0...004 25 0
Fossil Reptiles ........ cadatenes 50 0
Foreign Memoirs ........ ...... 62 0
Railway Sections ............. Neos od
Horms of Vessels .......20.0.... 193 12
Meteorological Observations

PIP ELYITHOUHY, .favasectess aeoee 5b O
Magnetical Observations...... 61 18
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-

EPIC ee ct -facsacaseccaexecenes: 160) 0) 10
PPI Gs ab GILAD, <..4..202..0-000ss 50) 0! 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations ...... Gh Teel 3B
Races of Men........... ancuccere 5 0 0
Radiate Animals ............. 2 OW 0)

£1235 10 11

1842.

Dynamometric Instruments.. 113 11 2
Anoplura Britanniz ............ 5212 0
Tides at Bristol ................. og) 180
Gases on Light ...............006 30 14 7
MERTONGMICLETS:.:..c50<-c.2ce0ss cas 2617 6
Marine Zoology..........0....... die Gee)
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 0
Statistics of Education......... 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-

EVIE. ppognadeoaboriophanoea cect . 2 0 0
Stars (Histoire Oéleste) Diese sys a OO)
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0

ehailway SeChOnS ...:..c0c...06 i61 10 O
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 0
Fossil Reptiles (publication

SPeTLC HON) Parent scehcendancs sta 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels ........... ee, LAO O10
Galvanic Experiments on

ROCKS) accrecscacusesess SOP ORELIC 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments

Blin ER VIMOMUN terns sete eso ccets 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dyna-

mometric Instruments ...... 90 0 0

IL=) See

no ocace o SCOonocoaonmsaoce

Force of Wind ........ SECC | al VE Os (0)
Light on Growth of Seeds .. 8 O O
Vital Statistics .............000 oo SHOOT, 0
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race . eawt0
£1449 i7 8&8
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature
OR SUATSE sesescatedepspaesccet oe 2 O40
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue ...... 25 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Firth of
Tos dla Bere oceacciocianccoborocdb Sor 120 0 @
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
FMVerness! z..veevedeweseen 77 12 8
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth Bee ecodbnccorbopct| oo 0) QO
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth ...... 10 0 O
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply- ,
MOWGM sarsescsesesseacssedartiace 20 0 0
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations .......0...ccce00e 30 0 0
Meteorological Instruments
and Gratuities ........ sadease 39 6740
Construction of Anemometer
at Inverness ........ feneese es 5612 2
Magnetic Co-operation....... fe LO MNS EO)
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory .......0.... 50 0 0
Action of Gases on Light...... 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries... 133 4 7
Experiments by Captive Bal-
WDONE esos. seececete cartes 81 8 0
Oxidation of the Rails “of
ail Way sizecs..seccass tastes oses 20°" 0-0
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles: ss... :cts.<<:= 40 0 0
Coloured Drawizgs of Rail-
way Sections .........s0ccesees 147 18 3
Registration of Earthquake
SHOCKS: caameerececsenemecanes ses 80 0 0
Report on Zoological Nomen-
GlanUNG. casas tena stecaensnermece te TO" 7070
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester...... 4 4 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10 0 0
Marine Z0o0logy <s.-civeceeoeeses SeeIOeO 0
Marine Zoolosy -<.cec.ccseseocees, = 2 24 U1
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 0 O
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents ............ 20 0 0
Vital Statistics .........c0csss 36 5 8

REPORT—-1901.

as

1845,
; £ 8 a.
Publication of the British As-
sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6
Meteorological Observations
AL MMNVETMESS wespiereeceunasnaee 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-operation .......+4+ Shri: 1616 8
Meteorological Instruments
at H@inburehi,...s.ss.ss0<.0em 18 11 9
Reduction of Anemometrical
Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0
Electrical Experiments at
Kew Observatory .......4.... 43 17 8
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 149 15 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0
Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50 0 O
The Actinograph .............6. 15 0 0
| Microscopic Structure of
Shells x. c:cgsencevscowstnccerer 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1843 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1843. 2 ¥On-%.
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0 O
Marine Zoology of Cornwall. 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-
CINES |. soshtiecceaeenstaeon cnet 20 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York.. ......... 20 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 1514 8
£831 9 9
1846.
British Association Catalogue
OPSS tars ois ..5..cencpeeens 1844 211 15 0
Fossil Fishes of the London
CIA. sinccostieecoasdiabearamarees 100 0 0
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 ......... 50 0 O
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 14616 7
| Strength of Materials ......... 60 0 0
Researches in Asphyxia ...... 616 2
Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 2 15 10
Vitality of Seeds .........1845 712 -3
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0 0
| Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844 25 0 O
| Expenses attending Anemo-
TNCUCTS alee ecisnise ee sone =isbabeaee ae.
Anemometers’ Repaits......... 2) Fol '6
| Atmospheric Waves ............ ee hei
Captive Balloons ......... 1844 819 8
Varieties of the Human Race
1844 7 6 3
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortalnty an WOrK cn smsssclhe 12,40 0
£685 16 0

ClV
£ 8.
Additional Experiments on

the Forms of Vessels ...... 70 0 0
Additional Experiments on

the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 O
Reduction of Experiments on

the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0
Morin’s Instrument and Con- |

stant Indicator ............... 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength

Die MicerialS sk cvspssecxssiiven ie 60 0 0

£1565 10 2
1844.
Meteorological Observations

at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0
Completing Observations at

Del OU DH iy abese sdeeces se cee'ees 35 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological

CO-OpPeLAtiON. «......ess.0cesees 25 8 4
Publication of the British

Association Catalogue of

‘SHTES “camacdadadesy soe Ou Gn CREA OOC 30 0s 10
Observations on Tides on the

East Coast of Scotland 100 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature

Gir SHER). eanerisoodon soot 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observa-

KORA Qsanopksoccbes. bocdoe-SeeP ncn Uti tr
Instruments for Kew Obser-

ELON Ae nocde Conc NEC ECOLLOOR IC 56 7 3
Influence of Light on Plants 10 0 0
Subterraneous Temperature

andreland .-s.cswseansdescesee By 100
Coloured Drawings of Rail-

WAY MSECLIONS tesa dais nests He TG
Investigation of Fossil Fishes

ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 O
Registering the Shocks of

Earthquakes ............ 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20 0 0
Radiata and Mollusca of the

/igean and Red Seas 1842 100 0 0
Geographical Distributions of

Marine Zoology......... 1842 010 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and

(Cleirahy Gill ear enoseakpnaohecnd bbe 10510, 0
Marine Zoology of Corfu...... 10 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality

OLISCEOS: .sssseceveeweseessudedas 9 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality

ORM SCCOS: shascdcstcudescese 18425 847 23
MxOticvAMOplura | .esssvessssest- oe80) 0
Strength of Materials ......... 100 0 O
Completing Experiments on

the Forms of Ships ......... 100 0 O
Inquiries into Asphyxia ...... 10.00.30
Investigations on the Internal

Constitution of Metals...... 30) «<0! 0
Constant Indicator and Mo-

rin’s Instrument ....,.1842 10 0 0

£981 12 8

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1847,
Sika a.
Computation of the Gaussian

Constants for 1829............ 50 0 O
Habits of Marine Animals... 10 0 O
Physiological Action of Medi-

CIMES oe .ccecsceccverscsoesceens 20 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Atmospheric Waves ........+-+5 Guloh 3
Vitality of Seeds ~............006 zwar
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6

£208 5 4

1848.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 1
Atmospheric Waves ............ 3 10
Vitality of Seeds ............... o)nals
Completion of Catalogue of

ISHCIEE! —~ Saneeenececeerppo sues canes) 70 0
On Colouring Matters ......... 5 0
On Growth of Plants ......... 15 0

£275 1
1849.
Electrical Observations at

Kew Observatory ............ BOD Oho
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at ditto......... Beenie (eh gees
Vitality of Seeds ............... Sr tsienel!
On Growth of Plants ......... SE OF 10
Registration of Periodical

IPPENOMONA.....deccreve-veress 10 0 0
Bill on Account of Anemo-

metrical Observations ...... 13 9 0

£159 19 6
1850.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 255 18
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50 0
Periodical Phenomena......... 15 0
Meteorological Instruments,

PAO GSEs dtetdanintdatatien.s-(ccsteo aio 25 0

£345 18
1851.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

CGneludes part of grant in

GERD Wilaarececeee DaAd edit Pence 309 2 2
Theory of Heat .............0000 ZO I
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-

mals and Plants............... 5 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 6 4
Infinence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries......... 12, 0 O
Researches on Annelida ..,.... TOMTOM O

£391 9 7

CV

1852.
L) 8s Qa
Maintaining the KEstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(ineluding balance of grant
Ge LGB )c a.tuis Repeerene 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduc-

tion Of Heat .....2....secsees Saale
Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland... 15 0 O
Researches on the British An-

TASTING ire yheappodenacococanaca: 10) 40) 6
| Vitality of Seeds ............006 10 6 2
| Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10 0 0

£304 6 7
1853.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 0
Experiments on the Influence
of Solar Radiation ......... 1d, 0...
Researches on the British
/aaraXs tlie EW bone ooarienednn 10006 LOD O10
Dredging on the East Coast
of ‘Scotland Taaiiesamesicase sade LORZOL 0
Ethnological Queries ......... Dy ONO)
£205 0 0
1854,
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

(including balance’ of

FOMET OTAN) sc. sascedsee cea 30 15

Investigations on Flax......... TAL 0)
Effects of Temperature on
Wrought Iron.......0....0..69 10 0
Registration of Periodical
IPRENOMEHAtcsn-tevend gees sees= 10 0
British Annelida <........0s.0«. 10 O
Witality. of Seeds iv. .0sscbe05. at AOL ea <
Conduction of Heat ............ 4 2 0
£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ...... HOWTO: 0
| Physical Aspect ofthe Moon 11 8 5
Vitality of Seeds’ .5..35. sehen. ce Ok cape lk
Map of the World............... 15" 0% 0
Ethnological Queries etetaaeds 5 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 4 00
£480 16 4
1856,
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observa-

tory :—

ISb4u5. rise igo OF 0 7
1855.20.2.€500 9 oF 875 9 0

cvi

a Ome oo Oo o i=] oo o oo i)

SS a
Strickland’s Ornithological

SYNONYMS |. .cisersssswscetessces 100 0 6
Dredging and Dredging

HONING iacecccamprascaes scene ests 2 13. 0
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates ...... 100 =10
Registration of Periodical

IGHENOMCHA srccsstossescs sess 102070
Propagation of Salmon......... 1OPOXO

£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the LEstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory 350 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-

TSURES) Gsssnenageqdionancaedoanaoes 40 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 10 0
Dredging on the West Coast

OU CObLANG cettcess.cerseeccses 10 0
Investigations into the Mol-

lusca of California ......... 10 0
Experiments on Flax ......... 5 0
Watural History of Mada-

GH GIOD Le ep oneingesooseocd ace eona 20 0
Researches on British Anne-

I pe aen esses. sdteseckesdscet ons. 25 0
Report on Natural Products

imported into Liverpool... 10 0
Artificial Propagation of Sal-

HEROD) an stakoc dae cadsoo cerns TOS 0
Temperature of Mines......... (es)
Thermometers for Subterra-

nean Observations,........... ah i
HbieOORUE! ssaearacaessrceseesseaas 5 0

£507 15
1858.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-

FED UM fe paepsriasiassciseics consns os ah'e 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast

OlScotlanGhenssscareadeeses ess. LOR 20
Dredging near Dublin..,.,..... 5 0 0
Vitality of Seed ...., eeapsnegas yeah 0)
Dredging near Belfast...,..... 1813 2
Report on the British Anne-

Ui lairegnnctconssnantrsasteon sari ce 25 0 0
Experiments on the produc-

tion of Heat by Motion in

BULBS: Asche strc cnaaner erate 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Pro-

ducts imported into Scot-

(and ese. ssts snes Reneeginiocp eases TO 50 70

£618 18 2
1859.

Maintaining the Wstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500
Dredging near Dublin......... 15

0
0

0
Q

REPORT—1901.

ne EN
Osteology of Birds ............ 50 0 0
Trish Tunicata .....s.ssee00 sean Bee TONS
Manure Experiments ......... 20 0 0
British Meduside ............ ae eNO WIO
Dredging Committee ......... 56 0 0
Steam-vessels’ Performance... 5 0 O
Marine Fauna of South and

West of Ireland............... 10) a0 50
Photographie Chemistry ...... LO, 10: 0
Lanarkshire Fossils ............ 20 0.74:
Balloon AScents........sccesesese Bods 0

£684 11 1
1860.
Maintaining the Wstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 O
Dredging near Belfast......... La 62i0
Dredging in Dublin Bay...... Lb 070
Inquiry into the Performance

of Steam-vessels ....... stews 124200
Explorations in the Yellow

Sandstone of Dura Den ... 20 0 0O
Chemico-mechanical Analysis

of Rocks and Minerals...... 2b) 0) 10
Researches on the Growth of

PIBIUS Ciegas-ouaaee aenaee=aeeemen 10 0 O
Researches on the Solubility

Ob (Salts) cos -aa-keaasas comaieeae 30 0 O
Researcheson theConstituents

Obs Manes **i5scces rests PB tebe SUbee (0)
Balance of Captive Balloon

Accounts,.,...... spatisrcneatets TTS 6:

£766 19 6
1861.
Maintaining the LEstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory... 500 0 0
Earthquake Experiments...... 25-0 0
Dredging North and Hast

Coasts of Scotland ......... 20 0 0
Dredging Committee :—

1860...... £50 0 O
1861..,,,.£29°°0. 0) ae
Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0 0
Solubility of Salts ............ 20 0 0
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 0
Fossils of Lesmahagow ...... lee0 0
_ Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 0
| Chemical Alloys:= ..cscestesns 20--0 0
Classified Index to the Trans-

ACHIONS.--esn-seeesses <eesoaeses 100 0 0
Dredging in the Mersey and

IDEs: ceorereearceracaerrice rc i Beye:
Dip Cimcle. 2 Feeye eas aap eepeeseee 30 0 0

| Photoheliographic Observa-

TLOTIS sv dtneaep oteieuses unas axe LOOMIO NTO
Prison Diet....... peoateee Fe Pee ie aye)
Gauging of Water ..........s00+ 10; 04.9
Alpine Ascents ...,.5c+. «eo. ow 65 10
Constituents of Manures ...... 25 0 0

£1111 5 10

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1862.
£ 8.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
PATONG WUSIWS: «<ecsi'seissdsecssessne a1 60
Molluscaof N.-W. of America 10 0 0
Natural History by Mercantile

INPHIGITIGN as.ccsctcsiadesesscccess 5 0
Tidal Observations ............ 25 0
Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40 0
Photographic Pictures of the

PUN re sais Sitevictsivele/selclslsterare wes ole 'e 150 O
Rocks of Donegal............... 25 0
Dredging Durham and North-

umberland Coasts ............ 25 0 0
Connection of Storms ......... 20 0 0
Dredging North-east Coast

Ol HCOblARG sec.ccscseeee Eaten OW One
Ravages of Teredo ............ OG
Standards of Electrical Re-

BISEAMIGR. daccccdscdssccasteoc senses 50 0 O
Railway Accidents ............ 10 0 0
Balloon Committee ...... eadser 200 0 0
Dredging Dublin Bay ......... 10 0 0
Dredging the Mersey ......... bi) AOD
ERIRO MISH wdc cees cecee stesso 20 0 0
Gauging of Water............... 1210 0
Steamships’ Performance...... 150 0 O
Thermo-electric Currents ... 5 0 O

£1293 16 6
1863.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory... 600 0 0
Balloon Committee deficiency 70 0 0
Balloon Ascents (other ex-

USES)! sccaceccsaseeavenes safe ae O
Hntoz0a ....c.0006 “rrinrige rsadasey mae 2B 0» 0
ODM GRATIS: vivre sereseieepldavees 20 0 0
Herrings...... crepanenni rAcade 20 0 0
Granites of Donegal............ BOn 0
PBEISONVDVICL, .. .vasepaesivarctakect 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

ite LUG Inesisas'eabicarasgsasesn< quae 13 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 50 0 O
Dredging North-east Coast of

COULANG! Qs... cdssnsaecksscscess 25 0 0
Dredging Northumberland

and Durham ......... nicdgone Vi 310
Dredging Committee superin-

BENCETICO nS ds tny odes «aeeatis ee, LOR OVA
Steamship Performance arene Om Oise (0)
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure .,....... 10 0 0
Volcanic Temperature ......... 100 0 0
Bromide of Ammonium ..... mers 1100.
Electrical Standards.....,...... 100 0 O
Electrical Construction and

Distribution .,..c.scscccceseee 40 0 0
Luminous Meteors ,........... LT O° 0
Kew Additional Buildings for

Photoheliograph ............ 100 0 0

> 8. a

Thermo-electricity ..... “nora: Lo 0) 0
Analysis of Rocks ..... Sco BEr a0 0
Eby droida:.. .2s4,.0- ages esis ses ey OY)
£1608 3 10

CIT RE

1864.
| Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Coal Fossils ..... Ateavowsatere se 20 0 0

| Vertical Atmospheric Move-

IG TUGSIE ereteietates sideelanas sti seeere das 20070
Dredging, Shetland ............ 715: 10°70

| Dredging, Northumberland... 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 O
Carbon under pressure ...... 10 0 O
Standards of Hlectric Re-

SISbANCE! candiceveseddesennassere 100 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ............ 10? -O4"0
ity Gnolday sieecccstedsectoscrsesa ~) 10) 20""0
Askiam's'Gilit Aisseesstesreesee 50 0 O
Nitrite of Amyle ............... LOD LOV0
Nomenclature Committee ... 5 0 9
Ralm-SaUSeS: sstenecaescssseaescs oo) 1b) 8
Cast-iron Investigation ...... 20 0 0
Tidal Observations in the

Euimib Gr sveketsvevecssssetare Jo 150! 05,0
Specurall RaysSi-.tocssesesttrssecee 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 0

£1289 15 8
1865.
Maintaining the Establish- -

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 O
Balloon Committee ............ 100 0 O
FRY OTOLdA rss snaenedesents es nncinae 13 0 0
Rain Oauges) cacy esartaspdcrs annus 30 0 O
Tidal Observations in the

1a tokan}otre Coponccoe-pedn penodeone Gaba O
Hexylic Compounds ............ 20 0 O
Amyl Compounds ........... a Oe Oke O
Trish) Flora .-..-.5 Priocee Arner cone 25.0 0
American Mollusca ...........+ Sere ear)
Organic Acids: ..dsassaseveuts oon 20 0 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10 0 0
Ory pLENPS).* <.-<<cmsseq pasta anes 50 0 O
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 O
Malta Caves Researches ...... 50 0 O
Oyster Breeding ..........0.0« tens 0) 0
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150 0 0

| Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100 0 O

| Moon’s Surface Observations 385 0 O

| Marine: Wamray co -estsceayen aon oreo
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25 0 0
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50 0 0
Zoological Nomenclature....., 5 0 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies

I) Wi tGTiagisaaes ceaheescscses« 100 0 O
Bath Waters Analysis ..,....... 8 10 10
Luminous Meteors ...,.... Pee PO OR

£1591 .7 10

evill
1866.

Maintaining the Establish.

8.

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0
Lunar Committee.............+. 64 13
Balloon Committee ........... 50 0
Metrical Committee..........++ 50 0
British Rainfall.....2...c..+.00- 50 O
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 15 0
Luminous Meteors ........+06+ 50 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20 0
Chemical Constitution of

Cast Tron ....ccceceseveseeeees 50 0
Amy] Compounds ...........+++ 25 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0
Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30. 0
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200 0
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon

and Cornwall .........ssess+0. 25 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25 0
Dredging Hebrides Coast 50 0
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies

DOUONVAILCT vesiepcecescssesvecannves 50 0
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-

CoS evens ecasekesusesesssinaveces 29 0
Rigor Mortis ..... snqgnsQoose Sean 10 0
Inish Annelida .........se0.s.cns 15. 0
Catalogue of Crania............ 50 0
Didine Birds of Mascarene

HATS ieee asiscwsescmsccssssess 50 0
Typical Crania Researches ... 30 0
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100 0

&

ooo°o So SS. ooococ°o cooocoooor)e

0
0
0

1867.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Meteorological Instruments,

IPAM CSHINE srasecevabsicsesesseceac’e 50
Lunar Committee ............006 120
Metrical Committee ............ 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations 100
Palestine Explorations......... 50
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30
IB riiShMalnbeallleewcceesescesae es 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 25
Luminous Meteors ........,... 50
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-beds 30
Dredging Shetland ............ 75
Steamship Reports Condensa-

BLOM eacerinscecesseutasecereetecteare 100
Electrical Standards............ 100
Ethyl and Methyl Series...... 25
HOsSsil Crustacea carccsseccecee 25
Sound under Water ............ 24
North Greenland Fauna ...... 75

Do. Plant Beds 100
Tron and Steel Manufacture... 25
Panenh WAWS Giittisiesesccosces 0

£1739

rIOoCOOoOrCCCSoO Se Sy CNS SO SoS oO

SSO GIS Oi arc) i=)

oloocoooocoooco

|

|

£1750 13 4 |

REPORT—1901.

1868.
£
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. €00

i)

So co coocoooooco oococoocooecsEe

0

ooo oocooceo

WEGEY MS co ooococeo

|

Lunar Committee .........+-.06+ 120
Metrical Committee............ 50
Zoological Record....... ape 100
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150
Steamship Performances . 100
British Rainfall ¢. 5.5.0. canssse «DO
Luminous Meteors......scesevcee 50
Organic ACIGS” fop..0ccn-se-voure 60
Fossil Crustacea.......ssseseceees 25
Methyl Series......... dus» Cassie 25
Mercury and Bile ..........e+0e« 25
Organic Remains in Lime-

stone Rocks ......e.+00+ 00 25
Scottish Earthquakes ....... is gh)
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall... 30
British Fossil Corals ........ + 60

| Bagshot Leaf-beds .......-.... 50
Greenland Explorations ...... 100
HOSsu HLOra wanes ses eee eer 25
Tidal Observations ............ 100
Underground Temperature.., 50
Spectroscopic Investigations

| of Animal Substances ...... 5
Secondary Reptiles, kc. ...... 30
British Marine Invertebrate

AE aE: bee antigneacimeicodoonedo ded 100

£1940
1869.
Maintaining the LEstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Lunar Committee .....s.ssese > eu
Metrical Committee ...... ae 25
Zoological Record .........ssse0. 100
Committee on Gases in Deep-

well Water ........ aero oplocern | 2/7.
British Rain ial ssesnesdueateeesn 50
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,

Chants cccnweena ies iad atisienctes Pere)
Kent’s Hole Explorations. seewia) LOU)
Steamship Performances ...... 30
Chemical Constitution of

Cast lrontevens grosses Sonbo-cee - 80

| Tron and Steel Manufacture 100
| Methyl Series... .<:.secsscenseanin 30
| Organic Remains in Lime-
stone ROCKS.is..cncssessesvsses s LO
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 10
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds ..... Satie es 30
Fossil, Flora) a...éssdeesecvencesss 25
Tidal Observations .........+«- 100
Underground Temperature... 30
Spectroscopic Investigations

of Animal Substances ...... 5
Organic Acids .......00. Bogor: yeeeZ
Kiltorcan Fossils ...... 20

epeeceee

as il =) ooocococo OS Voa'o Oo oO 2:2

.

moo occecoo ooo ooo co coco coeo

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£8. da. |
Chemical Constitution and

Physiological Action Rela-

HLDIOT. neectesetdapseosceran scone 150) 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 10 0 O
Products of Digestion ......... 10 0 0

£1622 0 0
1870.

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 600 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 25° 0) 0
Zoological Record.............. LOO! 00
Committee on Marine Fauna 20 0 O
PRIEST TH WISHES © ercevssc accesses 10 0 O
Chemical Nature of Cast

Wie cess eset nssasdarcnascacesss 200. G
Luminous Meteors ............ SUEY On G
Heat in the Blood............... Tor Ole G
British Rainfall... .......0c000.- 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

HEV ENTT OU coeds cece ss cess ccaaee sss 200) 0
British Fossil Corals............ 50 0 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150 0 O
Scottish Harthquakes ......... 4 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-beds ............ 15 0"*.0
IOESUN OL OTE” Vexteacicvessee ues ADEE Seee Dye UKE
Tidal Observations ..........:, 100 0
Underground Temperature... 50 0
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 50 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 30 0
Onny River Sediment ......... 3.0
Mechanical Equivalent of

TEIES Soaenpeeondcnodarnot Aansendede 50 O

: £1572 0
1871.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 600 0
Monthly Reports of Progress

AME CHEMISHEM sv esicsedevseees se 100 0
Metrical Committee...,........ 25 -0
Zoological Record............... 100 0
Thermal Equivalents of the

Oxides of Chlorine ......... 10 0
Tidal Observations ............ 100 0
Fossil Flora ........ Siabats shores ey)
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0
British Fossil Corals ......... 25 0
Heat in the Blood......... Rode Cee
British Rainfall. s....ccec.ce0, ‘pO! O
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150 0
Fossil Crustacea ....0.......6 peepee}
Methyl Compounds ............ 25 0
TUpAL-ObOCts isesesrer. 20 O

ole oooo loco

ooooosccooceco ooo o

ty Sed
Fossil Coral Sections, for

Photographing .........ss++ 20 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-beds ...... me 20 0 0
Moab Explorations ........... SLOOR10® 0
Gaussian Constants .........+ He 4070. 0

£1472 2 6
1872.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 300 0 O
Metrical Committee............ Tol OM O
Zoological Record.............+. 100 0 0
Tidal Committee ............... 200 0 O
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 25 0 0
Exploration of Moab............ 100 0 0
Terato-embryological Inqui-

TLCS sc ssnsnee ce ssldvaieseeale's's taste LOMO! “O
Kent’s Cavern Exploration.. 100 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 0
Heat inthe Blood)... .0...8.2.<<. L570) 0
Fossil Crustacea ............008 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants of Malta ... 25 0 O
Lranan Objects -\;.cc--..sesseeee 20 0 0
Inverse Wave-lengths ......... 20" *0" 0

| British Rainfall.......... Hoare 100 0 O
Poisonous Substances Anta-

WONISM sae sevcasescecsastetreseete 10. 0 O

| Essential Oils, Chemical Con-

SiMbION, BCieioccscecsassecss ce 40 0 O
Mathematical Tables ......... 50 0.0
Thermal Conductivity of Me-

GAUL ce petnsira sates eeabsccaddcepsee 25 0 0

£1285 0 0
1873.

Zoological Record........+.0+. o3) LOO? OF 70
Chemistry Record............06 200 0 O
Tidal Committee’ .n.css.scs.+- 400 0 0
Sewage Committee ............ 100 0 O
Kent's Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ...... cee OL O
Fossil Elephants ............... 25 0 0
Wave-lenetha fi ctterssoescee 150 0 0O
| British Rainfall... ......¢:qe0ss-s 100 0 0
Mssentia lOc cose csreens 30 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants .......... aaron OO
Sub- Wealden nasil 25 0 0
Underground Temperature... 150 0 0
Settle ‘Cave Exploration ..... = 00) 0) 10
Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20> 0% 0

Timber Denudation and Rain- $

Pally cictpsasreer reteresecececssane, 20) 07 O
Luminous Meteors. aed’ aaense see On? 0

£1685 O 0

cx
1874.
£
Zoological Record........ eeseeae) LOO
Chemistry Record.............. 100
Mathematical Tables ......... 100
Elliptic Functions............ sso 100
Lightning Conductors ......... 10
Thermal Conductivity of
IO GKS Gainscsesccmssevsssecssess's 10
Anthropological Instructions 50
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15
British Rainfall... <s<aseessecssse 100
HSsenithiall Oils. ......<sscseoseseeee 10
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50
Mauritius Meteorology ...... 100
Magnetisation of Iron ...... Oto al)
Marine Organisms............-.. 30
Fossils, North-West of Scot-
Neat Cieescanchacsse res ese ser cecserrs 2

Physiological Action of Light 20
Trades Unions
Mountain Limestone-corals
Erratic Blocks
Dredging, Durham and York-

eee eee ences eeeeee

ooooco cooocococoecoecoduo ooooce

BHINEICOBSUS. ss .cas.sesueroesns 28 5
High Temperature of Bodies 30 0
Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... 3.6
Labyrinthodonts of Coal-

BNEASULES sseaessesesuiquseeses ss 7 15

£1151 16
1876.

Elliptic Functions’ ......6..0 100 0
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20-0
British Reintalle cit seetvaerecess 120 0
-Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0
Chemistry Record............... 100 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0

Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric:Acid....45.0..0--«- 10 0
Tsomeiric/Cresols ....:.secsece. 20 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0
Harthquakesin Scotland...... 16 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0
Development of Myxinoid

IHISHESYAnee owsten cacete.Geaeenhs 20 0
Zoological Record............... 100 0
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 20 0
Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0

£960 0 0
am
1876.
Printing Mathematical Tables 159 4 2
British Rainfall. ..........ce.s0s 400 0 0
Bea SLA Wo5css dus cvcdscdeve Cove, 9-15 0
Tide Caleuwlating Machine ... 200 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0

— oe

n>) let =) ooo oooceo cooocoqcocqceco oocooo®

ooo°oo oococooco oooocoo

REPORT—1901.

£ Ss. a.
Isomeric Cresols ........ Senn i0 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-

ACCLALC. .cscesns(sravveetenseenrds Dies a0)
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid........+0++++ nO)
Exploration of Victoria Cave 100 0 0
Geological Record...........++ OO Om 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivities of

ROCKS Sc scereneaene sacs seeeeeeee 1O 40s 10
Underground Waters ......... LOO) 20
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 110 0
Zoological Record.........+0.+0+ 100 0 0
Close SIME Wcimcesscnnethaenerencae D:, Oy -0
Physiological Action of

SLOW Si socaqqsonene es ly acnboe 25 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 75 O O
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15. 0-0
Physical Characters of Inha-

bitants of British Isles...... 13 15 0
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0
Effect of Propeller on turning

of Steam-vessels .........+. a. PLOen)

£1092 4 2
1877
Liquid Carbonic Acid in

Minerals’... 0. r0tracwonssa teen 20 0 0
Elliptic Functions .........0 250 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

ROCKED sess. vensuebtacsusvecgeates Lee re
Zoological Record.........0006 5. LOOM ORO)
KieritiSsCavern!» venasuvenctelpies « 100, 0-0
Zoologica] Station at Naples 75 0 O
Luminous Meteors .,.......... 30 0 O
Elasticity of Wires .........+. «LOD. 0.2G
Dipterocarpex, Report on ... 20 0 0
Mechanical Equivalent of

Cat get teosess>scneanecmeeecene 35 0 0
Double Compounds of Cobalt

end Nie cel Seeesauetepses reer rah OP C0)

| Underground Temperature... 50 0 0
| Settle Cave Exploration ...... 100 0 0
| Underground Waters in New

Red Sandstone ............00. 16 0 O
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-

ACCLALC csspnesscueds Peto 10-0 0
British Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
Atmospheric Electricity in

Theo Ve aRaaRRe REED jo joebar or cr 15 0 0
Development of Light from

Womltpas’. iccsssxss srr nascese sien 29; -0= 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid...........+0 OE a
Geological Record...........+« 6 100. 50.70
Anthropometric Committee 34 0 0
Physiological Action of Phos-

PHOLIC ACIG, SC...ckevseeses ein a OU

£1128- 9 7

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1878.
£ 8d.
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 0
Geological Record..........00408 100 0 0
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Siphon
HEBCOUA CT Aves dsiedstscsvetso..s3 100.0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
Investigation of Underground
SUVSLUCER so .\ustuussrediscecvecoubes 15 0 0
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
SELUCtUTE........cee0es mebesseta= 30 0 O
Caleulation of Factor Table
for 4th Million ......:.....0-- 100 0 O
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 0
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0
Zoological Record............... 100 0 0
Fermanagh Caves Hxplora-
TROT y SOcoE sor es uBE ce eee Les OAe 0
Therma] Conductivity of
BIROCKS cecctrs -bivrt¥eede cto odd’c cs 416 6
Luminous Meteors............... 10 0 0
Ancient Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
£725 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples ............... Kom Osa
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
ot the North of Ireland 20 0 0
Illustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth ............ tiie Osa
Record of Zoological Litera-
LMU. 5S Ae CaR OO BOROBCOICEEE ET CRC SEES 100 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 O
Exploration of Caves in
HROGMED Aircce saase acs cesoghec seuss 50 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Record of the Progress of
COORG u ss sncar duass ovdaneiec ss 100 0 0
Fermanagh Caves Exploration 5 0 0
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts............... 25 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions... 150 0 0
Underground Waters............ 10 0 0
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0 0
Improvements in Astrono-
aE Cal CLOCKS /ccssngcvuayav'siess 30 0 0
Marine Zoology of South
LEVON Sur sant testa tecalecorsrk. 20 0 0
Determination of Mechanical =o
4..Mquivalent of Heat ......... 1215 6

(=) o i=) ooocoo

cxi
Ee Pha!
Specific Inductive Capacity

of Sprengel Vacuum......... 40 0 0
Tables of Sun-heat Co-

CHICIOHUS wacteecsesee ee ee eees 30 0 0
Datum Level of the Ordnance

DEEVOV occcccnstesedstrecasomsart TO Os 10
Tables of Fundamental In-

variants of Alvebraic Forms 36 14 9
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-

servations in Madeira ...... 15 0 0
Instrument for Detecting

Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22 0 -0

| Instruments for Measuring

the Speed of Ships ......... igen
Tidal Observations in the

English Channel ............ 10 0 0

£1080 11 11
1880.
New Form of High Insulation

IN OV, sosuudesssomecstracsats ce 10 0 0
Underground Temperature... 10 0 0
Determination of the Me-

chanical Equivalent of

Heat te. iin amudctesccedsnssntas iy Seeds

| Elasticity of Wires .. 50 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30. 0
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0
Fundamental Invariants ...... 8 5
Laws of Water Friction ...... 20 0
Specific Inductive Capacity

of Sprengel Vacuum......... 20 0
Completion of Tables of Sun-

heat Coefficients ............ 50 0
Instrument for Detection of

Fire-damp in Mines ......... 10 0
Inductive Capacity of Crystals

and Paraffines ............... ANG 7,
Report on Carboniferous é

ROly 20a) (icecrdecatesd- coe ceneeios 10 0 90
Caves of South Ireland ...... 10 0 O
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-

SAUPUSH cccunieaawas susecomeeneet ac i0 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50 0 0
Geological Record............... 100 0 0
Miocene Flova of the Basalt

of North Ireland ............ Lo, Fo
Underground Waters of Per-

mian Formations ............ 5 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-

IU, pomcobcceneeccn tee paar UL Os 0
Table at Zoological Station

abt Naples ne seteevtas 6 oc,.csen do, OF 0
Investigation of the Geology

and Zoology of Mexico....., 50 0 0
Anthropometry ...........ssc0ce. 50 0 0
Patent Laws wucvacesctieereorrcs 5-0 0

Wei: £7317. 7

exii
1881.
£ 8. da.
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Underground Temperature... 20 0 0
Electrical Standards........ cries 0. 0
High Insulation Key............ D> OL"0
Tidal Observations ........+.+- OOS 0
Specific Refractions ............ (ihe ieee
Hossil Polyz0a ....--ssscseceseee TOR SOLO
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Japan ......... 25 0' 0
Tertiary Flora ........+--.--.++ 20 0 0
Scottish Zoological Station... 50 0 0
Naples Zoological Station fo, 0-0
Natural History of Socotra... 50 0 O
Anthropological Notes and
METRICS lnscsscenesncesieescere ne 9 0 0
Zoological Record............... 100 0 O
Weights and Heights of |
Human Beings .......0.ss+.-+ 30) 0.0
£476 3 1
1882.
Exploration of Central Africa 100 0 0
Fundamental Invariants of
Algebraical Forms ......... (Aspen te ta
Standards for Electrical
Measurements .........-s2000 100 O O
Calibration of Mercurial Ther-
MOMELEIS ...scseeeecrereceeers 20 0 0
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
tra of Blements..........c+++ 50 0 0
Photographing Ultra-violet
Spark Spectra ......-seseeee 25 0 0
Geological Record.......++..+++ 100 0 0
Ear thquake Phenomena of
AAU swe ccnsconesiomeressacqssleat 25 0 0
Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic
IROCKS vc siasatacsgatenssssscseans LOO sO
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... to 30 70)}
Geological Map of Europe ... 25 0 0
Circulation of Underground
WW bE Soon. sees suisse ssmepeni'e vse 1520. -0+)
Tertiary Flora of North of
WZEIRTIGN (iaekcescassiecsnesavace 20 0 0
British WPOlyZ0a -pacccsosessns sues 100 "0
Exploration of Caves of South
of Ireland ..... = SoBOos ERE DOOTe LOO 70
Explorationof RaygillFissure 20 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 80 0 0
Albuminoid Substances of
SEN on cesacp-is custecassenr ese LO 30
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise..........2+.+. 50 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 16 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Natural HistoryofTimor-lant 100 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-
PED eaetchcrarccsdtergesese scene st 100 0 0O
Anthropometric Committee 50 0 0
£1126 1 11 |

REPORT—1901.

1883.
0 8s de
Meteorological Observations
on Ben NevViSir.-.s<.rtrsdesese 50 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
Vall VeGSeesesteradden ease sen neers 15 0 0
Earthquake Phenomena of
JAPAN ss. saetece dowaate neven enon 50 0 O
Fossil Plants of Halifax...... 20 0 0
British Fossil Polyzoa ....,,. v0) ORO
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzeo-
ZOIC ROCKS rete .: <eseeteentieee 25 0 0
Erosion of Sea-coast ot Eng-
land and Wales t:.cc.res. sere 10210140
Circulation of Underground
Waters... .ccsencsheadtseneeenerets Lo. GOS0
Geological Record..:2-0:-tesscs 50AO¥ 10
Exploration of Caves in South
of Inelaridlmen e.stieesee tere 10-0" 0
Zoological Literature Record 100 0 O
Migration OLMBINdS es pacckeek ne 20 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 80 0 0
Scottish Zoological Station... 25 0 0
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise....... eaeeane 38 3 3
Exploration of Mount Kili-
MOA-VIANO shee cersrores nese 500 0 0
Investigation of “Loughton
Camp Tonbecacsdeueceuevasaeomees 10° 0) <0
Natural History of Timor-laut 50 0 0
Screw Gauges... cvas..oceccee Poon, ie OY 0)
£1083 3 &
1884.
Meteorological Observations
on.Ben Nevis:...0.ccu-ceeentes 50 0 O
Collecting and Investigating
MeteoriG=Dust:...3.....sssssess 20 0 0
Meteorological Observatory at
CHE PStOW:. aaccsscntaneancremnest oo OO:
Tidal Observations.............+. £0 S00
Ultra Violet Spark Spectra... 8 4 0
Earthquake Phenomena of
e) ADAM cee ehaacieseetsensneemrekss uo 000
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 150) 0
Fossil Polyza.cesacceagmeache sees 10 0 O
Erratic Blocks of England ... 10 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palio-
ZOUC TOCA Near cpd Geese spae=e en 1b "0.~0
Circulation of Underground
Wialtensivercensascn<tcrcaserenesr (5) seal gan
International Geological Map 20 0 O
Bibliography of Groups of
Invertebrata, ..-.c,ensssarssere 50 0 0
Natural History of Timor-laut 50 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 80 0 0O
Exploration of Mount Kili-
ma-njaro, Hast Africa ...... 500 0 0
Migration of Birds............... 20 0 0
Coagulation of Blood............ 100 0 .0
Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 10 0 0
£1173 4 0
——

GENERAL STATEMENT,

1885,
£
Synoptic Chart of Indian

SU PraLigawace ciate sts dau oviadobonpees 50
Reduction of Tidal Observa-

AGUS Steet tele skidncses ied esesiiae 10
Calculating Tables in Theory

EREMNGIRIID ETS ices ccccsnssercscece 100
Meteorological Observations

on Ben Nevis .......ce..0-ss00e 50
MBECOMG DUSE. ...0.0cencnecseene 70
Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt

Solutions........... Podeoe sone bh 25
Physical Constants of Solu-

IGT Ws cahucedrcclcd dvicsess okies o<a 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

PLUS bee. ceeeaiavdd sects devects dues 25
Rayeill/ Wissure’......60.cc0.ccese 15
Earthquake Phenomena of

RIOAT seiko « Mevkeeanaeidtdes ceded 70
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzeozoic

HOGIENW Maetiedstae-tsiienseoseatt 25
Fossil Plants of British Ter-

tiary and Secondary Beds... 50
Geological Record ............... 50
Circulation of Underground

NIVEA S aiseaer Rass delcc Ser esedeee 10
Naples Zoological Station 100
Zoological Literature Record. 100
Migration of Birds ............ 30
Exploration of Mount Kilima-

REI ALOMM de sss secs doacissscaceseases 25
Recent Polyz0a ..........sceeeees 10
Granton Biological Station ... 100
Biological Stations on Coasts

of United Kingdom ......... 150

Exploration of New Guinea... 200
Exploration of Mount Roraima 100

£1385
1886.
Electrical Standards............ 40 0 0
Solar Radiation..............000. 910 6
Tidal Observations ............ 50 0 0
Magnetic Observations......... 10 10 0O
Observations on Ben Nevis... 100 0 O
Physical and Chemical Bear-

ings of Electrolysis ........ - 20 0 0
Chemical Nomenclature ...... 5.0 0
Fossil Plants of British Ter-

tiary and Secondary Beds... 20 0 0
Caves in North Wales ......... 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

PUIUIS 425 sdacaaersasuived descdoneets 30 0 0
Geological Record............... 100 0 0
Palzozoic Phyllopoda ......... 15 0 0
Zoological Literature Record. 100 0 0
Granton Biological Station... 75 0 0
Naples Zoological Station...... 50 0 0
Researches in Food-Fishes and

Invertebrataat St. Andrews 75 0 0

1901.

ikcocc Soo (SjocOon Co oF Om COCs SOF ClO on DES

i)
-

lellesie coe cece co.o © co CS eteco So So 6 &

£
Migration of Birds ............ 30
Secretion of Urine............... 10
Exploration of New Guinea... 150
Regulation of Wages under
Sliding Scales .............. 10
Prehistoric Race in Greek
ISIANGS's sk acecsparesttasuas stat « 20
North-Western Tribes of Ca-
TAG Decaits osau’d Gove wses -Satvoevtitaes 50
£995
1887.
Solar Radiation .............00..- 18 1
HilectrolysSis,.sccccescscearses.ostes 30
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 75
Standards of Light (1886
SOLAN) |e ccsuasasovetews tscameree 20
Standards of Light (1887
SUANG )ececeeeseceeaeess- cere sees 10
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal
Observations) 5.0.55 scan eee 15
Magnetic Observations......... 26
Electrical Standards ...,........ 50
Silent Discharge of Electricity 20
Absorption Spectra ............ 40
Nature of Solution ............ 20
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
WAUSicotecstsecreckoseescasereate 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(1886 grant) «2.60.2... cess. 50
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
@ssiieranty) -2c eeetc ce 50
Cae Gwyn Cave, N. Wales ... 20
Erratic Blocks .............00.. 10
Fossil Phyllopoda ............... 20
Coal Plants of Halifax......... 25
Microscopic Structure of the
Rocks of Anglesey............ 10
Exploration of the Eocene
Beds of the Isleof Wight... 20
Underground Waters ......... 5
‘Manure’ Gravelsof Wexford 10
Provincial Museums Reports 5
Lymphatic System ............ 25
Naples Biological Station 100
Plymouth Biological Station 50
Granton Biological Station... 75
Zoological Record ............... 100
Wlorajor China avs. vereates ee 75
Flora and Fauna of the
Cameroons. 2..5c. erect scetdeveue 75
Migration of Birds ..........., 30
Bathy-hypsographical Map of
British Isles) 2279....00:.25. 7
Regulation of Wages ......... 10
Prehistoric Race of Greek
slams. ccancocenta ter tess ese - 20
Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20
£1186 1

oo of co ceccoocoeocoso So cqocoe & oo oso cone Go oS oo
oop CC Go cHoococeeso © oeocoeo SC ce Seoooceo SCS Ss eos

8

—)

REPORT—1901.

cXiv
1888.

£8. +d.
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 150 0 0]
Electrical Standards............ 2 6 4
Magnetic Observations......... 15 O10
Standards of Light ............ 79 2 3
HNECHOlYSIS Visec.s.csssncesveess BOPeO 2 20N
Uniform Nomenclature in

WMECHAMICHsHeelersspcectes ves 10 0 0
Silent Discharge of Elec-

GEICHEY, 26... sscoceeeressessecssece Crh IO!
Properties of Solutions ...... 25 0 0 |
Influence of Silicon on Steel 20 0 O
Methods of Teaching Chemis-

RVI occ - \s.curtee ses spacunt LO 10820
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-

GUVES orev ss sss scoudpiscadesieseh« 2p, 0 40
Action of Light on Hydracids 20 0 0
Sea Beach near Bridlington... 20 0 0 |
Geological Record ...........+..- 50 0 O
Manure Gravels of Wexford... 10 0 O
Erosion of Sea Coasts ......... LO" 00
Underground Waters ......... by O™0
Paleontographical Society ... 50 0 0
Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth... 50 0 O
Carboniferous Flora of Lan-

cashire and West Yorkshire 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

CATIS Rao deine sain cise eiselsiwailels sina 20 0 0
Zovlogy and Botany of West

ThaGhiesy Saageesppadeadeueenoecshen 100 0 O
Flora of Bahamas ....... penn aree 100 0 O
Development of Fishes—St.

MASONIC WS) aaisiatu vena xeisiie sem ein sae 50 0 0
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ HU ate)
LONowe rove) (Clawt eh: hs sa sem escearco- is OG,
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Lymphatic System ............ 25 0.0
Biological Station at Granton 50 O 0
Peradeniya Botanical Station 50 0 0
Development of Teleostei 13:0 210
Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar

TRIG CIGUS bewesetsss oneness Sauk ieats by sOnaO
Precious Metals in Circulation 20 0 0
Value of Monetary Standard 10 0 O
Effect of Occupations on Phy-

sical Development............ 23 0 O
North-Western Tribes of

(Gan adah sea a. ce eccrpesints see 100 0 0
Prehistoric Race in Greek

NG land Stec. te nectrenscsseriesdns 20: OL 0

Zeb e MUb (Oi 3151

1889.
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50 0 0
Electrical Standards............ fia? 0) 80
IGCtrOlySis-:.c.ssesses sss ctercceee 20) “O10
Surface Water Temperature... 80 0 O
Silent Discharge of Electricity
ODOR Y SEN) Gaswsesensescoosssace 6 4 8 |

£ 8. d.
Methods of teaching Chemis-
(ALY seseeeeeeseeeeettestntseeeees 10 0 0
| Action of Lighton Hydracids 10 0 0
Geological Record ..........s000 80 0 0
Voleanic Phenomena of Japan 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VIUIS). 54. swccekeatcseseceeemen wolta20} 10! 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 20.0 0
Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of

Wight ic npemeseeee ose costs LONGO) 0
West Indian Explorations ... 100 0 0O
Hloraol Chinas. .ca-sq-daeseae 25 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0

| Physiology of Lymphatic

System “leeks. -ccseeseaseneeeee 25 0 0
Experiments with a Tow-net 516 3
Natural History of Friendly

Tslands; sts. sseaces seueees thease 100 0 O
Geology and Geography of

Atlas Ranges.) -..iccesenpeas 100 0 0
Action of Waves and Currents

In HstuarieS inccscssccnsssee - 100 0 O
North-Western ‘Tribes of

Cala aiasasenecaessvs snaeesecte 150 0 0
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 30 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0 0
Marine Biological Association 200 0 0
‘ Baths Committee,’ Bath...... 100 0 0

£1417 O 11
1890.
Electrical Standards............ 12 Li, 10
WleCtrOly Sis; p< scmues wane ssbiew shee 5 0.0
Hlectro-optics..........s2seeceevee 50 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 0
Volcanic and Seismological

Phenomena of Japan ...... 75 0 0
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 15 30) 10
Properties of Solutions ...... 10" +0). 70
International Standard forthe

Analysis of Iron and Steel 10 0 0
Influence of the Silent Dis-

charge of Electricity on

OXY Sen s.cnts.tearesvedsectecee 5 0 0
Methods of teachingChemistry 10 0 0
Recording Results of Water

TA NANV SIR vine wtae Meeereete serene Stl: [0
Oxidation of Hydracids in

Sunlio hires ioeceeeces.veaeerer 15 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VALU Sioa aetepictecss «eee eater eee 20 0 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 10 0 0
Circulation of Underground

WHAGCES «5 tereseecenenncs steeds 5.0 0
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 15 0 O
Cretaceous Polyzoa ............ 10400
Geological Photographs ...... 7 1411
Lias Beds of Northampton... 25 0 0
Botanical Station at Perade-

MIVA: cS Wot eee once sdacenee 25 10'>0

GENERAL STATEMENT. CXv

Investigation of ElboltonCave 25

Botanical Station at Pera-

SUSHI hao. Su cubeeecnoter theoctebe
Experiments with a Tow-net
Marine Biological Association
Disappearance of Native
PANS ic. lces cass seu cdoams ones is
Action of Waves and Currents

OM HISCUATICS 2. 6cicstaesecendee
Anthropometric Calculations
New Edition of ‘ Anthropo-

logical Notes and Queries’
North - Westen Tribes of

WANA ae seach es eetanecscwdase 200

£ 8. d. | 1892.
Experiments with a Tow- pe fatal
BACB) focetessspranassseosassseszesb> 4 3 9 Observations on Ben Nevis... 50 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0 Photographsof Meteorological
Zoology and Botany of the PHENOMENA... .2+2.eseceersreers 1 0 0
West India Islands ......... 100 0 O Pellian Equation Tables ...... LO OO
Marine Biological Association 30 0 Discharge of Electricity from
Action of Waves and Currents ROWS ws. sseun-caencesseersaveess 0 0
in HstuarieS ........-.s-..ee0. 0 | Seismological Phenomena of
Graphic Methods in Mechani- | JAPAN J. .eoancmecesensesnesssene 0 0
MALS GCIEN CC le reabernwivesascercess 0 | Formation of Haloids ......... 0 0
Anthropometric Calculations 0 Properties of Solutions ...... 0 0
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 0 Action of Light on Dyed
Corresponding Societies ...... 0 WOlOUTSP See sc-cnsidencaarelssnaes 0 0
279 Hrratic BlocKS .....cssess+<-2-=) 0 0
ae Photographs of Geological
SIMPLES a. secs <3 nancweenan aes a= OO
| Underground Waters ......... 0 0
1891 Investigation of Elbolton
: ‘i Cavetsme tse: sercasactenecseteceet 0 0
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 0 0 xcavations at Oldbury Hill 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 0 0 | Cretaceous Polyz0a ........000 0 0
Electrolysis.........-.+..s00e0+++++ 0 0 | Naples Zoological Station 0 0
Seismological Phenomena of Marine Biological Association 0 0
Japan Gegisnducenscesesccessedeans 0 | Deep-sea Tow-neticdsicedieeisces 0 0
Temperatures of Lakes......... 0 O | Fauna of Sandwich Islands... 0 0
Photographs of Meteorological Zoology and Botany of West
Phenomena........ srysenesseees 0 Tnidia Islands Pyemcsecteceass 0 0
Discharge of Electricity from Climatology and Hydrography
POINtS ..0..-.2eeeeeeeeeeeeererers 0 of Tropical Africa ......... .. 0 0
Ultra Violet Rays of Solar Anthropometric Laboratory... 0 0
Spectrum coc cncccveccccecscscs 50 0 | Anthropological Notes and
International Standard for Queries” is... 24 eiasaecdeceeaees 20 0° 0
Analysis of Tronand Steel... 10 0 Prehistoric Remains in Ma-
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva- shonaland .....:csceessseass st DOP OO
OEVIE Statins es can seas Weabad Ula ctor Nese 25 0 North-Western Tribes of
Formation of Haloids ......... 25.0400") |) Canadas wate tecwswents 100 0 0
Action of Light on Dyes ...... 17 10 0 | Corresponding Societies ...... 2500
Geological Record............... 100 0 Sa
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu- | £864 10 0
AGB Lia ccusessseteucseviectancnss, 10 0
Fossil Phyllopoda............... 10 0 |
Photographs of Geological ee,
BUEN EGE tis, tans senses sindeense <o 9 5 1893.
Lias of Northamptonshire ... 25 0 Electrical Standards............ 25
Registration of ‘Type-Speci- Observations on Ben Nevis... 150
mens of British Fossils...... 5 5 Mathematical Tables ......... 15
0
0)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Corresponding Societies ......

o

rary

;o oOo © aS) 9 oe) ooo oo coco oo ooco le ice =) Oo oo

Intensity of Solar Radiation 2

Magnetic Work at the Fal-
mouth Observatory .........
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
VALVES cacbctrwnieabee demcecer s
BirraticG BlOCKS" eicesdarsaeseeeve
Fossil Phyllopoda..............+
Underground Waters .........
Shell-bearing Deposits at
Clava, Chapelhall, &ce. ......
Eurypterids of the Pentland
i's =} Peeper bee cree oe Sct
Naples Zoological Station
Marine Biological Association
Fauna of Sandwich Islands
Zoology and Botany of West
Im@iawislands'...<<-c.+0+0 «0+

Se eeoo Sf SSe0e9— SF weSSSO
oO oeoooo So CcoSecooec co eocoeo

Cxvi

Exploration of Ivish Sea ......
Physiological Action of
Oxygen in Asphyxia.........
Index of Genera and Species
OLA MA Sic scaaeauee teens 18s
Exploration of Karakoram
AVIGQUNTAINS) opcscece-teneses pecs «
Scottish Place-names .........
Climatology and MHydro-
graphy of Tropical Africa
Economic Training ............
Anthropometric Laboratory
Exploration in Abyssinia......
North-Western ‘Tribes of
Wananaiiererataecssecssacten ssh

£907 15

1894,

Filectrical Standards............
Photographs of Meteorological
HCNOMECNAL << s..0sssesseaendns
Tables of Mathematical Func-
BIOMSUires aaccaet segs yoideisus Ag 5
Intensity of Solar Radiation
Wave-length Tables ............
Action of Light upon Dyed
COlOUES I 7.55 ebasestendens:vosss
UY TAL CPDLOCKS ..cecmaates ssaeees
Fossil Phyllopoda...............
Shell-bearing Deposits at
CUAVANCECS Fe-8. cawanctesssesacion
Ely S Seen cancacensperssscurceethte
New Sections of Stonestield
WIRLOMB cr sasencsatecsnvesses nds
Observations on Earth-tre-
HUONG pater canis ccs svvosscacrsecers
Wane taroer cass tase doacascestreesis
Naples Zoologica] Station ...
Marine Biological Association
Zoology of the Sandwich
Reaerride, hees. ga ddan a
Zoology of the Trish Sea ......
Structure and Function of the
Mammalian Heart............
Exploration in Abyssinia
Economic Training ............
Anthropometric Laboratory
SUA DISEICS: 2 cn dtaumswenceseeoneee
Ethnographical Survey ......
The Lake Village at Glaston-
DD EIY Sakis css vanes sebaeaceemete sa
Anthropometrical Measure-
ments in Schools ............
Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children

oo ooo SeF ooo so So So i>) ooo one SJ 1S)

REPORT—1901.

1895.

| Electrical Standards............

Photographs of Meteorological
Phenomena ...........-0.sc0-ss0
Marth Lremors\.) pec escsuseaeeees
Abstracts of Physical Papers
Reduction of Magnetic Obser-
vations made at Falmouth
Observatory <0 20. sceacsstsoens
Comparison of Magnetic Stan-
dards! ...... cesaeresnsieeeenteee

| Meteorological Observations

on Ben NeviSiz..-sserseeeceres
Wave-length Tables of the
Spectra of the Elements ...

Action of Light upon Dyed

QOlOURS' | hii dese -Siomseeeetere
Formation of Haloids from
Pure Materials .............:.
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
VALIVES:..tsiscoessate ls saeeeneeee
Electrolytic Quantitative An-

ALYSIS| .zteressees panne eareen see
Mrraie BIOCKS) sinewsesseces “cde
Palzeozoic Phyllopoda .........
Photographs of Geological In-

GTOSU) pespanseeeeens Pineadsmodcc

Shell-bearing Deposits at
Clava, &C.. cpacssepseccueetaates
Eurypterids of the Pentland
ELM Sivee es su sapseepaaeenierse ee eene
New Sections of. Stonesfield
PSHE HSER ae Seca ace aSparne Rees cc
Exploration of Calf Hole Cave

Nature and Probable Age of

High-level Flint-drifts ......

| Table atthe Zoological Station

ab NA@plen on stseneccceee seas
Table at the Biological Labo-
ratory, Plymouth ............
Zoology, Botany, and Geology
of the Trish Sea.......-.... 0.
Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands .........
Index of Genera and Species
OL ANIMAS es, cwereseenteeee
Climatology of Tropical Africa

| Exploration cf Hadramut

Calibration and Comparison of
Measuring Instruments ...
Anthropometric Measure-
ments in Schools ............
Lake Village at Glastonbury
Exploration of a Kitchen-
midden at Hastings .........

| Ethnographical Survey ......

Physiological Applications of
the Phonograph...............
Corresponding Societies ......

Som. os
Soc sone

Teo pe
Oy Ge S=>S

lord
i

oo oo oo o ooo o 6 ye (= o oo o jo) o ooo Cy ae

Se Ig AIO SOO SP OO’ Oy BO PR US Oe Oe Oro =O) SO. IS. AOS Su Or Oo

|
|

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1896.

ss

Photographs of Meteorologi-
cal Phenomena............0..- 15 0
Seismological Observations... 80 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0

Calculation of Certain Inte-
i Merasecsettencctecdeeossce ses 10 0

Uniformity of Size of Pages of
Transactions, &C. .........46. 5 0

Wave-length Tables of the
Spectra of the Elements... 10 0

Action of Light upon Dyed
ROIOUIBY Ftisscescesstacest reese 2
Electrolytic Quantitative Ana-

LVRLE -Ancgeneecooddentaccosdndscees 10
The Carbohydrates of Barley
“SHIN ida Bondodce ieasees senetician 50
Reprinting Discussion on the
Relation of Agriculture to
DGICNCE) ..cersseccscsssesevevace 5
Mirratic Blocks iis...ss-sece-ee 0s 10
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 5
Shell-bearing Deposits at
ROIAV AEC, Hleineidelcevaeteouteesns 10
Eurypterids of the Pentland
ELTA estas cold sicieaissle'slee'eclsieaine'st'cis's 2
Investigation of a Coral Reef
by Boring and Sounding... 10
Examination of Locality where
the Cetiosaurus in the Ox-
ford Museum was found... 25
Paleolithic Depositsat Hoxne 25
Fauna of Singapore Caves ... 40
Age and Relation of Rocks
near Moreseat, Aberdeen 10
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion at Naples ............... 100
Table at the Biological Labo-
ratory, Plymouth ............ 15
Zoology, Botany, and Geology
of the Irish Sea .............++ 50
Zoology of the Sandwich Is-
LEIGGTE C Canoaepecancorncacboreeoe 100
African Lake Fauna............ 100
Oysters under Normal and
Abnormal Environment ... 40
Climatology of TropicalAfrica 10
Calibration and Comparison of
Measuring Instruments...... 20
Small Screw Gauge ............ 10
North-Western Tribes of
(QP TERI EN CAtcAaropeaene erect Hone 100
Lake Village at Glastonbury. 30
Kthnographical Survey......... 40
Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children............... 10
Physiological Applications of
the Phonograph............... 25
Corresponding Societies Com-
SANTRCO Ts tacccrecss «va causscenaeer 30
£1,104

o oe oOo ooo

d
0
0
0
0
0
0

ono woe _So':S

1897.
£
Mathematical Tables ......... 25
Seismological Observations... 100

Abstracts of Physical Papers 100

Calculation of Certain In-
Hep TaAls)..... leeds oiclacdsials sieamias é 10
Electrolysis and _ Electro-
CREMISEEY 5 acexundacasn-sdseanss 50
Electrolytic Quantitative Ana-
LYSIS Esedee sacunasdtsansacacsintesas 10
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
VAIL seek saa-danadanaenaues acess 50
Erratic Blocks ............s00008 10
Photographs of Geological
THtGrest <ieac. cseesesancsete ae orl 15
Remains of the Irish Elk in
the Isle of Man............... 15
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion; Naplesi\s.sereccsaseaces +a 100
Table at the Biological La-
boratory, Plymouth ......... 9
Zoological Bibliography and
PUble@ablOls..csvasqsadaceagee
Index Generum et Specierum
AMMA LUA... eee rs». odaeee 100
Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands ......... 40
The Details of Observa-
tions on the Migration of
PBIEGS Dee ran toblaes dese serepech coe 40
Climatology of Tropical
ALTICN ces eeclstedteewstays esse 20
Ethnographical Survey......... 40
Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children............... 10
Silchester Excavation ......... 20
Investigation of Changes as-
sociated with the Func-
tional Activity of Nerve
Cells and their Eee ea
HIXPEHSIOUSH secp uses seeenens sss 180
Oysters and Typhoid ......... 30
Physiological Applications of
the Phonograph..............+ 15
Physiological Effects of Pep-
tone and its Precursors...... 20

Fertilisation in Phzophycez 20
Corresponding Societies Com-

MINES! 0s cpeqesepehacansepocdeas © 25
£1,059

1898.
Electrical Standards............ 75
Seismological Observations... 75

Abstracts of Physical Papers 100
Calculation of Certain In-

CEGTAIS)..casuteseccstcttiadecscsss 10
Electrolysisand Electro-chem-

ISU Vie evacee testcase eoesarenes ces 35
Meteorological Observatory at

Nominee lecessnaess¥acescneets == 50

CXVii

oe oO” iO

eo o ¢ ooo

So) Bmiomin (> 2) (5) Some nnOmo- Soo.”

ole corr%eqe oo So S'S

° =} {=} coo

REPoRT—1901.

cxviil
£ s. d.
Wave-length Tables of the
Spectra of the Elements ... 20 0 0
Action of Light upon Dyed
COlOUTS .......eceecersveeeeee 8 0 0
Hrratic BIOCKS ....ssssecersseess be 0h 20
Investigation of a Coral Reef 40 0 0
Photographs of Geological
TMECLESH sve decccerercerencenscee 10 0
Life-zones in British Carbon-
iferous Rocks...........+++eees 15 0
Pleistocene Fauna and Flora
IM Canada ....ssccccrecercreees 20 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion, Naples ...... -.--csse0- 100 O
Table at the Biological La-
boratory, Plymouth ......... 14 0
Index Generum et Specierum
PATH ALIN fees gecserssedsbencs ss 100 0
Healthy and Unhealthy Oys-
ulgias} BABHOarnc Mele sdar te mcnentieenens 30 0
Climatology of Tropical Africa 10 0
State Monopolies in other
CWOUNLTICS 7.20.2 ,cececccooscsecs Ib 0
Small Screw Gauge ........... 20 0
North-Western Tribes of
CANAG Arasacves cadeesasaneties osc 75,0
Lake Village at Glastonbury 37 10
Silchester Excavation ......... 7 10
EthnologicalSurveyof Canada 75 0
Anthropology and Natural
History of Torres Straits... 125 0
Investigation of Changes asso-
ciated with the Functional
Activity of Nerve Cells and
their Peripheral Extensions 100 0 0
Fertilisation in Pheophycee 15 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
PATIL Coote tnenete tale seeietire caste se 25.00
£1,212 0 0
1899.
Electrical Standards............ 225 0 0
Seismological Observations... 65 14 8
Science Abstracts ..............- 100 0 0
Heat of Combination of Metals
TUBA LLOY Sto emcnansanttndestantseiate 20 0 O
Radiation ina Magnetic Field 50 0 O
Calculation of Certain In-
RECT AIS seer ces oseseretmccesese snes 10 0 0
Action of Light upon Dyed
‘ClO THEY Thangs ada socassocudadoce 419 6
Relation between Absorption
Spectra and Constitution of
Organic Substances ......... 50 0 0
Erratic Blocks ............ss000. 15 0 0
Photographs of Geological
ADETESU peowanciecanseecesersans +s TORSO. 0
Remains of Irish Elk in the
HRlevOIp AN s.. warescncsseosse. 1 0 0
Pleistocene Flora and Fauna
MMICAHAGCAY co -csresceensseen sens 30 0 0

|

CRs
| Records of Disappearing Drift
Section at Moel Tryfaen... 5 0 O
Ty Newydd Caves...... sapemecen 40 0 O
Ossiferous Caves at Uphill .. 30 0 0
| Table at the Zoological Sta-
| ‘tion, Naplesit...-sns.seacdeana 100505 10
| Table at the Biological La-
boratory, Plymouth ......... 20 0,0
Index Generum et Specierum
Animalinm 222. sssecsatammeees 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ....... ions Onl Dy OingO
Apparatus for Keeping Aqua-
ticOrganisms under Definite
Physical Conditions ......... 15 0 0
Plankton and Physical Con-
ditions of the English Chan-
nel during 1899)... -osssseen 100 0 0
Exploration of Sokotra ...... 36 0 O
Lake Village at Glastonbury 50 0 0O
Silchester Excavation ........ 10 0 0
Ethnol ogicalSurvey of Canada 35) 0,.0
New Edition of ‘ Anthropolo-
gical Notes and Queries’... 40 0 0
Age of Stone Circles..........., 20 0 0
Physiological Effects of Pep-
POUG/Uhs. dss peaceaesacee eee 30 0 0
Electrical Changes accom-
panying Discharge of Res-
piratory Centres.............06 20.0.0
Influence of Drugs upon the
Vascular Nervous System... 10 0 0
| Histological Changes in Nerve
Cells iiitecsesacetenesed-omheneieae 20 0 0
Micro-chemistry of Cells . coal) 40,040:
Histology of Suprarenal Cap-
SUILES)= <c.e chen en ba onedteestlan 20, 0.0
Comparative Histology of
Cerebral Cortex .........00...» 10 0 0
Fertilisation in Phyzeophyces 20 0 0
Assimilation in Plants......... 20 0 0
Zoological and Botanical Pub-
|: lication. %.s2.% scesunedanr sees ae DO WO
| Corresponding Societies Com-
MIGbCC 2.2 cschaecscMaaesideehee ses 25 0 O
£1,430 14 2
1900.
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Seismological Observations... 60 0 O
Radiation ina Magnetic Field 25 0 0
Meteorological Observatory at
Monitealll strc rscae <e-seeessonare 20-0" 0
Tables of Mathematical Func-
TONS Ue awecks ate snseccsteresenea 15 "0>0
Relation between Absorption
Spectra and Constitution
of Organic Bodies........... OO OaeO
Wave-length Tables...........5 5 0 0
Electrolytic Quantitative
PATA SiSteatsevenahevonrerasene ae, 0 OREO

Isomorphous Sulphonic Deri-
vatives of Benzene
The Nature of Alloys
Photographs of Geological
Interest
Remains of Elk in the Isle of

eee e eee rmnneeteeeseane

Pleistocene Fauna and Flora
in Canada
Movements of Underground
Waters of Craven
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion, Naples
Table at the Biological La-
boratory, Plymouth .........
Index Generum et Specierum
PATUTVIAN TUN... caceseabeves scene

eee eee eee eee ry

Migration of Birds ............
Plankton and Physical Con-
ditions of the English
@hannel 2.5 keccctsshcesapevectvct

Zoology of the Sandwich
Islands
Coral Reefs of the Indian
HCD EOHoeansasensasetveaeraiaces
Physical and Chemical Con-
stants of Sea-Water
Future Dealings
Produce
Silchester Excavation
Ethnological
Canada ........ pcObedooerhistan
New Edition of ‘ Anthropo-
logical Notes and Queries’
Photographs of Anthropo-
logical Interest .............0«
Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children in Schools
Ethnography of the Malay
Peninsula

in Raw

tone

eee e eee eee een eeeeeeneeeee”

Comparative Histology of
Suprarenal Capsules.........
Comparative Histology of
Cerebral Cortex...............

Electrical Changes in Mam-
malian Nerves’ .....0-....106
Vascular Supply of Secreting
AGIAN Nein ssiavee aesvsdseos «hens

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£

20
30

10
5
10
40
100

10

8.

oo Se i=) i) f=) i=) oS

Sl fer 6S) je} SS) deh fer ey a a ae SI =) = a)

Srey SS St ee a KEN ee ee re)

exix

en sh ate
Fertilisation in Pheophycee 20 0 0
Corresp. Societies Committee 20 0 0
£1,072 10 0
1901.

Electrical Standards...... ... 45 0 0
Seismological Observations... 75 0 0
Wave-length Tables............ 414 0

Isomorphous Sulphonic Deri-

vatives of Benzene ......... 35 0 0
Life-zones in British Carbo-

| niferous Rocks ..........0+.+. 20 0 0
| Underground Water of North-

west Yorkshire ............... 50 0 0
Exploration of Irish Caves... 15 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

TiOn; sNaiples}ies.cssesessecee 100 0 0
Table at the Biological La-

boratory, Plymouth ......... 20 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum

AIMaliUM A. cccccsscae cesses 75 0 O
Migration of Birds ............ 10 0 0
Terrestrial Surface Waves ... 5 O O
Changes of Land-level in the

Phlegrzan Fields............ 50 0 0
Legislation regulating Wo-

MENS MaDOUL ss. s.ee-eesenes-ss 15 0 0
Small Screw Gauge............ 45 0 0
Resistance of Road Vehicles

Go ractlon cbs. seocsteserece et T0010
Silchester Excavation ......... LOTION IO
Ethnological Survey of

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CXxX REPORT—1901.

General Meetings.

On Wednesday, September 11, at 8.30 p.m., in St. Andrew’s Hall,
Glasgow, Sir William Turner, K.C.B., F.R.S., resigned the office of
President to Professor A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., Sec. R.S., F.R.S., who took
the Chair, and delivered an Address, for which see page 3.

On Thursday, September 12, at 8.30 p.m., a Soirée took place in the
City Chambers.

On Friday, September 13, at 8.30 p.m., in St. Andrew’s Hall, Pro-
fessor W. Ramsay, F.R'S., delivered a Discourse on ‘The Inert Con-
stituents of the Atmosphere.’

On Monday, September 16, at 8.30 pm. in St. Andrew’s Hall,
My. Francis Darwin, F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on ‘ The Movements of
Plants.’

On Tuesday, September 17, at 8.30 p.m., a Soirée took place in
the Exhibition Buildings.

On Wednesday, September 18, at 2.30 p.m., in the University, the con-
cluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings of the General
‘Committee and the Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes were explained
to the Members.

The Meeting was then adjourned to Belfast. [The Meeting is
appointed to commence on Wednesday, September 10, 1902.]

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PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

ADDRESS

BY

Proresson ARTHUR W. RUCKER, M.A., LL.D.,
D.Sc., Sec.B.8.

PRESIDENT.

Tue first thought in the minds of all of us to-night is that since we met
last year the great Queen, in whose reign nearly all the meetings of the
British Association have been held, has passed to her rest.

To Sovereigns most honours and dignities come as of right ; but for
some of them is reserved the supreme honour of an old age softened by
the love and benedictions of millions ; of a path to the grave, not only
magnificent, but watered by the tears both of their nearest and dearest,
and of those who, at the most, have only seen them from afar.

This honour Queen Victoria won. All the world knows by what
great abilities, by what patient labour, by what infinite tact and kindli-
ness, the late Queen gained both the respect of the rulers of nations and
the affection of her own subjects.

Her reign, glorious in many respects, was remarkable, outside these
islands, for the growth of the Empire ; within and without them, for
the drawing nearer of the Crown and the people in mutual trust ; while,
during her lifetime, the developments of science and of scientific industry
have altered the habits and the thoughts of the whole civilised world.

The representatives of science have already expressed in more formal
ways their sorrow at the death of Queen Victoria, and the loyalty and
confident hope for the future with which they welcome the accession of
King Edward. But none the less, I feel sure that at this, the first
meeting of the British Association held in his reign, I am only expressing
the universal opinion of all our members when I say that no group of the
King’s subjects trusts more implicitly than we do in the ability, skill,
and judgment which His Majesty has already shown in the exercise of
the powers and duties of his august office ; that none sympathise more
deeply with the sorrows which two great nations have shared with their
Sovereigns ; and that none cry with more fervour, ‘Long live the King !’

But this Meeting of the British Association is not only remarkable

as being the frst in a new reign. It is also the first in a new century.
B2

4 REPORT—1901.

It is held in Glasgow at a time when your International Exhibition has
in a special sense attracted the attention of the world to your city, and
when the recent celebration of the ninth jubilee of your University has
shown how deeply the prosperity of the present is rooted in the past.
What wonder, then, if I take the Chair to which you have called me with
some misgivings? Born and bred in the South, I am to preside over a
Meeting held in the largest city of Scotland. As your chosen mouth-
piece I am to speak to you of science when we stand at the parting of
the centuries, and when the achievements of the past and present, and
the promise of the future, demand an interpreter with gifts of knowledge
and divination to which I cannot pretend. Lastly, I am President of the
British Association as a disciple in the home of the master, as a physicist
in a city which a physicist has made for ever famous. Whatever the
future may have in store for Glasgow, whether your enterprise is still to
add wharf to wharf, factory to factory, and street to street, or whether
some unforeseen ‘tide in the affairs of men’ is to sweep energy and
success elsewhere, fifty-three years in the history of your city will never
be forgotten while civilisation lasts.

More than half a century ago, a mere lad was the first to compel the
British Association to listen to the teaching of Joule, and to accept the
law of the conservation of energy. Now, alike in the most difficult
mathematics and in the conception of the most ingenious apparatus, in
the daring of his speculations and in the soundness’ of his engineering,
William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, is regarded as a leader by the science
and industry of the whole world.

It is the less necessary to dwell at length upon all that he has done,
for Lord Kelvin has not been without honour in his own country. Many
of us, who meet here to-night, met last in Glasgow when the University
and City had invited representatives of all nations to celebrate the Jubilee
of his professorship. For those two or three days learning was sur-
rounded with a pomp seldom to be seen outside a palace. The strange
middle-age costumes of all the chief Universities of the world were
jostling here, the outward signs that those who were themselves distin-
guished in the study of Nature had gathered to do honour to one of the
most distinguished of them all.

Lord Kelvin’s achievements were then described in addresses in every
tongue, and therefore I will only remind you that we, assembled here
to-night, owe him a heavy debt of gratitude ; for the fact that the British
Association enters on the twentieth century conscious of a work to do
and of the vigour to do it is largely due to his constant presence at its
Meetings and to the support he has so ungrudgingly given. We have
learned to know not only the work of our great leader, but the man
himself ; and I count myself happy because in his life-long home, under
the walls of the University he served so well, and at a Meeting of the
Association which his genius has so often illuminated, I-am allowed, as
your President, to assure him in your name of the admiration, respect,
nay, of the affection, in which we all hold him.

~

ADDRESS. o

I have already mentioned a number of circumstances which make our
Meeting this year noteworthy ; to these I must add that for the first time
we have a Section for Education, and the importance of this new de-
parture, due largely to the energy of Professor Armstrong, is emphasised
by the fact that the Chair of that Section will be occupied by the
Vice-President of the Board of Education—Sir John Gorst. I will not
attempt to forecast the proceedings of the new Section. Education is
passing through a transitional stage. The recent debates in Parliament ;
the great gifts of Mr. Carnegie ; the discussion as to University organisa-
tion in the North of England ; the reconstitution of the University of
London ; the increasing importance attached to the application of know-
ledge both to the investigation of Nature and to the purposes of industry,
are all evidence of the growing conviction that without advance in educa-
tion we cannot retain our position among the nations of the world. If
the British Association can provide a platform on which these matters
may be discussed in a scientific but practical spirit, free from the mis-
representations of the hustings and the exaggerations of the partisan, it
will contribute in no slight measure to the national welfare.

But amid the old and new activities of our meeting the undertone
of sadness, which is never absent from such gatherings, will be painfully
apparent to many of us at Glasgow. Our sympathy goes out to the sister
nation across the sea, which is watching by the sick-bed on which the
President of the United States has been stretched by a coward hand.
You will, Iam sure, be glad to hear that the General Committee has
already telegraphed, in the name of the Association, to President McKinley
assuring him of their earnest hopes for his speedy and complete recovery.
Nearer home the life-work of Professor Tait has ended amid the gloom of
the war-cloud. A bullet, fired thousands of miles away, struck him to
the heart, so that in their deaths the father and the brave son, whom he
loved so well, were not long divided. Within the last year, too, America
has lost Rowland ; Viriamu Jones, who did yeoman’s service for educa-
tion and for science, has succumbed to a long and painful illness ; and one
who last year at Bradford seconded the proposal that I should be your
President at Glasgow, and who would unquestionably have occupied this
Chair before long had he been spared to do so, has unexpectedly been called
away. A few months ago we had no reason to doubt that George
Francis FitzGerald had many years of health and work before him. He
had gained in a remarkable way not only the admiration of the scientific
world, but the affection of his friends, and we shall miss sadly one whom
we all cared for, and who, we hoped, might yet add largely to the
achievements which had made him famous.

The Science of the Nineteenth Century.

Turning from these sad thoughts to the retrospect of the century
which has so lately ended, I have found it to be impossible to free myself

6 REPORT—1901.

from the influence of the moment and to avoid, even if it were desirable to
avoid, the inclination to look backward from the standpoint of to-day.

Two years ago Sir Michael Foster dealt with the work of the century
asa whole. Last year Sir William Turner discussed in greater detail
the growth of a single branch of science. A third and humbler task
remains, viz., to fix our attention on some of the hypotheses and assump-
tions on which the fabric of modern theoretical science has been built, and
to inquire whether the foundations have been so ‘ well and truly’ laid
that they may be trusted to sustain the mighty superstructure which is
being raised upon them.

The moment is opportune. The three chief conceptions which for many
years have dominated physical as distinct from biological science have
been the theories of the existence of atoms, of the mechanical nature of
heat, and of the existence of the ether.

Dalton’s atomic theory was first given to the world by a Glasgow pro-
fessor —Thomas Thomson— in the year 1807, Dalton having communicated
it to him in 1804. Rumford’s and Davy’s experiments on the nature
of heat were published in 1798 and 1799 respectively ; and the cele-
brated Bakerian Lecture, in which Thomas Young established the
undulatory theory by explaining the interference of light, appeared in
the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ in 1801. The keynotes of the physical
science of the nineteenth century were thus struck, as the century began,
by four of our fellow-countrymen, one of whom-—Sir Benjamin Thompson,
Count Rumford—preferred exile from the land of his birth to the loss of
his birthright as a British citizen.

Doubts as to Scientific Theories.

It is well known that of late doubts have arisen as to whether the
atomic theory, with which the mechanical theory of heat is closely bound
up, and the theory of the existence of an ether have not served their
purpose, and whether the time has not come to reconsider them.

The facts that Professor Poincaré, addressing a congress of physicists
n Paris, and Professor Poynting, addressing the Physical Section of the
Association, have recently discussed the true meaning of our scientific
methods of interpretation ; that Dr. James Ward has lately delivered an
attack of great power on many positions which eminent scientific men
have occupied ; and that the approaching end of the nineteenth century
led Professor Heeckel to define in a more popular manner his own very
definite views as to the solution of the ‘ Riddle of the Universe,’ are
perhaps a sufficient justification of an attempt to lay before you the diffi-
culties which surround some of these questions.

To keep the discussion within reasonable limits I shall illustrate the
principles under review by means of the atomic theory, with compara-
tively little reference to the ether, and we may also at first confine our
attention to inanimate objects.

ADDRESS. 7

The Construction of a Model of Nature.

A natural philosopher, to use the old phrase, even if only possessed of
the most superficial knowledge, would attempt to bring some order into
the results of his observation of Nature by grouping together statements
with regard to phenomena which are obviously related. The aim of
modern science goes far beyond this. It not only shows that many
phenomena are related which at first sight have little or nothing in
common, but, in so doing, also attempts to expluin the relationship.

Without spending time on a discussion of the meaning of the word
‘explanation,’ it is sufficient to say that our efforts to establish relation-
ships between phenomena often take the form of attempting to prove
that, if a limited number of assumptions are granted as to the constitu-
tion of matter, or as to'the existence of quasi-material entities, such as
caloric, electricity, and the ether, a wide range of observed facts falls into
order as a necessary consequence of the assumptions. The question at
issue is whether the hypotheses which are at the base of the scientific
theories now most generally accepted are to be regarded as accurate
descriptions of the constitution of the universe around us, or merely as
convenient fictions.

Convenient fictions be it observed, for even if they are fictions they
are not useless. From the practical point of view it is a matter of
secondary importance whether our theories and assumptions are correct,
if only they guide us to results which are in accord with facts. The
whole fabric of scientific theory may be regarded merely as a gigantic
‘aid to memory’; as a means for producing apparent order out of dis-
order by codifying the observed facts and laws in accordance with an
artificial system, and thus arranging our knowledge under a comparatively
small number of heads. The simplification introduced by a scheme which,
however imperfect it may be, enables us to argue from a few first principles,
makes theories of practical use. By means of them we can foresee the
results of combinations of causes which would otherwise elude us. We
can predict future events, and can even attempt to argue back from the
present to the unknown past.

But it is possible that these advantages might be attained by means
of axioms, assumptions, and theories based on very false ideas. A
person who thought that a river was really a streak of blue paint
might learn as much about its direction from a map as one who knew
it as it is. It is thus conceivable that we might be able, not indeed
to construct, but to imagine, something more than a mere map or
diagram, something which might even be called a working model of
inanimate objects, which was nevertheless very unlike the realities of
nature. Of course, the agreement between the action of the model and
the behaviour of the things it was designed to represent would probably
be imperfect, unless the one were a facsimile of the other ; but it is con-
ceivable that the correlation of natural phenomena could be imitated,

8 REPORT—1901.

with a large measure of success, by means of an imaginary machine,
which shared with a map or diagram the characteristic that it was in
many ways unlike the things it represented, but might be compared to a
model in that the behaviour of the things represented could be predicted
from that of the corresponding parts of the machine.

We might even goa step further. If the laws of the working of the
model could be expressed by abstractions, as, for example, by mathe-
matical formule, then, when the formule were obtained, the model
might be discarded, as probably unlike that which it was made to imitate,
as a mere aid in the construction of equations, to be thrown aside when
the perfect structure of mathematical symbols was erected.

If this course were adopted we should have given up the attempt to
know more of the nature of the objects which surround us than can be
gained by direct observation, but might nevertheless have learned how
these objects would behave under given circumstances.

We should have abandoned the hope of a physical explanation of the
properties of inanimate Nature, but should have secured a mathematical
description of her operations.

There is no doubt that this is the easiest path to follow. Criticism is
avoided if we admit from the first that we cannot go below the surface ;
cannot know anything about the constitution of material bodies ; but
must be content with formulating a description of their behaviour by
means of laws of Nature expressed by equations.

But if this is to be the end of the study of Nature, it is evident that
the construction of the model is not an essential part of the process.
The model is used merely as an aid to thinking ; and if the relation of
phenomena can be investigated without it, so much the better. The
highest form of theory—it may be said—the widest kind of generalisa-
tion, is that which has given up the attempt to form clear mental pic-
tures of the constitution of matter, which expresses the facts and the
laws by language and symbols which lead to results that are true, what-
ever be our view as to the real nature of the objects with which we deal.
From this point of view the atomic theory becomes not so much false as
unnecessary ; it may be regarded as an attempt to give an unnatural
precision to ideas which are and must be vague.

Thus, when Rumford found that the mere friction of metals produced
heat in unlimited quantity, and argued that heat was therefore a mode of
motion, he formed a clear mental picture of what he believed to be occur-
ring. But his experiments may be quoted as proving only that energy
can be supplied to a body in indefinite quantity, and that when supplied
by doing work against friction it appears in the form of heat.

By using this phraseology we exchange a vivid conception of moving
atoms for a colourless statement as to heat energy, the real nature of
which we do not attempt to define ; and methods which thus evade the
problem of the nature of the things which the symbols in our equations
represent have heen prosecuted with striking success, at all events

ADDRESS. 9

‘within the range of a limited class of phenomena. A great school of
chemists, building upon the thermodynamics of Willard Gibbs and the
intuition of Van ’t Hoff, have shown with wonderful skill that, if a
sufficient number of the data of experiment are assumed, it is possible,
by the aid of thermodynamics, to trace the form of the relations between
many physical and chemical phenomena without the help of the atomic
theory.

But this method deals only with matter as our coarse senses know it ;
it does not pretend to penetrate beneath the surface.

It is therefore with the greatest respect for its authors, and with a
full recognition of the enormous power of the weapons employed, that I
venture to assert that the exposition of such a system of tactics cannot be
regarded as the last word of science in the struggle for the truth.

Whether we grapple with them, or whether we shirk them ; however
much or however little we can accomplish without answering them, the
questions still foree themselves upon us: Is matter what it seems to be ?
Is interplanetary space full or empty? Can we argue back from the
direct impressions of our senses to things which we cannot directly per-
ceive ; from the phenomena displayed by matter to the constitution of
matter itself ?

It is these questions which we are discussing to-night, and we may
therefore, as far as the present address is concerned, put aside, once for
all, methods of scientific exposition in which an attempt to form a mental
picture of the constitution of matter is practically abandoned, and devote
ourselves to the inquiries whether the effort to form such a picture is
legitimate, and whether we have any reason to believe that the sketch
which science has already drawn is to some extent a copy, and not a mere
diagram, of the truth.

Successive Steps in the Analysis of Matter.

In dealing, then, with the question of the constitution of matter and
the possibility of representing it accurately, we may grant at once that
the ultimate nature of things is, and must remain, unknown ; but it does
not follow that immediately below the complexities of the superficial
phenomena which affect our senses there may not be a simpler machinery
of the existence of which we can obtain evidence, indirect indeed but
conclusive.

The fact that the apparent unity which we call the atmosphere can be
resolved into a number of different gases is admitted ; though the ultimate
nature of oxygen, nitrogen, argon, carbonic acid, and water vapour is as
unintelligible as that of air as a whole, so that the analysis of air, taken
by itself, may be said to have substituted many incomprehensibles for one.

Nobody, however, looks at the question from this point of view. It
is recognised that an investigation into the proximate constitution of
things may be useful and successful, even if their ultimate nature is
beyond our ken,

10 REPORT—1901.

_Nor need the analysis stop at the first step. Water vapour and car-
bonic acid, themselves constituents of the atmosphere, are in turn resolved
into their elements hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon, which, without a
formal discussion of the criteria of reality, we may safely say are as real
as air itself.

Now, at what point must this analysis stop if we are to avoid crossing
the boundary between fact and fiction? Is there any fundamental differ-
ence between resolving air into a mixture of gases and resolving an
elementary gas into a mixture of atoms and ether ?

There are those who cry halt ! at the point at which we divide a gas
into molecules, and their first objection seems to be that molecules and
atoms cannot be directly perceived, cannot be seen or handled, and are
mere conceptions, which have their uses, but cannot be regarded as
realities.

Tt is easiest to reply to this objection by an illustration,

The rings of Saturn appear to be continuous masses separated by
circular rifts. This is the phenomenon which is observed through a tele-

‘scope. By no known means can we ever approach or handle the rings ;
yet everybody who understands the evidence now believes that they are
not what they appear to be, but consist of minute moonlets, closely packed
indeed, but separate the one from the other.

In the first place Maxwell proved mathematically that if a Saturnian
ring were a continuous solid or fluid mass it would be unstable and would
necessarily break into fragments. In the next place, if it were possible for
the ring to revolve like a solid body, the inmost parts would move slowest,
while a satellite moves faster the nearer it is toa planet. Now spectro-
scopic observation, based on the beautiful method of Sir W. Huggins,
shows not only that the inner portions of the ring move the more
rapidly, but that the actual velocities of the outer and inner edges are
in close accord with the theoretical velocities of satellites at like distances
from the planet.

This and a hundred similar cases prove that it is possible to obtain
convincing evidence of the constitution of bodies between whose separate
parts we cannot directly distinguish, and I take it that a physicist who
believes in the reality of atoms thinks that he has as good reason for
dividing an apparently continuous gas into molecules as he has for dividing
the apparently continuous Saturnian rings into satellites. If he is wrong
it is not the fact that molecules and satellites alike cannot be handled
and cannot be seen as individuals, that constitutes the difference between
the two cases.

It may, however, be urged that atoms and the ether are alleged to have
properties different from those of matter in bulk, of which alone our senses
take direct cognisance, and that therefore it is impossible to prove their
existence by evidence of the same cogency as that which may prove the
existence of a newly discovered variety of matter or of a portion of matter
too small or too distant to be seen.

ADDRESS. 11

This point is so important that it requires full discussion, hut in
dealing with it, it is necessary to distinguish carefully between the validity
of the arguments which support the earlier and more fundamental pro-
positions of the theory, and the evidence brought forward to justify mere
speculative applications of its doctrines which might be abandoned
without discarding the theory itself. The proof of the theory must be
carried out step by step.

The first step is concerned wholly with some of the most general
_ properties of matter, and consists in the proof that those properties are
either absolutely unintelligible, or that, in the case of matter of all kinds,
we are subject to an illusion similar to that the results of which we
admit in the case of Saturn’s rings, clouds, smoke, and a number of
similar instances. The believer in the atomic theory asserts that matter
exists in a particular state , that it consists of parts which are separate
and distinct the one from the other, and as such are capable of indepen-
dent movements.

Up to this point no question arises as to whether the separate parts
are, like grains of sand, mere fragments of matter ; or whether, though
they are the bricks of which matter is built, they have, as individuals,
properties different from those of masses of matter large enough to be
directly perceived. If they are mere fragments of ordinary matter, they
cannot be used as aids in explaining those qualities of matter which they
themselves share.

We cannot explain things by the things themselves. If it be true
that the properties of matter are the product of an underlying machinery,
that machinery cannot itself have the properties which it produces, and
must, to that extent at all events, differ from matter in bulk as it is
directly presented to the senses.

If, however, we can succeed in showing that if the separate parts have
a limited number of properties (different, it may be, from those of matter
in bulk), the many and complicated properties of matter can be explained,
to a considerable extent, as consequences of the constitution of these
separate parts ; we shall have succeeded in establishing, with regard to
quantitative properties, a simplification similar to that which the chemist
has established with regard to varieties of matter. The many will have
been reduced to the few.

The proofs of the physical reality of the entities discovered by means
of the two analyses must necessarily be different. The chemist can
actually produce the elementary constituents into which he has resolved
a compound mass. No physicist or chemist can produce a single atom
separated from all its fellows, and show that it possesses the elementary
qualities he assigns to it. The cogency of the evidence for any
suggested constitution of atoms must vary with the number of facts
which the hypothesis that they possess that constitution explains.

Let us take, then, two steps in their proper order, and inquire, first,

2 REPORT—1901.

whether there is valid ground for believing that all matter is made up of
discrete parts ; and secondly, whether we can have any knowledge of the
constitution or properties which those parts possess.

The Coarse-grainedness of Matter.

Matter in bulk appears to be continuous. Such substances as water
or air appear to the ordinary observer to be perfectly uniform in all their
properties and qualities, in all their parts.

The hasty conclusion that these bodies are really uniform is, never-
theless, unthinkable.

In the first place the phenomena of diffusion afford conclusive proof
that matter when apparently quiescent is in fact in a state of internal
commotion. I need not recapitulate the familiar evidence to prove that
gases and many liquids when placed in communication interpenetrate or
diffuse into each other ; or that air, in contact with a surface of water,
gradually becomes laden with water vapour, while the atmospheric gases
in turn mingle with the water. Such phenomena are not exhibited by
liquids and gases alone, nor by solids at high temperatures only. Sir W.
Roberts Austen has placed pieces of gold and lead in contact at a tem-
perature of 18° C. After four years the gold had travelled into the lead
to such an extent that not only were the two metals united, but, on
analysis, appreciable quantities of the gold were detected even at a dis-
tance of more than 5 millimetres from the common surface, while within a
distance of three-quarters of a millimetre from the surface gold had
penetrated into the lead to the extent of 1 oz. 6 dwts. per ton, an amount
which could have been profitably extracted.

Whether it is or is not possible to devise any other intelligible account
of the cause of such phenomena, it is certain that a simple and adequate
explanation is found in the hypothesis that matter consists of discrete
parts in a state of motion, which can penetrate into the spaces between
the corresponding parts of surrounding bodies.

The hypothesis thus framed is also the only one which affords a rational
explanation of other simple and well known facts. If matter is regarded
as a continuous medium the phenomena of expansion are unintelligible.
There is, apparently, no limit to the expansion of matter, or, to fix our
attention on one kind of matter, let us say to the expansion of a gas ; but
it is inconceivable that a continuous material which fills or is present in
every part of a given space could also be present in every part of a space
a million times as great. Such a statement might be made of a mathe-
matical abstraction ; it cannot be true of any real substance or thing.
If, however, matter consists of discrete particles, separated from each
other either by empty space or by something different from themselves,
we can at once understand that expansion and contraction may be nothing
more than the mutual separation or approach of these particles.

Again, no clear mental picture can be formed of the phenomena of

ADDRESS. 13

heat unless we suppose that heat is a mode of motion. In the words of
Rumford, it is ‘extremely difficult, if not quite impossible, to form any
distinct idea of anything capable of being excited and communicated in
the manner the heat was excited and communicated in [his] experiment
[on friction] except it be motion.’' And if heat be motion there can be
no doubt that it is the fundamental particles of matter which are moving.
For the motion is not visible, is not motion of the body as a whole, while
diffusion, which is a movement of matter, goes on more quickly as the
temperature rises, thereby proving that the internal motions have become
more rapid, which is exactly the result which would follow if these were
the movements which constitute sensible heat.

Combining, then, the phenomena of diffusion, expansion, and heat, it is
not too much to say that no hypotheses which make them intelligible have
ever been framed other than those which are at the basis of the atomic
theory.

Other considerations also point to the same conclusion. Many years
ago Lord Kelvin gave independent arguments, based on the proper-
ties of gases, on the constitution of the surfaces of liquids, and on the
electric properties of metals, all of which indicate that matter is, to use
his own phrase, coarse-grained—that it is not identical in constitution
throughout, but that adjacent minute parts are distinguishable from each
other by being either of different natures or in different states.

And here it is necessary to insist that all these fundamental proofs
are independent of the nature of the particles or granules into which
matter must be divided.

The particles, for instance, need not be different in kind from the
medium which surrounds and separates them. It would suffice if they
were what may be called singular parts of the medium itself, differing
from the rest only in some peculiar state of internal motion or of distor-
tion, or by being in some other way earmarked as distinct individuals.
The view that the constitution of matter is atomic may and does receive
support from theories in which definite assumptions are made as to the
constitution of the atoms ; but when, as is often the case, these assump-
tions introduce new and more recondite difliculties, it must be remem-
bered that the fundamental hypothesis—that matter consists of discrete
parts, capable of independent motions—is forced upon us by facts and
arguments which are altogether independent of what the nature and
properties of these separate parts may be.

As a matter of history the two theories, which are not by any means
mutually exclusive, that atoms are particles which can be treated as dis-
tinct in kind from the medium which surrounds them, and that they are
parts of that medium existing in a special state, have both played a large
part in the theoretical development of the atomic hypothesis. The atoms
of Waterston, Clausius, and Maxwell were particles. The vortex-atoms

1 Phil. Trans., 1798, p. 99.

14 REPORT—1901.

of Lord Kelvin, and the strain-atoms (if I may call them so) suggested
by Mr. Larmor, are states of a primary medium which constitutes a
physical connection between them, and through which their mutual
actions arise and are transmitted.

Properties of the Basis of Matter.

It is easy to show that, whichever alternative be adopted, we are
dealing with something, whether we consider it under the guise of sepa-
vate particles or of differentiated portions of the medium, which has
properties different from those of matter in bulk.

For if the basis of matter had the same constitution as matter, the
irregular heat movements could hardly be maintained either against the
viscosity of the medium or the frittering away of energy of motion which
would occur during the collisions between the particles. Thus, even in
the case in which a hot body is prevented from losing heat to surrounding
objects, its sensible heat should spontaneously decay by a process of self-
cooling. Nosuch phenomenon is known, and though on this, as on all other
points, the limits of our knowledge are fixed by the uncertainty of experi-
ment, we are compelled to admit that, to all appearance, the fundamental
medium, if it exists, is unlike a material medium, in that it is non-viscous ;
and that the particles, if they exist, are so constituted that energy is not
frittered away when they collide. In either case, we are dealing with
something different from matter itself in the sense that, though it is the
basis of matter, it is not identical in all its properties with matter.

The idea, therefore, that entities exist possessing properties different
from those of matter in bulk is not introduced at the end of a long and
recondite investigation to explain facts with which none but experts are
acquainted. It is forced upon us at the very threshold of our study of
Nature. Either the properties of matter in bulk cannot be referred to
any simpler structure, or that simpler structure must have properties
different from those of matter in bulk as we directly knew it— properties
which can only be inferred from the results which they produce.

No @ priori argument against the possibility of our discovering the
existence of quasi-material substances, which are nevertheless different
from matter, can prove the negative proposition that such substances
cannot exist. It is not a self-evident truth that no substance other than
ordinary matter can have an existence as real as that of matter itself,
It is not axiomatic that matter cannot be composed of parts whose pro-
perties are different from those of the whole. To assert that even if
such substances and such parts exist no evidence however cogent could
convince us of their existence is to beg the whole question at issue ; to
decide the cause before it has been heard.

We must therefore adhere to the standpoint adopted by most scientific
men, viz., that the question of the existence of ultra-physical entities,
such as atoms and the ether, is to be settled by the evidence, and must not
be ruled out as inadmissible on a priori grounds.

ADDRESS. 15

On the other hand, it is impossible to deny that, if the mere entry on
the search for the concealed causes of physical phenomena is not a tres-
pass on ground we have no right to explore, it is at all events the
beginning of a dangerous journey.

The wraiths of phlogiston, caloric, luminiferous corpuscles, and a
crowd of other phantoms haunt the investigator, and as the grim host
vanishes into nothingness he cannot but wonder if his own conceptions of
atoms and of the ether

‘shall dissolve,
And, like this insubstantial pageant faded,
Leave not a wrack behind.’

But though science, like Bunyan’s hero, has sometimes had to pass
through the ‘ Valley of Humiliation,’ the spectres which meet it there
- are not formidable if they are boldly faced. The facts that mistakes
have been made, that theories have been propounded, and for a time
accepted, which later investigations have disproved, do not necessarily
discredit the method adopted. In scientific theories, as in the world
around us, there is a survival of the fittest, and Dr. James Ward’s
unsympathetic account of the blunders of. those whose work has shed
glory on the nineteenth century, might mufatis mutandis stand for a
description of the history of the advance of civilisation. ‘The story of
the progress so far,’ he tells us, ‘is briefly this; Divergence between
theory and fact one part of the way, the wreckage of abandoned fictions
for the rest, with an unattainable goal of phenomenal nihilism and ultra-
physical mechanism beyond.’ !

‘The path of progress,’ says Professor Karl Pearson, ‘is strewn with
the wreck of nations. ‘Traces are everywhere to be seen of the hecatombs
of inferior races, and of victims who found not the narrow way to the
greater perfection. Yet these dead peoples are, in very truth, the step-
ping-stones on which mankind has arisen to the higher intellectual and
deeper emotional life of to-day.’ *

It is only necessary to add that the progress of society is directed
towards an unattainable goal of universal contentment, to make the
parallel complete.

And so, in the one case as in the other, we may leave ‘the dead to
bury their dead.’ The question before us is not whether we too may not
be trusting to false ideas, erroneous experiments, evanescent theories.
No doubt we are ; but, without making an insolent claim to be better
than our fathers, we may fairly contend that, amid much that is uncertain
and temporary, some of the fundamental conceptions, some of the root-
ideas of science, are so grounded on reason and fact that we cannot
but regard them as an aspect of the very truth.

Enough has, perhaps, now been said on this point for my immediate

1 James Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism, vol. i. p. 153.
2 Karl Pearson National Life from the Standpoint of Science, p. 62.

16 REPORT—1901.

purpose. The argument as to the constitution of matter could be de-
veloped further in the manner I have hitherto adopted, viz., by a series of
propositions, the proof of each of which is based upon a few crucial
phenomena. In particular, if matter is divided into moving granules or
particles, the phenomenon of cohesion proves that there must be mutual
actions between them analogous to those which take place between large
masses of matter, and which we ascribe to force, thereby indicating the
regular, unvarying operation of active machinery which we have not yet
the means of adequately understanding. For the moment, I do not wish
to extend the line of reasoning that has been followed. My main object
is to show that the notion of the existence of ultra-physical entities
and the leading outlines of the atomic theory are forced upon us at the
beginning of our study of Nature, not only by @ priori considerations,
but in the attempt to comprehend the results of even the simplest
observation. These outlines cannot be effaced by the difficulties
which undoubtedly arise in filling up the picture. The cogency of
the proof that matter is coarse-grained is in no way affected by the
fact that we may have grave doubts as to the nature of the granules.
Nay, it is of the first importance to recognise that, though the funda-
mental assumptions of the atomic theory receive overwhelming support
from a number of more detailed arguments, they are themselves almost of
the nature of axioms, in that the simplest phenomena are unintelligible if
they are abandoned.

The Range of the Atomic Theory.

It would be most unfair, however, to the atomic theory to represent
it as depending on one line of reasoning only, or to treat its evidence
as bounded by the very general propositions I have discussed.

It is true that as the range of the theory is extended the fundamental
conception that matter is granular must be expanded and filled in by
supplementary hypotheses as to the constitution of the granules. It may
also be admitted that no complete or wholly satisfactory description of
that constitution can as yet be given ; that perfection has not yet been
attained here or in any other branch of science ; but the number of facts
which can be accounted for by the theory is very large compared with the
number of additional hypotheses which are introduced ; and the cumula-
tive weight of the additional evidence obtained by the study of details
is such as to add greatly to the strength of the conviction that, in its
leading outlines, the theory is true.

It was originally suggested by the facts of chemistry, and though, as
we have seen, a school of chemists now thrusts it into the background, it
is none the less true, in the words of Dr. Thorpe, that ‘every great
advance in chemical knowledge during the last ninety years finds its
interpretation in [Dalton’s] theory.’ !

The principal mechanical and thermal properties of gases have been

1 Thorpe, Assays on Historical Chemistry, 1894, p. 368.

ADDRESS. 17

explained, and in large part discovered, by the aid of the atomic theory ;
and, though there are outstanding difficulties, they are, for the most part,
related to the nature of the atoms and molecules, and do not affect the
question as to whether they exist.

The fact that different kinds of light all travel at the same speed in
interplanetary space, while they move at different rates in matter, is
explained if matter is coarse-grained. But to attempt to sum up all
this evidence would be to recite a text-book on physics. It must suffice
to say that it is enormous in extent and varied in character, and that the
atomic theory imparts a unity to all the physical sciences which has been
attained in no other way.

I must, however, give a couple of instances of the wonderful success
which has been achieved in the explanation of physical phenomena by the
theory we are considering, and I select them because they are in harmony
with the line of argument I have been pursuing.

When a piece of iron is magnetised its behaviour is different according
as the magnetic force applied to it is weak, moderate, or strong. When
a certain limit is passed the iron behaves as a non-magnetic substance to
all further additions of magnetic force. With strong forces it does and
with very weak forces it does not remain magnetised when the force
ceases to act. Professor Ewing has imitated all the minute details of
these complicated properties by an arrangement of small isolated compass
needles to represent the molecules. It may fairly be said that as far as
this particular set of phenomena is concerned a most instructive working
model based on the molecular theory has not only been imagined but
constructed.

The next illustration is no less striking. We may liken a crowd of
molecules to a fog; but while the fog is admitted by everybody to be
made up of separate globules of water, the critics of scientific method are
sometimes apt to regard the molecules as mere fictions of the imagination.
If, however, we could throw the molecules of a highly rarefied gas into
such a state that vapour condensed on them, so that each became the
centre of a water-drop, till the host of invisible molecules was, as it
were, magnified by accretion into a visible mist, surely no stronger proof
of their reality could be desired. Yet there is every reason to believe
that something very like this has been accomplished by Mr. C. T. R.
Wilson and Professor J. J. Thomson.

It is known that it is comparatively difficult to produce a fog in damp
air if the mixture consists of air and water-vapour alone. The presence
of particles of very fine dust facilitates the process. Itis evident that the
vapour condenses on the dust particles and that a nucleus of some kind is
necessary on which each drop may form. But electrified particles also
act as nuclei; for if a highly charged body from which electricity is
escaping be placed near a steam jet, the steam condenses ; and a cloud is
also formed in dust-free air more easily than would otherwise be the case

if electricity is discharged into it.
1901. c

18 REPORT—1901.

Again, according to accepted theory, when a current of electricity
flows through a gas some of the atoms are divided into parts which
carry positive and negative charges as they move in opposite directions,
and unless this breaking-up occurs a gas does not conduct electricity.
But a gas can be made a conductor merely by allowing the Réntgen rays
or the radiation given off by uranium to fall upon it. A careful study of
the facts shows that it is probable that some of the atoms have been
broken up by the radiation, and that their oppositely electrified parts are
scattered among their unaltered fellows. Such a gas is said to be
ionised.

Thus by these two distinct lines of argument we come to the conclu-
sions :—Ist, that the presence of electrified particles promotes the forma-
tion of mist, and 2nd, that in an ionised gas such electrified particles are
provided by the breaking-up of atoms.

The two conclusions will mutually support each other if it can be
shown that a mist is easily formed in ionised air. This was tested by
Mr. Wilson, who showed that in such air mist is formed as though nuclei
were present, and thus in the cloud we have visible evidence of the
presence of the divided atoms. If then we cannot handle the indi-
vidual molecules we have at least some reason to believe that a method
is known of seizing individuals, or parts of individuals, which are in a
special state, and of wrapping other matter round them till each one is
the centre of a discrete particle of a visible fog.

I have purposely chosen this illustration, because the explanation is
based on a theory—that of ionisation—which is at present subjected to
hostile criticism. It assumes that an electrical current is nothing more
than the movement of charges of electricity. But magnets placed near
to an electric current tend to set themselves at right angles to its direc-
tion ; a fact on which the construction of telegraphic instruments is based.
Hence if the theory be true, a similar effect ought to be produced by a
moving charge of electricity. This experiment was tried many years ago
in the laboratory of Helmholtz by Rowland, who caused a charged disc
to spin rapidly near a magnet. The result was in accord with the theory ;
the magnet moved as though acted upon by an electric current. Of late,
however, M. Crémieu has investigated the matter afresh, and has obtained -
results which, according to his interpretation, were inconsistent with that
of Rowland.

M. Crémiew’s results are already the subject of controversy,! and are,
I believe, likely to be discussed in the Section of Physics. This is not the
occasion to enter upon a critical discussion of the question at issue, and I
refer to it only to point out that though, if M. Crémieu’s result were
upheld, our views as to electricity would have to be modified, the founda-
tions of the atomic theory would not be shaken.

1 See Phil. Mag., July 1901, p. 144; and Johns Hopkins University Circulars,
xx. No. 152, May-June 1901, p. 78,

ADDRESS. 19

It is, however, from the theory of ions that the most far-reaching
speculations of science have recently received unexpected support. The
dream that matter of all kinds will some day be proved to be funda-
mentally the same has survived many shocks. The opinion is consistent
with the great generalisation that the properties of elements are a
periodic function of their atomic weights. Sir Norman Lockyer has
long been a prominent exponent of the view that the spectra of the
stars indicate the reduction of our so-called elements to simpler forms,
and now Professor J. J. Thomson believes that we can break off from an
atom a part, the mass of which is not more than one thousandth of the
whole, and that these corpuscles, as he has named them, are the carriers
of the negative charge in an electric current. If atoms are thus
complex, not only is the a priori probability increased that the different
structures which we call elements may all be built of similar bricks, but
the discovery by Lenard that the ease with which the corpuscles
penetrate different bodies depends only on the density of the obstacles,
and not on their chemical constitution, is held by Professor Thomson to
be ‘a strong confirmation of the view that the atoms of the elementary
substances are made up of simpler parts, all of which are alike.’! On
the present occasion, however, we are occupied rather with the foundations
than with these ultimate ramifications of the atomic theory ; and having
shown how wide its range is, I must, to a certain extent, retrace my steps
and return to the main line of my argument.

The Properties of Atoms and Molecules.

For if it be granted that the evidence that matter is coarse-grained
and is formed of separate atoms and molecules is too strong to be resisted,
it may still be contended that we can know little or nothing of the sizes
and properties of the molecules.

It must be admitted that though the fundamental postulates are
always the same, different aspects of the theory, which have not in all
cases been successfully combined, have to be developed when it is applied
to different problems ; but in spite of this there is little doubt that we
have some fairly accurate knowledge of molecular motions and magni-
tudes.

If a liquid is stretched into a very thin film, such as a soap bubble,
we should expect indications of a change in its properties when the
thickness of the film is not a very large multiple of the average distance
between two neighbouring molecules. In 1890 Sohncke? detected evi-
dence of such a change in films of the average thickness of 106 millionths

' For the most recent account of this subject see an article on ‘ Bodies smalier
than Atoms,’ by Professor J. J. Thomson in the Popular Science Monthly (The
Science Press), August 1901.

* Wied. Ann,, 1890, xl. pp. 345-355,

20 REPORT—1901.

of a millimetre (u.), and quite recently Rudolph Weber found it in an
oil-film when the thickness was 115 pyp.!

Taking the mean of these numbers and combining the results of
different variants of the theory we may conclude that a film should
become unstable and tend to rupture spontaneously somewhere between
the thicknesses of 110 and 55 pp, and Professor Reinold and I found
by experiment that this instability is actually exhibited between the
thicknesses of 96 and 45 y.2 There can therefore be little doubt that
the first approach to molecular magnitudes is signalled when the thick-
ness of a film is somewhat less than 100 pp, or 4 millionths of an inch.

Thirteen years ago I had the honour of laying before the Chemical
Society a résumé of what was then known on these subjects,’ and I must
refer to that lecture or to the most recent edition of O. E. Meyer’s work
on the kinetic theory of gases‘ for the evidence that various independent
lines of argument enable us to estimate quantities very much less than
4 millionths of an inch, which is perhaps from 500 to 1,000 times greater
than the magnitude which, in the present state of our knowledge, we can
best describe as the diameter of a molecule.

Confining our attention, however, to the larger quantities, I will
give one example to show how strong is the cumulative force of the
evidence as to our knowledge of the magnitudes of molecular quantities.

We have every reason to believe that though the molecules in a gas
frequently collide with each other, yet in the case of the more perfect
gases the time occupied in collisions is small compared with that in which
each molecule travels undisturbed by its fellows. The average distance
travelled between two successive encounters is called the mean free path,
and, for the reason just given, the question of the magnitude of this
distance can be attacked without any precise knowledge of what a mole-
cule is, or of what happens during an encounter.

Thus the mean free path can be determined, by the aid of the theory,
either from the viscosity of the gas or from the thermal conductivity.
Using figures given in the latest work on the subject,° and dealing with
one gas only, as a fair sample of the rest, the lengths of the mean free
path of hydrogen as determined by these two independent methods differ
only by about 3 per cent. Further, the mean of the values which I
gave in the lecture already referred to differed only by about 6 per
cent. from the best modern result, so that no great change has been intro-
duced during the last thirteen years.

It may, however, be argued that these concordant values are all
obtained by means of the same theory, and that a common error may
affect them all. In particular, some critics have of late been inclined to

1 Annalen der Physik, 1901, iv. pp. 706-721.

2 Phil. Trans., 1893, 184, pp. 505-529.

$ Chem. Soc. Trans., liii., March 1888, pp. 222-262.

4 Kinetic Theory of Gases, O, E. Meyer, 1899. Translated by R. E. Baynes,
5 Meyer’s Kinetic Theory of Gases (see above).

ADDRESS. 21

discredit the atomic theory by pointing out that the strong statements
which have sometimes been made as to the equality, among themselves,
of atoms or molecules of the same kind may not be justified, as the
equality may be that of averages only, and be consistent with a consider-
able variation in the sizes of individuals.

Allowing this argument more weight than it perhaps deserves, it is
easy to show that it cannot affect seriously our knowledge of the length
of the mean free path.

Professor George Darwin! has handled the problem of a mixture of
unequal spherical bodies in the particular case in which the sizes are
distributed according to the law of errors, which would involve far
greater inequalities than can occur among atoms. Without discussing
the precise details of his problem it is sufficient to say that in the case
considered by him the length of the mean free path is yy; of what it
would be if the particles were equal. Hence were the inequalities of
atoms as great as in this extreme case, the reduction of the mean free
_ path in hydrogen could only be from 185 to 119 pp ; but they must be
far less, and therefore the error, if any, due to this cause could not
approach this amount. It is probably inappreciable.

Such examples might be multiplied, but the one I have selected is
perhaps sufficient to illustrate my point, viz., that considerable and fairly
accurate knowledge can be obtained as to molecular quantities by the aid
of theories the details of which are provisional, and are admittedly
capable of improvement.

Is the Model Unique ?

But the argument that a correct result may sometimes be obtained by
reasoning on imperfect hypotheses raises the question as to whether
another danger may not be imminent. To be satisfactory our model
of Nature must be unique, and it must be impossible to imagine any other
which agrees equally well with the facts of experiment. If a large
number of hypotheses could be framed with equal claims to validity, that
fact would alone raise grave doubts as to whether it were possible to
distinguish between the true and the false. Thus Professor Poincaré has
shown that an infinite number of dynamical explanations can be found
for any phenomenon which satisfies certain conditions. But though this
consideration warns us against the too ready acceptance of explanations
of isolated phenomena, it has no weight against a theory which embraces
so vast a number of facts as those included by the atomic theory. It does
not follow that, because a number of solutions are all formally dynamical,
they are therefore all equally admissible. The pressure of a gas may be
explained as the result of a shower of blows delivered by molecules, or by
a repulsion between the various parts of a continuous medium. Both
solutions are expressed in dynamical language ; but one is, and the other

1 Phil. Trans., 180.

22 REPORT—1901.

is not, compatible with the observed phenomena of expansion. The
atomic theory must hold the field until another can be found which is not
inferior as an explanation of the fundamental difficulties as to the consti-
tution of matter, and is, at the same time, not less comprehensive.

On the whole, then, the question as to whether we are attempting to
solve a problem which has an infinite number of solutions may be put
aside until one solution has been found which is satisfactory in all its
details. We are in a sufficient difficulty about that to make the rivalry
of a second of the same type very improbable.

The Phenomena of Life.

But it may be asked—nay, it has been asked—may not the type of
our theories be radically changed? If this question does not merely imply
a certain distrust in our own powers of reasoning, it should be supported
by some indication of the kind of change which is conceivable.

Perhaps the chief objection which can be brought against physical
theories is that they deal only with the inanimate side of Nature, and
largely ignore the phenomena of life. It is therefore in this direction, if
in any, that a change of type may be expected. I do not propose to enter
at length upon so difficult a question, but, however we may explain or
explain away the characteristics of life, the argument for the truth of the
atomic theory would only be affected if it could be shown that living
matter does not possess the thermal and mechanical properties, to account
for which the atomic theory has been framed. This is so notoriously not
the case that there is the gravest doubt whether life can in any way inter-
fere with the action within the organism of the laws of matter in bulk
belonging to the domain of mechanics, physics, and chemistry.

Probably the most cautious opinion that could now be expressed on
this question is that, in spite of some outstanding difficulties which have
recently given rise to what is called Neovitalism, there is no conclusive
evidence that living matter can suspend or modify any of the natural laws
which would affect it if it were to cease to live. It is possible that though
subject to these laws the organism while living may be able to employ, or
even to direct, their action within itself for its own benefit, just as it un-
questionably does make use of the processes of external nature for its
own purposes ; but if this be so, the seat of the controlling influence is so
withdrawn from view that on the one hand its very existence may be
denied, while, on the other hand, Professor Heckel, following Vogt, has
recently asserted that ‘matter and ether are not dead, and only moved by
extrinsic force ; but they are endowed with sensation and will; they
experience an inclination for condensation, a dislike for strain; they
strive after the one and struggle against the other.’ !

But neither unproved assertions of this kind nor the more refined
attempts that have been made by others to bring the phenomena of life

' Riddle of the Universe (English translation), 1900, p. 380.

ADDRESS. 238

and of dead matter under a common formula touch the evidence for the
atomic theory. The question as to whether matter consists of elements
capable of independent motion is prior to and independent of the
further questions as to what these elements are, and whether they are
alive or dead.

The physicist, if he keeps to his business, asserts, as the bases of
the atomic theory, nothing more than that he who declines to admit
that matter consists of separate moving parts must regard many of the
simplest phenomena as irreconcilable and unintelligible, in spite of the
fact that means of reconciling them are known to everybody, in spite
of the fact that the reconciling theory gives a general correlation of an
enormous number of phenomena in every branch of science, and that the
outstanding difficulties are connected, not so much with the fundamental
hypotheses that matter is composed of distinguishable entities which are
capable of separate motions as with the much more difficult problem of
what these entities are.

On these grounds the physicist may believe that, though he cannot
handle or see them, the atoms and molecules are as real as the ice
‘crystals in a cirrus cloud which he cannot reach ; as real as the unseen
members of a meteoric swarm whose death-glow is lost in the sunshine, or
which sweep past us, unentangled, in the night.

If the confidence that his methods are weapons with which he can
fight his way to the truth were taken from the scientific explorer, the
paralysis which overcomes those who believe that they are engaged in a
hopeless task would fall upon him.

Physiology has specially flourished since physiologists have believed
that it is possible to master the physics and chemistry of the framework
of living things, and since they have abandoned the attitude of those who
placed in the foreground the doctrine of the vital force. To supporters of
that doctrine the principle of life was not a hidden directing power which
could perhaps whisper an order that the flood-gates of reservoirs of energy
should now be opened and now closed, and could, at the most, work only
under immutable conditions to which the living and the dead must alike
submit. On the contrary, their vital force pervaded the organism in all
its parts. It was an active and energetic opponent of the laws of physics
and chemistry. It maintained its own existence not by obeying but by
defying them ; and though destined to be finally overcome in the separate
campaigns of which each individual living creature is the scene, yet like
some guerilla chieftain it was defeated here only to reappear there with
unabated confidence and apparently undiminished force.

This attitude of mind checked the advance of knowledge. Difficulty
could be evaded by a verbal formula of explanation which in fact ex-
plained nothing. If the mechanical, or physical, or chemical causes of a
phenomenon did not lie obviously upon the surface, the investigator was
tempted to forego the toil of searching for them below ; it was easier to
say that the vital force was the cause of the discrepancy, and that it was

24 REPORT—1901.

hopeless to attempt to account for the action of a principle which was
incomprehensible in its nature.

For the physicist the danger is no less serious though it lies in a some-
what different direction. At present he is checked in his theories by the
necessity of making them agree with a comparatively small number of
fundamental hypotheses. If this check were removed his fancy might run
riot in the wildest speculations, which would be held to be legitimate if
only they led to formule in harmony with facts. But the very habit of
regarding the end as everything, and the means by which it was attained
as unimportant, would prevent the discovery of those fragments of truth
which can only be uncovered by the painful process of trying to make
inconsistent theories agree, and using all facts, however remote, as the
tests of our central generalisation.

‘Science,’ said Helmholtz, ‘Science, whose very object it is to compre-
hend Nature, must start with the assumption that Nature is comprehen-
sible.’ And again : ‘ The first principle of the investigator of Nature is to
assume that Nature is intelligible to us, since otherwise it would be foolish
to attempt the investigation at all.’ These axioms do not assume that all
the secrets of the universe will ultimately be laid bare, but that a search
for them is hopeless if we undertake the quest with the conviction that it
will be in vain. As applied to life they do not deny that in living matter
something may be hidden which neither physics nor chemistry can explain,
but they assert that the action of physical and chemical forces in living bodies
can never be understood, if at every difficulty and at every check in our
investigations we desist from further attempts in the belief that the laws
of physics and chemistry have been interfered with by an incomprehensible
vital force. As applied to physics and chemistry they do not mean that
all the phenomena of life and death will ultimately be included in some
simple and self-sufficing mechanical theory ; they do mean that we are not
to sit down contented with paradoxes such as that the same thing can
fill both a large space and a little one ; that matter can act where it is
not, and the like, if by some reasonable hypothesis, capable of being
tested by experiment, we can avoid the acceptance of these absurdities.
Something will have been gained if the more obvious difficulties are
removed, even if we have to admit that in the background there is much
that we cannot grasp.

The Limits of Physical Theories.

And this brings me to my last point. It isa mistake to treat physical
theories in general, and the atomic theory in particular, as though they
were parts of a scheme which has failed if it leaves anything unexplained,
which must be carried on indefinitely on exactly the same principles,
whether the ultimate results are, or are not, repugnant to common sense.

Physical theories begin at the surface with phenomena which directly

ADDRESS. 25

affect our senses. When they are used in the attempt to penetrate deeper
into the secrets of Nature it is more than probable that they will meet
with insuperable barriers, but this fact does not demonstrate that the
fundamental assumptions are false, and the question as to whether any
particular obstacle will be for ever insuperable can rarely be answered
with certainty.

Those who belittle the ideas which have of late governed the advance
of scientific theory too often assume that there is no alternative between
the opposing assertions that atoms and the ether are mere figments of the
scientific imagination, or that, on the other hand, a mechanical theory of
the atoms and of the ether, which is now confessedly imperfect, would, if
it could be perfected, give us a full and adequate representation of the
underlying realities.

For my own part I believe that there is a via media.

A man peering into a darkened room, and describing what he thinks
he sees, may be right as to the general outline of the objects he discerns,
wrong as to their nature and their precise forms. In his description fact
and fancy may be blended, and it may be difficult to say where the one
ends and the other begins ; but even the fancies will not be worthless if
they are based on a fragment of truth, which will prevent the explorer
from walking into a looking-glass or stumbling over the furniture. He
who saw ‘men as trees walking’ had at least a perception of the funda-
mental fact that something was in motion around him.

And so, at the beginning of the twentieth century, we are neither
forced to abandon the claim to have penetrated below the surface of
Nature, nor have we, with all our searching, torn the veil of mystery
from the world around us.

The range of our speculations is limited both in space and time: in
space, for we have no right to claim, as is sometimes done, a knowledge
of the ‘infinite universe’; in time, for the cumulative effects of actions
which might pass undetected in the short span of years of which we have
knowledge, may, if continued long enough, modify our most profound
generalisations. If some such theory as the vortex-atom theory were
true, the faintest trace of viscosity in the primordial medium would ulti-
mately destroy matter of every kind. It is thus a duty to state what
we believe we know in the most cautious terms, but it is equally a duty
not to yield to mere vague doubts as to whether we can know anything.

If no other conception of matter is possible than that it consists
of distinct physical units—and no other conception has been formu-
lated which does not blur what are otherwise clear and detinite out-
lines —if it is certain, as it is, that vibrations which cannot be propagated
by ordinary matter travel through space, the two foundations of physical
theory are well and truly laid. It may be granted that we have not yet
framed a consistent image either of the nature of the atoms or of the
ether in which they exist ; but I have tried to show that in spite of the

26 REPORT—1901.

tentative nature of some of our theories, in spite of many outstanding
difficulties, the atomic theory unifies so many facts, simplifies so much
that is complicated, that we have a right to insist—at all events till an
equally intelligible rival hypothesis is produced—that the main structure
of our theory is true ; that atoms are not merely helps to puzzled mathe-

maticians, but physical realities.

REPORTS

ON THE

STATE OF SCIENCE.

REPORTS

ON THE

STATE OF SCIENCH.

—oo—-—

The Determination of the Components of Magnetic Force on Board
Ship.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. W.
RicKxer (Chairman), Dr. C. H. Lees (Secretary), Lord Krtvin,
Professor A. ScHUSTER, Captain E. W. Creak, Professor W.
Stroup, Mr, C. Vernon Boys, and Mr. W. Watson.

THE two instruments constructed a year ago, according to Captain
Creak’s design, and described below were tested at Kew and found
satisfactory. They are now on board the ‘ Discovery.’ A third instru-
ment was ordered for use on board the German Antarctic ship ‘ Gauss,’ and
a fourth has since been constructed and was exhibited at the Glasgow
Meeting of the Association.

On a New Form of Instrument for observing the Magnetic Dip and
Intensity on Board Ship at Sea. By Captain E. W. Cruak, C.B.,
BN HRS:

One of the principal objects of the Antarctic expedition which sailed
last month in the ‘ Discovery’ is to make as complete a magnetic survey
of the regions south of the fortieth parallel of south latitude as possible.

As the greater portion of that region is open sea, it is obvious that,
with few chances of landing, the major portion of the survey must be
conducted on board ship.

Previous experience in H.M.S. ships ‘ Erebus’ and ‘Terror’ in 1839-43
(both wooden sailing ships) showed the serious effects of the iron in
those ships in disturbing the magnetic instruments established on board.
In the case of the ‘ Discovery,’ with engines, boilers, and numerous other
iron bodies on board, magnetic observations would have been almost
impossible but for the precautions of first choosing a place for the
magnetic observatory in the ship and then ensuring that no iron of any
kind should be allowed to be placed within a 30-foot radius from that
position.

The ship having thus been prepared, the important question of a
reliable instrument for observing the magnetic dip and total force on

830 REPORT—1901.

board of her arose. The only instrument hitherto used for this purpose
has been Mr. R. W. Fox’s dip and intensity apparatus invented in 1835,
and little or no advance made in its construction since then. It certainly
did valuable work in the Antarctic Magnetic Survey carried out in the
‘Erebus’ and ‘ Terror’ under Sir James Ross, and also in the ‘ Challenger ’
expedition of 1872-76. An examination of the work done in the
‘Challenger’ under most favourable circumstances disclosed certain
defects of a character which are quite inconsistent with the precision now
required.

For example the needles could not be reversed, and hence there was
constant necessity for frequent comparisons with an absolute instrument
on land to obtain index errors. ‘The magnetic moments of the needles
were liable to change with no accurate means of knowing when the
change took place, thus vitiating the sea observations of total force
made by the method of a constant deflecting weight. Again the deflect-
ing magnets used for a second method of obtaining the total force were
liable to changes with no means for ascertaining the period of such
change at sea. The Fox instrument was therefore not suited for the
purposes in view.

Previous experience having shown me the excellent values of the
absolute horizontal force to be obtained with the Barrow’s Dip Circle
fitted with Lloyd’s needles, especially in high latitudes, I arranged for a
series of experiments to ascertain the best methods of applying the
principles of Lloyd’s method to an instrument which could be used on a
gimbal table on board ship. The use of needles with cylindrical axles
resting on agate planes, either for dip or force, was impossible, and trials
with various forms of needles and jewels resulted in my adopting the
forms for both in the instrument exhibited. All the needles have axles
terminating in a cone with the sharp point rounded off and highly
polished. The jewels are highly polished sapphires fixed to the cross
bars of the circle in which conical cavities, slightly larger than the axles
of the needles, have been drilled and polished. The upper half of the
jewel is removed, thus leaving a cup into which the axles of the needle
can be lowered by the lifter provided. By this arrangement the needles
can be retained in place even when the gimbal table, upon which the
instrument is placed, is subject to irregular motions, due to those of the
ship.

"With the circle thus fitted the absolute dip and total force can be
observed agreeably with the usual methods described in the Admiralty
Manual of Scientitic Enquiry.

As there might be a slight oscillation of the needle at times when the
ship is unsteady in a seaway, I have arranged that the ends of the
needles shall come so near the graduated arc that the readings may be
made directly by the microscopes without the use of verniers, as in the .
land instruments.

To obviate friction between the axles of the needles and the jewels I
have fitted a knob on the top of the circle, which should be gently rubbed
with a circular motion of the ivory rubber provided.

The readings of the circle may be accurately made at night by placing
a candle at the back of the circle when the light will be reflected by the
ivory faces of the microscopes to the graduated arc.

The zero of the graduations on the base plate is so placed that when-
ever the magnetic direction of the ship’s head is known by a compass

ON THE DETERMINATION OF MAGNETIC FORCE ON BOARD SHIP. 3]

adjacent the plane of the circle can be immediately placed in the
magnetic meridian without the trouble of finding the meridian by the
usual method with the circle.

Two instruments of the kind described are now in use in the Antarctic
ship ‘ Discovery,’ and the German expedition in the Antarctic ship ‘Gauss’
have also one with two sets of needles.

Kzperiments for improving the Construction of Practical Standards for
Hlectrical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Lord RayLeicH (Chairman), Mr. R. T. GLAZEBROOK (Secretary),
Lord Ketvin, Professors W. E. Ayrton, G. Carey Foster,
J. Perry, W. G. Apams, and Outver J. Loper, Dr. J. A.
MurrueaD, Sir W. H. PreeEceE, Professors J. D. Everett, A.
Scuuster, J. A. Ftemine, and J. J. THomson, Mr. W N. Suaw,
Dr. J. T. Borromuey, Rev. T. C. Firzpatrick, Dr. G. JoHNSTONE
Stoney, Professor S. P. THompson, Mr. J. Renniz, Mr. E. H.
GRIFFITHS, Professors A. W. Ricker, H. L. CaLLenpar, and
Sir Wo. C. Rozerts AUSTEN, and Mr. GrorGE MarTuey.

APPENDIX.—-Wote on a Comparison of the Silver deposited in Voltameters

containing different Solvents, By S. SKINNER” . : : : . page 32
During the year a number of comparisons have been made at the Kew
Observatory among the standard coils of the Association. The temperature
conditions, however, in the temporary laboratory are not sufficiently
satisfactory to make it desirable to report fully on the results ; it is perhaps
sufficient to say that no evidence of any very marked change in the
relative values has shown itself. It is hoped that the coils and other
apparatus will be moved to Bushey during the autumn.

In the room which has been planned for their reception arrangements
will be at hand for controlling the temperature, and the work of inter-
comparison and control of the standards can go on as in former years at
Cambridge.

_ Meanwhile some progress has been made in the preparations for the
construction of mercury standards. A number of tubes of ‘verre dur’
have been examined, and some of these have been calibrated ; when the
apparatus is set up at Bushey his work will go forward rapidly. There
has also been during the year some demand for the issue of standards of
capacity : this it has not been possible to comply with, but the air con-
densers will be set up again as soon as possible, and then capacity tests
can be made.

With regard to platinum thermometry, Mr. Matthey supplied the
Committee with a further specimen of wire, for which he had made a
large stock. This was tested carefully, both at Kew and under Mr. Griffiths’
directions, by Mr. Green at Cambridge, and the values found for the
constants were as under :

R, 00/ Ro=1°3892
8=1:°495+:005

The wire has proved in every way satisfactory, and the money voted
to this Committee last year (45/.) has been spent in purchasing it.

32 REPORT—1901.

Mr. Matthey, however, is retaining for the present, for the use of the
Committee, some more of the wire, and it is, in their opinion, desirable
that they should purchase it also. It is essential for the success of the
scheme approved by the Committee at their last meeting that they should
have a sufficient stock of the wire for a very long period, and they are
anxious not to lose the present opportunity of acquiring such a stock.

Expense will also be incurred in the preparation of the mercury
standards.

The illness and death during the year of Professor Viriamu Jones
have prevented any great progress being made with the ampére balance.
Some part of the apparatus, however, has been constructed, and is in
Professor Ayrton’s hands, and the Committee have good hopes that
further progress may be reported shortly.

The Committee desire to put on record their sense of the loss which
Physical Science has suffered by the deaths of Professors J. V. Jones and
G. F. FitzGerald, who for many years had been members of the Committee,
and had contributed in a marked degree to its work ; and by that of
Professor Rowland, whose redetermination of the absolute value of the
B.A. unit was practically the starting-point of the work of the present
Committee. Professor Rowland had on more than one occasion been a
valued visitor at meetings of the Committee.

A paper by Mr. Skinner on a pyridine voltameter is printed as an
appendix. Professor Callendar’s paper on the variation of the specific
heat of water is closely connected with the work of the Committee.

In conclusion, the Committee recommend that they be reappointed,
with a grant of 50/. ; that Lord Rayleigh be Chairman, and Mr, R. T. Glaze-
brook Secretary.

APPENDIX.

Note on a Comparison of the Silver deposited in Voltameters containing
different Solvents. By 8. Sxinner, M.A., Demonstrator of Haperi-
mental Physics, Cambridge.

In 1892 Schuster and Crossley! showed that when the same current
is passed through two silver voltameters containing silver nitrate in
aqueous solution, one voltameter in a vacuum and the other in air, about
0-1 per cent. more silver was deposited in the vacuum than in air.
This result was confirmed by Myers.? These results clearly prove that
there is an uncertainty in the action of the silver voltameter depending
on the presence of air or oxygen, and consequently on the freshness of
the solution. Werner? found that a silver nitrate solution in pyridine
gives by the rise in the boiling-point of the solvent a nearly normal mole-
cular weight for the salt ; and Kahlenberg‘ found that the solution was
an electrolyte, and could be used in the silver voltameter ; but that,
contrary to what follows, more silver was deposited from aqueous solution
than from pyridine solution by the same current. In the following
experiments a comparison has been made of the deposits produced by the

1 Proc. R.S., 50, p. 344. 2 Annalen, 55, p. 288.
8 Zeits. Anorg. Chem., 1897, 15, p. 23. * Jowrn. Physical Chem., 1900, p. 349.

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 33

same current in silver voltameters containing aqueous and pyridine solu-
tions of silver nitrate.

The platinum bowls used are those numbered J. and V. in the paper
on the Measurement of the Electromotive Force of the Clark Cell! by
Mr. Glazebrook and myself. The anode for bowl I. was a silver disc,
5 cm. in diameter, hung by a silver rod, and a silver cylinder was used
for bowl V. The dimensions of the bowls are given in the paper men-
tioned above. 100 c.c. of solution was used in each case, and the pyridine
solution contained 10 per cent. of silver nitrate, whilst the aqueous
solution contained, as usual, 15 per cent. of the salt.

The areas of the exposed surfaces were approximately as follows :—

Bowl I. Bowl V.
Cathode surface . s» (i, sqacm. 67 sq. cm.
Anode surface : . 19°6 sq. cm. 18 sq. cm.

The conditions of current density in the two bowls may be regarded
as practically identical.

The deposit of silver from the aqueous solution was crystalline, and
the character of the crystals appeared to vary with the current density.
The deposit was washed by standing in distilled water for several hours
and dried over an alcohol flame, The deposit from the pyridine solution
is continuous, and forms a hard coating: it is washed with water in which
both pyridine and silver nitrate are soluble. It is sometimes slightly
coloured, but on drying becomes white. On further heating over the alcohol
flame it develops a pearly lustre, and in this condition it has been weighed.

A Western ampére meter was included in the same circuit, and
served to indicate the constancy of the current. The reading of the
ampere meter is given in the second column of the table. The variations
of the current were very small. In the table the result of every experi-
ment which I have made is given.

Current by |Weight deposited| Weight deposited! Difference P fake
Date | Weston from from in Differe 18° | Notes
Meter |Pyridine Solution! Aqueous Solution Milligrammes | ~*~°TSP°?
Aug.15| 0:07 8115 8105 1-0 124
» 16 0-075 8695 “8685 1-0 115
by 14 0:13 12665 1:2625 40 318 (e)
me S| 0:258 "7865 7820 | 4:5 *BT5
74 0°255 2:2795 2:2730 6:5 “30
» 6] 0:368 11390 1:1340 5:0 “44
Pye! (O:375 9630 “9600 3:0 “41 (a) |
» 10, 0-415 1°4225 1:4200 25 276 (Gi |
elo) 0°52 2:0010 1:9982 2°8 14.
“4 20) 1:00 20180 2°0155 2°5 12 |
Total deposits. | 13-5570 13-5242 32'8 24 |

(a) and (}).—In these two experiments the aqueous solution was in a partial
vacuum (8 cm. pressure), and ‘1 per cent. has been added to the percentage difference
to make them comparable with the other experiments.

(c).—F resh solutions were used in this experiment, and the same solutions were
_ used on all subsequent dates. A few particles of silver were lost from the aqueous
voltameter in this experiment, August, 14.

The first result of these experiments is clearly that all the deposits

1 Phil. Trans., 1892, A.
1901, D

34 REPORT—1901.

from the pyridine solutions weigh more than those from the aqueotis
solutions.

In the measurements of the E.M.F. of the Clark cell by Mr. Glaze-
brook and myself the same current was sent through two systems of
silver voltameters in series, and 15°5123 grammes were deposited in the
bowls which received the greater deposits, as against 15-5055 grammes in
those which gained the smaller deposits. This gives a mean percentage
difference of ‘044, which may be compared with the mean percentage
difference of -24 in the present experiments. It is obvious that this
difference is of a much higher order, but this difference is a mean of
experiments which differ much more between themselves. On that
account J think it is better to discuss the experiments in groups. The
experiments divide themselves roughly into two groups. ‘There is, first,
a group consisting of those in which the current was about ‘07 ampére and
from ‘5 to 1 ampére. This contains the extremes as regards current, and
in it the mean percentage difference would be just over ‘1 per cent. So
that for these values of current the deposit from pyridine would weigh
almost the same as Schuster and Crossley found for a vacuum, which, it
will be remembered, was ‘1 per cent. higher than in air.

The second group consists of those experiments in which the current
value lies between ‘13 and ‘41 ampére, and here the mean percentage
difference is much larger, i.¢., °38. Over this range one of the deposits
seems to be uncertain, and I think these experiments may be considered
to indicate that between these values of current in the given bowls one
of the two voltameters is irregular in its action. The character of the
silver crystals appeared to be variable, whilst the hard film of silver from
the pyridine solution had always the same texture. The aqueous volta-
meter seemed to work best with the large currents ‘5 to 1 ampere when
the crystals were small, hard, and closely packed. At the lower values of
current the silver crystals were thin, long, and friable. At the lowest
value they were again small and hard. One explanation of the variation
may be that particles of silver are more easily lost during the washing,
when the crystals are of the second character.

Conclusions :—

(1) That Faraday’s law holds to within ‘24 per cent. in the mean for
silver nitrate when dissolved in two different solvents.

(2) That for current values of ‘07 and ‘5 to 1 ampére in the given
bowls the amount of silver deposited from a pyridine solution of silver
nitrate is nearly the same as that deposited from an aqueous solution in a
vacuum.

(3) That for current values between ‘1 and 5 ampére more silver is
obtained in the pyridine voltameter than in the aqueous voltameter.

Note on the Variation of the Specific Heat of Water,
By Professor H. L. CaLLenpar, F.R.S.

{Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

The method adopted for determining the variation of the specific heat of
water was described and the apparatus exhibited at the Toronto Meeting
of the British Association,! and the results up to a temperature of 60° C,

* BA, Rep., 1897,

ON THE VARIATION OF THE SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER. 35

were given in a preliminary note communicated to Section A at the
Dover Meeting.! The final results were communicated to the Royal
Society in June 1900,? and are now in course of publication in the ‘ Phil.
Trans.’ The object of the following note is to discuss one or two minor
corrections and reductions which have been suggested.

Values below 20°. .

At the Dover Meeting of the British Association it was stated that
the observations agreed very perfectly on the average with Rowland’s
from 5° to 35°, but indicated a slightly more rapid change near the
freezing-point. This change required further verification, and was not
included in the formule then suggested. Subsequent observations have
confirmed this effect, which may be represented within the limits of
probable error by the addition of another term to the formula below
20° C. The formula given in 1899 for the specific heat s at any tempera-
ture ¢ between 0° and 60° was as follows :—

s='9982+-0000045 (¢—40)2 . eS (2)
Below 20° the formula should read :
s='9982 + 0000045 (¢—40)?—-0000005 (¢— 20) ; (2)

This formula agrees with the curve and with the correction to the total
heat / of the liquid given in the note in the‘ British Association Report,’
1899. Values calculated by these formule are given in Table II. in the
column headed B.A. 1899.

The quantity actually observed by Rowland was the total heat of
the liquid from the starting-point of each experiment. The following
table shows the close agreement of his results with this formula :—

TABLE I.— Values of Total Heat of Water, 5°-35°.

Temperature. Formulee (1) and (2). Rowland.

°

5 5:037 5:037
10 10'056 10:058
15 15-065 15-068
20 20°068 20:071
25 25:065 25°067
30 30:060 80:057
35 35:052 35:053

Results above 60°.

In the ‘British Association Report,’ 1899, Regnault’s formula was
adopted for the variation above 60°, modified by subtracting a constant
quantity 0056, to make it fit with formula (1) at 60°, and to reconcile
his results with those of Reynolds and Moorby. We thus obtain

s=0:9944 +0-00004¢+ 000000927 . 7 sas (3)
Subsequently to the Dover Meeting Dr, Barnes succeeded in obtaining

. B.A, Rep., 1899. ® Proc, RS, 1900.

36 . REPORT—1901.

five or six results at points between 66° and 92°, which are represented
within one part in 10,000 by the linear formula

eS 00011 (¢- 50) een ee ee

This formula gives a value nearly 1 in 1,000 lower than (3) at 90°,
but it cannot be reconciled with Regnault’s observations between 110°
and 190° C., and it would, therefore probably be better to retain (3),
since it is likely that the specific heat would increase more rapidly at
high temperatures.

Although the actual observations at these higher points agree with
formula (4) much more closely than 1 in 1,000 it is conceivable that they
might contain a constant error of this order at 90°.

More complicated formule are given by Dr. Barnes,! but since the
whole variation of the specific heat is so small it does not seem worth
while to change the simpler formule already published in the ‘ British
Association Report,’ 1899, which represent the ovservations equally well.

Comparison with Liidin.

The results of the observations of Liidin by the method of mixtures
are givenin Table II. for comparison. They agree very well below 20°, but
show a minimum at 25°C. Above this point they increase rapidly to a
maximum at 85° C., which is 1 per cent. greater than the value found by
Barnes when expressed in terms of the same unit. This rapid increase
may possibly be explained by radiation error from the hot-water supply. .
The subsequent diminution between 85° and 100° may be due to
evaporation of the boiling water on its way to the calorimeter. These
errors are peculiar to the method of mixtures, and are completely
eliminated in the electrical method. Moreover, the quantity measured
in the method of mixtures is not the actual specific heat at the higher
limit ¢, but the mean specific heat between ¢ and the temperature of the
calorimeter. ‘The values of the actual specific heat at ¢, which depend on
differentiating the curve of mean specific heat, are thus rendered
extremely uncertain near the extremities of the range. The electrical
method avoids this uncertainty, since it directly measures the rise of
temperature produced by the same quantity of energy at different points
of the scale.

Correction for Variation of Temperature Gradient in the Flow-tube.

If E is the difference of electric potential in volts between the ends
of the conductor ;

C, the current in amperes through it ; ;

J, the number of joules required to raise 1 gramme of water 1° C.
at the mean temperature of the experiment ;

Q, the water-flow in grammes per second ;

| 6, the rise of temperature ;
h9, the loss of heat by radiation, &c., in joules per second,

we have the simple equation
‘ : EC=JQ9 +0 ’ : 3 : (5)

If we assume that the heat-loss hO is the same for two different flows,
provided that the electrical current is regulated so as to secure the same

1 Proce, RS, 1900,

ON THE VARIATION OF THE SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER. 37

final rise of temperature 0, we can easily eliminate 4 and tind J. When
the flow is large, the heat loss hi is a small fraction, 1 or 2 per cent., of
the whole. The gradient of temperature in the flow-tube is then nearly
constant, but diminishes slightly as the temperature rises, owing to
increased rate of loss of heat. With smaller flows this effect increases,
as the magnitude of the loss A9 becomes greater in proportion to the
whole. There is therefore a small systematic variation in the tempera-
ture distribution when the’ flow is changed, which may be calculated from
the differential equation representing the conditions of heat-loss and
supply. The effect can be represented by adding to equation (5) a term
1170/25 JQ, in which the numerical factor 11/25 depends on the relative
dimensions of the tubes of the calorimeter employed. At a temperature
of 30° C. his 2 per cent. of JQ for the larger flows, and the correction
amounts to only 2 or 3 parts in 10,000. Dr. Barnes observed that the
results deduced from the smaller flows differed systematically from those
given by the larger flows, but the differences were so small that he
thought they might be due to accidental errors of observation or some
defect of the method. [I find, however, that these small systematic differ-
ences are almost exactly accounted for by the correction in question. This
is an excellent verification of the accuracy of the work. The importance
of the correction arises from the fact that the heat-loss increases nearly
as the fourth power of the absolute temperature, and the correction itself
increases as the square of the heat-loss. Although practically negligible
at ordinary temperatures, it reaches one part in 1,000 at the higher
points. The results published in the ‘ Proc. R.8.,’ 1900, must be corrected
for this source of error. Thecorrected values are given in column (1) of
Table IT.

Reduction to the Hydrogen Scale.

The observations were all taken directly with standard platinum ther-
mometers, and the temperatures were reduced by means of the difference-
formula

t—pt=1:50¢ (t—100)/10,000 ; ‘ 2 (6)

This gives a perfectly definite scale of temperature, which agrees very
closely, according to the observations of Callendar and Griffiths,! with
that of the constant-pressure air-thermometer. It is really preferable
and express the results in terms of this scale, which has the advantage
that it can be reproduced with much greater accuracy than is attainable
in gas-thermometry. If, however, we assume that it coincides with the
scale of the air-thermometer, it would be desirable to reduce the results
to the hydrogen scale, as being a closer approach to the absolute thermo-
dynamic scale.

In making this reduction it would be most natural to assume the well-
known formula for the difference between the nitrogen and hydrogen
scales given by Chappuis, and quoted by Guillaume and other authorities :

t, —t,=t(t—100)( + 6°318 + 0:00889¢—0-001323¢?) x 10-° . : (7)

This has been done by Griffiths,” who gives a table of our results so
reduced. There are, however, one or two objections to be considered.
(1) The formula of Chappuis makes the differences ¢,—¢, negative be-
tween 80° and 100°, so that the correction to the specific heat changes
from —2 in 10,000 at 80° to +6 in 10,000 at 100°. Chappuis himself

1 Phil, Trans,, 1890, ° Thermal Measurement of Energy, Cambridge, 1901,

388 REPORT—1901.

considers this impossible, and has recently | proposed an emended curve,
which would alter the correction by nearly one part in 1,000 at 100°.
(2) The experiments of Chappuis refer to the constant-volume nitrogen-
thermometer at one metre of mercury initial pressure, whereas the
difference-formula is assumed to refer to the constant-pressure air-ther-
mometer at 76 cm. pressure. The correction in the latter case is quite
different, so that we should not assume Chappuis’ results for the reduction.
On the whole we shall probably be nearest the truth if we calculate the
correction for the scale of the constant-pressure air-thermometer from
the observations of Joule and Thomson? by the method which I have
explained in ‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ March 1901. It happens that the |
correction to the results, when calculated in this manner, is very nearly
equal and opposite to that already given for the variation of the
temperature-gradient in the flow-tube, so that if both corrections are
applied the results are practically unchanged. It must be remembered,
however, that one of these corrections is certain and obligatory, whereas
the other is to a great extent a matter of taste. It would really be
more scientific to omit the uncertain reduction to the hydrogen scale.

The value of the difference coefficient 1:50 in formule 6 is calculated,
assuming the boiling-point of sulphur to be 444°-5, on the scale of the con-
stant-pressure air-thermometer. If we took the boiling-point of sulphur
to be 445°-2 (as determined by Harker and Chappuis with a constant-
volume nitrogen-thermometer at 560 mm. initial pressure), we should
find d=1:54. This would make a difference of 4 in 10,000 in the values
of the specific heat at 0° and 100°. But the correction from the constant-
volume nitrogen scale would be much smaller, so that, by a curious
coincidence, the final results reduced to the hydrogen scale would be
almost identical with those already given.

Tasie Il.— Variation of Specific Heat of Water in terms of a Unit at 20° C.

Tempera- R.S. 1900 Reduced to B.A. Report wes
ae Corrected H Scale 1899 ; Liiidin, 1895
oO
0) 1:0080 1:0084 1:0094 1:0084
5 1:0052 1:0055 1:0054 1-0051
10 1:0029 1:0031 1:0027 1:0026
15 10011 10012 1:0011 1:0009
20 10000 1:0000 370000 1:0000
245 “9991 “9991 9992 “9998
30 “9987 “9986 “9987 “9999
35 “9986 “9984 “9983 1:0006
40 “9986 “9984 “9982 1:0017
45 ‘9988 ‘9986 “9983 1°0080
50 ‘9993 “9989 | “9987 1:0046
55 “9998 "9994 | +9992 1:0063
60 1:0005 1:0000 1:0000 1:0079
65 1:0011 1:0006 1:0008 1:0094
70 10018 1:0013 1:0016 1:0109
75 1:0024 1:0020 1:0024 1:0123
80 1:0033 1:0027 1:0033 1:0131
85 1:0040 1:00384 1:0043 1:0137
90 1:0048 1:0041 1:0053 1:0136
95 1:0055 1:0048 1:0063 1:0129
100 1:0062 1:0055 1:0074 10117

1 Phil. Mag., 1900 2 Phil, Trans,, 1862.

9

ON RADIATION IN A MAGNETIC FIELD. 39

Radiation in a Magnetic Field.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
the late Professor G. F. FirzGrratp (Chairman), Professor W. E.
Turirr (Secretary), Professor A. ScuusTEr, Principat Oma.
Lope, Professor 8. P. Toompson, Dr. GeraLD Mo.ioy, «nd Dr.
W. EH. ADENEY.

Tux Committee have to refer with feelings of the deepest regret to the
death of their Chairman, Professor G. F. FitzGerald, and acknowledge
that their work has been much impaired by the loss they have sustained.

That work seemed twofold: in the first place, to obtain specimen
prints and enlargements of the negatives left by Preston, in order to
consider the advisability of publishing them; in the second place, to
study the negatives and measure the separations of the various lines.

Nineteen of these negatives are interesting, viz., ten of iron, five of
cadmium and zine, two of magnesium, one of strontium, and one of nickel,
but their value is much lessened because no information is obtainable
concerning the corresponding strength of the magnetic field. However,
from their examination of the specimen prints and enlargements which
they have obtained, the Committee conclude that it would be desirable
to publish prints of some, at least, of the negatives. They are interesting
on account of their priority as photographic records of the effect of a
magnetic field upon the spectral lines, and on account of the clearness with
which they exhibit the effect, both in its normal and in many anomalous
forms; and the information derivable from them would thus become
available to all. The Committee, therefore, recommend their publication,
and ask for reappointment, with a grant of 15/., in order to carry this
recommendation into effect.

The work of measuring the negatives has been confined to preliminary
investigations on the degree of accuracy attainable, and to some observa-
tions on the iron spectrum. With the instrument used by Sir Robert
Ball and Dr. Rambaut for measuring star photographs it was possible by
special arrangements to measure, in general, to 0°006 tenth metre. This

would imply that the resulting values of a , for example, 25:8 x 10°, are

2
accurate to 0:2 or 0°3. But the calculated values of = for the lines,

observed so far, show such variety that the verification for iron of the
law demonstrated by Preston for cadmium, zinc, and magnesium seems
most improbable at present.

Several anomalous lines have been observed, particularly the quintet
at 3743°51.

No unaffected lines have been met with ; those which are not split
up into separate components are much broadened.

Interference and Polarisation of Electric Waves.
By Professor Dr. G. QUINCKE.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso. |
In the Physical Laboratory of the University of Heidelberg Dr. August
Becker has measured the wave-lengths of electric vibrations in inter-
ference-tubes with two branches or in T-shaped tubes of the form which
Professor Quincke used for acoustical researches.

The maxima and minima of the waves have been observed by means

4.0 REPORT—1901.

of a coherer in air, and in different fluid or solid dielectrics, Through
interference-tubes with two branches only those vibrations are transmitted
which are parallel to the plane of the branches, and of a wave-length
equal to 1-6 the diameter of the tube. Such an interference-tube repre-
sents for electric waves a Nicol prism or a coloured glass plate for optical
waves. Wave-length or velocity inside the interference-tubes is about
+ of the wave-length or velocity outside in the free air. The ratio of the
wave-length in air and in fluids gives /h, & being the specific inductive
capacity of the fluid.

Seismological Investigations.—Siath Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor J. W. Jupp (Chairman), Mr. J. M1LnE (Secretary),
Lord KELvin, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. V. Boys, Professor
G. H. Darwin, Mr. Horace Darwin, Major L, Darwin, Professor
J. A. Hwine, Professor C. G. Knorr, Professor R. Mretpoua, Mr.
R. D. OxtpHam, Professor J. Perry, Mr. W. E. PLumMer, Pro-
fessor J. H. Poyntine, Mr. CLEMENT Retp, Mr, Netson RicHaRD~
s0N, and Professor H. H. Turner.

CONTENTS.
PAGE
I. On Seismological Stations abroad and in Great Britain . : . 40
Analyses of Records for the Year 1900. ; : 41

On the Approximate Frequency of Earthquak
By J. MILNE . c . 5 3

Haperiments upon Piers. 5 : : 3 3 : ‘ ; .

II. On the Comparison of Earthquake Registers from Ken, Shide, Bidston, and

es at different Stations.
; : : ‘ : . 41

Edinburgh. By J. MILNE ; 5 - : 7 : : . 44
III. On the Records obtained from two similar Scismographs at Ken. By

Dr. CHARLES CHREE : * ; 4 : c 4 : ; 51
IV. Movements of Horizontal Pendulums in relation to Barometric Pressure.

By J. MILNE . : : : - 5 ‘ : : . 52
V. An Attempt to Measure Earth Movements at Ridgeway Fault. By Horace

DARWIN 5 : . ; : - : : : 3 . 52

I. On Seismological Stations abroad and in Great Britain.

SEISMOGRAPHS of the type recommended by the Seismological Investiga-
tion Committee of the British Association have been constructed for and
in most instances are already established at the following stations :—

*1. Africa. . Cape Town. *20. Mauritius . . Royal Alfred Ob-
527 - Cairo. servatory.

3. Australia . Melbourne. 21. Mexico . - Mexico.

4, 5 . Sydney. 22. | New Zealand(2 Wellington (2 in-

5. 5 - Western Australia, Stal instruments ) struments).
*6. Canada . Toronto. 24. Portugal . . Coimbra,

tS (cue pee . Victoria, B.C. 25. Russia 5 » Irkutsk.

8. Ceylon . Colombo. 263, “ues ‘. Fe bib te

*9. England . Shide, Isle of Wight. V1 (aie ry : . Taschkent.
a0 es . Kew. *28. Scotland . . Edinburgh.
ule i . Bidston. 29. 5 ; . Paisley.

12, Germany. Strassburg. *30. 8. America . Cordova.

3. Honolulu. Hawaii. 31. re . Arequipa.

. *14. India . Calcutta. *32. Spain : . San Fernando.

Sa a is9t . Madras, Kodaikanal. 33. Syria 2 . Beyrut.

16. : » dugga Row. 34. Trinidad. ; :
calle aes - Bombay. 35. U.S. of America Philadelphia,
*18. Java . Batavia, 36. 73 Baltimore.

*19, Japan . Tokio,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 41

The last instrument constructed is in charge of Mr. L. Bernacchi, of
the ss. ‘ Discovery.’ If possible it is to be used in the Antarctic Regions.
Continuous records have been received from stations marked with an
asterisk, whilst Mexico, New Zealand, Trinidad, Philadelphia, and Balti-
more have sent occasional records.

The last registers issued by the British Association Committee are
Circulars Nos. 2 and 3. These refer to Shide, Kew, Toronto, Victoria, B.C.,
San Fernando, Cairo, Cape Town, Mauritius, Calcutta, Bombay, Kodai-
kanal, Batavia, and Cordova. These are complete up to the end of
December 1900, excepting for Cordova (Circular No. 2), the entries for
which end on June 21, 1900.

The instruments now in use at the Shide station are :—

1. A photographic: recording horizontal pendulum oriented North and
South, This is the type of instrument similar to those at other stations.

2. A pair of pendulums similar to the above oriented North-South
and East-West. This instrument was kindly presented to your Secretary
by Mr. A. F. Yarrow.

3. A pair of horizontal pendulums writing on smoked paper. These
have arms 14 inches in length, and each carries a 10 Ib. weight.

4. A pair of horizontal pendulums also writing on smoked paper
The arms are 9 feet in length, and each weighs about 100 lb. This and
instrument No, 3 give open diagrams. |

5. A simple spiral spring seismograph for vertical motion. Record
photographic.

§, A large balance arranged to show tilting.

Analyses of Records for 1900.

An analysis of the earthquakes recorded during the year 1900, similar
in character to that given in the Fifth Report issued by your Committee
for the records of the previous year, is in progress, Its length precludes
it from appearing in these reports.

On the Approximate Frequency of Earthquakes at different Stations.

In the following table the large numerals to the right of or beneath
the name of a given station indicate the actual number of disturbances
recorded at that station during given intervals of time. For all stations,
excepting three, these intervals are the years 1899 and 1900. The three
exceptions are Cairo, for which the interval is the year 1900 ; Calcutta,
from July to December 1900 ; and Cordova, from January to June 1900.
Inasmuch as at all stations, for a variety of reasons, there have been
interruptions in the continuity of observations, these time intervals must
only be regarded as approximations. As it is difficult in the case of
certain minute disturbances to determine whether these have a seismic
origin or are due to some other cause, the large numerals are only approxi-
mations.

The small numerals to the right or left of a large numeral give
the percentage of the earthquakes recorded at the station to which it refers,
which are common to the registers of the other stations. For example, out
of 210 records at Shide, 58 per cent. of them were also noted at Kew, and

42 REPORT—1901.

40 per cent. at one or more stations in Europe.’ These latter refer to
Strassburg, Hamburg, Laibach, Trieste, or observatories in Italy.

5 5

® 6 5 n mb | 3 a 2 E Sa|aa

6 re} a | a "2 e e els 2 =} 5 o |% 2. ae
a\F le S)el/ola la sla] | # ozlas

3 ad 1S)

io) >
Shide . 3 210| 58 | 32 | 47| 49] 5|12] 23] 7] 84|] 19] 25] 19 | 40
Kew |§54 220) 297785 | 357) 3) 9 1 19 | 38) Qe W418!) BONS
San Fernando | 87 | 84 | 75 | 79 | 75 | 11 | 23 | 48 | 15 | 63 | 36 |.59 | 53 | 69
Toronto .| 40 | 34) 24,)241).56) 3) 7 | 16.) :.), 21-24. Oy toma
Victoria, B.C. | 40 | 33 | 23-| 55 }246) 3] 9) 17] 4] 25 | 17) 19 | 17 | 28
Cairo . ~{28 | 12) 14.) 15,12") 45) 21) 14) 2 )-20 | 18 | Po) dees
Madras. e221 19 bo Sa LON SS) EL Se a ee) maa ie Oe als
Bombay .| 90 | 76 | 62 | 69 | 71 | 14 | 36 | 58 | 14 | 65 | 45 | 52 | 23 | 62
Calcutta »| 14/138) 138 | 14) 14) 2) 7) 9 | 6% 1:18 |) 14) 14) —= 1 18
Batavia | 29 | 2421.) 26 029.4) 4-1 9) 14) 9 238719 | se ee
Mauritius .| 46 | 42 | 39 | 47 | 53] 91] 13 | 31 | 13} 54] 81 | 41 | 14 | 38
Cape Town .| 53 | 47 | 45 | 48 | 50 8 | 17 | 32 | 10 | 47 | 35 | 98 |<21 | 45
Cordova TEM) ALE 16 W163) 6 Der ee ABN SOn i eee ate
(Argentina) |

From what has been said it is clear that results indicated by the
above table are, when we have at our disposal materials more definite in
character, open to modification.

Numerous records, as at Shide (210) and Kew (220), may indicate
that in the examination of the record-receiving films, in certain instances,
minute disturbances have been wrongly accepted as having a seismic origin.
The high number of records accredited to Batavia may partly be accounted
for by the fact that at that place there are many local shocks the effects
of which have not been appreciable at distant stations. That the per-
centage of the Shide records noted at other stations is, in all instances but
one, greater than the percentage of the Kew records at corresponding
stations (see the first two horizontal lines in the table) indicates that
either the Kew instrument or the ground on which it rests is less sensi-
tive to seismic influences than the instrument or the ground at Shide.
A similar conclusion is arrived at if we inspect the two vertical sets of
entries beneath the names of these two stations.

The fewness of the San Fernando and Bombay records, and the large
percentage of these which are found at other stations, may indicate that
at these stations disturbing influences non-recognisable as seismic but
rarely occur. For Cairv and Calcutta not only are the records few in
number, but the percentages of these common to other stations are also
low. The explanation of this probably rests on the fact that these two
stations are installed upon alluvium. At San Fernando and Bombay,
where the installations are upon hard materials, although the records are
not numerous, the percentages of these recognised at other stations are
high. If this is correct we have here the reverse of what occurs in the
case of earthquake motion that can be felt, the motion being greatest
upon the alluvium, and least upon the harder strata.

The low percentages corresponding to the Cordova records may be
accounted for by the supposition that many of its entries refer to shocks

See footnote to p, 47.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 43

which do not reach distant stations. Although a list might be made of
earthquakes recorded at the European stations here considered, but not
at the thirteen widely separated stations indicated in the above table,
an inspection of this table shows the converse to be equally true, there
having been many earthquakes recorded in the south of South America,
on the east and west of North America, in South Spain, and in Great
Britain which have apparently escaped record in Central Europe.

In connection with this subject attention may be drawn to the list of
earthquakes on pp. 44-46. As this list has been drawn up with great care,
it may be taken for granted that all entries which refer to approximately
the same times represent seismic disturbances. The larger of these will
have been recorded at distant stations. To determine whether this is
true for the smaller records observers are asked to make a close inspection
of their photographic traces.

Eaperiments upon Piers.—At the end of March Professor H. H. Turner,
F.R.S., visited Shide, where, in conjunction with your Secretary, he
measured the stiffness of various piers employed to carry seismographs.
To make a measure of this description a rope was tied round the column
to be tested about 2 inches from its top. A spring balance was attached
to this, and a pull of from 5 to 30 lb. was exerted, with the result that the
column was deflected. These deflections were measured by an astro-
nomical level standing on the column, and in certain instances also by
the deflection of the boom of horizontal pendulums. The stiffest column
tested was a 12-inch earthenware drain pipe, 3 feet in length. The appa-
rent deflection was 0’09 per one-pound pull.. A brick column 6 feet in
height, and in cross-section 3 feet by 1 foot 6 inches, had per lb. pull a
deflection angle in directions parallel to its sides of 0’192 and 07:05, the
latter referring to its greatest width.

Il. On Earthquake Records obtained at Stations on different Geological
Formations.—The records referred to in this note were obtained at Kew,
Shide, Bidston, and Edinburgh. The instruments used were Milne
horizontal pendulums with photographic recording apparatus. They were
similarly installed, and, so far as it has been practical, were kept with
similar adjustments. The geological formations at these four stations may
be briefly described as follows :—

Kew.—Thick alluvial deposits of the Thames Valley, which in their
upper parts at least are saturated with water.

Shide.—Here the pier carrying the instrument rests upon the dis-
integrated outcrop of beds of chalk which form the east and west backbone
of the Isle of Wight. These beds plunge at a steep angle, to rise again as
a series of chalk downs to the north of the Solent beyond Portsmouth.

Lidston.--The Observatory at Bidston is situated on New Red sand-
stone.

Edinburgh.—Blackford Hill, on which the Royal Observatory is
situated, is a great sheet of ‘felstone’ or porphyrite of Palozoic age.

The records obtained from these stations are as follows :—

1901.

REPORT

44,

Teug 9-0 i &% 0 SF GI | 0-01 6I gg.
0% ee Tit ‘L'V08 61] ‘L'V 99 STi| #2 “
[0=92-0| 92.0 oso | e20 | #20 G98 3 | GES | Goes lass “
1-0 = 92-0 £z-0 660 | 0 T LF LL |0-81 40-21 1:
emg °Z.0 L 0 ¢ of 0€ FI 0-1e #1 | 08."
6-1=6-5 [870-91 | 91-98 | §Z=18 || 070 | srt | ort | ext || oze ¢ | 999% |socep | 89¢% last “
Trearg IL 0 L 4 1, O re-or ais
86-0= 3-0 g=0 |
| 0-83 02 thes
Z-0= 96-0 |L8-0=92.0 | 8£-0=3.0 | SIT | $90 | 0¢ 0 |/qnodmeq] 229% |402 2c | ee ea leet “
OF LI
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OF 0 0-16 9T 09.90 | Sh “2
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Trearg £%.0 > 0 > 0 G.68 FT Ora More cen
TO=F-0 | 20=2-0 | ¥0=9.0 170 | 080 |: 9% 0 G9 Of | 89206 | 00 0 lee “
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epnytdury | worn | FUOUTODUATAULOD)

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‘ybunquipy pup ‘uojsprg ‘apg ‘nay qn sunjnpuag pozuozwozy unpruns wolf paurnzgo sp..ovagy "TT

45

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

LL0=92.-1|
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REPORT—r1901.

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IT-0=92-0| [emg | €2-0=¢-0 € 0 IL 0 0€ 0 Sa) 0-61 6 | 8-01 G | 9-91 ZB | 0-06 G |x
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epngduy uoTPyVINGg JUSMIeIMEUTUOFD)
_ = (7)

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 4.7

Earthquake Frequency.—As it is possible that an entry which only
refers to one station and does not appear to have been noticed in Europe
may not have had a seismic origin, in the summation of the above lists
such entries have been omitted. Adopting this precaution, the number
of earthquake records obtained at the different stations are as follows :—

Bidston, 33 or 36 ; Shide, 31 or 33 ; Kew, 26 ; Edinburgh, 21.!

Larthquake Duration.—In summing up the total number of minutes
during which the pendulums have been moved, only the fourteen earth-
quakes are considered which were recorded or might have been recorded
at the four stations. The resultsin minutes are as follows :—Bidston, 919 ;
Shide, 887 ; Edinburgh, 825 ; Kew, 761.

Accuracy in the Observation of Times of Commencements.—The greatest
possible difference in time we should consider likely to exist between the
commencement of movement for a given earthquake at two stations would
be for disturbances travelling in a northerly or southerly direction between
Shide or Kew and Edinburgh, and this could not be expected to exceed
five minutes. Between Shide and Kew there might be a difference of
one minute, whilst between Bidston and the remaining stations the
differences should not exceed two and a half minutes. In the columns
relating to these differences the zero indicates the station at which motion
was first recorded. The minutes which elapsed before the same dis-
turbance was noted at the remaining stations are indicated by numerals
to the right or left of the zero.

A minus sign following one of these numerals indicates that the time
interval exceeds the expected interval, whilst a plus sign indicates that
the numeral is a possible quantity. For the second entry the four minus
signs indicate that there are not even two entries which are comparable.
In the third entry for February 15, Edinburgh and Bidston, like
Edinburgh and Kew, are possible figures, and therefore these three
stations are credited with a plus.

Duration in Mins, Amplitudes Duration of P.T.’s D pes craic of
1
ee % ® 3 .|%
a a |
eee ® Ss B of es 5 on} 5
ze et) R27 | E Ke 3 ag caal| BE Pe = | ee WS)
ol3a|o/s8 & = = 3 Sy let tee It mele test Se) |p cee ces
Hin jiAlsA =] vn aa) ica td n [<a] <3] = n <2) A
1901
mm. ’ | MM, “| Mm. / | MM. /’ | Min.| Min.) Min.| Min. Min.) Min.| Min.| Min
Jan. 18 | 83 | 70 | 72 | 40 | B1 2°3| 35 16) 16 05|] 2°99 13, 25 23 19 18 0 ? 0 1
” 22 | 24 | 25 | 30 0 ;
9 30 8 | 25 | 27 | 55 41—| 0—| 18-| 9—
Fe. 14] 01 7| 8] 3 |
sy 15 | 27 | 60 | 31 | 50 | 03 0°2| O05 0-2] 13 04] 05 O02) 72] 18 | 15 | 10 | 144+) O—| 104) 94+
March 3 | 25 | 10 | 21 | 50 |
oy 5 |104?/100 | 91 /106 | 1:0 0°83) 13 06) 1:3 05 1:7 08) 30 30 26 29 6+) 84+] O—| 124
a 16 | 95 }100 | 81 |103 | 2:0 17| 25 1:2) 18 06] 1:7 0:8| 24 22 27 25 7+| 9+] O-] 94
3 19 | 60 | 65 | 70 | 49 | 0-4 0:3) 05 02] OG 03] 0° 0:2) 29?) 41 30 0?) 8+) O-—| 4-| 94
ay 23 | 35 | 65 | 65 | 56 | O'5 0-4) 05 02] 0 02) 05 O2) 5?) ? 23 2 | 214+; 7-—| 0-| 184+
» 28] 0] 10 | 60 | 10 :
April 5 |210 |215 |220 |223 | 4:8 3:9| 8-5 4:0] 76 2:6] 5:0 2:2) 60 73 80 74 | 46+) 54+) O-}) 514
or
248
3 6 | 82 |105 | 94 | 77 O+; 14] 24} 23—
5 7 7 1+] O+] 8+] 8+
x Jif: \080) |) Te 8 12—| 5+] 0+] 0+

1 74 per cent. of the Shide records are common to Kew, and 88 per cent. of the
Kew records are common to Shide. See pp. 42, 43,

48 REPORT—1901.

Proceeding in this manner, we find that out of the eleven earthquakes
considered, the number of commencements which may approximate to
correctness are as follows :—Kew, 8 ; Edinburgh, 8 ; Shide, 6 ; Bidston, 4.

In considering these results it must be remembered that the earth-
quakes considered are for the most part small, and the difficulty of accu-
rately analysing a small seismogram is greater than when analysing one
that is large.

Amplitudes.—For seven earthquakes the sum of the amplitudes of
motion reckoned in millimetres at the four stations are as follows :—
Shide, 17-3; Bidston, 14:7; Edinburgh, 12°8; Kew, 12:1. Assuming
that these displacements represent tiltings, which is improbable, the
results are as follows:—Kew, 9'°8; Shide, 8:0; Edinburgh, 5/7 ;
Bidston, 5':1.

The following four figures are sketches made from seismograms
obtained on the specified dates at Kew, Shide, Bidston, and Edinburgh.
The figures following the letter S indicate the number of millimetres
equivalent to one hour :—

Fig. 1. January 18, 1901.

4,35 2

$$$ anh irene
t + .

Shide. S=58-d,

5.21.5
4.56.8 “i

ih 4
eres Oa eT os ers Qihos-an SMT eI a

Kew, S=6('25.

4.56.6
v i
$a tin iri ae tt rt ee
Bidston S=58-25.
4.57.2 5.15.5
v V i
>) > [a ae eel Ie tee

Edinburgh. S=59,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 49

Fie. 2. March 5, 1901.

11.3.5

Oe ep (iif ree: OR a

Shide, S=58-25.

11.1.5 11.36.5 12.22.0
v v

y
8 pnt 0811 a ny ag ri rr

Bidston. S=58-25.

Edinburgh. S=59°5.

Fic. 3. March 16, 1901.

a nGidhones o

Shide, S=55°5,

12.17.2

: $$ nnn finger ttn enn $$$

rin rt RH eR <=

Bidston. S=58-25.

12.59.0
12,14.0 {) .

Edinburgh. S=59.

1901. E

*6S=S “Ysinquipy

SERS cere ttc ld neil oop cuerpo iil duh \ il 4) i, anna ae

‘SB.8S=S “WOsple

|
te tt nr nest Ol il vd [hyeia i ' collet
i

< GL.09=S “MO

Gl) tren eae sa

0'12'0

reer coil ie qd

REPORT—1901.

= 0

“¢.8S=S ‘eplys
; iy
acon esate e-nmaatnnn neil \ | | ae

oE'O

‘1061 ‘9-G Indy “fF ‘DIA

50

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 51

III. On the Records from two similar Seismographs at Kew.
From the National Physical Laboratory. By CuarLes CHREE.

A Milne seismograph, No. 31, intended for Coimbra, was set up for
examination at the National Physical Laboratory on October 30, 1900,
its pendulum being at the same level and having the same orientation as
that of the seismograph No. 9 belonging to the Laboratory. The points
of suspension of the two pendulums were about 11 feet apart. At first
the supports of No. 31 rested simply on the stone floor, while those of
No. 9 passed through the floor down to a cement bed. After a month’s
trial, however, the seismographs were interchanged, with a view to elimi-
nating the difference, if any, between the supports. The instruments
were adjusted to nearly the same sensitiveness (assuming identity of gauge) ;
they had very approximately the same period and the same rate of
subsidence of artificially produced vibrations.

Seven considerable earth tremors were recorded by both instruments.
In the four largest the times of commencement of the ‘preliminary
tremors’ shown by the two traces were in excellent agreement, no differ-
ence exceeding 0:2 minute. In the other three cases the apparent times
differed by from 1:7 to 4-6 minutes, the difference being greatest for the
smallest tremors. The times of commencement of the large movements
agreed better than those of the preliminary tremors.

As will be seen by a comparison of figs. 5 and 6, there were conspicuous
differences in details in the records from the two instruments. This,
presumably, is mainly due to thesupports. The instrument standing on the
floor had, as a rule, a lessened amplitude of vibration, the reduction ave-
raging some 30 percent. There were, however, not infrequent exceptions

Fie. 5. December 25, 1900. °

5.27.4 5.55.1
5.16.4 ny

¥
4 ;
$$ (prrrrocemni Stem cec=

Seismo. No. 31 on Kew table.

5.27.5 5.55.1

: t
Pah rget heal oO ae a

5.16.6
t

Seismo. No. 9 on Coimbra table,

Fig, 6. January 7, 1901.

Seismo. No. 31 on Kew table.
E2

52 REPORT—1901.

to the general rule. After allowing for the supports, a small difference still
remained between the instruments, the mean apparent amplitude of dis-
turbed movements being some 10 per cent. greater for No. 31 than for No. 9.

During the comparison the observer, Mr. Constable, noticed that on
certain days of high wind the trace from the seismograph standing on the
floor showed numerous small movements, many possessing distinct
asymmetry. Further investigation showed that these undoubtedly arose
from vibrations set up in the building by the gusts of wind. Minuter
examination showed that the phenomenon also occurred, though to a
much smailer extent, in the traces from the seismograph on the cement
bed. Wind is thus clearly a cause of not infrequent tiny movements,
whose source had hitherto escaped detection.

IV. Movements of Horizontal Pendulums in relation to Barometric Pressure.

For many years it has been recognised that there is a relationship
between the movements of horizontal pendulums and fluctuations in
barometric pressure.!

An important and apparently practical addition to our knowledge on
this subject has recently been made by Mr. F. Napier Denison, of
Victoria, B.C., in a contribution to the Royal Meteorological Society,
entitled ‘The Seismograph as a Sensitive Barometer.’ The instrument
referred to is the one adopted by the British Association. Briefly stated,
Mr. Denison’s conclusion is that the pendulum swings towards the area
of greatest barometric pressure. For example, it has been found that
when a storm area is approaching from the westward the boom of the
pendulum moves steadily to the eastward, and this often occurs eighteen
to twenty-four hours before the local barometer begins to fall. On the
contrary, should there be an important high area to the West, the
pendulum will swing in that direction before it is possible to ascertain
the position of such an area on the current weather charts.

As partial confirmation of Mr. Denison’s observation, it may be men-
tioned that a gradual but decided movement of the Shide pendulum
towards the West precedes stormy weather, whilst in the Report for 1895
referred to above there are tables showing a close relationship between
displacements of pendulums in Tokio and the barometric gradients at that
place.

V. An Attempt to Detect and Measure any Relative Movement of the
Upway, that may now be taking place at the Ridgeway Fault, near
Strata Dorsetshire. Second Report by Horace Darwin, June 1901.

Many of the early readings have been found to be of no value, because
water had got into the vessels containing the oil and had blocked its free
passage through the pipe ; this difficulty has, we hope, been overcome by:
making the covers of the vessels more completely watertight.

‘ See Reports on ‘Narthquake and Volcanic Phenomena,’ issued by the British
Association in 1883, 1885, 1887, 1888, 1892, 1893, 1895, 1896.

For a theoretical discussion of this subject see ‘ Applications of Physics and
Mathematics to Seismology,’ by Dr. C. Chree, Phil. Mag., March 1897, p. 185.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 53

No slip of the Fault has been detected at present ; but we should
hardly expect a definite result during the short time in which the appa-
ratus has been in working order.

The results obtaiued so far have been of use in pointing out the
difficulties to be overcome and the various defects of the instrument.
The movement of the ground caused by slight earthquakes and earth-
tilts is one of these difficulties, and our experiment on April 24 brought
this to light in a very striking manner. The instrument was placed at
the station SS. at the south end of the pipe,! and readings were taken
every few minutes from 1 to 3 p.m. These readings give the relative
movement of a tixed point in the strata and the surface of the oil. The
movement was most irregular, and during that time the maximum
displacement was about 0°3 mm. This can only mean that a line passing
through fixed points in the rock was constantly changing its angle with
the horizon ; and that the oil was always flowing backwards and for-
wards in its attempt to remain level. At about 1.40 p.m. the value of
the readings reached a minimum, and then began to increase, showing
that the angular movement of the strata changed its direction at this
time. If we assume that the oil was level when the two readings were
taken which differed by about 0°3 mm., it shows that the rock tilted through
an angle of about six and a half seconds.

No doubt there was an exceptionally large movement due to slight
earthquakes and earth-tilts during the time that these observations were
being taken, as Mr. J. Milne tells me that his large pendulum at Shide,
Isle of Wight, was swinging regularly, and that this is supposed to be
due to earth pulsations.

A telegram from Rome appeared in the daily papers reporting a slight
earthquake on April 24 at 3.30 p.m. at Lisbon, and a severe shock at
4.30 p.m. in Algarve, near Lisbon. (4.30 p.m. at Lisbon is 5.7 Greenwich
time.

D note appeared in ‘ Nature’ of July 18, 1901, saying that an account
of the earthquake of April 24 in the neighbourhood of Palombara Sabina
is given by Dr. Luigi Palazzo in the ‘ Atti dei Lincei,’ x. 9. He thinks it
probable that the epicentre was at a sulphur spring about a kilometre
distant from Cretone, and that the origin of the shock was in the strata
from which the spring arises, at a comparatively small depth. Consider-
able damage was done at Cretone. The shock was registered at the
Central Meteorological Office at about 15h. 20m. 25s. Italian time : this is
2h. 20m. 25s. p.m. Greenwich time.

Mr. Rollo Russell noticed an unusual agitation of the sea at
Bournemouth on April 24 at 7.50 a.m., and between 12 and 1 p.m. There
was also an exceptionally large wave soon after 3 o’clock.?

Mr. C. Davison * thinks that the disturbances may have been due to
the firing of heavy guns. The disturbances were noticed in South Devon
and Guernsey as well as at Bournemouth.

The movement of the earth on April 24 was no doubt exceptionally
large, but observations at other times lead me to think that such move-
ments, due to slight earthquakes and earth. tilts, take place very frequently,

1 A lead pipe connects four vessels which contain oil; they are in a straight line,
at right angles to the Fault ; two of them are on each side of it at four and a half
and nine metres from it.

? See Wature, May 2, 1901. 3 Nature, June 6, 1901.

54 REPORT—1901.

and these are sufficiently large to make the last two figures in the delicate
micrometer measurements almost useless.

I hope to reduce this motion of the oil by making the holes through
which it enters and leaves the vessels sufficiently small to damp the oscil-
latory movement without preventing the oil finding its own level.

A similar instrument fixed to the rock at a place where there is no
Fault would give a delicate and accurate method of measuring these slow
earth-tilts.

Tables of Certain Mathematical Functions.—Report of the Convmittee,
consisting of Lord Kevin (Chairman), Lieutenant-Colonel
ALLAN CunnincHAM, R.E. (Secretary), Dr. J. W. L. GLAISHER,
Professor A. G. GREENHILL, Professor W. M. Hicks, Professor A.
Longs, and Major P. A. MacManon, R.A., appointed for calculating
Tables of Certain Mathematical Functions, and, if necessary, for
taking steps to carry out the calculations, and to publish the results in
an accessible form.

THE printing of the ‘ Binary Canon’ was finished at end of last year.
The work, as printed off, has been read again with the MS. ; a list of the
few misprints discovered has been issued with the volume. The edition
is 250 copies, of which 100 have been bound. Arrangements have been
made with Messrs. Taylor & Francis, of Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, for
publication on the usual terms : the sale price will be 15s. About thirty-
six presentation copies have been given away to various public bodies, to
reviewers, and to those concerned in the work itself. The whole of the
grants received (75/. from the British Association and 60/. from the
Royal Society of London), total 135/., has been expended.

The Committee wish now to recommend that a large set of new tables
of Quadratic Partitions, prepared by Colonel A. Cunningham (for the
checking of which a grant of 30/. has already been made by the Royal
Society of London), should be published by the British Association, and
hereby apply for a grant of 80/. for the same.

Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—keport of the Committee,
consisting of Lord M‘LaREN, Professor A. Crum Brown (Secretary),
Sir Joun Murray, Professor R. CopeLanp, and Dr. ALEXANDER
Bucuan. (Drawn up by Dr. Bucwan.)

THE Committee are appointed for the purpose of co-operating with the
Scottish Meteorological Society in making meteorological observations at
the two Ben Nevis Observatories.

The hourly eye observations, made by night as well as by day, have
been regularly made by Mr. Angus Rankin, the superintendent and his
assistants.

The health of the observers has continued good since last report, with
the exception of Mr. Rankin, who has not yet quite recovered from the
two severe attacks of influenza he has had. The directors desire to ex-
press their cordial thanks to Messrs. W. Gentle, R. C. Marshall, and
T. Affleck for the invaluable services they rendered last summer as volun-
teer observers, thus rendering it possible to give the members of the staff
the rest they need from their arduous work.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS.

59

The principal results of the observations made at the two observa-
tories during 1900 are detailed in Table I.

1900

TaBLeE I.

Ben Nevis Ob- | 25°160} 24°918

servatory
Fort William | 29°765
Differences .| 4605
BenNevisOb-| 24°3
servatory
Fort William | 40:1
Differences . | 15°8
Ben NevisOb-| 35°8
servatory
Fort William| 524
Differences .| 16°6
‘Ben Nevis Ob-} 15°0
servatory
Fort William | 29°4
Differences 14°4
Ben NevisOb-| 35°32
servatory
Fort William | 9:99
Differences 25°33
Ben NevisOb-; 13
servatory
Fort William 2
Differences .| 11
Ben NevisOb-| 30
servatory
Fort William; 28
|Differences . 2
Ben NevisOb-; —
servatory
Fort William | 3°7
Differences . —
Ben Nevis Ob- 4
servatory
Fort William 15
Differences .| 11
Ben NevisOb-| 18
servatory
BenNevisOb-| 96
servatory
Fort William | 84
Differences . 12

Mean Pressure in Inches.
25'417| 25°268] 25°349] 25°386) 25°450| 25-460] 25-475

29'545| 30°087| 29843] 29'907| 29859] 29'925| 29948) 30-004
4°627| 4°670| 4:575| 4°558| 4:473| 4°475| 4°488| 4-529
Mean Temperatures.
189 | 34 | 290 | 3%5| ats | 4e3 | 468 | 39:7
333 | 99 | 44:9 | 49-4 | 566 | 57-4 | 56:4 | 53-4
144} 5 | 15°9| 169 | 148 | 15-1 | 15°6 | 13-7
Extremes of Temperature, Maxima.
314 | 37:0 | 45°2 | 47°0 | 55:2 | 54:0 | 61:0 | 59°4
495 | 52°0 | 67:5 | 686 | 79:0 | 71:3 | 761) 70°0
17-9 | 15°0 | 22:3 | 216 | 23:8| 17:3 | 1611 106
Extremes of Temperature, Minima.
6°0 9°3 | 162 | 19°8 | 328 | 303 | 28:7 | 248
10°0 | 230 | 30°2 | 34:7 | 41°7 | 37°8 | 41:0 | 34:0
40 | 137] 140 | 149/| 89 V5 | 12°3 9°2
Rainfall, in Inches.
775 | 3°84) 20°22 | 14°76) 6:97) 13°12) 11°85) 16°96
3-26 | 0°64| 587] 6:04] 4:40] 4:51} 6:06] 7-40
4:49| 3:20] 14:35| 872) 2:57] 861] 5:79] 9:56
Number of Days 1 in. or more fell.
2 1 9 5 0 1 5 6
0 0 0 2 0 0 2 2
2 1 9 3 0 1 3 4
Number of Days 0:01 in. or more fell.
20 15 21 20.) 21 28 18 23 |
17 10 22 18 17 24 16 19 |
3 5 | 41 2 4 4 2 4
Mean Rainband (scale 0-8).
11 16 = — | B1| 29 | 32) 25
|
30 | 27 | 31 | 36 | 40 | 48 | 41 | 40

Number of Hours of Bright Sunshine.

34 | 103 80 98) 139 | 48 92 75
52 | 119 121; 145 | 182) 97 | 139 86
18 | 16 41 47 43 | 49 47 11

Mean Hourly Velocity of Wind, in Miles.
my) ol) PS eek Se Ms |

Percentage of Cloud.
80 70 70 82 79 93 84 78
72) 264. Ye G8) jie 75 72 || 88/172) 270
8 6 2 7 7 Gel ae: 8

25°247

29°816
4569

°
30°4

45°8
154

59
35

90

63
27

44:0 |

| Jan. | Feb. |March| April | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov,| Dec. | Year

25123} 25°041) 25-275
29°685| 29°592| 29-831
4°562| 4551] 4°556
283 | 284 | 31°6
424 | 43-4 | 468
13°6 | 15:0 | 15:2
415) 400 | 61:0
580 | 581 | 79:0
165 | 181 | 238
186 | 185) 60
28:1 | 28:9 | 10:0
95 | 104] 4:0
10°28 | 48:34 |210°34
437 | 20°85 | 82+19
5-91 | 27-49 |128-15
2) 18 | 69
(inl she Wh 3
2 | 12 | 54
24 ) 30 | 276
20 | 31 | 246
aTeah!|, 430
1%) 19) —
3:6 | 40 | 3-7
a 4e | e718
24} 1 | 1,040
7 | 43 322
12 | 16 | 12
89 | 97 | 84
es | 86 | 73
in eo a eb

This table shows for 1900 the mean monthly and extreme temperature

56 REPORT—1901.

and pressure ; the amounts of rainfall, the number of days of rainfall, and
days on which it equalled or exceeded one inch ; the hours of sunshine ;
the mean percentage of cloud ; the mean rainband ; and the mean velocity
in miles per hour of the wind at the top of the mountain. The mean
barometric pressures at Fort William are reduced to 32° and sea level, but
those at Ben Nevis Observatory to 32° only.

At Fort William the mean atmospheric pressure was 29-831 inches,
or 0:026 inch under the average. The mean at the top was 25-275 inches,
or 0-031 under the average. The mean difference for the two observa-
tories was 4556 inches. At the top the absolutely highest pressure for
the year was 25-974 inches in March, this being the highest hitherto
recorded in March, and the lowest 23-972 inches in December ; and at
Fort William the highest was 30-687 inches, and the lowest 28411 inches
in the same months, the differences being respectively 2-002 inches and
2-276 inches.

The deviations of the mean temperatures of the months from their
respective averages are shown in Table IT. :—

TABLE II.
Fort Top of Fort Top of
William. Ben Nevis. William. Ben Nevis.
January . . SS. +10 $08 Talys" 3c, 0°”. Sy ee
February . : . —5:0 —50 | August . : 2 20:0 +04
March . : . —2:0 —1:2 / September. . +0°4 +158
April : ‘ . —02 +1:0 | October . : . —0°8 —12
May : . —07 —0°5 | November : . -O-4 0:0
June : : - +12 +2°5 | December : . +38 +32

February was the coldest month, the temperature at both observa-
tories being 5°-0 under the average. In this month south-westerly winds
were six days short of their average prevalence, and northerly winds four
days in excess. Hence the unusually low temperature which was equally
felt both at the foot and top of Ben Nevis. On the other hand, temper-
ature was above the average in the four months from June to September,
the excess 1°-6 at the top of Ben Nevis, but only 0°-6 at Fort William,
the difference being due to the frequent occurrence of the anticyclonic
type of weather during the summer of 1900. The absolutely highest
temperature for the year at Fort William was 79°-0 on June 13, and at
the top 61°-0 on August 13; and the lowest at Fort William 10°-0 on
February 10 and 12, and at the top 6°-0 on February 7.

In Table III. are given for each month the lowest observed hygro-
metric readings at the top of Ben Nevis :—

TABLE ITI.
See = = = — : ca. =. . 2s
1900 Jan. | Feb. | Mar.| April} May | June} July| Aug. Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec.
°o ° °
Dry Bulb . .| 240] 12:9] 26:5] 252 | 368] 505 | 498] 530 | 581 | 2821 27-0 | of7
Wet Bulb . ./ 201 | 92] 197] 25:1] 302] 40:2] 399) 41-0] 41-2} 990} 211 | o904
Dew-point . .| -3:0 |-19°7 |-12:9| 10:3] 20:8] 29:9 | 99-4] 29:0] 260) 471 -60| 74
Elastic Force. . | -032| -018 | -023| -070| -112 | -166 | -162 | 160 | -141 | -054| -032 | -os0
Relative Humidity | 29] 93| 4 44| 51| 45| 46] 39] 29] 40| o2| 45
[Sat.=100]

DayofMonth .| 10/ 11] 4] 27/| 46 MMU iy) eel Tae SEV lie 2
MounonDay )s)| sess" 235) Lil @epil-s 8 | a7 ll. soonlieemat Te 6 See

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS, 57

Of these relative humidities the lowest, 16, occurred on March 4 with
a dew-point of —12°-9. The lowest dew point, —19°-7, occurred on
February 11, the dry bulb being 12°-9 and the wet bulb 9°-2. A marked
feature of the table is the singularly high minimum humidities in April,
May, June, July, and December.

The rainfall for the year at the top was 210-34 inches, being
52°61 inches, or 33 per cent., above the average. This large rainfall has
been exceeded only by that of 1898, which amounted to 240-05 inches.
The December amount, 48°34 inches, is the largest monthly fall yet
recorded at the Ben Nevis Observatory. The following are the four
wettest months of the year :—

Inches

December : : d : F . 48°34

January . F - F ‘ ‘ . 3532

October . : ; ! ’ ; . 2093

April : ‘ P : ; : . 20:22
Total : : . 124°81 in four months.

Taking Scotland as a whole, the year 1900 was one of the wettest yet
recorded, and has been only exceeded by the rainfall of 1872. Excep-
tionally heavy daily rainfalls were of frequent occurrence, the two
heaviest being 6°81 inches on January 22,and 5:41 inches on December 8.
At Fort William the annual rainfall was 82:19 inches, being 5-28 inches,
or 7 per cent., above the average. The largest monthly amount was
20°85 inches in December, accompanying the extraordinary prevalence of
south-westerly winds during the month.

At the top of Ben Nevis the number of rainy days was 276, and at
Fort William 246. At the top the maximum monthly was 30 days in
January and December, and at Fort William 31 days in December and
28 days in January. In March there were only 15 rainy days at the top
and 10 days at Fort William. During the year the number of days on
which 1 inch of rain or more fell at the top was 69, whereas at Fort
William the number of days was only 15.

The sunshine recorder on Ben Nevis showed 718 hours out of a
possible of 4,470 hours, or 16 per cent. of the possible sunshine. The
average of the past 17 years being 747 hours, the sunshine of 1900 was
29 hours under the average. The two maximum months are June, 139
hours, and March, 103 hours, and the two minimum months January and
December, with 4 hours each. At Fort William the number of hours
was 1,040. This is lower than any recorded since these observations
began to be made, except in 1896, when the number was 1,036 hours.
The maximum, 182, was recorded in June, and the minimum, | hour
only, in December. This is the lowest minimum yet recorded, but the
same low minimum, | hour, was also recorded at the top for December
1883. In the three summer months, June, July, and August, of 1899
the hours of sunshine at the top were 425, and at Fort William 488 ; but
in the same months of 1900 these were respectively only 279 and 418.

At the Ben Nevis Observatory the mean percentage of cloud was 84,
and at Fort William 73, both being very nearly the average. At the top
the high mean percentages of 97 in December and 96 in January were
observed ; and at Fort William 88 per cent. in July and 86 in December.

Auroras were observed only once, viz., March 2. This is in accord-
ance with the number of sunspots being near the minimum at this time.

58 REPORT—1901.

St. Elmo’s Fire was seen on January 19, 20 ; February 18 ; June 30 ;
and July 24.

Zodiacal Light :—Not observed during the year.

Thunder and Lightning :—June 11, 12, 13, 20, 21.

Lightning only :—December 13.

Solar Halos :—March 23 ; April 1 ; June 21 ; September 26.

Lunar Halos :—February 7, 9; March 17, 18, 19 ; July 13; October
3, 30 ; November 8 ; December 3, 4.

During the past year much of Dr. Buchan’s time has been occupied in
a larger investigation than has hitherto been attempted of the fogs and
of the storms of winds round the Scottish coasts. These two distinct
inquiries are based on the observations made at the sixty-five Scottish
lighthouses night and day down to December 1900.

As regards the fogs, the results show the mean monthly and annual
number which have occurred at each of the sixty-five lighthouses from
1880 to 1900, the number of hours fog has prevailed during these
twenty years, and the mean number of hours the fog on its occurrence
lasts at each place. As regards storms of wind, similar results have been
worked out for the twenty years ending 1900.

Now as regards weather forecasting, fogs are among the more pro-
minent of the phenomena attending on the anticyclone ; and storms of
wind, rain, and snow are the most prominent features of the weather
phenomena attending the cyclone. Diagrams giving these results show
that, as regards storms, the number which occur in each month strictly
follow the sun, the maximum number being in December and the
minimum in June. ‘This is the relation observed for the storms occurring
in Scotland taken as a whole.

On the other hand fogs also follow the sun in the number of the
monthly occurrences, but in a reverse order, the maximum number
occurring in June and the minimum in December. It is to be observed
that the maximum period includes the two months June and July, and
the minimum the three months November, December, and January.

These elaborate papers on storms and fogs are merely introductory to
the wider discussion of weather phenomena which has been undertaken
touching the relations of the Ben Nevis observations to storms of winds,
widespread clouded skies, severe storms of rain and snow, and fogs to
the changing positions day by day of the cyclones and anticyclones of
North-western Europe. This research involves an analysis of the daily
weather maps for Scotland, showing for each day from July 17, 1890, to
this date the geographical distribution of storms of wind, the rainfall,
thunderstorm, aurora, and other weather phenomena appended as sup-
plements to the bi-daily weather maps issued by the Meteorological
Council. It will be at once evident that this research necessitates heavy
labour, stretching over a long period—from two to three years at least.

Mr. Omond’s time during the past year has been largely directed to
the utilisation of the observations made at the High Level observatories
of Europe viewed in connection with the Ben Nevis observations and
their bearings on weather changes. In connection with this work the
observations at the following High Level observatories are being utilised :

In France—Barcelonette, 3,714 feet ; Servance, 3,990 feet ; Gavarnie,
4,452 feet; Puy-de-Déme, 4,813 feet; Aigoual, 5,099 feet ; Mont
Ventoux, 6,234 feet; and Pic de Midi, 9,380 feet. In Germany—
Brocken, 3,766 feet; and Schneekoppe, 5,259 feet. In Austria—

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 59

Semmering, 3,297 feet; Orkvice, 3,599 feet ; St. Anton, 4,285 feet ;
Marienberg, 4,341 feet ; Schneeberg, 4,810 feet ; Schafberg, 5,827 feet ;
Rathhausberg, 6,283 feet ; Schnittenhoe, 6,349 feet ; Obirgipfel, 6,706 feet ;
and Sonnblick, 10,154 feet. Jn Italy—Monte Cave, 3,166 feet; and
Monteversine, 4,518 feet. In Switzerland—Chaumont, 3,701 feet ; Rigi -
Kulm, 5,873 feet ; Santis, 8,094 feet ; and Great St. Bernard, 8,130 feet.
In Algeria—Teniet-el-Haal, 3,738 feet ; and Aflou, 4,679 feet.

Along with these twenty-seven stations several Low Level stations
are utilised in determining the vertical gradients of pressure, tempera-
ture, and moisture. Particular attention is given to the different direc-
tions of the winds at different heights, ditferences which so often point
clearly to very different distributions of barometric pressure at the higher
levels of the atmosphere than what prevails at sea-levels at the same
time. It is just these different distributions of pressure in the higher
layers of the atmosphere from what prevails at sea-level at the same
time which is most likely to aid the forecaster of weather in seeing the
most probable distribution of the sea level pressure one day, two days, or
even three days in advance.

Now it was pointed out in our report for last year that if the
forecaster can guess what the distribution of the barometric pressure will
be at some future time, he can state what the weather will be at that
time. Hence the whole problem of forecasting resolves itself foreseeing
the arrangement of barometric pressure in the future. The distribution
of pressure does not shift arbitrarily, but the areas of high and low
pressures existing on any one day change into those of the next day by
movement over the earth and by increase or diminution in intensity, in
accordance with physical laws.

The scientitic study of the causes of the movements of these areas of
high and low pressures, called respectively anticyclones and cyclones, can
only be said to be just beginning ; and until this great inquiry has made
some substantial progress we cannot have a science of forecasting, as we
have now a science of climatological meteorology.

This is the inquiry which Mr. Omond, aided by the staff of the
Scottish Meteorological Society, has entered on, and like the inquiry
previously referred to will take from two to three years for the prepara-
tion of a report showing the general relations of the observations made
at the two Ben Nevis Observatories to the coming changes im the imme-
diate future in the distribution of the sea-level pressures, which rule the
weather one day, two days, or three days in advance.

It is evident that in carrying on this large work Dr. Buchan and
Mr. Omond require the help of well qualified assistants, and your
Committee have much pleasure in intimating that this has been provided.
As intimated in our last report a generous donor in July 1900 sent a
handsome donation of 300/. to the Directors of the observatories for this
purpose, and as the result Mr. Andrew Watt, M.A., has been on the
staff during the past year. We have the further pleasure of intimating
that another gentleman, who desires to be unknown, has fowarded a
cheque for 500/. to provide additional help in carrying on these large and
expensive inquiries. There is thus every reason to hope that the examina-
tion and discussion of the work of the two observatories will be thorough,
and will have scientific utility in the general study of the phenomena of
weather, and a practical utility in its bearing on weather forecasting.

It was intimated last year that provision had been made for the

60 REPORT—1901.

maintenance of the observatories to the end of 1901. We have the
further pleasure of adding that Mr. Bernard has most generously given
a fourth donation of 500/., in addition to the 1,500/. previously given by
him ; and the Meteorological Council] have agreed to continue their grant
of 2501. to the Low Level Observatory for another year. Provision is
thus made for the maintenance of the two observatories to the close
of 1902.

In the meantime the printing of the observations made at the two
observatories since 1888 proceeds, and already the first of the three
quarto volumes has been printed, and will be issued in the course of
next winter. In addition to the observations, this volume will also con-
tain several papers and discussion, many of which have been laid before
the British Association in our reports from year to year. The publi-
cation of these volumes has been undertaken by the Royal Societies
of London and Edinburgh, and the cost is estimated at 1,000/.

The Clearing of T'urbid Solutions, and the Movement of Small Sus-
pended Particles by the Influence of Inght. By Professor G.
QuINcKE, of Heidelberg.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

By ‘turbid solutions’ or ‘suspensions’ (triibe Liésungen, Triibungen) I
mean water in which many small solid or fluid particles are suspended for
a long time. The small particles are visible with the microscope.
Colloidal solutions with doubtful character will be discussed later.

Sedimentation, or the formation of flocks, flocking, is observed if small
quantities of acid or salt solutions are brought into contact or are mixed
with the turbid solution.

For instance, the sandbank at the mouth of a river is the effect of the
clearing power of the sea water on the particles of clay suspended in the
fresh water of the river.

Turbid solutions of clay, kaoline, silica, gum mastic, are flocked by
quantities of acid or salt so small that the increase of weight by the
clearing substance cannot explain the augmented velocity, or the flocking
of the falling particles, or the sedimentation of the turbid solution.

Franz Schulze! and Schloesing ? found ,5455 to ygoloaw Of calcium or
magnesium salts sufficient to clear suspensions of clay. Bodlainder? has
measured the clearing or coagulating power of different salts for suspen-
sions of kaoline ; Hardy ‘ for suspension of gum mastic ; Spring ° for sus-
pensions of gum mastic, kaoline, silica. Bodlinder found suspensions of
kaoline flocked if the quantity of the added salt is greater than a distinct,
‘very small quantity, the ‘Schwellenwerth’ of the clearing substance.
Electrolytes promote, insulators retard, the clearing of the suspensions,
(Barus,® Bodlander). The clearing power of a salt depends on the valance
of the salt and the kation of the electrolyte (Hardy, Spring).

According to Hardy, the particles of gum mastic, or heat-modified

} Franz Schulze, Poggendorff’s Annalen, 1866, vol. cxxix. p. 366.
? Ch. Schloesing, Compt. Rend., 1870, vol. lxx. p. 1345. z
* G. Bodlander, Gétt. Nachr., 1893, p. 267.
4 W. B. Hardy, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1900, vol. 1xvi. pp. 111-119.
rs a Spring, Rec. Trav. Chim. des Pays-Bas, 1900, vol. x. (2 ser. 4), no. 3, pp.
222,

SC; Barus, Phys. Beibl., 1888, vol. xii. p. 563.

ON THE CLEARING OF TURBID SOLUTIONS. 61

proteid move in a contrary direction to an electric current. In presence
of a minute amount of barium chloride or free acid the particles of
gum mastic, or heat-modified proteid, move with the electric current. At
the isoelectric point, for a distinct small quantity of barium chloride or
acid, the electric movement vanishes and coagulation or precipitation
occurs. An explanation of the clearing power of the acids or salts is not
iven.

: In the coagulated solutions I found flocks adhering to the walls of the
glass vessels and many air bubbles distributed among the flocks. Both
phenomena prove that on the surface of the flocks at least, a short time
after formation of the flocks, an oily viscous fluid exists. At the surface
of separation of this oily fluid and the surrounding aqueous fluid, a
surface tension acts and air bubbles are separated, as at the limit of two
heterogeneous fluids. Probably changes of the surface tension of the
boundary of oily and aqueous fluid and the periodical spreading of hetero-
geneous liquid will excite vortices and unite the small suspended particles
and form the flocks. The surface forces are the same as the forces which
form foam-celJs by the contact of alkaline oleates with water, which I
demonstrated at the meeting of the British Association at Oxford, 1894.
The flocking influence of quantities of clearing matter so very small is
now intelligible.

I shall prove that this explanation is the right one.

Alcoholic solution of gum mastic gives in a large mass of water many
unseen threads and foam-walls, in which are distributed a great many
small visible spheres. If copper sulphate is added to the water with the
mastic foam the foam-walls move against the copper sulphate, become
clearer, and are dissolved. The spheres and the foam-walls prove the
formation of an oily viscous fluid by the action of water and gum mastic,
which I will call mastic hydrate, and which possesses a surface tension at
the surface of separation from water. The copper sulphate is soluble in
water and in mastic hydrate, has the surface tension zero at the boundary
with water, and in the boundary with mastic hydrate, and must be spread
out on the common surface of mastic hydrate and surrounding water.
The spreading excites vortices and draws the surrounding matter towards
the spreading centre ; the surrounding fluid is stirred up, a new portion
of copper sulphate is brought into contact with the mastic surface, spreads
out, and so, in short periods, the spreading of the added salt and the
formation of vortices are repeated, and the mastic particles are attracted
by the copper solution.

The solution of copper sulphate, which is placed by means of a long

. thin funnel under a turbid solution of mastic in a test tube, will diffuse
in the mastic solution, spread out on the surface of the suspended par-
ticles, excite vortices, and draw the mastic particles together or against
the walls of the test tube, where they will adhere. The connected viscous
matter will flow together and form drops, bubbles, or coherent foam-
cells, flocks. On the surface of the mastic hydrate, as inall newly formed
boundaries of two heterogeneous fluids, the absorbed air is separated in
small bubbles. One part of the flocks will rise with the adhering air, the
other part with the larger flocks will sink to the surface of the salt
solution.

The spreading or vortices of sufficient energy and the connection or
flocking of the suspended particles demand a certain concentration of the
copper sulphate, corresponding to the ‘Schwellenwerth’ of Bodlander.

Solutions of NaCl, HCl, K,Cr.0-,, FeCl,, spread out on the surface of

62 REPORT—1901.

mastic hydrate, as CuSo,, and have the surface tension zero. The coagula-
tion, or clearing of mastic solution by this salt solution, is explained in the
same way as with CuSO,.

Turbid solutions of kaoline in glass cylinders of 100 x 10 cm. form a
series of horizontal layers separated by equal intervals. After two
months a great many flocks adhere on the shaded side of the glass. Under
the microscope the flocks show threads or tubes of a downward flowing
liquid, with spheroidal enlargements or contractions (Anschwellungen und
Einschniirungen). The sediment at the bottom of the glass cylinder has
the appearance of solidified liquid, containing deformed bubbles and
coherent foam-cells, smooth spheres of diameter 0-002 to 0:0004 mm., with
greater refraction than the surrounding substance.

The particles of kaoline are covered by the action of the water with
an oily viscous fluid, probably silica hydrate, on the surface of which
another fluid is spread out. The periodical spreading combines the sus-
pended kaoline particles in larger flocks, which slowly sink to the ground
or are drawn by the vortices against the glass walls, where the particles
covered with oily fluid adhere. The oily silica hydrate forms spheres,
bubbles, or coherent foam-cells, and afterwards becomes solidified.

Turbid solutions of ;,);, kaoline in test-tube solutions over CuSO,,
FeCl,, CaCl,, or Ca(HO), give foam-tlocks with thin walls in which
many little grains are distributed, or with thick foam-walls in which,
again, small chambers or cells with thin walls are enclosed. The flocks
of kaoline formed in the beginning by the viscous fluid adhere to the
glass wall.

Also over solutions of sugar, solutions of kaoline form two thick
flock-layers.

Turbid solutions of potash soap have shown flocks over chloroform,
sulphide of carbon, aqueous solution of sugar, CuSO,, HCl.

Turbid solution of oleic acid has been flocked by solutions of HCl,
CuSO,, chloroform, sulphide of carbon, and sugar; turbid solution of
China ink by solution of CuSO, and HCl.

The order of the flocking solution, determined by the velocity of the
clearing, changes with the concentration of the suspended particles.

Electrolytes and insulators may be clearing substances.

The flocks of mastic and kaoline, formed by artificial clearing by means
of the light, adhere to the shaded side of the glass-wall.

The views of Barus, Hardy, and Spring on the clearing power of
different liquids, especially of the electrolytes, are not confirmed by my
experiments. It is not proved that the kation of the clearing electrolyte
is the clearing substance.

The flocks of gum mastic in the turbid solution are formed by a thin
layer of mastic salt solution (mastixhaltiger Salzlésung), which is con-
nected to the surface of the mastic particles by molecular force. This
thin layer of mastic salt solution will develop no sensible electromotive
force in contact with the pure salt solution outside, and no movement of
the suspended particles with the thin layer by an electric current will be
possible. My theory explains the formation of the flocks and of the iso-
electric flocks of Hardy, which are not moved by the electric current.
The process of clearing is the same in all turbid solutions. All flocked
particles, or suspended particles united in flocks, are covered with a thin
. layer of solution, nearly isoelectric with the surrounding pure salt solu-
tion, and cannot be moved by electric forces.

ON THE CLEARING OF TURBID SOLUTIONS. 63

If by the influence of light more spreading fluid is formed on the
light side than on the shaded side of the suspended particles the sus-
pended particles will go towards the light. I call this phenomenon posi-
tive photodromy.

If the influence of light stops the formation of the spreading solution
or the spreading film, the flocks would go to the shaded side, or will show
negative photodromy.

A retarding influence of the light is not probable, but many physicists
suppose with E. Becquerel a retarding or stopping influence of red light
in the case of the fluorescence of Sidot-Blende. I think that the negative
photodromy may also be explained by the heating effect of the light and
the formation of air bubbles on the light side of the suspended particles.
The air bubbles will hinder the spreading of the newly formed solution on
the surface of the suspended particles, and the vortices of sufficient
energy will only exist on the shaded side, and the flocks will go away from
the light or show negative photodromy.

Turbid solutions of gum mastic, silica, sodium or potassium silicate,
kaoline, gummi gutti, shellac, soap, proteid, can remain apparently
unchanged for months or years, but after some weeks or months we can
always find flocks at the bottom of the solution. Moreover horizontal
layers are formed with more or less suspended particles.

What is the reason of the stability of the turbid solution ? Hardy | and
J. J. Thomson see the reason for the stability in the electromotive force
at the boundary of the suspended particles and the surrounding fluid,
which hinders the movement of the solid particles, while, according to
Dorn,” electric work is done by the displacement of the particles. The
action is the same as if the viscosity of the fluid had been increased.

That electric work is done by the displacement of suspended particles,
or by the displacement of fluids over the solid walls of porous bodies, and
that electromotive force exists at this boundary was known before the
researches of Dorn, and is a consequence of my old researches on capillary
electric currents.’ If the explanation of Hardy and J. J. Thomson should
be right, the turbid solutions must have the greatest stability if the sus-
pended particles show the greatest electromotive force in contact with the
surrounding fluid—i.e., sulphur, silica, shellac, suspended in water. But
shellac gives turbid solutions of little stability. It may be that the
electromotive force at the boundary of liquid and suspended particles may
increase the stability of the suspension, but the principal reason of the
stability may be that the velocity of the falling particles is not constant,
but variable or periodic. The impulses of the periodic velocity are
propagated with the velocity of sound, and will be reflected inside or at
the bottom of the turbid solution. The direct impulse will interfere with
the reflected impulses, and the particles will be collected in horizontal
layers at distances of half a wave length.

The air also separated at the common surface of the suspended
particles and the surrounding liquid has in many cases an important
influence, and will be attached to it or will cover it. The diameter of the
air bubbles or thickness of the thin air cover may be so small that it is -
not possible to see it with the best microscope, but it forms the condensa-
tion nuclei for masses of absorbed air previously separated.

' Hardy, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1900, vol. Ixvi. p. 123.
2 Dorn, | Wiedemann’s Annalen, 1880, vol. x. p. 70. F
’ G. Quincke, Poggendorff’s Annalen, 1860, vol. cx. p. 56; 1861, vol. cxiii. p. 546.

64. REPORT—1901.

In turbid solutions of gum mastic, soap, or oleic acid one may see
these air bubbles. In turbid solutions of kaoline or silica they act as a
Cartesian diver ; the suspended particles and the layers of particles rise
if they are lighted up by sunshine and sink again in shadow by a change
of density or volume of the air.

Underground Temperature.—Twenty-second Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor J. D. Everett (Chairman and Secretary),
Lord KeExvin, Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, Mr. JAMES GLAISHER, Pro-
fessor Epwarp Hui, Dr. C. Le Neve Foster, Professor A. S.
HERSCHEL, Professor G. A. Lesour, Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr. W.
GaLLoway, Mr. JosepH Dickinson, Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. E.
WeruereD, Mr. A. StrRAHAN, Professor Micuie Smita, and
Professor H. L. CaLLENDAR, appointed for the purpose of investi-
gating the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards
in various Localities of Dry Land and Under Water. (Drawn up
by Professor EVERETT, Secretary.)

ATTENTION haying been called to the copper-mining region on the south
coast of Lake Superior as exhibiting an exceedingly slow increase of
temperature downwards, the Secretary has availed himself of the kind
offices of Professor William Hallock, of Columbia University, to obtain
authentic information on the subject. Previous reports contain valuable
material furnished by Professor Hallock respecting a deep wellat Wheeling,
in Virginia.

The region in question is the most northerly portion of the State of
Michigan, and includes a tongue of land jutting out some sixty miles into
the middle of the lake, terminating in Keweenaw Point, which is marked
on all maps. The mine of the Calumet and Hecla Corupany, which is very
extensive, and has upwards of twelve shafts, is nearly in the middle of
this tongue ; and immediately adjoining it to the west is the Tamarack
mine, with five shafts. These two mines are about four miles from the
nearest coast (which is the north-west side of the tongue) and about eleven
miles from the south-east coast, the tongue being about fifteen miles wide
in this part. The ground is high, being 650 feet above the lake, which is
itself 600 feet above sea-level. The mineral veins dip to the north-west
under the lake, the dip ranging from 22° at the end of the tongue to 56°
at its root. The beds consist of a series of compact granular and amygda-
loidal traps, sandstones, and conglomerates.

The latitude is 47°, and the mean annual temperature, according to
isothermal charts, is 39° or 40° F. The average depth of the lake is about
900 feet, and all the water below the depth of 240 feet was found, by
surveys conducted in the months of August and September, to be at about
39° F. As this is the temperature at which water has its maximum
density, it probably remains unchanged all the year round. The ground
beneath the lake is accordingly at a permanent temperature, practically
identical with the mean annual temperature of the air above, and the
boundary conditions for regulating underground temperature are practi-
cally the same as if all the water of the lake were removed and the air had
free access to the bottom. The slope of the bottom in the neighbourhood
of the mines in question is about | in 54 until a depth of 300 feet has
been attained, and becomes gradually less steep to the depth of 700 feet,

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 65

which begins at nineteen miles from the shore and continues for fifteen
miles further. The slope of the land from the mines down to the shore is
about 1 in 40. The contour of the ground and the surface conditions in
the neighbourhood may therefore be regarded as normal.

The leading authority on temperature-gradient in this part of the
United States is Mr. Alfred C. Lane, the Michigan State Geologist. He
writes in ‘ Mineral Industry’ (vol. iv. 1895, p. 767) :—

‘Tt is certain that, in the Lake Superior region, the rate of increase of
rock temperature is not far from 1° in 100 feet from a surface temperature
near 40°. For example, at 4,450 feet, the bottom of the North Tamerack
shaft, the rock is at 84° F.’

Alluding to the preliminary announcement by Professor Alexander
Agassiz, president of the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company, of the
temperatures 59° F. at 105 feet, 79° F. at 4,580 feet, he says :—

‘Since at 105 feet the rock temperature should be near the mean
annual temperature of the locality, and since the mean annual temperature
ot Calumet is, according to all isothermal maps, near 39°, and a mean
annual temperature of 59° is found somewhere near Tennessee, I do not
think we can safely assume a gradient very much less than 1° in 100 feet
after all.’

President Agassiz’s announcement appeared in the ‘ American Journal
of Science’ for December 1895, p. 503, in the form of a preliminary
communication to the editors, with the statement :—

‘We propose when we reach our final depth, 4,900 feet, to take an
additional rock temperature, and then publish the full details of our
observations.’

This depth was reached not long afterwards, the fact being recorded
in the ‘Mining Journal’ for September 1896; but the promised details
have never been given to the public; and a letter addressed by the
Secretary to Professor Agassiz in 1896 elicited the information that the
rate of increase had turned out to be different from what it was believed
to be when the preliminary announcement was made.

The evidence tendered in favour of the abnormally slow increase of
20° F. in 4,475 feet, or 1° in 224 feet, has thus been practically withdrawn.
Professor Hallock, writing in January last, says :—

‘The observation of temperature in the Calumet and Hecla mine, to
which you refer, is thoroughly discredited in this country.’

With the view of probing the matter to the bottom, Professor Hallock
(on the suggestion of the Secretary) made arrangements for personally
exploring, in the spring and early summer, the temperature conditions of
the mines ; but in June he wrote :—

‘The Mining Company [the Tamarack Company], after having
promised me permission to make temperature observations, withdrew the
permission, and declined to permit me to enter the shaft.’

The proposed trip was accordingly abandoned. Professor Hallock
has, however, sent large-scale maps and sections, and Mr. Lane has, at his
request, furnished information respecting underground temperature in

1901. F

66 REPORT—1901.

various parts of Michigan. It includes temperatures of deep wells
spouting above ground and of shallow springs. Mr. Lane’s general result
is that—

‘in the flat, undisturbed sedimentaries of the Lower Peninsula [between
Lake Michigan and the lower lakes] the geothermal gradient is not far
from 1° in 67 feet ; while in the Upper Peninsula, near Lake Superior,
the gradient is perhaps a little lower than 1° in 100 feet. This difference
may be ascribed to the difference in conductivity, to which the geothermal
gradient should be inversely proportional. The Upper Peninsula rocks
are probably more conductive (trap 007) when dry, and certainly are
less porous and contain less water than those of the Lower Peninsula
(limestone ‘005, sandstone ‘002. There has been no volcanic or very
extensive orogenic disturbance since early Cambrian times, and but little
Paleozoic faulting and folding. You will notice that the temperatures
of shallow flows are higher than the mean annual temperatures as derived
from the Weather Service ; which is not surprising when we consider
that in the winter the surface of the ground is often blanketed with snow
and not freezing, when the air temperatures are very low.’

Mr. Lane estimates the ‘mean annual temperature’ for the Calumet
district at 38°-6, and the ‘mean temperature at the depth of no variation ’
at 40°. If we take this latter as the temperature at 50 feet, and compare
it with the temperature 84° at 4,450 feet in the Tamarack mine, we have
an increase of 44° F. in 4,400 feet, or 1° in 100 feet. Mr. Lane’s
estimate for the Calumet district is 1° F. in 107 feet. He states that
numerous corroborative data indicate a gradient lying between 1° in
100 feet and 1° in 115 feet.

No authorities are cited for the conductivities which Mr. Lane assigns
to the rocks, and fuller information on this point is desirable ; but, in
view of the fact that the President of Section C last year characterised
the variation in the British Isles ‘from 1° in 34 feet to 1° in 92 feet’ as
‘a surprising divergence of extremes from the mean,’ it is well to
emphasise the connection between gradient and conductivity. If there is
anything like uniformity in the annual escape of heat from the earth at
different places, there must necessarily be large differences in geothermic
gradients, since the rate of escape is jointly proportional to the gradient
and the conductivity.

The investigation of underground temperature is being energetically
taken up by the United States Geological Survey. Mr. N. H. Darton
has for some years been engaged in collecting data with a view to the
preparation of an isogeothermal map of the United States.

Brief allusions have appeared to observations taken in 1893 in a bore
at Paruschowitz, near Rybnik, in Upper Silesia, reputed to be the deepest
in the world. The details, strange to say, have never yet been published,
but they have been kindly furnished for the purposes of this report by
the Prussian mining authorities. ’

The bore is one out of a large number (400 or more) which have been
sunk by the Prussian Government for the purpose of exploring the mineral
resources of the country. A full account of the mode of sinking it and
the difficulties which were encountered was given by Bergrath Kébrich
at the ninth ‘ Wanderversammlung’ of boring engineers, and is printed
in the mining journal ‘ Gliickauf’ for 1895, pp. 1273-1277.

The boring was begun in January 1892, and finally discontinued in

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 67

August 1893. In May 1893 the operations were suspended for the
purpose of making changes in the machinery ; and it was during this
interruption, which lasted three months, that the observations were
taken. The bore had attained a depth of 2,002 metres, exceeding by
255 metres that of the Schladebach bore, which was previously the
deepest in the world. When boring was resumed after the interruption,
and had added about a metre to the depth above mentioned, the boring
tool broke, owing to caving in, which proved to be of so serious a character
as to render further progress hopeless. The total depth attained is given
as 2,003°34 metres.

The first 200 metres bored through consisted mainly of a greenish
grey clay or marl (Tegel), which was liable to swell and crumble after a
time if exposed to water. It also held the tubing with a grip which was
inconveniently tight. At about 250 metres a seam of coal was passed
through ; and in all eighty-three coal seams were found, with a total
thickness of about 90 metres. No mention is made of any springs being
tapped, but 14 metres of quicksand were passed through at the depth of
200 metres, immediately above the Coal-measures. The seams of coal
alternated with beds of sandstone and shale.

The lower half of the bore, from 1,014 metres downwards, was not
' tubed, but the upper half contained eight different sizes of tubing. The
first and largest extended from the top to 70 metres. Inside of this was
the second, reaching from the top to 107 metres. Within this was the
third, reaching from the top to 189 metres, and it was during the sinking
of the third that the diamond borer was substituted for the percussive
drill. - The fourth size extended from the top to 260 metres ; the fifth
from the top to 319 metres; the sixth from the top to 571 metres; the
seventh from the top to 1,014 metres ; and the eighth from 540 metres
to 1,014 metres, the necessity for this eighth tube having arisen from
accidental injury to the seventh. An accident which subsequently
occurred broke away a large portion of the eighth tube also, and as
repair was found to be impossible, a considerable length of the bore (from
the depth 571 metres to the depth 754 metres) was left without tubing,
constituting a standing source of danger and trouble.

In place of the solid rods employed for supporting and working the
old percussive drills, hollow rods are employed in diamond boring, and
water forced down the interior of the hollow rods washes up the débris
through the surrounding space. The hollow rods are usually of wrought
iron, and this was the case at Paruschowitz till the depth of 1,450 metres
was reached, when, in order to diminish the enormous weight, it was
decided to replace the wrought iron by Mannesmann steel tubes ; a change
which was attended with great advantage during the remainder of the
boring.

As regards the diameter of the bore, the tubing which lined the first 450
metres had an internal diameter of 92 millimetres. From this depth to 571
metres the diameter was 72 millimetres. Then occurred an untubed interval
of 183 metres of considerably larger diameter, the tubing of 72 millimetres
diameter commencing again at 754 metres; and continuing to 1,014 metres,
from which depth to the bottom at 2,002 metres there was an untubed
portion of uniform diameter which had been bored with a diamond crown
of 69 millimetres.

The method of plugging to prevent convection currents, which
was employed at Sperenberg and Schladebach, was not repeated at

F2

Bet REPORT—1901.

Paruschowitz, possibly on account of the danger of caving in; but in
order to fulfil the same purpose as completely as the circumstances
permitted, mud was pumped into the bore, and left undisturbed for
some time, that it might acquire the permanent temperature of the
strata. When observations were commenced, the last 40 metres of mud
were found to have become so consolidated that the hollow rod employed
for lowering the thermometers could nct be forced into it, and the lowest
observation that could be obtained was at 1,959 metres, about 200 metres
deeper than the deepest obtained at Schladebach. The following is the
record of the observations :—

{

Reference Depth, Temp. Reference Depth, Temp.
Number. | Metres. Cent. Number. Metres. Cent.
°o °

1 6 121 33 998 39°3

2 37 13-1 34 1,029 40-0

3 68 14:3 35 1,060 41-4

4 99 146 36 1,091 42-4

5 130 156 37 1.122 434

6 161 16:0 38 1,153 451

7 192 165 39 1,184 46:0

8 223 173 40 1,215 46°4

9 254 18-1 41 1,246 47-0
10 285 18:9 42 1,277 48-4
11 316 20:1 43 1,308 485
12 347 20°4 44 1,439 49:0
13 378 2171 45 1,370 49°6
14 409 21°8 46 1,401 50:0
15 440 22:5 47 1,432 501
16 471 23°5 48 1,463 528
WY 502 24:6 49 1,494 53:4
18 533 25°4 50 1,525 53'8
19 564 268 51 1,556 65:0
20 595 28°8 52 1,587 55:8
21 626 29:1 53 1,618 56:2
22 657 30-4 54 1,649 58:6
23 688 30°8 55 1,680 60°3
24 719 31:3 56 1,711 61:4
25 750 315 57 1,742 62:1
26 781 31°6 58 1,773 63°6
27 812 32°8 59 1,804 648
28 843 34:1 60 1,835 65°5
29 874 35-4 61 1,866 65°5
30 905 35°8 62 1,897 66:9
31 936 37:0 63 1,928 67°5
32 967 37°3 64 1,959 69:3

- Kach temperature recorded in the list is the mean of the indications
of six thermometers, which were enclosed together in a steel case,
supported inside the hollow rod near its lower end. The case had been
tested and found watertight under a pressure of 250 atmospheres. The
thermometers were similar to those described in our account of the
Schladebach observations— mercury thermometers of the ‘ overflow ’ kind,
open at the top, their indications being interpreted by placing them in
water which is gradually warmed up till the mercury is on the point of
overflowing.

As the operation of lowering a thermometer to any point in a bore

ss --

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 69

and hauling it up again disturbs the contents of the bore at all parts
above this point, the general rule is to take the shallowest observation
first and work downwards. On the other hand, when there is danger
of caving in, it may be desirable to begin by securing the most valuable
observation—that is, the deepest—and to work upwards. This latter
was the order of observation adopted at Paruschowitz, the points of
observation being at the uniform distance of 31 metres, the lowest at
1,959 metres, and the highest at 6 metres. This makes sixty-four determi-
nations, each being the mean of six readings.

Though the observations were taken under less favourable conditions
than those at Schladebach, they are of very unusual interest, and the
withholding of them from publication till the present time 1s a notable
instance of excessive modesty. When they are plotted the curve obtained
exhibits a satisfactory amount of regularity, and does not depart very far
from a straight line joining its two ends. Of the two most conspicuous
irregularities one extends over the portion where 183 metres of tubing
were broken away the temperature here being a degree or two higher
than one would have expected—and the other at the point where the
change was made from wrought-iron rods to Mannesmann steel, the in-
terval between the two consecutive temperatures on opposite sides of this
point being about three times the average interval. Several other points
can be selected which show an excess or defect of temperature amounting
to 1°, but this is only what was to be expected from the alternations of
different rocks. In some condensed reports of Bergrath Kébrich’s com-
munication (but not in the full paper as given in ‘Gliickauf’) the irregu-
larities are attributed to chemical action in the coal seams, causing in
some cases a heating and in others a cooling ; but in the absence of more
direct evidence this explanation seems rather forced.

The curve for the shallower portion from 6 metres to 533 metres is
approximately a straight line of gradient 1° C. in 39°6 metres ; while the
curve for the deepest portion—1,680 metres to 1,955 metres—shows an
average gradient of 1° C.in 31:0 metres. The intermediate portion—
533 metres to 1,680 metres (which is rather more wavy)—has an average
gradient of 1° C. in 32:9 metres.

Comparing the shallowest observation, 12°'1 at 6 metres, with the
deepest, 69°°3 at 1,959 metres, we have an increase of 57°'2 in 1,953 metres,
which is at the rate of 1° C. in 34:1 metres, or 1° F. in 62:2 feet. This
general average is the only result that has hitherto been published.

No doubt seems possible as to the correctness of the determination
69°:3 at 1,959 metres. The firmness of the clay, being sufficient to pre-
vent a hollow rod weighing several tons from going deeper, must have
been sufficient to prevent convection.

As regards the determination 12°:1 C. at 6 metres, one naturally
compares it with the temperature found at precisely the same depth in
the Schladebach bore, which was 8°:3 R., or 10°-4 C. Paruschowitz is a
degree or degree and a half further south than Schladebach, but is 152
metres higher, which about compensates the difference of latitude, so that
one would expect their temperatures to be the same. Further light is
thrown upon the question of the temperature of Paruschowitz by com-
parison with the known temperatures of places lying around it.

The following particulars respecting neighbouring places and their
mean annual temperatures are taken from Hann’s ‘Klimatologie’
(Stutgart, 1897), vol. iii. p. 147 :—

70 REPORT—1901.

— Lat. N. Long. E. Height Temp. C.
° , i} , M.
Ratibor : ; : 50 «66 18 13 198 81
Cracow 4 : 2 50 4 19 59 220 78
| Prague 4 : : 50 «5 14 26 202 88
Eger . : : g 50. «5 12 22 455 All
Datschitz . - : 49 5 15 26 465 64
Briinn 2 ; : 49 12 16 37 210 8:4
Oppeln ; - ‘ 50 40 17 55 175 8-2
Hichberg . ; : 50 55 15 48 349 68
Breslau 5 : : LaF Maal oF Lene 147 8:3
Gorlitz : i ; 51 10 150 210 8:0
To compare with
| Paruschowitz . . 50 7 17 33 254 —

the latitude and longitude of Paruschowitz (in absence of more exact
information) being identified with those of the nearest town, Rybnik.

The nearest of these places is Ratibor, which is only twenty English
miles distant, and has the same latitude. Its temperature is 8-l, and
Paruschowitz, being 54 metres higher, should have a temperature of about
7°8. The mean of the temperatures of the ten places is also 7:8, their
mean latitude being 50° 31’ and mean height 235 metres. It appears
certain that the temperature of Paruschowitz cannot differ by more than
a few tenths of a degree from 8:0; and it is not usual for the mean
annual temperature at the depth of 6 metres in the soil to differ by more
than a few tenths from the mean temperature of the air. The observed
temperature 12:1 at 6 metres appears then to be about 4° too high.

This was apparently the latest of the sixty-four observations ; and the
sixty-three lowerings and raisings again of the thermometers with their
supporting rods through the mud which filled the bore would carry down
colder mud from the top and replace it by warmer mud brought up from
below.

Another cause tending to make the temperature at 6 metres too high
is suggested by comparing the temperature 10°-4 observed at this depth
at Schladebach with 8°:4, which is given by Hann! as the mean tempera-
ture of Leipzig, the nearest large town. The isolation by plugging in the
Sehladebach bore was very effective while it lasted ; but it probably did
not last long enough to restore the normal temperatures of the layers of
rock surrounding the upper portion of the bore, after their prolonged
exposure to warm water brought up from below during the progress of
the boring.

The highest temperature that seems at all possible for the depth of
6 metres at Paruschowitz is 9° C. If we adopt 8°3, which is more prob-
able, we have an increase of exactly 61° C. in 1,953 metres, or 1° C. in
32 metres, or 1° F. in 58:3 feet.

Treating the Schladebach observations in the same way, if we adopt
8°6 as the temperature at 6 metres, we have an increase of 48° C. in 1,710
metres, or 1° C. in 35°6 metres, or 1° F. in 65 feet. This exactly agrees
with Herr Dunker’s deduction as given in our report for 1889.

It is very desirable that direct observations of the mean annual tem-
perature of the soil at a small depth (say 1 metre or 2 metres) should be

1 Loc. cit,

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 71

taken at both Schladebach and Paruschowitz for the purpose of removing
all doubt.

Since the presentation of their last report in 1895 the Committee have
to deplore the loss of two valuable members, Professor Prestwich, who
compiled the most complete account of underground temperature observa-
tions yet published, and Mr. G. J. Symons, who, ever since the formation
of the Committee in 1867, has been one of its most active members.

They have pleasure in announcing that Mr. Bennett H. Brough,
Secretary of the Iron and Steel Institute, who has rendered large
assistance in obtaining the material for the present report, has consented
to serve on the Committee.

Note sur [Unité de Pression. Par le Dr. C. KE. GUILLAUME.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in eatenso.]

Lutilité de ’emploi d’une unité de pression dérivée du systéme C.G.8.
nest pas contestable. De plus, une expérience déja longue et souvent
répétée nous a enseigné qu'une unité n’est vraiment admise en pratique
que lorsque sa valeur normale en fonction d’un étalon a été fixée, de
maniere a ce que la réalisation précise de cette unité ainsi que sa
représentation matérielle soit parfaitement assurée. L’adoption d’une
valeur normale de l’unité de pression, ou, si l’on veut, d’un étalon de
pression dérivé du systéme C.G.8., constituerait done une utile addition
au systéme généralement employé dans toutes les branches de la science.

Les seules questions se rapportant & Vunité de pression au sujet
desquelles il soit nécessaire de discuter encore avant l’adoption définitive
d’un étalon sont les suivantes :—

Quel sera le multiple de unité C.G.S. qui sera considéré comme unité
de pression pour la pratique ?

Quelle sera sa représentation? Eventuellement sera-t-il avantageux
de se rallier a un étalon définissable par un nombre simple, et quel sera ce
nombre ?

Quels sont les domaines auxquels l’unité de pression devra étre
appliquée? En particulier conviendra-t-il d’abandonner la pression
normale définie par Laplace, et adoptée par les météorologistes et les
physiciens ?

Multiple—Le choix du multiple est indiqué par lutilité qu'il peut y
avoir a se rapprocher, pour la nouvelle unité, des grandeurs des unités les
plus usuelles. Ces derniéres sont l’atmosphcre et le kilogramme par centi-
metre carré, qui enserrent, 4 moins de 2 pour 100 prés, et par un heureux
hasard le produit par 10° de l'unité C.G.S.

On pourrait faire & ce multiple une seule objection, c’est de se trouver
en dehors du systéme cohérent auquel le watt et le jowle ont été rattachés,
de telle sorte que le produit de la nouvelle unité de pression par le
centimétre cube serait égale au dixiéme de l’unité pratique d’énergie, et
non a l’unité pratique elle-méme. Cependant il ne semble pas que ce
défaut soit assez grave pour faire renoncer 4 l’avantage de se trouver si
pres des deux principales unités usuelles que, pour beaucoup d’applications,
le changement serait insensible.

Représentation et Valewr.—L’étalon de pression serait convenablement
représenté par une colonne de mercure, ainsi qu'il a été fait jusquici pour

72 | REPORT—1901.

la plupart des unités de pression employées. L’atmosphere métrique et
Vatmosphére britannique sont dans ce cas, et ne different que par la
température a laquelle le mercure est considéré, la hauteur de la colonne
et le lieu de son exposition a l’attraction de la terre. En physique les
pressions qui ne sont pas exprimées dans le systeme C.G.S. sont rapportées
a Vatmosphére, et par 14 méme a une colonne de mercure, ou sont directe-
ment exprimées en fonction du millimétre de mercure. L’adoption générale
de la réduction 4 0°, méme par les météorologistes qui, suivant le systeme
britannique, raménent la longueur mesurée sur l’échelle en pouces a
62° F., ne laisse aucun doute sur la température de la colonne mercurielle,
qui devra étre celle de la glace fondante.

Le dernier élément qui reste a fixer, en dehors de la hauteur elle-méme
de la colonne mercurielle, qui sera donnée par le calcul, est la valeur de
Vaccélération de la pesanteur, a laquelle la pression sera due. Aussi
longtemps que les géodésiens ont pu croire a l’existence d’une valeur
normale de l’accélération, définissable par une latitude et une altitude,
par exemple par la latitude de 45° et le niveau de la mer, il ne
semblait pas possible d’admettre une autre valeur de l’accélération que
cette derniére. Mais les recherches de ces derniéres années ont fait
découvrir les anomalies locales qui rendent un peu incertaine et variable
la valeur de laccélération que l’on avait considérée comme normale.

La valeur de l’accélération donnée par la réduction des stations du
littoral méditerranéen est de 980,714, en Iéger exces sur la valeur de
Greenwich et sur la plupart des stations continentales ; ce n’est pas
cependant une valeur exceptionnelle, et la réduction de certaines stations
donne des nombres encore sensiblement plus é€levés.

La masse spécifique du mercure, c’est-a-dire le quotient de la masse
dune certaine quantité de mercure par son volume a 0°, est, dans le
systéme C.G.S8., égale a 13,5950 a 3 ou 4 unités pres du quatrieme chiffre
décimal. En combinant les deux nombres qui précédent, on trouve, pour
la pression exercée par une colonne de mercure de | metre, a 0°, et dans
les conditions susdites de la pesanteur :

1,33328 mégadyne par centimetre carré.

La pression qui devrait étre adoptée comme unité pratique serait donc
représentée par une colonne de mercure de 75,003 cm. a 0° et dans les
conditions indiquées ci-dessus.

Les incertitudes de ce nombre portent encore :

1° Sur la masse du décimétre cube d’eau ;
2° Sur la densité relative du mercu e et de l’eau ;
3° Sur la valeur normale de la pesauteur.

Les deux premiéres sont encore de ]’ordre de deux unités du troisiéme
chiffre décimal, et diminueront avec le temps ; la troisitme fait intervenir
un doute plus grand, si l’on considére ’ensemble du Globe, et ce doute ne
fera probablement que s’accentuer & mesure que les anomalies seront mieux
étudiées.

On peut conclure de ce qui précéde que l’unité pratique de pression
pourrait étre représentée par une colonne de mercure de 75,000 cm. de
hauteur 4 0° sans que l’on sorte des incertitudes résultant encore des
mesures, et surtout de celles qui sont inhérentes au probléme lui-méme
et a la constitution de notre globe.

On pourrait, pour diminuer cette incertitude, renverser le probléme,

NOTE SUR L’UNITE DE PRESSION. 73

et, aprés avoir serré de plus prés la valeur de la masse spécifique du mercure,
adopter une valeur normale de l’accélération de la pesanteur telle que
Vunité de pression soit représentée rigowreusement par une colonne mer-
cwrielle de 75 cm. de hauteur. Cette adoption n’aurait rien d’absurde
puisque les géodésiens sont dés maintenant impuissants 4 définir une
intensité normale de la pesanteur sans s’engager dans une voie arbitraire,
et puisque, par surcroit, la valeur résultant de la définition ci-dessus
serait comprise entre les valeurs parmi lesquelles les géodésiens pourraient
choisir.

Mais on peut se demander si une telle définition est devenue nécessaire
pour les besoins de l’unité de pression. II faut distinguer, en effet, deux
cas de l’emploi de cette unité. Toutes les fois qu’une précision de Vordre
de 1/25 000 ne devra pas étre dépassée, c’est-a-dire dans l immense majo-
rité des applications, la différence entre la valeur actuellement la plus
probable de Vunité de pression et la valeur ronde fournie par une colonne
de mercure de 75 cm. est entiérement négligeable. Dans les cas, en petit
nombre, ou une haute précision est exigée, les réductions 4 des conditions
normales ne pourront pas étre faites sans que l’on connaisse, au lieu méme
de l’observation, la valeur de l’accélération ; celle-ci devra, dans ce cas,
étre déterminée par des expériences directes et tres précises.

Le probléme actuel est trés analogue 4 tous ceux, en nombre bien plus
grand, dans lesquels intervient la masse spécifique des corps, déduite de
leur densité, et de la masse spécifique de l’eau. Dans toutes les applica-
tions ordinaires, cette derniére est admise comme étant égale a l’uniteé,
tandis que, dans les calculs trés précis, il est nécessaire, en principe, de
tenir compte de la trés petite erreur commise dans la construction du
kilogramme.

Extension.—I1 reste 4 fixer les domaines dans lesquels il sera utile
d’employer l’unité rationnelle de pression, et c’est la un point assez délicat.
On peut s’attendre, d’ailleurs, 4 ce que cette unité n’arrive pas, dés le début,
a toute l’extension dont elle est susceptible, et qu’elle ne gagne que de proche
en proche les domaines auxquels elle devra s’appliquer ; c’est pourquoi,
tout en recommandant son adoption aussi universelle que possible, il
faudra s’attendre 4 ne la voir pénétrer que peu a peu dans l’usage.

Les cas bien indiqués de son application sont tous ceux ot n’inter-
viennent que des considérations d’élasticité, dans les solides, les liquides
et les gaz. Par une extension naturelle on y comprendra les phénoménes
osmotiques, et ceux qui en dérivent. Mais on peut se demander légitime-
ment s'il serait praticable d’adopter lunité rationnelle comme pression
normale en météorologie, et dans la détermination de la température nor-
male d’ébullition de l’eau pour la fixation du point supérieur de léchelle
thermométrique.

Sur ce point les avis peuvent étre trés partagés. D’une part on peut
craindre a juste titre le changement dans toutes les constantes thermiques
que l’adoption de la nouvelle unité, comme pression normale, entrainerait
avec elle. D’autre part, on peut se demander s'il existe un lien logique
entre les deux unités.

Le voisinage de l’atmosphére normale et de l’unité pratique C.G.S.
aurait rendu, il y a un certain nombre d’années, le changement facile, et
méme on peut dire que, si le systtme C.G.S. avait été développé dés
les débuts de extension du syst?me métrique, la mégadyne par centi-
metre carré aurait eu bien des chances d’étre adoptée comme pression
normale. Mais la définition du point 100 des thermométres repose sur

74, REPORT—1901.

des considérations pratiques, et sur une convention tout a fait arbitraire.
Si la nouvelle unité de pression était trés éloignée de l’atmosphére,
la question ne se poserait méme pas, et on considérerait comme absurde
de définir comme température normale d’ébullition de Veau celle qui
correspond, par exemple, 4 une demi-atmosphére ou a deux atmospheres.

Done, bien que par des raisons de simple unification, ou des raisons
d’élégance scientifique, on ne puisse nier qu'il doive étre plus satisfaisant
de ne posséder qu’une seule unité de pression, il ne faut pas perdre de vue
le fait que. aussi longtemps qu'il s’agit simplement de la thermométrie, et
des mesures qui en dérivent immédiatement, il n’y a aucune raison
logique qui oblige 4 partir d’une unité de pression reliée au systéme C.G.S.
et aucune nécessité & rattacher le point de départ de la thermométrie a
des considérations dépendant de I’élastic:té.

On peut, cependant, envisager le probleme par un autre cété particu-
lier, qui militerait en faveur d’une seule unité pour les deux domaines.
Nous admettons comme évident que les constantes élastiques des liquides
et des gaz doivent étre exprimées en fonction de l’unité rationnelle de
pression. Les diverses constantes définissant l’état d’un liquide et de sa
vapeur en fonction de la température et de la pression devront done
dépendre de l’unité employée pour mesurer cette derniéere. Ainsi, la
température normale d’ébullition devra logiquement étre donnée sous la
pression que nous considérons comme normale ; et, si nous rapportons les
températures a celles que l’on obtient en désignant par 100 celle qui
résulte de l’ébullition de leau sous cette méme pression, la loi des états
correspondants se présente sous une forme numériquement simple, tandis
que, en conservant la définition ordinaire du point 100 de la thermo-
métrie, cette loi se présente sous une forme compliquée.

Il resterait seulement 4 examiner si la simplification résultant de
Vadoption de la méme unité dans les deux cas, adoption qui certainement
serait logique, compense la perturbation qui résulterait d’un changement
de toutes les données thermiques accumulées depuis un siécle.

Il n’est pas inutile de rappeler en effet que le changement de 76 a 75
cm. de mercure modifierait l’intervalle fondamental de 0,4 degré environ,
et les températures météorologiques ordinaires d’une quantité de lVordre
du dixieme de degré. Il est vrai que ce changement serait peu sensible,
puisque la réduction au thermométre a hydrogeéne, encore tres incomplete-
ment faite en météorologie, entraine déja une modification du méme ordre.
D’autre part les données relatives a la dilatation, aux chaleurs spécifiques,
aux chaleurs de combustion et de combinaison, les points de fusion, etc.,
seraient déplacés ou modifiés de 4/1000 environ. Seules, les températures
d’ébullition seraient modifiées dans une moindre proportion, puisque la
nouvelle pression leur serait appliquée.

La question est, comme on le voit, extrémement complexe. Elle peut
se résumer en ces termes :

Jl est utile et méme urgent d’adopter une unité de pression basée sur
le systeme C.G.S. Cette unité doit étre égale & 1 million de fois l’unité
fondamentale. Pour tous les besoins de la pratique courante, et méme
des mesures scientifiques, 4 l’exception des mesures de haute précision,
cette unité peut étre représentcée par une colonne de mercure de 75 cm.
de hauteur a 0° et dans les conditions de la pesanteur encore envisagées
comme normales par les physiciens. Pour les mesures tres précises, il est
nécessaire de connaitre l’intensité de la pesanteur au lieu de l’observation,
afin de pouvoir exprimer réellement la pression en unités C.G.S.

NOTE SUR L’UNITE DE PRESSION. 75

La nouvelle unité doit s’appliquer a tous les cas de l’élasticité. Il
convient de ne prendre aucune décision pour la thermométrie avant d’avoir
approfondi d’une part les simplifications qui résulteraient pour la physique
des fluides et notamment la loi des états correspondants de l’emploi d’une
seule unité, et, d’autre part, la perturbation qu’introduirait dans la ©
thermométrie et les sciences dérivées un changement des bases de l’échelle
des températures.

Alloys.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. F. H. NEVILLE
(Chairman and Secretary), Mr.C. T. Hrycock, and Myr. HE. H.
GRIFFITHS, appointed to investigate the Nature of Alloys.

THE Committee on alloys beg leave to report that Messrs. Heycock and
Neville have been continuing their study of the copper-tin alloys.

A preliminary statement of the results obtained has been published
in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ vol. lxviii. 1901, pp. 171-178.
A fuller account will be presented to the Royal Society shortly ; in the
meantime the following summarises their conclusions.

The work has been directed towards a verification of Roozeboom’s
theory of solid solutions in its application to the copper-tin alloys.
Pyrometric observations have shown that when one of these alloys cools
from a high temperature at which it is completely liquid there is often
an evolution of heat, not only at the freezing point, but also at one or
more temperatures far below that of solidification. This is well seen in
the cooling curves published by Sir William Roberts-Austen and Dr.
Stansfield some years ago in their reports on alloys. We have found it
convenient to repeat some of these cooling curves, which show very well
the remarkable nature of these lower halts and the large amount of heat
evolved at them. Roberts-Austen and Stansfield have shown in their
fourth report on alloys, and more recently in their paper on alloys pub-
lished in the ‘ Proceedings of the Congrés International de Physique,’ that
if a continuous line in the concentration temperature diagram be drawn
through these lower halts a curve is obtained very similar to a freezing-
point curve. We have reproduced this curve so far as our cooling curves
enable us to do so, and in the figure the line C’X D’YE’ is a copy of this
curve. Our cooling curves and the C’E’ curve have a certain value as
confirming the original ones of Roberts-Austen and Stansfield, but we are
not prepared to say that they contain anything new ; in fact our C’E’
curve is incomplete. We traced these curves because they were needed
for our later work.

__ Inour figure the upper curve ABCDE is the freezing-point curve—the

‘liquidus’ curve, as Roozeboom calls it. The dotted line Adlcde is a
rough drawing of the ‘solidus’ curve of Roozeboom so far as our experi-
ments determine it. This curve is defined by the statement that when
the temperature of an alloy falls below the ‘solidus’ it sets to a solid
mass ; the ‘solidus’ might in fact be called the melting point curve. The
dotted line /C’ isa continuation of Roberts-Austen and Stansfield’s curve.
The numbers at the base of the figure give the atomic percentages of tin
contained in the alloys, so that DD’ on the 20 line corresponds to Cu,Sn,
and EE’ to Cu;Sn. As will be seen, the figure does not deal with alloys
much richer in tin than the latter formula.

As a microscopic study of the alloys, made in conjunction with a study
of the freezing-point curve, has proved that in many cases the structure
of the alloys could not possibly have arisen during solidification, but

76 REPORT—1901.

must have had its origin at lower temperatures, we have attempted to
obtain a permanent record of the structure of the alloys at diffrent stages
of temperature by cooling them slowly from a molten state to selected
_temperatures, and then chilling them. When an alloy had _ solidified
before the moment of chilling, the subsequent changes in structure are
generally very minute, often sub-microscopic, even if they take place at
all. It may be doubted whether the chilling does absolutely prevent the
later changes, but it enables us to distinguish the large scale structures
already existing before the chill from the necessarily much more minute

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structure formed during and after the chilling. We are thus by chilling,
polishing, and etching able to form very trustworthy conclusions as to
the structure of an alloy immediately before it was chilled.

Numerous experiments of this kind show that an alloy chilled in the
region of temperature between the solidus and liquidus contains large
primary combs which, from their size, must have been formed before the
chilling ; and that between them one often sees a crop of minute
primaries similar to the large ones, but formed during the chilling.
When the polished surface of a section of alloy is heated in the air the
combs oxidise more rapidly than the mother substance in which they are
imbedded. They are also softer than the ground, for by prolonged
polishing they are eaten out intoa pattern. These peculiarities, as well

ON ALLOYS. 77

as the behaviour of the alloys to etching reagents, make it certain that
the combs are-richer in copper than the average of each alloy or than the
mother substance round them. The alloys chilled between the liquidus
and the solidus were partially liquid at the moment of chilling, and as
the chill was effected by dropping the alloy into water, the result was
often to granulate the alloy ; one always finds in these chills more or
less of a tin-rich mother substance. Alloys which had been cooled below
the solidus before chilling are never granulated, and never show the
second crop of primaries ; they must have been solid before the chill.
Moreover, in the case of the AB alloys, when chilled below the solidus,
the primaries fill the alloy ; a sure proof, as it seems to us, that an alloy
becomes solid when its temperature falls below the solidus. This is still
more marked in the case of the LCDE alloys, for if these are chilled below
the solidus, but above Roberts-Austen and Stansfield’s curve, they
appear to be homogeneous, though sometimes lines can be seen dividing
the area of the etched surfaces into irregular polygons. Below the
solidus the primaries are lost, not because they cease to exist, but
because they have completely filled the alloy and assimilated the mother
substance in which they grew. It appears, therefore, that each of these
alloys is an approximately uniform mixed crystal phase when its tem-
perature lies between the solidus and Roberts-Austen and Stansfield’s
curve. On the other hand, alloys whose percentages lie between B and L
do not solidify homogeneously. If chilled below the O/C line they are solid,
but they contain copper-rich primary combs imbedded in tin-rich mother
substance ; near B the combs preponderate, but with more tin the
mother substance grows until at the percentage of L it forms the bulk,
and in certain chills the whole of the alloy. Moreover, if chilled above
C’ the mother substance appears uniform, while below C’ it breaks up
into a minute eutectic of two bodies. Successive chills of one of these
alloys at a series of temperatures from b/C to C’ show a remarkable
growth of the primaries. For example, in the chills of Sn,, taken close
to 6/C the combs of copper-rich primary are scanty and the lobes are
rounded, but as the chilling temperature is lowered the combs grow and
- become more angular and fantastic. Alloys between L and C show
copper-rich primaries if chilled above /c, but these vanish in the chills
between Jc and /C’, while when the temperature falls below the curve
IC’ a new copper-rich crystallisation appears. Photographs of the alloy
Cugg.590)3-5, are enclosed which illustrate these features.

In the same way, the CD alloys which show copper-rich primaries if
chilled above cd, and are uniform solid solutions between cd and C’D’,
are found to contain a tin-rich crystallisation of bands and rosettes if
chilled below the latter curve. The photographs 4, 5, and 6 of the paper
published in the ‘ Royal Society Proceedings,’ plate 3, vol. Ixviii., reproduce
these facts. The alloys of the branch DE, and beyond, present very
similar phenomena. They solidify in the narrow range of temperature
between DE and de, but the solid solutions of the region below de are
very unstable, and the habit of crystallisation of the solid phase that
separates out along D’E’ differs from that of the branch XD’, a minor
change showing itself near Y. ;

Thus we see that Roberts-Austen and Stansfield’s curve, in its relation
to the physical or chemical changes it indicates, closely resembles a freezing-
point curve, except that above it there is an unsaturated solid solution,
instead of the region of unsaturated liquids that lies above a freezing-point
curve. The points on the curve correspond to saturated solids, while

78 REPORT—1901.

below the curve the saturation has broken down, and the solid solution
has separated into two solid phases. Just as would be the case with a
freezing-point curve, the phase which first crystallises on the descending
branch /C’ is copper-rich, while that of the ascending branch X E’ is tin-
rich. Moreover, when the temperature falls to the eutectic angle C’ or X,
the residual matter breaks up into the solid eutectic, apparently common
to all the alloys from B to D.

The solid at D’ is practically homogeneous even after the transforma-
tion of the lower curve has taken place ; that is, the slowly cooled alloy
here contains one phase: this may be the compound Cu,Sn. The slow
cooled alloy at E is also homogeneous, although when barely solid it is far
from being so. There can be hardly any doubt that this alloy when
slowly cooled or chilled below E’ is the pure compound Cu;Sn ; but be-
tween the temperatures E’ and e this body may possibly not exist, and
above e it certainly does not. This decomposition of the Cu,Sn at or
even before melting explains why the freezing-point curve has no summit
corresponding to a body which almost certainly exists in the slowly
cooled alloys. It would be worth while to examine the changes in the
electrical resistance of these alloys when chilled.

Alloys containing somewhat more tin than Cu,Sn go through similar
changes as they cool. They solidify completely at temperatures that are
not more than 30 or 40 degrees below their freezing point, the first
matter solidifying being richer in copper than the alloy asa whole. When
just solid the alloys appear to be uniform, and they remain so until their
temperature falls to Roberts-Austen and Stansfield’s curve, at which point
a solid, that may be Cu,Sn, crystallises out of the solid solution in long bars.
These bars do not entirely fill the alloy, but are surrounded by mother
substance which grows in bulk with increasing percentage of tin.

The structure of the chilled alloys shows many other interesting
features which the authors hope to discuss at a future time.

Isomorphous Derivatives of Benzene.—-Second Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor H. A, Miers (Chairman), Dr. W. P. WYNNE,
und Dr. H, HK. Armstrone (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secre-
tary.)

THE investigation of the 1 : 3 : 5 series of sulphonicchlorides and bromides
derived from 1 : 3 dichloro-, dibromo- and chlorobromo-benzene has been
continued during the past year and is almost completed. The results
confirm and extend those previously arrived at, but also show that it will
be necessary to study very carefully the dependence of the crystalline
form on temperature and solvent. Progress has been made in preparing
material for the examination of the 1 : 2 : 3 series, the third set to which
the 1 : 3 di-derivatives can give rise ; and the sulphonic derivatives of the
1 : 2 dichloro-, dibromo- and bromochloro-benzenes are also under inves-
tigation.

The crystallographical relationship of corresponding methyl-, ethyl.,
propyl- and butyl-benzene sulphonic derivatives is also being made the
subject of study, with a view to determine the alteration in crystalline
form produced on introducing homologous hydrocarbon radicles into
benzenesulphonic acid. The results thus far obtained show that a very
thorough examination of the series will be required to bring to light the

ISOMORPHOUS DERIVATIVES OF BENZENE 79

real character of the relationship, which is apparently of a less simple
character than that met with in the case of corresponding halogen deri-
vatives.

On Wave-lenyth Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Conpounds.
—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscoe (Chair-
man), Dr. MARSHALL Warts (Secretary), Sir J. N. Lockyer, Pro-
fessor J. Dewar, Professor G. D. Livernc, Professor A. Scuuster,
Professor W. N. Hart ey, Professor Wotcorr GiBbs, and Captain
Sir W. DE W. ABNEY.

Gold, Spark Spectrum, p, 79. Argon, Vacuum-tube Spectrum, p- 97.
Manganese, Arc Spectrum, p. 89. Vanadium, Arc Spectrum, p. 100,
Silicon, Spark Spectrum, p. 96.

GoLp.
Ultra-violet Spark Spectrum.

Eder and Valenta, ‘ Denkschr. kaiserl. Akad, Wissensch. Wien,’ lxviii. 1899,
Exner and Haschek, ‘ Sitzber, kaiserl. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ cvii, 1898.

* Observed in the Arc-spectrum by Kayser and Runge.
Wave-lengths enclosed within brackets are from Eder and Valenta’s previous
list of 1896.

Wave-length Hedueyon

| inteuuiey | to Vacuum Oscillation

Ohatsater | 1 eae

Eder and Valenta | Exner and Haschek | | A+ Re eer

| |

4803-4 1b IES a 57 20813

t (4792°79) | * 4792-79 4r ” rib 8589
( 60°34) 60°37 In | 1°30 58 | 21005°4
a 00-4 LHW yep 1s29e) 15-9 | 275
(4683°84) 468377 | 1 Isms aw A 344°4
(07°80) 07-72 3 126 | 6:0 696°7
(458791) 45880 1b ” ” 789
( 59°05) 59°1 lb 1:25 61 960
( 49°64) 49°7 1b ” ” 986
ae 4499°1 In 1:23 “f 22221
(448843) = he 4r cp 6°2 273:2
a : In “ 3 350

( 37°37) * 37-50 or {192 | 2 529-0
— 31°3 In A Pa 547

( 20°69) 20°80 2r 1:21 63 623°2
( 10°55) 105 In el 667
ae 00°5 in as 7 718-7
(4395°72) 4395°6 1b » ” 721
( 15°34) 15°37 8r 118 6:4 23171'9
= 4278:0 ln Delt 65 369
(4260-01) 60:06 2 et 4173
( 41:95) * 42-00 2 1:16 6-6 567°1
= 26°89 2ca A 33 651°4
( 21:87) 22:00 In ” ” 678°8
(4172:90) 4173°02 a 1:15 67 956°7
(4089°95) 4089°9 1b 1:12 6:9 24449

( 84:31) * 84:30 | 2 3 et 460°9

* 4792-79, 4488°46, 37:44, 4241°99, 4084-26,

80 REPORT—1901.

GoLD—continued,

Wave-length

Eder and Valenta Exner and Haschek

a 4083-49
= 77°83
(407660) ~ 76°52
( 65-20) * 65-25
a 61-2
= 57:0
( 63-0 ) 5301
( 41:07) * 41-06
Ei 301
( 28°66) 28°63
( 20:86) 20:87
( 16-27) 16:28
(12:87) 12°8
= 12:35
Ss 02°6
( 01-60) 01:7
(3986 48) 3986 48
( 86-04) 861
( 79°72) 19°74
( 76:80) 16-77
( 59:35) 59:31
( 45:19) 45:2
SS 33°80
( 33°16) 33°1
(| 27°82) 27°84
( 16:15) 16-2
( 15-03) 14-93
( 09:60) * 09:54
(3898-03) * 3898-1
a 90:56
( 89:58) 89°61
= 83°47
( 80:34) 80°45
(| 77-45) 77-42
( 74:96) 74:90
( 65:70) 65°70
= 60'8
( 59°53) 59:50
( 55°60) 55°52
( 53°76) 5372
= 49+]
_ 47°62
( 45-02) 45-02
s- 44-49
= | 49:8
(187-70) + 0e 37-7
= 36°62
= 35°40
= 32:50
(31°31) 31-27
( 29°52) 29°60
( 28°56) 28-4
(| 25:87) 25-87
24:5

( 23-20) 23-12

Intensity
and

Character |

4Ca
1b
3
2b
in
1s
10r
ln
In

Reduction
to Vacuum
Nee
A
1°12 69
” ae
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
aA “
A 70
” ”
»” ”
” ”
” ”
110 3
” ”
as 71
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
1:09 5
i 72
1:08 =
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
7 (hes
1:07 as
” »
” »
” ”
” »”
bb] ”
” ”
” ”»
” ”
1:06 3

”

”

* 406522, 41:07, 3909'54, 3898-04.

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

24481:9
5215
523°8
5918
606
642
666°1
738'9
801
815°3
863:0
891°7
913
9163
999
998

25077'8
075
1201
138°9
249°8
328
4250
412
4521
516
5360
571°2
641
695°9
7022
742°9
762°9
783°0
799°8
861:2
894
902°8
929°5
941°6
973
982°8

26000°4
0044
015
059
057'3
065°6
085:3
093-7
1048
114
130°5
140
1493 5

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 81

GoLp—continued.

Wave-length

Intensity
and
Eder and Valenta | Exner and Haschek Character

(3822'11) 3822-05 3n
( 20°45) 20-40 In
( 16°50). 16°42 2n
= 10:07 In
= 08-1 1b
( 06°95) 07+1 1b
= 06°5 lb
( 04:22) 04:20 iF
( 00°75) 00°50 In
(8799-44) 3799-4 in
irr 98°15 In
( 96:15) 96°10 on
= 95:4 1b
= 94:4 1b
= 91:93 1
ea 88'°8 ln
( 87°37) 87°4 In
oe 85-4 In
( 80:13) 80°14 2n
= 73°35 2
€ 7112) 71 In
( 70°14) 70°1 1b
( 65°76) 65°73 29
( 65°10) 65-0 te
¢ 63°10) 631 In
( 59°03) 59-1 1b
( 54°85) 54:8 1b
( 52°90) 52-8 1b
( 465 ) 46°1 In
( 32°68) 326 in
te 31°8 ln
( 30°92) 31:0 In
( 18°02) 18:0 In
ae 14:2 In
( 08:30) 08'3 ‘in
( 06:99) 06°96 3n
( 02°49) 02:50 In
(369865) 3698°6 1b
( 95°68) 95°6 1b
( 94:14) 94:1 1b
( 90°18) 90:2 1b
( 87°60) 87°6 1b
= 83-00 in
€ 81°39) 81:60 In
= 80°9 lb
( 7762) 177 1b
( 76°62) 766 1b
( 75°11) 75:0 1b
( 72:93) 729 1b
(71°34) 113 Ib
Is 54:56) 54:8 In

—
ito}
—_

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

26156°7
168'0
195°1
238'8

82

REPORT—1901.

GoLD—continued.

Reduction to
Warerlengih Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
and Frequency
Character 1 in Vacuo
Eder and Valenta Exner and Haschek At Fi
(3654°22) 3654-4 In 1:01 Ci 27357
: E386) f 53°70 Qn i 361:8
- 50°95 1 +3 faa 382°4
( 49:25) 49:25 2n A » 395°2
— 4571 1b ’ ” 426
( 42°66) 42°6 1b 3 ” 445
( . 37°57) 37°6 1b is 78 483
( 35:21) | 35°35 2n oF ” 499°9
_ 34°84 2 ” ” 503°7
= 34:40 if a a 5071
( 33°40) 33°40 5s Fr ”» 514°6
( 32°81) 32°8 In + = 519
— 31°6 In ~ - 528
( 31-02) 31-0 In ” ” 533
a 239 In - nA 587
( 23°73) 23°6 In ” ” 589
( 22°93) 22:9 In * An 594
— 20°5 1b ai 5 613
( 14:17) 14:20 3n” 1:00 a5 660'8
— 09°74 2 - i 695'0
( 07°59) 07:70 2n » ”» 7107
( 04:94) 05-0 In alfa 731
(© MEnIGi Ep) 01:22 2n » ”» 760°6
(359828) 359820 In ” y 783'9
( 94:20) 94:31 In n 7:9 8139
( 91:90) 92°03 In re 1) 831°5
— 90°52 In a a 843°2
( 86°66) 86 84 5n* by a 8718
( 55°58) 55'5 2n 0:99 3 28117'5
( - 53°72) | bs 70 3n A a 131°8
—_— 5165 1 - 8:0 147'9
( 49°26) 49-2 1b oe . 167
( 48:26) 48°20 1 = 53 175°3
( 28°25) 281 2nv 0:98 5 336
( 23°42) 23°50 1 a = 3729
(8492°99) 349302 In 0:97 81 620°4
( 87:34) 87°33 In - 667'1
nes 871 In ss ‘ 669
— 81°35 In Pe a 716°4
( 70°47) 70°5 ln sj 8-2 806
— 60:8 in oh Pa 887
— 57°05 ln 0:96 a 918:2
( 62:27) 52°4 1b 5 eS 957
— 41°5 In A a 29049
— ZEST 1 . 83 219°8
— 04:73 1 0°95 s 362°6
_- 04:05 In i - 368°5
(3383°05) 338306 2 5 8-4 550°6
a 82°6 In 5 a 555
( 82°26) 82°1 In A af 559
( 58°61) 585 1b | 0-94 85: | 767
( 65°35) | 55:29 1 a 795°2
08:36) * 08:43 1 - 1093 86 380217:2
| (8230'72) 5280'85 2 Mz | 0°92 8°7 471°2

* 3553°72, 330842, -

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

GoLD—continued.

Reduction
to Vacuum

Wave-length
Intensity
and
Eder and Valenta Exner and Haschek Seaser iA Us
(3273°84) 3274:1 1Cu 0:92
( 65°18) * 65:20 1 ”
— 47°65 1 0°91
_ 42°8 In %
( 30°73) - 30:76 2n a
(« 28°0 ) 28°15 In ”
( 21:94) 22:0 1b ”
( 04:75) * 04:8 1b 0:90
(3194°90) *3194°9 1b a
( 56°73) 56°78 1 0°89
( 22°88) = 22:97 6 0:88
— 22°63 5s ”
(3033°35) *3033'3 1b 0°86
( 29°32) * 29°31 2 a
( 15°93) V5 O7 1 0°85
a 2995-09 3 ”
— 90°42 4s eh
— 82:25 1 0°84
(295464) 54°51 3 an
( 32°33) * 3232 2 0°83
€ 18:48) 18°52 In oF
13°63* 13°68 95 *.
07°18 07-19 4s 3
06:07* 06:05 2n 5
2893°51 2893°55 dn 0°82
92:05* 92:07 2n -
85°68 85:72 2 ”
83°59* 83°57 3 ”
| 64°63 64:6 1b 0°81
60°80 —— In ”
57:04 57:00 2n -
52°65 =e 2b ”
52°30 — In ”
47:23 47°20 3n ”
38°16 38°13 58 ”
35°55 3D°D 2s ”
33°16 Bpilly( 2s 3
25°56 25°58 6s 35
22°87 22°85 5 0°80
20°11 20°11 9n ”
05°44 05°40 2 3
02°35 02°30 10s a
2795°63 2795'73 2 ”
80°93 80:96 3s 0:79
— 49:0 In a
48°35* 48°35 5s Fr
45-80 —- 1s ef
43:27 — 1s Pe
32°14 32°10 2s 0:78
21:96 21:94 2s Pr
—_ 06°13 1 ”
03°44 03°51 2s ”
— | 02°54 a" aes

10-4
10°6

10:7

uw

160'8

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

30534
617°3
782°7
829
943°7
968°7

31028
194
291
668'8

32011°7
0152
958

330014
147°3
378°4
430°5
522°1
8369

34092°9
254:0
311°3
387°6
400°9
549°9
567-4
643°6
669°1
889
945°2
991-4

35045'0
049°3
111°8
224-1
257
286'0
380°9
4149
449-4
635-1
6745
759'1
948-6

36366
3749
408°7
442-2
591:0
T2U-7
942°4

9787
9914

8

Ly)

* $205:18, 30°73, 04:81, 3194'82, 22° 88, 303338, 29:32, 2932: 33, 2913'63, 2905:98,

2892'07, 2883'55, 2748'35r.

G2

84

Wave-length

REPORT—1901.

GoLp—continued.

| Intensity

| Reduction to

| Vacuum Oscillation
| and Vee ual <4 6) rg irs
Eder and Valenta | Exner and Haschek | Character AE -— Meee”
| |
io “=e r ie
2701-:01* | 2701-03 | 33 )2})0-78 | 10:8 |. sepgerge
2699-4 ES | in | ee As 034°5
978 | — Is 1M as ” 056
94-40* is Qs ‘ a ld 1032
90°5 — in or) ” | 157
88:80* | 2688'82 4s O77 Pee 180-2
88-26 | 88-26 3s fg | 188:0
87°73 87-73 4s +5 ae 195°3
86-0 mt In 4 219
82:3 == In Selim ae 271
76-08* | 76:10 12s 2M eT 3571
72°3 — 1 ” ” | 410
107 a 1 es 432°
67:09 67:09 2s é ce 483°1
65:28 65°25 2s by es 509:0
= 59°57 1s ef 9. ae 589-2
52 | = is O76 | 110 708
, | 2b Ml a to 789
41°65 41°56 6s lees 845°4
354 — | In Me A 934
34-4 — In » » | 948
31:7 = In > Tat 987
27:14 27-09 3s e - 38053°8
25°60 25-60 Qs . i 075'4
24:2 = | b d t 096
22-0 = | 2n “2 i 128
17°58 17-48 2s ‘3 4 193°6
16°69 16°62 3n i" i; 206'1
12°8 — In » h 262
9 c= In i i“ 275
10°36 10-4 In ¥: 5 297
09°61 09°60 2b 075 | , 309°0
O74 = | In be a 341
05:0 — | In Papa ee 377
2599'5 2599°5 2s : * 458
92°18 92:20 2s o> ae 5661
90:18* 90:18 4s nF) 596°2
83:5 ms 2n 5 eas 696
80:1 =~ In anes >), 747
fies = Jn ie ts 757
177 — In a b 783
753 as In é u 819
714 = 2n ‘e . 878
65:80 65°80 4s 5 eae 962'8
62% 23 2s 0-74 P 39010
619 _— In 55 i 023
58-0 = Qn | 082
52:92 | 52-9 Qs ” 159'6
50-28 | 50"3 Ds oN ae 1998
44-29% 443 4s ae bs 2929
38-07 38:09 3n BSE ih, Tia 388-4
37 Se Qs aa 405
35°92 ~ Be goal ae a Al 421-9

* 2701°03, 2694-40, 2688°86, 2676'05r, 2590'19, 2544:30.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA

GoLD—continued,

Wave-length

Eder and Valenta

2533°70
28°2,
22°8
20°7
17:2
15°15
EL |
10'59*
06°35

03°37
2495°3
92°74
91°68
90°49
88°3
83°4
80°35
78°59
77:76
76:2
73°84
68-06
58°15
56°55
55°34
52°79
47°94.
46°61
45°6
44:3
42°47
37°83
34°5
33°67
33°3
28-06*

23'8

19°41
191

17-4

16°68
14:36
13:27
11:40
10°7

08°89
07°42
05:20
04:97
02°80

Exner and Haschek

2533°74
28°15

15:17
10°59
06°38
06:07
03°33
2492°68
91°5
90°5
88:98

80°35
78°68
77:80
76:10
73°90
68°05
58:25

05°24
04°95
02:83

Intensity
and
Character

* 2510°66, 2428-06r,

OF THE ELEMENTS.

Reduction to
Vacuum
Rea) Se
A
O74 | 115
” 11°6
” ”
” ”
0-78 | ”
” | ”
3 Le
” ”
” ”
”” ”
” ” |
” | ” |
” 11:'8
” ” |
” ” |
” ”
” ”
” 99
” ”
3 ”
” 11:9
” ”
0:72 "
” 12:0
” ”
” »
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 12°1
” ”
” ”
” 39
” ”
50 12:2
” ”
” ”
0-71 7
” ”
” ”
” 9 \
” ”
” ”
Pe 12°3

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

394559
5430

41007:0
064
O78:2
084
1723
2241
246
320°1
327
355
367-9
406°6
424:7
455-7
470
500°6
525°9
563°6
568°6
605°3

REPORT—1901.

GoLD—continued.

Reduction to
ia ek Intensity Veewum Oscillation
and Frequency
Character 1 Fay Winn
Eder and Valenta | Exner and Haschek At aa
2401°63 2401-68 2s 0-71 | 12:3 41625:2
= 01:3 In - ‘, 632
00:2 — 1 Cu 5; 651
2399°3 — 1 ” s 666
95:7 —— 1 9 12-4 729
93°62 2393°66 2s of 2 7646
91:7 — In 29 ” 799
88:26 88°35 3s a - 857'5
87-82* 87°84 4s a H 866:5
84:29 — 2s at _ 928°8
82°50 82:51 3b a 12°5 960:0
80°5 os In 5 42095
79:3 — 1s “A 5 O17
= 78:0 In aa ti Beaes 040
(he? 17:3 1 Peasy ” 053
76°35 76°31 4s 3 3 069°6
73°20 oo 2n 0:70 BS 124°7
71°69 71°67 4s % as 1519
69:40 69°46 4n ” ” 174:0
= 68°10 1 3 12°6 2153
65°01 | 64:99 | 6r 5 ” 270°9
64:68 f{ * 64:64 | 3s * : 2771
591 a In 7. = 376
579 58°02 in ie . 3959
55°53 55°57 Qs : 3 440°3
52°67* 52°81 5s 4 12-7 490:9
51°59 51°61 2s 7 ” 5114
48-2 —_— Is ae 4 573
47:10 47:23 2s ” ” 592:0
44°25 — 2s = sy 644:9
43°6 — 2s = 3 656
42°81 — 1 Fa 6711
41°5 — 1 i Pe 695
40:27 40:30 7b = 12°8 7168
34-20 34:15 2b 5 ” 829°3
— 32-00 2n a s 868°9
31°45 31:46 2s “ ,, 878'8
31:20 — 4s 3 re 883°6
30°7 —_— Is a ay 893
26:7 26'8 In = 12°9 964:6
25°77 25°80 2s 0°69 7 983°1
25°34 25°32 2 a a5 991:9
24:7 24°73 | Is - 7 430028
22°34 22°39 rg : ‘ 046-2
21-4 nS Is is 064
20°35 20:37 2s 5 3 083°7
18:28 18°39 2 =A a 120°5
175 17:10 1s Ag “< - 144°5
15°94 15:96 6s aS > 165:7
14-73 14:77 | 6s ” ” 187:9
1:22 12:3 2 $5 13:0 234
= 11:06 1 - PA 2572
09°54 09:50 6s oot] Wee 286-4
08:2 08°26 1 eh c= 309-7
04:89 04:90 9b ES Fs 372°8

* 2387°85, 236469, 2352-75.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 87

GoLD—continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length
; Intensity | Vacuum Oscillation
and ; Frequency
deh and Valonta | Exner and Haschek | C>*T@cter | a4 ao in Vacuo
2301°1 2301°15 In 0°69 13°1 43443°4
00-4 Be 1s =! rs 458
22983 zs In Z te 497
96°9 2296:92 2s -- a 523°5
a 96-62 1 anise 529-2
95°18 95:20 3s - ee 656'1
94-08 94:1 2b a i B77
91°59) 91°60 6b is ‘i 624°5
88°70 88°66 2s e re 680°6
87:79 87°85 3n - T3'3 696:0
867 86°80 in Pa a 716°0
So'ouis 83°38 5s a7 % T79'5
82°95 82°94 3n AF “i 890:0
2 80-05 Sita. at fel 845°5
79°42 79°40 2n = 5 8580
— 78°10 1 5 “A 883:0
77:62 47-65 4n 0:68 We 889'7
W332 3°25 1s Pr 133 9766
70:3 70:27 2s es 5 44034'3
67:03 67:07 2s “ ss 096°5
66-20 66°01 3b seen nee 171
65-3 65°10 in oF +; 134'9
63:75 63°77 3n Ps mp 160°8
62°68 62:70 3n + 13°4 181°6
61:32 61:35 on - s 208-0
60:36 — 2n EA 5 227°3
55°90 55:95 2n 3 5 313°8
55:00 561 ln 8 + 331
53°44 53°48 3s - 5 362°4
— 49:13 1 * 13°5 448-1
48°70 48°77 2n * - 4553
46°76 46°70 3n * 7 596-2
eg 46°50 1 fa “ 500-2
— 45°53 1 oF re 5194
43°6 44-01 In ee 3 549°6
42-71 42°78 Bs * : 6740
— 42:00 — is 3 589°5
40°36 40°35 3 ” ” 622°4
37°56 37°55 2n Pe 13°6 6781
33°75 33°75 2n i - 754:2
31°37 31:40 4n ss hy 801°3
29°09 29:07 6n . 7 848°2
— 24:7 In 0°67 13:7 936
22°64 22°70 2n 5 as 976°6
20°64 20°62 3s 5 3 45018°8
194 19°25 2 a 53 046°6
15°85 15°80 3n is A 116°7
13°20 13°25 4s i 13'8 168°6
10°64 10°73 3s 3 5 220°1
10°30 10:27 1s - 5, 229°5
05:92 05:97 2s re a 3177
-01°35 01°42 5s ss “A 45411°3
2193-7 219355 1 eee | 5143
92°7 | ok ts 592-0
90-7 | 90°57 1s , | 140 636-2

* 2283°42.

88 REPORT—1901.
GoLuD—continued.
Reduction to
nee ee fe a Oscillation
an
Character 1 aa
Eder and Valenta | Exner and Haschek A+ ric
218897 2189:°03 4s 0°67 14:0 45668'3
86°9 86°80 2 “A ” 7149
85:7 85°65 2s ” ” 7390
84:15 84:21 2s ” ” 7691
72:26 72:28 23 0-66 | 14:1 46020'5
675 67:40 2s 9 14:2 124-0
= 61:27 In ” ” 254:°9
60:7 60°55 2n + ” 270°3
59°2 59°13 2n % 143 300°7
57:18 67°21 2n ry ” 341°9
54:4 54°30 2n ” 7 404'5
— AA:27 1 , 14:4 621°5
405 40°5 in PP ” 704
37°95 87°95 2b » ” 7594
33°4 33'3 lb 5 14:5 860
ae 29°57 1 0°65 ” 943°3
29:03 _ 1s + ” 955:2
26°8 26°73 2s ”» 14:6 47003'9
25:28 25°32 4s ” ” 037-1
137 13°69 1s ” 14:7 295'9
10°74 10°78 6s ” ” 361°1
2098'8 — In ” 148 631
98:2 209818 1s “4 ” 645°6
95:0 as In ” 14:9 718
85:4 — 1 3 15:0 937
83°1 83°16 1s ” ” 48989'0
82°10 82:16 5s ” ” 012°7
W17 — 1 0°64 151 255
64:0 —_— 1 =; 15:2 434
59°9 oo il “f 9 531
566 — 1 =f x 609
55-4 — 1 5 153 637
44:65 44°70 5s ” 15°4 891:5
12°10 — In 0°63 15:7 49683°6
00°77 00'9 3s oH 158 965:0
198899 as Is » 16:0 50260°8
fas) 1977°6 1 a 16:1 550
72°66 — 1 0°62 oF 6769 .
55°64 — 1 ay 16:3 511179
51°59 — 3 “4 164 223°9
48:48 — 1 Ay ~ 305'7
46:41 — 1 $5 S 360:2
44°35 — 1 es 165 414-6
35:13 — 1b is 166 659°5
31 “F4 = 3 ” ” 750°2
25°19 — 2 0°61 16'7 926°2
21°38 —_— 8 ° is 520292
19:39 — 6 3 16'8 083°1
18°04. — 1 i +f 119°8
04°41 — 1 3 16:9 492°8
1890-25 — 2 5 172 885-9
86°85 — 2 “ a 981:2
79°72 — il % 17:3 531821
61°68 . 2 0-60 | 17°5 697°4

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Hasselberg: ‘ Kong]. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akadem. Handl.,’ Bd. xxx., No. 2.

MANGANESE (ARC SPECTRUM).

* Coincident with Fraunhofer lines.

89

1897,

{ These lines seem not to occur in Exner and Haschek’s list of manganese spark

lines, Sitzber, ‘ Kais. Akad, Wissensch. Wien.’ civ. (1895), cv. (1896).

This list in-

cludes 1,550 lines, extending from 4824 to 2112. Within these limits all the lines
of the arc spectrum not marked } seem to occur.

Wave-length| Intensity

Rowland and
peawiand) Character

*5849°33
17°15
*5780°42
* 38:49
5573'94
* 43:27
56:09
52°75
52°24

38:07
35°77
17:05

15:06
06:15
04°53
549767
96°23
81°67

70°86

57-71
33°67
32°75

20°58
13°94
07:63

06:32
*5399°72

* 94°88

88:76
1783
77-46
50:08
48°31
44°66
41:22
24°53
17°33
09°16
5299-09
98:13

*

*

*

PR NQ ObWbwat AK AQ Hb ble Oh Wd to

* .
B

*

*
*

*

SS a a ao ann ora

.
=]

bo bo

Previous Observations
(Rowland)

5787'910 Rowland

5552193
{ 38°025

37-928
5517-03 Thalén, {16960

16950
06-095

5470°883
70802
57701

32°753
20°613
20°510
13°889
07688
07587

5420°50
13°70
07:80,

{
{

5399-675
94-913
94839

00°85
539475,

77°85 77-800

50:059

44-646

41°45 41°337

| Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation

Frequency
in Vacuo

At

159 | 46
47

”

49

17091°4

_
co
or
oo

1:58
1:56
152

295:1
4215
935°7
937°9
993-4
180042
005:8

051°9
054°4
120°7

127°3
1645
166°8
1845
189'3
237°6

273°7

317-7
398'8
401:9

443:2
A6b'8
487-4

4953
514°4

5310

5520
589°8
591°0
686:2
712°4
705°2
717-2
7759
8013
850°3
8660
869°4

90

Wave-length
(Rowland)

5261:00
* 55°51
*5197°44
XP 96177
oD 1314:
* 49°40
* 18:15
*5087:02
a 74:97,

42°86

30°86
* 30:02

22°26
* 10°58
* 05:10
4985'98

7460
* 66°02
* 34:25

01:00
488912
* 81:87
62°28
55°01
54°76
44-47
38°40
27:10
25°80
* 23°71
*4783°60
66°58
66-02
62°54
61°68
54:23
39:27
27°63
09°87
01:30
*4671°86
* 43:01

27:99
* 26:74

07°80
* 05°55
4595°51

86:30

48°75

44°61
* 42°62

34:72

30°01
* 23°58

04-03

*

eee Ke KE OF

REPORT—1901.

MANGANESE (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to

Intensity Previous Observations Wegman
and (Rowland) 1
Character rN =
A
2 1:44 5:2
5s 5255°51 Thalén, 5255-492 Rowland] ,, “5
2s DLIT-OLS ;; 5197-332 = 1:42 53
5s 96°741 ss Ps As
5s 61:112 a 1°41 ”
33 18-112 a ss ae
4 1-40 ”
2 139 5:4
4 ee wien
2 1:38 5
2 ” ”
3 ” ”
2n 1:37 55
3 ” ”?
4s 6005-347 = = 45
3 1:36 ”
$n ” ”
5s 4966:036 2 3 a
5s 1°35 56
2 1°34 ”
2 » ”
2 ” »
4 1:33 ”
2 a 57
3 ” 3°
4 4844408, 5 ”
2 1:32 ”
2 ” ?
2 ” ”
10nr 482360 ,, 23°715 oe > i
10n r 4783°34 ,, 4783°607 Sy 1:31 58
7 66:14 ,, 66°621 a 1:30 3
7 65°64 sg, 66:050 Es iy ke
8 62714 ,, 62°567 a 4 ms
ff 61:34 ,, 61:718 45 is =
10n r 54:04, 54:225 a i =
6s BEE Sel 39°291 & a4 =
a 27°64 ~—C,, 27°676 By 1:29 4)
7 09°94, 09°896 ” ” ”
4 OLlA4t 5 01:345 a 3 5:9
4s 4671°58 4671-858 5 1:28 44
2 1:27 3
2 PA 6:0
4s 2648 ,, 26°718 a5 e, “A
3n 0748 Cy, 1:26 .
5n 05°68 ” 05536 ” ” ”
3 ” »”
2 ” ”
4 4549'05 1:25 | 6-1
3 ”
4 1:24 “5
2 ” ”
2 ” 2
3 4523°572 BS a ma
4 | 03:95 04:042 1:23 4.

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 91

MANGANESE (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to BB.

Wawve-length| Intensity Previous Observations lagen = g 8
(Rowland) and (Rowland) Bop
Character A+ ay A Bog

7M OR"

*4502°38 Fi 450245 Thalén, 4502:388 Rowland | 1:23 61 | 22204°4
*4499°06 7 4499'05,, 4499-070 3 Fr 220°8
* 96°82 3 96'0b a, 96:676 5 5 6:2 231:7
* 91°86 4 91:85 a5 91°823 - - “ 258°3
* 90:28 7 90:25 7%, 90:253 3 RS o 264°1
e79'b9 + W9°%D Vee 79'553 7 FA 33 317°3
* 72-92 6 folb, 72-967 f 5 He 350°6
* 7031 6 ae 70°300 * | » 1 3636

| 7025, Z Roh

* 64°86 Gi 65:05 __s,, 64844 6p 1:22 si 390°9
* 62:17 8n 62:25, 62°165 He FS 3 404:4
* 61:25 vi GI; 61°242 a Re 3 409:0
60°55 5 60°55 607462 Fe ; 4s 412°6
* 58°43 7 5845 ,, 58-409 ‘ 3 3 4232
°2 by Gr) 6 DiGon hy 57°712 a 5, a 426'8
me 55°22 6 ov-4G 5 57:207 re 3 SS, 429-1
* 56:05 6 BOWS ey 55980 t Re a 4352
* 55:50 6 55°55. a, 55°485 rn - 5 438-0
* 55°19 6 55:25, 55'193 Fs % * 4400
* 53°16 6 53:25 .,, 53171 oe x as 450°3
52-73 3 FS ee 452-4
+e 51-75 ti B1-95° 10 51°752 a3 3 3 4569
* 47°32 3 AT45— ,, 47°302 of A 5 479-2
* 36°52 6 3645, 36516 a Ff, a 534:0
36:24 3 % 34 535°4
= 19:96 4s 20°05 =, 19:944 4 1:21 6:3 618°3
* 15:06 6 15:05 “if 15:047 ‘ 53 s3 638°6
* 12°06 4 215) ss 12043 5 = 658°8
* 08:28 3 08:35, z pe 678°3
4389°95 3 4389-930 fe 1:20 5 7730
88:27 2 88:260 a Fn ss 781°7
82°80 3n 4383710, 82-847 cf rs e 810-2
81:87 4 82°30 —séo4, 82:045 : P: 3 815:0

= 75:10 + ta30F 75103 1 FS eS 850°3
37°57 2 37:569 5 119 64 | 23048-0
26°35 — 26:10 ,, : nN “4 107°8

23 59 = ” ” 122°5
21°36 — 23°50; Ai Pe 134'5

* 12:70 5 21:40 _—s—=»,, 12°723 a 1:18 is 180°9
05°84 2 4 65 217°8
00°35 3 00°23, 00°376 “6 5 3 247-4
4290°29 2 A ug 301°9
* 84:22 5 428453, 4284°223 3 Fs re 335°0
* 81:27 6 81:33, 81:257 a) + i 351:0
78°85 3 1:17 34 364:2

* 66:08 6 66°33 __,, 66°081 i AS 4 434:2
* 61°45 3 GL:63) 61°496 ai B 3 459°7
¥ 58°48} 2 ” ” 476:0
* 57:80 6 58:03, 57°815 *. 35 of 479'8
* 39°88 6 40:03 _s—=é, 39°890 4 1:16 66 5790
* 35°45t 6 35:43 —,, 35°450 Fr P PA 603°6
* 35°28 6 35'298 F Fr a 604°6
30°47t 2 ” ” 6314
30°31 2 * > 6323

* 20°79 | 5 ZU13! 4, 20'738 a x eo fe 680'6

92 REPORT—1901.

MANGANESE (Anc SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to Bee

Wave-length| Intensity Previous Observations Vegans 3 g 8

(Rowland) and (Rowland) oP

Character A+ ge li SR

x Om'"
*4212-64T 2 1:16 | 66 |23731°5
Feo 1:90 4 4211:899 Rowland » ” 735°6
* 01°88 4 4202:23 Thalén, 01°869 115 Fa 792°3
*4190'15 4 4190°147 ay ” 67 858°8
* 76:73 5 76°739 es ” i 935'5
* 57-21 3 By Gia mete | 1-14 » | 24048°5
55°68t 8 ” ” 056'7
* 51°16 3 n Xe 082'9
* 48°94 5 48948 + ” 68 | 095°7
* A765 a 47645 ” ” 9 103°2
* 41:18 5 41:208 ge ” = 140°9
* 40°35 2 ” * 146°7
* 37°40f 4 37428 iy » + 163:0
* 35°18 5 4136'26 a 35°191 ne ” +s 1762
34:77 4 ” > 178°3
32°45 2 ” ” 188:°7
31-60} 2 ” ” 201'9
* 31:26 5 31:271 5 ” * 203°9
* 23°68 3 23664 Fe 1:13 i 243°4
* 93°41 3 ” ” 245:0
22°92 3 Rate rc 247°8
14°53 4 14:461 5 ” ‘s 297°3
* 14:02 38 ” 2 3003
15739 4 13°381 i ” 55 304°0
* 10°98 6 11:021 A ” 6 3183
* 08:01 3 ” fh, 335°9
* 05°51 5 05'514 ” ” ” 350°7
* 03°62 3 ” 5 3619
* 03:07 4 03:097 P 7 * 365°2
4099 57 2 : ” 6:9 386°0
* 9681} 3 ” vi 402°2
* 95°42 4 4095°423 Fr of i 407:2
ObA7, 2 ” A 4120
90°73 2 112 5 438°6
90°10 4 90:113 i 7 1 442°3
* 83°75 9 408383 5 83°783 Pr > Ee 480°4
* 83:09 9 83°13 = 83°095 es + 5 484:4
* 79:56f 9 79°43 a 79570 xs OS * 505°5
oe Uris ats) 9 79°393 7 oF A 506°5
ENT DSO 3 70°431 A op 33 530°6
* 70°41 6 68°137 ay op 2 560°6
* 6813 | 4s also Fe ” 2 5744
66°38 3 65°239 3 > ay 585:0
* 65:22 4 . re 5933
* 63°38 | TalsoFe 63°63 a5 63°573 3 6 [ 603:2
* 61°88 6 61°881 FA Ay elle en 612°2
* 59:53 6 59'53E tf a3 a 626°5
* 59:08 7 59081 a 2 z 629°2
* 58:10 5 58115 ” ” ” 635°2
* 55°68 9 5643 ,, 4055701. ,, ” ” 649'9
5535] 4 55°365 4 + 3 651°9
* 52°62 4 52°603 5 Aes 5 668°5
61:90 4 9 7:0 672'8
* 49-16t 4. ” ” 689°6
* 48°88 8 48°83 » 4048910 a ss 691:2

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length
(Rowland)

*4045:26
* 41-49
38-89t
35°88
34-60
33:18
30°87
26°57
20°18
18°25
12-09
11-69
08-19
03°42
02:31}
02°05
3997°34
92°65
* 90:10
87-61
* 87:23
* §6-94
* 85°36
84-31
83-07t
* 82-72
82:31
TT24
* 76-03
53-00
43-01
36:91
29°82
29-41
29°30
26°61
24-24
23-45
22:82
29-20
21-85
18-43
16-75
11°57
11:27
08°34
05:12
04:47
03-68
3899°S1}
99°46
* 98°50

ee RR ee

ee ee eH KF

MANGANESE (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

95

Reduction to | a & é

é [ } Vacuum Bas

Intensity Previous Observations 338
and (Rowland) Tm oe

Character Foc tsa 39 e

r Om"

6 4045°266 Rowland | 1:11 TO | 24713°3
10n also Fe; 4041:23 Thalén, 41°525 5 he Fg » 736°3
4 BEL 7 Ee 3 ” 752°3
6 4035°883 ” ” ” T710°7
20n r 34:63 yy 34644 rf =F nf 778°6
20n r 33°53 ” 33°230 ” ” ” 7873
20n r 30°13 ” 30°919T ” ” ” 801°5
6 26°583 a ) . 828-0
3 20°226 a a" a 867-5
7 18°25 t ” ” ” 879°4
2 1:10 ” 917°6
3 11°693 “c a of 920°1L
5 08°215 a7 + a 941-9
2 ” vial! 971°5
2 02°308 ”» ” ” 9785
2 02°086 » ” ” 980°1
2 3997°365 of oo Ay 25009°5
3 3992'5 Lockyer a oo op 038°9
2 90:0 oe 90:129 as a Ba 054°9
2 87:625 Xn Fp op 070°6
4 3987°244 aS rere lis, SS 073°0
4 $6:979 a 3 ee 074:8
4 85°463 2 fe ey 084-7
2 3984294 33 > ~ 091°3
2 83°053 a as “ 099-2
4 82°630 fo “1 + 101-4
2 ” + 103°0
3 172 33 17:223 5 “ 4s 13671
3 756 aS 75'985 eS “p ns 143°5
4 §2°7 A 53043 a 1:03 72 290:0
3n 43:0 = 42°984 BS a AIS 9 354-1
2 36912 ” ” » 393°4
2 29°6 “A 29°864 65 1:08 9 439°3
ary ” ” 4419
3 29°363 of ~ at 442°6
5 26°5 ” 26°597 ” » » 459°1
4 24:2 Hc 24:206 3 “f -c 480°4
3 23°5 oF 23°375 rh “f - 480°6
5n 22°8 af 22°815 3 eee I eB 4847
2 22°223 ” ” ” 488-7
4n 21°8 ne 21°855 53 an fr 4910
4 18:3 i 18°396 3 * “ 513°2
2 16°661 ee A Ac 524:2
3 10115) AA 11°554 A aa As 558°0
3n 11:2 “f fc os 559°9
2s a 73 5790
2 ” ” 600°1
2 “4 As 604°9
2 = a 6161
4s 3899'701 ”» ~ 6350
3s 99-530 a a 4 637°2
4 98-531 Pc a 643°5

4030°497 4018269
t double { 30373 =f { 18-234

94

REPORT—1901.

MANGANESE (ARC SPECTRUM) —continued.

| Reduction to

8 Fo

Wave-length| Intensity Previous Observations Yoeor 3 s 8
(Rowland) and =| (Rowland) 1 z o>
Character eens: ae Sas

3897°47 2 | 1:08 73 | 256504
96:48 3s 3896°385 Rowland | 1:07 S 656°9

* 94°85 3s 94°850 “ on 667°6
Foo 2 2 92°698 xs a os 6817 ~
* 91:92 3 nS + 687:0
89°62 2 89°498 5S + 4 699°9

* 86:42 | 5salso Fe ” ” 727°3
79°32 2 + ; 770°4
72°26 2 ” ” 817°4
65°83 2 2 _ 860°4

* 61-88t| 3 is . 886'8
56°68 4 7 a 921:7

“3 BH AD) 3 1:06 es 942°5
* 44:10 if 44-135 ” ” 26006°6
* 41:17 | 8 also Fe 41°195 3 » es 026-4
va Re) 7 39'922 5% “5 Oy 034°9
37°68 3 , ” 0501

* 34:48 9 34°506 iy “1 ny 071°8
* 33 96 ff 34:006 “4 “5 A O75°4
30°12t| 2 aes 101°5

* 29°81 5 at alt ebaes 103°6
* 24:01 ff 24028 A i a 143°3
*. 23°64 8 23°653 ” 53 allie S35 145°8
* 16°87 5 16°887 > | Ob | 7-4 192-1
10°85 4 * 233°5
09°70 6 09-732+ ) : 239°5

* 06°84 | 9also Fe | 06°865 . 5 2611
02:04 4 02°051 Es 1h. eal 3 eeoas

* 00°68 4 00°683 ra os + 303°7
*3799°38 4 3799°386 + - £4 312°7
* 90°36 6 90362, = & 375'3
SeaSpron, 3 5 A 408'7
eo 3s 76'698 = | 1:04 3 470°7
* 74:81 2 eae ae 484:0
* 74-02 2 2 | . 489°5
71°62 2 ‘ 75 506°3
68-33 2 ie 529-4

* 67-84 4 67°787 _,, fs % 532°9
63°51 4 ‘ Be 563-4

* 56:80 3 56-705, : if 610-9
} Double Nei Rowland’s Table of Solar Spectrum Wave-lengths gives

the following lines (not mentioned in the above
5457-640, 12°997, 5321-976, 4884:242, 4233-328, 4171:854, 4092°547, 83°376, 45:371,
33°814, 33°732, 31:942, 07 185, 3954°680, 52°103, 37-972, 3895:583, 88-971, 40°340,

3696°800, 95°658, 91°452,

list) as due to Manganese:

84680, 58°689, 58°044, 17:575, 15°531, 3590°109, 11:763,

3488 437, 87:095, 74:287, 74:197, 60°174, 55-204, 55-121, 61:609, 42°118, 20-940,
3386-085, 82°825, 82°129, 79-005, 70°770, 69'352, 68319, 55°661, 45-495, 43°804, 30-802,
20783, 17393, 16698, 16°561, 14:995, 14574, 14-334, 13-562, 13°301, 12-063, 08°888,
07114, 05°001, 03:398, 3299-652, 98:361, 97-014, 95-951, 80-900, 78°687, 73 175, 70°473,
68847, 64833, 60:386, 58 542, 56'264, 55°617, 54:180, 53-090, 51-273, 48°637, 43:883,
40°726, 40°522, 36:905, 30°843, 28-219, 26148, 24-882, 17-040, 13 004, 3178-620, 67-289,
61146, 48:283, 42°846, 40:430, 3079°724, 73:232, 70°372, 66:101, 62:222, 54-429, 48-999,
47-156, 45°695, 44°671, 40°712, 22'861, 2801'183, 2798'369, 94°911, 2593810, 76195.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 95

nn . —e
Reduction to |

Wave-length| Intensity

(Rowland)

* * & &

3750:92
49°54
46:78
37:03
32°05
29:05
27-21f
19-04
06°16
01:85
00:47

*3696°69

*
*
*

*

94-28
93°81
92:98
85-69t
85:04
82:24
30°32
IT12
70°67
70-00
69:54
60°52
41-60
35°89
29°87
23-92
19:42
10°44

MANGANESE (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Previous Observations

and (Rowland)
Character

46717
37059
32072
29°004
27:061
19:070
06°175
01-866

n

3696°707

5

93°804
92954
85°665

82°161

70°678
69°976

60°549
41-597

29°877
23°926
19°412
10°435
08-630
07-672

3595-256
86684
78014
70:183
69:958
69°649
48 332
48°175
47-941
32-262
32°143
31°982
97°668
96:952
95974
88°817
83-047
60°460

ADAN NW RBADAATENH NENW WRNYRPNHNWWOWoN Woodrow Roe

OT eH 09 G9 OT OT OT Or OF Or Or Or
PBBBBBBSS

3750°916 Rowland

Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

26652°6
662-4
68271
T5617
787°4
809°0
82271
881-1
9745
27005°9
016:0
044°6
061°3
064-7
070°8
1244
129-1
149-7
163°'8
187°5
235°3
240°3
243°7
310°8
452°6
495°8
5414
586°6
620°9
689°6
703°6
711°0
754:9
758°8
806°7
873°3
940°7
28001°9
004:0
006-0
1741
175°5
177-4
302-4
303-4
3048
582°3
5882
596-1
6550
702°7
889°6

96 REPORT—1901.

Sinicon (SPARK SPECTRUM).

Eder and Valenta, ‘ Sitzber. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ cvii. (2), 1898.
Exner and Haschek, iid., cviii. (2), 1899.
Lockyer, ‘ Proc. Royal Soc.,’ Ixv. p. 449. 1900.

t Observed also by Count de Gramont, who gives also lines at 6969°7, 6342:2,
5978°9, 5960°3, 5948°0 ?, 5060:0, 5045°5.

* Observed also by Rowland, whose walns are 4103:101, 3905°666, 2987-766,
2881:695, 2631:392, 2528°599, 2524:206, 2519:297, 2516°210, 2514°417, 2506-994,
2443'460, 2438°864, 2435°247, 2216-760, 2211-759, 2210:939, 2208-060. Rowland gives
also lines at 5948°761, 5771°360, 5708°620, 5645-835, and 2218°146.

{ 3807 Lunt, ‘Astroph. J.’ xi. p. 269 (1900).

Hider and Valenta Exner and Haschek Lockyer ete to
etiatien
Intensity Intensit frequency
Wave-length | and d Wave-length | and . a th Ao ule
‘Character Character 8 A
he = 4764:20 1 = 1:31 | 58 | 20984:0
oes = +4574:9 In 4575'3 1:25 | 6-0 | 21852
a — t 67-95 In 68:0 55 » 8854
= wz + 52°75 3n 52°8 61 957-5
+4131°0 4b - = 4131-4 113 | 68 | 24200
t 28-2 4b 41281 5b 28:3 » » 217
cx = — —_— 16°4 ” ” 292
=5 — * 03:2 in == »” ” 364
= = 4096'8 Disab loess 2 69 402
= ~ — — 408912 | 112] ,, 447?
=. af 30-1 2b we 111 | 7:0 748
= = 21:0 1b = es 862
3905-80 3b *3905-71 br = 1:08 | 7:3 | 255945
ee = 388346 1 = LOVE" ss 739°7
=e = 71°60 1(CN) = i * 819-4
3862°75 3b |° 62°80 4n 3862°7 - 75 880°7
56:20 3b 56°19 5n 561 1:06] ,, 924:7
54:00 1b 54:02 In = vy s 9395
2a = 53°62 In a 2 x 942-1
34-4 1 ae = = a » | 26072
26°7 1 = = 2 s Si 125
= = £06-90 3n ss 105 | 7-4 260°6
3795°9 2 3796°50 2n ae 8 i 332°6
91-1 1 91:8 1b id , % 366
oe = 91:0 In ‘ Pe 371
3191-1 1 ste ss ae 0:90 | 89 | 31328
aS = 3093°6 1b “& 0:87 | 9:2 | 32315°8
3086°8 1 86°6 1b _ = i 389
2987-77 4 *2987°77 1 = 0°84 | 9:6 | 33450:3
2881:70 10 *2881'73 | 15 = 0:82 | 10:0 | 34688-4
2689°8 1 -- _ _ 0:77 | 10°8 | 37181
174 1 ae. = = » | 109 338
59-0 1 <= pe ee, . ds 597
31:39 8 *2631:38 3 mas 0°76 | 11:0 983°6
2568'8 2 2568'8 In = 0°75 | 11:3 | 38917
41-89 8 41:90 | 2 = 0-74 | 115 | 39330
347 1 as ERIN BAN ie : ® 440°9
33:2 4 32°45 1 ie) Ee is 452°6
28:60 | 8 * 28:60 8 pss » | 11:6 530
24:21 8 «| * 9491 6 poe fe au 593°6
| 19°30 - Sememe imme C ) 5 = tis 666
16-21 10 |, * 1626 | 10 res OT) 1; 719°4
14:42 7 My LE e a 5 a i 7508 |

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 97

SILICON (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Eder and Valenta Exner and Haschek Lockyer See me
—————————— paella:
Intensit Intensit requency
Wave-length and ; Wave length and x ie wth A+ =
Character sie = A
2606'99 8 *2507-01 6 -— 0:73 | 11:7 | 39861:0
2479°8 1 247868 1 (CN) — an 11°8 | 40317°6
52-22 3 52°23 In. -— - 12:0 752°9
46:0 3 45°63 1 — 0:72 a 871°7
— == * 43:91 In — i$ 3 904°7
43°46 2 * 43°47 In — é: 905°4
38°86 2 * 38°87 In — < 12:1 988°5
35°25 8 35°22 3 — Fe a 41040°1
2356°9 1 —_— _ — 0:70 | 12°6 | 42416
03:3 1 — — — 0:69 | 13:0 | 43403
= a 2296-96 1(C) — . 9 522-1
2219°5 1 _— —_ —- 0-67 | 13-7 | 45041
18°15 1 _— —_— —_— ” 9 053°4
16°76 4 * 16°75 In — ” ” 092°8
118 3 oF eA Hee In — ye hoe 194°4
10°9 3 = 10:97 1 — Af an 217°3
08'1 3 * 08:1 1 - 25 . 274
2122°8 2 _— — — 0-65 | 14:6 | 47092
1929°0 1 —_ -— — 0°62 | 16°6 | 51823
Arcon (Vacuum Tus).
The red end of the red spectrum of Argon.
Runge, ‘Astroph. J.,’ ix. p. 281. 1899.
Runge and Paschen, ‘ Astroph. J.,’ viii. 99. 1898.
* These lines belong also to the ‘ blue spectrum.’
Previous Measurements eet to
Wave- Lae
length | Intensity | ————— ; ome
(Runge) Bunge and Kayser | Crookea | A+ | \—
801473 1 — _— —_— 2°17 3-4 12473°6
06-00 1 = = a 16 | 487-2
7948°32 1 7952 = a 215 | 4, 577-9
772415 2 7725 7723-4 — 2:09 35 942°9
763519 3 7636:2 7635°6 7646 2:07 ” 13093'7
7514-77 3* 7515-4 75151 — 2°04 3 303°5
04:04 bi 04°5 03-4 7506 2°03 rs 322°6
7435°77 1 — — o— 2:01 ” 4449
738418 5* 7384-22 7383-9 7377 2:00 37 538°8
72:28 1 — — — — — 560°6
53°42 1 _ — — 1:99 _— 597°3
16:15 1 — — — 1:98 —_— 664:7
11:80 1 —_— _— _ — == 672°8
7273:13 5* 7273:04 7271°6 7263 1:97 —_ 745°5
07-20 1 _ — — 1:95 _ 8713

Nasini, Anderlini, and Salvadori [Accad. Lincei Atti, viii. 269 (1899)] give infra
red neni 7980, 8030, 8140, 8320, 8450, and 8575.
. H

98 REPORT—1901.

ARGON (VACUUM-TUBE)—continued,

+ These lines belong only to the ‘ blue spectrum,’

Wave-length Previous Measurements Redneias
eeereg — |_| Oscillation
Frequency
Bares 904 as etki Kayser Crookes
7147:30 1 7146°8 — 1:94 3°8 13987°5
7068°83 1 — — 1:92 7 14142°8
30°54 2* 29:2 — To - 219-9
6965°81 6* 6964°8 6965°6 1:89 39 3519
37°99 2* 37°83 — 1°88 as 409°5
6888-83 1 a ~- 1:87 - 612°3
80°26 1 — — oh MF 30°4°
71°56 4* 6870°6 — 1:86 95 48'8
27°85 <1 — — “p 4:0 641°9
6766/97 a — — 1°83 FA TIi3'7T
56°58 1 — — “ 9 96°4
53°15 5* 6752°7 6754 ” ” 803°9
19°33 2 — — 1°82 o 78:4
6699:06 3 — — Pr 923°5
84:95 < If 6684:2 — ” ” 55:0
82:7 2 — — 1°81 - 60
79:01 <1 = —_ 5 - 68:3
77°61 6* 76:5 6664 “1 5 71:4
64:27 3 — A 4-1 15001°3
60°92 3 == cere ” ” 08:8
44:3 3t 44-2 - 1:30} 5» 46
40°5 1t = -- s 09 55
38:7 2t 38°6 = * ” 59
32:07 1 — -- H 7 wa]
15-2 < It — == ” ” 113
05:05 4 — — 1:79 , 35:9
6538°43 3* == — 1:78 a 290'1
13:87 1 — — 1-77 347'8
649410 2 — — 176 | 42 94-4
83°6 3t 6482'8 -- 4 » 419
81:17 2 = aos a is 251
66°65 3 = ae = - 59-8
31-77 3 — 1-75 i 543°6
16°54 8* 15:2 6407 1:74 i 80°5
02°21 ] == oe re is 615°4
6384°89 5* 6384'5 6377 i ». 57°8
69°74 4 68:0 = oJ it 95:0
65-02 3 _ = 1°78.) Se 706-7
34°24 al = aa: 1-72 4:3 82:9
09°36 1 —_ pe 4 i 845-2
07:91 5 07°8 — a nf 48:8
629901 <1 eat, fas 1-71 is 71:2
97°15 5 6296°8 6302 is ; 759
78°80 2 — = 3 5 922°3
66°70 1 — — 1:70 A 63°1
59°58 <1 oa Shar ” ” 71:2
48°65 4 a = S z, 999
43°45 3t 43°7 — " * 16012°5
405 < sa OL, cor ” ” 20
. 38°58 <1 ait | — ” ” 25:0

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA Of THE ELEMENTS. 99

ARGON (VACUUM-TUBE.)—continued.

Wave-length Previous Measurement emesee
Antenaiey —_——— | —__ Deaillation
: requency

poe end Character Kayser Crookes A+ 4.

6235'99 i 43:7 — 1:70 4:3 16031'6
30°96 2 — — 1°69 a 40°6
24-85 1 — — ” ” 60°3
— _ ib — 3 4-4 79:2
16°14 6 Se = ”» ” 82°7
—_— _— 15°6f = ” ” 84:2
12°73 6 12°5 6210 " ” 91°6

6199-44 <1 _— _— ” ” 126:1
97°30 <1 = = ” ” 317
94°25 <1 = == ” ” 39°6
89:5 <lf —_ — 1:68 2 52
86°52 <1 —_— _ ” ” 59°8
83°12 <l — => ” ” 68:7
79°50 3) = = 3 Fe 781
73°32 6* 6172°9 6173 ” ” 94:3
727 5t 72°3 — rf a 96
70°39 5 70°3 — re * 202:0
65°30 3 _ — . Pe 154
61°68 O — = i 3 24:9
59°60 1 — = a FA 30°4
55°46 5 55:2 — 1:67 3 41:3
45°64 6 45-6 6143 + a6 67:3
43°16 1 a — ” ” 73:9
39:1 1t 40:9 — s - 85
35°63 1 — — a 4 93°8
34:12 <l — = a F 97°9
29°02 3 = = ” » 311°4
27:57 4 == = ” ” 153
25:96 1 —_ — Fi 3 19°6
23°8 <lt — — . a 25
21:93 2 — — or “ 30°3
19°74 3 — — Fi * 36:2
15-05 2t 141 = 166 | ,, 48°7
13°55 3 ae 4 ” ” 52°7
05-87 6 06:1 — - He 73:3
04-71 3 —_— — Fe, - 16:4
01:33 3 -- a rr on 85°65

6099-03 6 6098'8 6099 ” ” 91:6
96:09 1 —_— — = . ' 99°6
93°44 1 — — os “ 406°7
90:97 4 — — Fe a 13°3
85°90 1 — — nA 4:5 26:9
81:50 2 — — y a3 38°8
75°20 <1 — — 1°65 is 55:9
67:48 eal — or ” ” 178
64:93 3 - —_— PP “ 83:7
59°62 7 69°5 6056 ” ” 98:2
52°96 6 52:7 — rs P;. 5163
43:48 8 43:°0]| 6045 ” ” 42:2
40°46 <1 — — 1:64 ‘3 50°5
35:49 <1 — — i s 64:2
32°39 9 31:5] 6038 ” ” T27

|| 6043-68, 6032-69, Eder and Valenta.

100 REPORT—1901.
ARGON (VACUUM-TUBE)—continued.
Wave-length Previous Measurement Heduchon
eae a ce es ;
requency
EE ae oe Kayser Crookes At : =

6025°40 4 6025°8 — 164 |. 45 16591:9
17°66 1 — — ” ” 613°3
15:40 <1 — — ”» "a 19'5
13°94 4 136 — " “A t 23°5
1159 1 = sa ” ” 30°0
05°95 3 — _ ” ” 45:7
6999-29 4 5999'5 — 1:63 i, 64:2
94:99 2 — — % of 76:1
87°61 5 87°56 — ” » 91-7
82°22 2 I aad ” ” 716-7
71:91 + — — “f * 406
68°58 3 — — 7 Me 499
64:70 3 — 1°62 93 60°8
60°78 <1 — — “h 4°6 718
49°47 3 — — ” 5 803-7
42°92 5 435 — 7 + 22-1
41-08 3 _ — ” ” 27:3
29:06 6 28°5]| 5926 161 se 615
27°34 38 — — : - 66°4
30°33 <1 — — ss + 86:3
20:04 <1 — — A 87°1
16°84 3 — — 7 - 96°3
12°31 U 12:22 || 5909 + t 909°3
04:09 ale — "7 4 32°8
00:70 <l -- — 5 * 42°5
5897-75 <1 == re ” ” 51:0
88:79 6 5888°93 || 5887 1:60 i 768
82°88 4 82°78 || — e Rs 93°9
80°41 <1 a — 3 + 17001:0
70°52 1 = = * i 29°7
64:29 <l — — - Fe 478
60°54 4 60°61 || 5858 os . 58°7

|| 5928-61, 6912°48, 5889-02, 5883-03, 586069, Eder and Valenta.

VANADIUM.

Hasselberg : ‘ Kong]. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akadem. Handl.,’ Bd. xxxii., No.2. 1899.
Rowland and Harrison: ‘ Astrophys. Jour.’ April 1898.

Exner and Haschek: ‘Sitzber. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ Bd. cvii. (2). 1898.
Lockyer and Baxandall: ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ vol. lxviii. p. 189. 1901.
+ Coincident with Fraunhofer lines.
Are Spectrum Reduction to
ara ra Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
and “ia co 0) eaegiency,
Hasselberg a can Character | 4 =- in Vacue
5850°60 — 2 159 | 46 170877
46°56 — 4n 1 099°5
39°34 —_ 2 . 47 120°5
30°97 — 4n “if ” 145:1

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 101

VANADIUM—continued.

Arc Spectrum Reduction to
- Intensity Yecuum Cents
and requenc
Hscolberg | Paruemdant | cnaracter| ,, | 1_ | ‘in'Vacuo
A

pery 80 pea 3 1:59 4:7 17183°9
: = 3 # % 185°3
07:40 pz. 4 1:58 i 2147
00°17 es 3 ” » 2362
5788°85 — 3 ” ” 269°9
86°42 5786°413 4 ” ” 2772
84°64 84:646 4 + - 282'5
83°76 83°764 2 or ° 285'1
83°14 — 2 ” ” 2869
82°85 82-848 D ” + 287'8
76:95 76:930 4n 15 " 305°5
72°66 72657 4s © 318°3
61:70 61:674 3 » e 351°3
pa8e 52-985 : 7 ry a p

Fs _ ” ” 383°
49°13 Bee 4s a i 389°2
47:98 ae 2s " se 392°7
43-67 43°675 5 + + 405'8
37:28 37310 6 156] ,, 425°1
or26 34:254 4 © rf 4343
6 _ 2 ” ” 435°3
33:34 33:336 3 : + 4371
31:48 _ 7 ” ” 442°8
27:90 27:900 5 ” » 453°7
27:25 27-289 8 ” » 455°6
25-90 25°881 4s + ” 459 8
16:49 16:461 38 me 4°8 488°5
09°25 09:198 3 oF + 510°7
07:26 07:236¢ 7 n i 516°8
03:83 03:825t 7 155] ,, 5273
5698°74 5698-765 8 + a 542°9
88-02 87:993 2 " "7 5760
83:47 83°451 3 33 x 5901
71:10 71091 7 ” ” 628°5
68°61 68°608 5 ” ” 636'2
67°67 57°689 5 iy “ 670°3
5711 57-119 2 154] ,, 672°1
35°76 35742 3 x F 739°1
— 34-145 2 Pe s 7441
32°73 32°702 2 A 3 748'6
27°86 27:°886t 7 IBGE AL 7639
26:27 26:267 5 D * 769°0
25°16 25°121 4 3 Ps 772°5
24-80 24-853 5 ss 7 7735
—_ 24-446 g ‘s a TI47
22°34 22°319 3 ” ” 7814
05:20 05°187 5 49 835°7
04:91 04:875 2 4, re 836°7
04:44 04-443 5 . 4 838'1
01°63 01-627 2 ss - 247:0
_ 5598-047 2 Ms “ 858°5
— 94:731 2 = vi 8691
5593-22 93:208 3 et - 8739
92:67 92°670 6 .) x 876'6

(102 REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.

Arce Spectrum Reduction to

Intensity Vacuum Oxeillati
Hasselberg Rowland and and ane
aercon Character | ,. s- in Vacuo
558871 5588713 2 ‘a ee

86-26 pee 152 | 4:9 17888°3
85-00 84-979t 32V ” ” 896°2
84-75 84-745 5 “ ” ” 900°2
pe 84-602 4 ” ” 901:0
= 76-752 4 is is Bone
ae 67-702 4 ” ” 9267
Po ” ’ 955°8

— 66'156 4 ‘
59-00 58-995 4 ” ” 974:5
57-71 a 2 ” ” 983°9
48°41 48°40 » ” 9881
46:18 46-165 4 ” ” 021°9
= 45:101 4 dae “a8
- 42-954 4 eagle nec
— 35°659 4 a “ Fee.
eS : , 059°8

35082 4 F :
— 34-056 4 whe sor
om ’ 065:0

17-437 4 i :
ae 15°302 ” ” 119°4
11-4 O01 4 ” 126°5

1 11-413 3 1:50)" -,.

ae 08865 4 ! sei
07:97 07-744 5 ” ” 147°6
Ee 06-097 4 ” ” 151:0
05-13 05-097 3 ee ie vitae
6490-22 5490181 3 | ee ares
pis ee : py | eee 209'3
68:05 68-032 2 1-49 ” 271:3
64:30 aa 2 ” ” 283:1
58°39 cs 4 ” ” 2956
ai aa eet 315-4
~ 24-981 t 2 eb se Sine
21:96 ar 2 ” ” 430°6
20°32 a 9 ” ” 438°5
18:33 18: ” ” 444-1
15°51 16-479¢ 2 ” ” 450°9
02°17 02'148 5 ” ” 460°5
5398-13 a 3 Pes ees
88-56 388° ; pies
85:39 5 - 534 : ” ” 552°8
83:68 83651 4 ” ” 563°7
— 53-619 4 14610. pan
Ex 38-819 5 ” 673°8
30°65 30616 3 ” ” 725°7
29:05 — 9 ” ” 754-4
02:40 x 3 ” ” 760°0
5287°88 ad ; MO eee 854-2
144 ” 906°0

} 5455°02, Ruthenium. f 5424-274, 5415°43 iron.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 103

VANADIUM—continued,

Arc Spectrum Reduction to

a Vacuum Oscillation
an 1a an hs ae Frequenc

Hasselberg Bora aaa Character We + in edton
5282-75 is 2 1:44] 5:2 18924:3
72:92 as 2 f iy 959°7
71:28 5271°119 2 “ » 965°8
66:33 Be 2 se i. 983-4
61:20 61149 2 ue " 19002-0
60°56 60°527 2 “- “5 004:3
= 58:308 2 " » 012:3
41:06 41:055 4s 1-4. a 074:9
40°40 40°364 2 ” ” 0774
34:31 34-249 4s . ” 099-6
33:91 33°895 2 ” » 101:0
25:97 25:920 3 ” » 131:7
16°80 16:72 3 " 97 163:7
13°87 13837 2 es 9 1745
12:47 12°399 2 AD HE ss 179°7
07°89 07°844 2 ve 5:3 196-4
06:82 06:790 2 ss C5 200:3
— 00°520 4 e _ 223'5
— 5197-215 4: fF ” 235'8
5195°58 95:564t 4 6 ” 241:9
95:01 95:021 4 i ” 243-9
93°82 93°795 4 1 » 248-3
93:18 9318412 V 4 * 250°7
92-22 92-193 2 re 9 254°3
83:07 83-033 2 * 288-4
81-01 80:926 2 x » 296:1
79°35 79-275 2 + 9 302-2
78°75 18°733 2 o > 304'4
17-03 76956 4 5 ” 310-9
— 76683 2 i 3 3121
= 74-714 2 141] ,, 319-4
72°35 72284 2 , ” 328-4
70°15 70-114 2 s + 336°6
= 69126 2 * 840°3
67:04 66°961 2 3 ” 3483
65:14 65-072 2 4 “. 3553
59°56 59:520 4 i ” 376°3
= 59°438 2 i = 376°6
57:27 = 2 ss - 384:8
48:95 48893 4 ‘st # 4163
. 89°74 39°704 4 * rn 451:0
38°58 38597 4 : 3 455°3
— 37-772 2 1:4 i 458-4
DSi v. - 28:705 5 re + 492°8
05:37 05:324 3 54 581°9
506432 5064:296 3 1:39] ,, 740°6
60°91 60'831 2 1:38] .,, 7540
— 51-781 2 ef - 789°6
— 47-484 2 A A 806'5
14:83 14°811 1°37 | 5:5 935-4
02:54 02°505 4 nN ,. 984°4
4943-04 be 3 1:35 | 56 20224:9
83°82 4933°786 2 a Ft 262°8

104 REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.
a fee ee eee

Are Spectrum Reduction to
se ie Vacuum ola
an ~aLs requenc
Hasselberg Howisad and Character | <- in ars.
ma932 24 4932:212t 4 1:35 | 56 20269-2
25°83 25°837 5 ” ” 295°9
* 22°60 22°543 3 ” ” 309°0
— 19°171 2 ” ” 323°0
* 6°48 16-436 3 1:34 ” 334:2
— 13:277 2 ” 5 3474
08-92 08-882 2 ” ” 365°6
= 07:046 2 ” ” 3732
* 06:06 _ 2 ” a 376°4
* 05°10 05:050 3 ” ” 381°3
* 04:59 04:575t 6 ” 59 383°5
* 00°84 00°820 5 ” ” 399'1
*4894°43 4894-396 4 ” ” 4259
* 91°81 91°767 4 ” “: 436'8
* 91:43 91:414 3 ” ” 438°4
* 90°32 90:265 3 ” ” 443'1
* 87:02 86:990 4 ” “5 456'8
* 85°36 85:827 4 ” ” 461-7
= *82°359 4 » ” 476°3
* $8175 81:745t 5 23 A) by 4789
* 80°77 80-746 5 ” ” 483:0
* 75°66 75 674t 8 1:33 * 5044
-- 73170 2 » 3 5149
* 71:46 71-453 4 ” ” 522°1
— 70°334 2 4 = 526°9
* 64:93 64:943 8 ” ” 549°7
* 62°83 62°801} 4 of * 5586
* 69°34T —_ 4 + 57 573°2
— *58°809 4 7 “3 575°5
— *57°241 2 a é 582-1
—_— 64:114 2 a ea 595°3
— 52°155 2 . 95 603-7
* 51°65 51:686t 8 a . 605°8
— 49-458 2 a es 615:2
—_— 49:262 2 - . 6160
* 48:98 49-004 3 9 6171
— *46°799 2 ‘ as 626°5
* 43°16 43°195 3 % > 641:9
- 35:040 2 1:32 45 676°6
a 34:264 2 = as 679°9
— *34:005 2 x - 681-1
Fo 33°17 33:213 4 + Fe 6845
* 32°59 32°617f 6 A me 687°1
* 31°80 31°836F 7 AA 7: 690°4
* 30°86 30°879 3 5 ales 694:5
—- 29:427 2 5 alee 700°7
* 29-00 29-008 3 eh 7025
* 27-62 27°638t 7 ” ” 708°4
_ 23°031 2 a . 7281

* Observed also by Lockyer and Baxandall, whose numbers are: 4932:23, 25:87,
22°60, 16:46, 08:90, 06:05, 05:05, 04°60, 00°82, 4894-42, 94-74, 91-40, 90°30, 87:03, 85-89,
82°36, 81°75, 4880°82, 75°71, 71°50, 64°92, 62°83, 59°38, 58°80, 57° 20, 51°69, 49° 05, 46°80,
43°20, 34:00, 33°24, 32° 61, 31:85, 30:90, 29: 00, 27°63.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 105

VANADIUM—continued.

Arc Spectrum Reduction to
Intensity Vacuum a hp
ani requenc
Hasselberg hore Character | yy | 1 _ in aE

aA
*4819-22 4819:225 3 1:32 | 67 20744:5
— *08:842 2 ee i 189°3
* 07:70 07°736f 7 09 » 794-2
— *03°240 2 E31: lines 813-6
| 02°373 2 ” ” 8173
*4799-94 4799°972t 4 ” » 827°8
* 99:20 99:210 2 ss 7 831-0
* 98-12 98°151 3 ‘a » 835:7
* 97:07 97°119t 6 “4 i 840:2
* 95:27 95-293 4 i ” 848:1
— 94:730 2 re 8505
* 93:10 93°135 4 fe » 857°6
_ 89:103 2 i = 875:0
* 86:70 86-706 6 5 ” 885°5
* 84:65 84:663 4 es 7 894-4
— 81°514 2 z 58 9082
* 76-70t 76644 4 is 93 929'3
* 76544 a 6 be 3 929°8
* 73-95 73263 3 a Ss 944-2
* 92°74 72781 2 5 ” 946-4
— 69208 2 3 4 962:0
* 66:80 66°838t 5 1:3 " 971°6
* 65°84 65°859 3 fe - 976'8
— *6 4-294 2 sais ald Bat 984.0
— *59-210 2 Fr 5 21006:1
* 57°68 57°686 5 a ne 012°8
* 57-55 —— 4 a = 013-4
* 54:13 a 5 a " 028°5
= *52-036 2 ‘ ‘ 037°8
* 51:75 51°759 4 Fi F 039°1
* 51°45 51-463 2 a - 040-4
* 51-16 51:211 4 ¥ a 041°6
* 48-70 48723 4 FE sf 052-5
* 47°30 47°313 3 ke is 058°8
* 46°81 46°827 4 a - 060°9
* 42-79 42819 4 F “a 078°8
* 39°79 39:849 2 a e 0921

* Lockyer and Baxandall, 481923, 08:84, 07:73, 03:24, 4799°98, 99°20, 98:19, 97:08,
95°35, 93°15, 86°71, 84:72, 76°63, 73:29, 72°76, 66°82, 65°91, 6422, 59°20, 58°95, 57°62,
54°13, 52°05, 51°79, 61°45, 51:18, 48°70, 47°30, 46°87, 42°86, 39°80.

106 REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.

" Signifies that the line is double; by that the line is sharply defined on the
violet side and nebulous towards the red; and b' means that it is sharp on the less
refracted side and nebulous towards the violet.

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Arc Spectrum eS eo Chances Vacuum Oscillation
Frequency

Hasselberg gis are ame ard Are Spark] A+ : = ec
* 473851 4738°505 3 130 | 5:8 21097°9
* 37°91 37°924 2 ES °F 100°5
=, S212 32-108 3 “ Ay 126-4
* 31-74 31°745 3 i a 128:1
* 31-42 31°443 3 s 5 1295
~ B0'bT 30°574 + ” ” 133°3
* 29°73 29°724 4 1-29 " 137:1
* 28°85 28°840 2 - * 141°0
* 24-075 2 5 pS 162°3
* 23°65 23°626 2 eS A 164°3
* 23:06 23°055 5 “s “5 166°9
2170 21-704 5 » ” 1730
* 21-42 21-444 3 a + 174:2
* 17°85 17-874 5 bs . 190°3
~*~" 16°36 16°377 3 As PS 197:0
* 16:08 16:079 4 rh ra 198°3
~~ 2561 15:650 3 + Pf 200°3
* 15-488 Ti 2 * ye 200°9
* 14:28 5 i si 206°4
* 13°61 13°639 3 “7 : 209°3
* 10:74 10°746 5 an A, 222:3
09:130 2 a sy 229°5
08°397 2 = a 232°8
* 07°62+ 07°629 4 4 59 236'3
* 067 bT 06-761 5 * PH 240:2
* 06°34 06°357 5 . a 242-0
* 05:26 06278 4 _ Bs 246'8
* 02:689 2 “ Pe 258°5
4699°52+ 4699-505 4 es Fi 272°'9
* 90°45 90°438 2 1:28 7 314:0
* 88°24 2 Pa i 324:1
* 87:10 87100 5 nn 5 329°3
* 84-64 84:634 4 a 3 340°5
82:09? V 2 A 5 352-1
f SLOT 81:073 3 55 ee 856°7
* 79°95 79°961 3 ps As 361:8
* 79°65 2 - * 363°2
* 13180 73°836 2 a My 389'8
* 72-48,7V 2 3) y 396:0
* 7066 70°666 4670°65 8 8 5 * 404:3
* 69:50t 69°487 2 — a - 409'7
= 16G6:a0f; 66°32 4 2 = As 424-2

63°314 5 :
Eo tye } 63:07 6 2 Pata 439-2
62:02 2 8 ss 444-0
* 61:01 2, s af 448°7
©. Bt 1it 57-138 5715 2 2n " ” 466°5

* Lockyer and Baxandall, 4738-60, 37:90, 32°17, 31°80, 31°40, 30°58, 29°77,
28°85, 24:07, 23°65, 23:06, 21:71, 21:40, 17:89, 16°39, 16 11, 15°62, 15°50, 14°29, 13-65,
10°75, 07°64, 06°76, 06°38, 05:23, 02°70, 4690-45, 88-24, 87°11, 84°57, 81°12, 80:03, 79°68,
et tas 70°66, 69°50, 66°34, 62°60, 62°00, 61:00, 57°17, also lines at 4709°93 and

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 107

VANADIUM-~continued.

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Are Spectrum sence | Charsefer Vacuum Oscillation
—_— Frequency
Hasselberg poneag and ne i Arc Spark} A+ <- 7 a
4656°65 2n 1:28 | 59 21468°8
* 4655°47 4655°410 55°43 2 2 a th 474:3
* 54-84 3 1:27 ie 4771
* 53°15 53°106 53°15 2 2n ne 3 485-0
* 49-08t 49-068 49:05 3 2 rn 3 503°8
* 48:08 48:046 2 ye PP 508-4
* 46°59 46°571 46:58 a 6 7% FP 515°7
* 46:17 45°156 2 - A 517:2
* 44°64 44624 44°67 4 2 be BY 524°3
* 44-239 44°25 2 3 » 5261
* 40:92 40916 40:91 4 4 Pe 8 541°6
* 40°25 40:232 40:23 4 4 As 5 544-7
* 36:34 386°343 26°33 3 2 33 Fe 562°8
TS ote by 35°346 35°34 5 4 7 i 567°5
34:4 2 op 60 572
* 30°24 30°236 2 rt 5 591°2
* 26°67 26°666 26°67 4 4 5 we 607°9
* 24°62 24581 24°60 4 4 =] i . 617°5
* 21°43 21°426 2 y es 632°3
19:97 7 . 5 10 i - 639°3
i 19.854 19:896 19:93 Fi ee ae
*19-0 2n rf ee 644
18-7 2n Bs a 645
* 18:00 18:03 2 2 A Re 6483
17-48 2 1:26 > 650°8
*~ 17:03 17:02 2 2 - is 6530
* 16°18 16190 16-20 2 2 rt 3 656'9
* 14:0817V 14:094 2 7 a 666°8
13-076 ‘, i 667:3
* 11:92 11:94 4 2 a Fe 676°9
SS 11-10 11:103 11:13 3 2 3 an 680°7
* 09°84 09°821 09°82 4 4 3 of 686°8
08°635 - A 692°4
* 07:40 07:390 O7'47 3 2 ms 3 698:2
* 06:33 06°321 06°34 5 6 ‘ +3 701:2
i 05°53 2 “ + 707°0
* 00°34 00°40 3 10bv ag 7314
* 4594-27F 4594-216 4594°31 9 12 ” ” 760°2
Penral-39 91-406 91°41 5 8 a me 773°3
90°63 2 PF er: T7175
89:05 2 7 33 7850
* 88:94 88°88 2 2 ~ Fy, 185-7
* 86°54t 86°554 86°55 9 12 Be . 796°9
* 86°15 86°10 3 2 rh -_ 798°9
* 83°96 83:967 83°41 4 4 fe ES 809-2
* 81:409 81°36 2 4 Be 821°5
* 80:57t 80°562 80°60 8 10bY | 1:25 3 8253
£9079°38 79°373 79°32 5 4 95 3 831-1
* 78:92 78908 78:90 6 6 re a 833°3
* 17-36 T7348 17:35 8 10 - PP 840°7
* 71:96 71959 72:00 6 10b’ ss 3 866°4

* Lockyer and Baxandall, 4655-50, 54:80, 53°13, 49°07, 48:08, 46°52, 46°20, 44:66,
44:24, 40°92, 40°27, 36:36, 35:38, 30:25, 26-66, 24°61, 21:42, 19°92, 19:00, 18:00, 17-00,,
16:20, 14:10, 11-95, 11:11, 09°84, 07°42, 06-33, 00°41, 4594-27, 91°41, 88°97, 86°51, 86°20,
83°96, 81:40, 80°57, 79°38, 78°89, 77:33, 71:97.

108 REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.

Spark Intensity and

Arc Spectrum Bjeeenn Chasauter

Hasselberg Bowlanfend eet at Arc Spark

* 4570°60 4570°57 4 4

69:4 2

67:40 2

* 64:76 4564°756 64°80 Z 12

63°05 2

63°55 2

* 60:90 60°893 60°90 6 12

58°60 2n

56°95 2n

55°53 2

* . 53°25 53°22 5 8b’

52°735 52°67 2

* 62°05 52°016 51:99 4 2

* 49°81T 49°824 49°85 6 12

47-97 2

* 45°57 45°566 45°60 if 14

* 41°57 415 2 2b

* 40°18 40°179 4018 4 4

* 37°84f 37:834 37°80 4 4

86:1 6 2b

35 73 2

35'4 2n

34:94 2

* 34107 34:)1 6 4

* 30:97 30°972 30°95 4 2

* 29°76 29°73 5 +

* 29°47 29°476 29°45 4 2

* 28°66 28°69 4 8

= 2816 28168 28712 5 4

Me CR WG 25°337 26°31 4salso| 4
Fe

* 24°38 24:378 24°41 6 6

23:97 2n

22°32 2

: 20°70 2

* 20°67 ~ 20°685 20°63 | 3n 2

** 20°31 20°331 20°32 4n Q"

ee Tet 17:738 LT. 4 4

16°85 2n

16:21 2n

* 15:74 15°729 15°71 3 2

* §14°36f 14°357 14:37 5 also 4
Fe,Co

LO, 4 13:792 13°78 4 2

12:92 6n

S16 t 11°605 11-60 4 2

* 09°49T 09°463 09:46 4 2

08-44 2n

* 08-11 08:05 2 2

* 06°77t 06'744 06°75 4 2

i

Reduction to

Vacuum
At 1 as
A
1:25 6:0
” ”
” ”
” ”
n 61
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ’
1:24

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo ;

21873-0

879
888'3
900:9
904:7
906°7
919°4
930°5
938°6
945:2
956°3
958°9
962°1
972°8
981°8
993°3
22012°9
019°5
020:9
039°3
041-1
042°7
044:9
049°0
064°3
070-2
071°6
075-4
078-0
091°7

096°3
098-4
106°5
114-4
1147
116-2
128°9
133:2
1363
138-7
145°4

148-2
152°5
1589
169°5
1745
1764
182'9

* Lockyer and Baxandall, 4570°62, 64:79, 60°89, 53°25, 52:03, 49°79, 45°56, 41°60,
40°18, 37°83, 34:08, 30°98, 29°78, 29°50, 28°64, 28:19, 4525°33, 2439, 20°71, 20-35,
17°75, 15°73, 14:36, 13°83, 11:63, 09°46, 08:10, 06:73, 06°40, also lines at 4603°15,

4555°59,

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES Of THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 109

VANADIUM—continued.

a

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Are Spectrum Seta Character Vacuum Oséillation
——__—_—_ | Frequency
Hasselberg Bore “as i mane Arc Spark| A+ + tole yack?
* 4506°41 450640 3 2 1:24] 60 22184°6
* 06°30 06:27 4 2 4 = 185°0
* 02°12 4502:121 02°19 6 6bY | 1:23 _ 205°6
* 01:44 2 a ” 209°0
* 01:01 01:001 01:00 4n 2 *; or 211:2
449997 2 7 “- 216°3
98:28 2 Pr +i 224°6
97°88 2 KF FF, 224°6
* 4497-57 4497-574 9757 4 4 we 62 228°0
* 97:03T 97:03 4 4 i % 230°7
* 96°26 96°233 96°20 6 6b’ Pe 0 234°6
* 95°16 95:18 3 2n ¥ 239°8
92°47 2 e rf 253°3
* 91°66 91:648 91°66 2 2 ”» ” 2573
* 91°35 91°343 91°35 3s 2 ” ” 258°8
* 90:°95t 90°981 90:99 5s + as Gi 260'T
90:3 2n a5 aS 264:0
* §9-06T 89-096 89:11 7 16b’ f = 270:0
' 88°46 2 " 7 273°1
= 6°44 86:43 2 2 a re 283'2
859 2n % 3 285°9
83°76 5s 2n Fs aa 296°5
* 80:20 80°206 80:26 4b’ ‘ 3 313°9
; * 77°46 2 -¢ # 327°9
76:06 4 2 a “4 334-9
76:06 75°85 2 aS os 335°9
* 74:89 74:899 74:93 fh 10 ne “A 340°7
Se 74:21 74:207 74:28 6 10 Pe Fy 344°1
* 73°43 2 4 re 348-0
72:53 2 "p y) 352°5
* 71:94 2 on + 355°5
* 71:50 2 ey “5 B57'7
2 71:00 2 i. on 360°2
70827 { 70°60 } 2 Br sli: oe 362-2
* 69°88 69°871 69°92 tt 12b’ 93 Fi) 365°8
* 68°94 68-931 68:94 4 4 1-22 “5 370°5
* 68:19 68:174 68:20 5 6bY ” ” 374:2
* 67°78 2 ” ” 376°3
* 67:04 67:05 4 2 ys is 379-9
* 65 675 65 67 6 4 of > 386°8
* 64:95 4 » “4 390°5
* 64:49 6bv A: ay 392°8
63°30 2 3 : 398°7
* 62°56 62°533 62°60 TseeNij 14 . + 402°3
60°849 61:20 8 4b’ ” ” 411-1
* 60°46f 60°462 60°52 9 12bv ‘s .; 413-0
* 59-93T 59-918 59:98 8 14 my * 4156
58°915 2 29 3 420°8
* 58:57 2 2 a 422°5
SE RANA 57°98 5 6b’ %, Fi 425°5

* Lockver and Baxandall, 4506°30, 02:12, 01:45, 01:00, 4497°55, 97:00, 96°24, 95°17,
91°65, 91:36, 90:99, 89:08, 86°39, 80°21, 77°48, 74:91, 74:22, 73°45, 71°96, 71:51, 69°87,
168:95, 68:23, 67°87, 67:09, 65°65, 64:95, 64°46, 62°52, 60°52, 59°96 68°57, 58:00, and
also 4484°24, 61:18.

110 REPORT—1901.
VANADIUM—continued.

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Are Spectrum Spectrum Character Vacuum Oscillation
- Frequency
Rowland and} Exner and 1 in Vacuo

Hasselberg Ela on aschok Are Spark} A+ rts
*4457-65+ | 4457-632 4457-65 iz 6 1:22 | 62 | 2242771
* 56°68 56°668 56°72 4 4n ‘ y 432-0
56:073 5607Ca| 2 2 . ¥ 435°1
55-52 2 437°9
54-939 54:96 Ca} 2 4 if x 440°7
* 54-32 2 e :, 443'9
aes Q ” ” ne
3: 2n ‘
* 59-91 52-90 4 4 - “4 451-1
* 59°19 52°180 52:23 8 14 - | 454°6
* 51-09 51-070 51-11 4 Bor | fe s 4602
* 49-77 49-741 49-76 5 4 ;; 3] aes
* 45-99 2 : 486°
* 44-40F 44-380 44-42 7 also| 10 BW nee 4940

Ti
* 43-52 43508 43:50 4 8 7 . 498:5
42:53 2 ay e 503°5
* 41-88t 41:847 41:90 TZalso | 14 Bs 506-7
Ti

40°65 Qn * " 513-0
* 39-16 2 é 5 520°6
* 38-02} 38-004 38-08 7 12b* |) 5 526-2
rs 4 ae
37: 2 ; : 3 .
# 36-31t 36309 36:34 7 10 Aas 535-2
35°84 2 . # 537-4
By | oesl ot ee
. » .
* 34:80 34-74 4 4 sy ota 542-9
* 33-07 2 5 6:3 BBLS
* 30°68 30°72 4 4 12), vee 563:5
* 99-95 29:99 6 8b = ii 567-2
* 28-684 28-676 28-71 6 8 - a 573-7
* 97-50 8 s 579'8
* 2617+ 2623 | 6 B .| Tyme, 586-4
* 2586+ 25:88 4 4 ce Me 588'1
25°594 Ca 25-60 2 2 . ¥ 589°5
* 94-744 24-743 24-75 3 4 5 i 594-9
* 94-10 24-082 24-11 3 4 ‘ is 597-2
* 92. .
Si || snare || dian” | 208 | ale ee
* 99-404 22:43 3 2 a = 605°8
* 91-73} 21739 21:82 6 8 > . 609°1
* 20:08 20°19 5 apy ‘| tame s 617-4
16°9 4n : 634-0
* 16-63t 16-626 16°63 6 4 seri sia 635-4
3 si | a ae
* 12-30 12-299 12:38 4s or |. apecaiake 657-4
11-83 2 $ , 660-0
* O8-67t 08-655 08°68 9 l4rbr! ,, » 676°3

* Lockyer and Baxandall, 4457°67, 56°68, 54:34, 53°30, 52°91, 52°19, 51:13, 49°78,
46°04, 44°39, 43°56, 41°90, 39° 19, 38:02, 36:33, 35: 60, 34:80, 33:09, 30°71, 30:02, 28°72,
27°49, 26°22, 25°95, 24°77, 24:11, 23-40, ‘22° 42, 21: 77, 20°14, 16°71, 14 74, 12°33, 08°67,

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 111

VANADIUM—continued.

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to

Arc Spectrum Spectrum Character Vacuum | Ogcillation

— a ; Frequency

xner and in Vacuo

Hasselberg Bowlsad su ane Are | Spark} a+ ig

* 4408°36t 4408368 4408 40 8 10 1:21] 6-3 22677°8
weeOioot 07801 07°89 9 12 ” ” 680°5
* 06°80t 06°805 06:90 9 12 ” oF 685'8
* 06:277 06:35 8 6 ; * 688°4

* 05:20t 05:19 5s 4 * s 694:2
04°45 2 Pr A 698-0

* 03°86 03'831 03°83 3 4 “f _ 701°2
01°95 2 » a 710°9

* 00°74} 00:°738 00:80 8 18 ” ” 717-1
*4399-60 2 + A. 7230

98:70 2n 9 a 7277

* 98°05 2 ” +5 731:0

4397392 97:55 2 2 ” ” 7340

* 97-00 2n “5 Pe 736°5

* 4395:40+ 95°382 95°49 9 20 ” ” 7446
* 94-98t 94:99 3 4 7 n 746°9
* 94-:01T 94:000 94:03 4 4 ” ” 751°9
* 93:26 93°258 93°30 4 4 1:20 - 755'8
meade ott 92:234 92:27 4 4 ” ” 7611
* 91:84 91:86 3 2 49 A 7632
* 90-79 90°81 2 2 f s 7686
2. 20:13T 90°142 90:23 9r 30 & 5 7719
89°27 2 oF 7765

* 87-40 87°37 3 4 rf a 786'3
* 84-871 84:875 84:88 9 40r > * 799°4
OEE YG 84°35 2 2 ee . 8020
Pest 00 2 Pr Fe 803°3
82°96 2 of Fe 809°3

* 81-94 2 i a 814'6

* 81:187 81:20 2 2n of s 818°5

* 80°69 80°719 80°72 4 4 ” ” 821-1
oa 9-38T 79°392 79°40 9r 40r aa . 8279
* 78:06 78:02 4n 2 a 8 835:0
ba ASHE) 2b a 840°9

oe O23 76°19 2 2 n ¥ 844:5
* T54Tt 75:47 a 4 3 - 848-4
4 = Wore 2 ‘ is 849°7
Se reseih 73984 73°99 4 4 9 B 85671
+. fo'40t 73°383 73°42 4 6b’ 3 a 859°2
70°45 2n 3 3 &74°6

09:25 69°22 2 2 Hi y 881-1
* 68°76+ 68°756 68°73 3 4 » ” 883°6
* 68:25t 68°19 + 6 5 6-4 8862
} 67:74 2 my % 888-7

* 67:24 67:07 2 4n a - 8918
* 65°92 65°89 3 2 3 7 898-4
Penotor tT 64:277 64°36 4 4bv as ; 906°4
* 63°69 63-690 63°69 4 + % P 910:0
* 63°48t 63°49 2 2 a E ela teat

* Lockyer and Baxandall, 4408'35, 07-83, 06°80, 06:33, 05:20, 03°87, 00°74, 4399-63,
98:09, 96-93, 95°42, 95:05, 94:03, 93°28, 92:28, 91:88, 90°80, 90:13, 87°42, 84:92, 84:42,
84°13, 81-93, 81:21, 80°75, 79°44, 78:13, 77-05, 76°25, 75°51, 75°28, 74-01, 73°40, 69°24,
68°78, 68°23, 67:26, 65:94, 64:40, 63°75, 63°54, also 4432-28, 31-91, 31°36, 22°71, 18°88,
17°83, 15°25, 13°90 13°60, 02°79, 01-91, 01°34, 4397-56, 96°61, 95-77,

112 REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.

ee Ey SauEEEEEEEEEESESEDNTSEEINT [REET

Reduction to

Spark Intensity and
Are Spectrum Sosctrein Ghatenter
Rowland and | Exner and Are Spark
Hasselberg Heeech Haschek P
* 4361°57 4361°55 3 4
* 61:18 61:17 2 2
* 60°75 60°76 3 4
60°30 2
* 5782 57-75 2 2n
* 57-60 57°61 3 2
= oG: 97, 2
* 56:10f 4356°104 56°16 5 4b’
* § 59:09 55°138 55°18 4 4bY
* 53°52 2
* 53-02t 53-040 53:10 7 12
* 62°60 2
* 50°99 2
* 50°85 2
50°15 2
Tat Ol. 2n
46°60 2n
* 43:00 43-01 4 4
* 42°36 42:37 3 2
* 41°15f 41:162 41-21 6 14b*
+ 39:30 2n
38°12 2
* 36:29 36°29 3 4
* 35°64 2
* 35:03 2
* 3423 34:26 3 4
oes SIGH HP 32°985 33:05 6 12
* 32°56 32°46 3 2
31:73 2
RESO" Oily re 30°28 3 12b’
27:26 2
25°40 2
24:80 2
23°68 2
* 22°51 22°52 2 2
22°20 2
* 20°46 20:45 2 2
* 20°13 2
18°803 18°81 2
164 2n
* 16:02 15-98 2 2
* 15:00 2
* 14:06 14:07 3 4
13°50 2n
13-06 2
* 12°56 12:56 2 2
1-85 2n
* 11°62 2
* 09°95 09:°949 10 06 6 8

Vacuum

1

A+ A

1:20 64
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”

LSM) Ae
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”

vis | >
.

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

22921°2

923°2
925:4
927°8
941:0
942-0
945°3
949°8
9550
963°5
966:0
968-4
9769
977°6
981:3
997°6
23000'1
019:1
022°5
028°9
038°8
045°1
0548
0582
061°5
065'6
072°4
0777
079°1
084°4
102'9
112°8
116°2
122°0
128°3
130°0
139°3
1411
148-1
161°1
163:2
168°6
173°6
176°6
179-0
181:7
185°5
186°7
195°7

* Lockyer and Baxandall, 4361-58, 61:24, 60°77, 57°86, 57°64, 56°98. 56:14, 55:14,
53:54, 53°02, 52°68, 50°97, 50°86, 47°02, 43°02, 42°39, 41°19, 39°31, 36°33, 35°69, 35-06,
24:25, 32°96, 30:18, 22°53, 20°49, 20°15, 15°95, 15-02, 14:11, 12°58, 11°83, 11°66, 09-96,
also 4388°32, 85°53, 83°25, 81:43, 77°33, 74°38, 71°98, 66°76, 47°64, 45°39,31:28, 29-90.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

VANADIUM—continued,

Are Spectrum Pee cpiisik
Hi Ib Rowland and | Exner and
PEEGISRES ’ Harrison Haschek
* 4309°69 4309-68
* 08-60
= 07-33 07°37
* 06°35 06°39
06:07
* 05°61
04:98
04:3
* 03°70 4303°697
02°69 Ca?
= O2on
01:33
00°73.
00°25
* 4299-240 429913
* 98°80
* 4298-17t 98°23.
* 97°86 97:°840 97:87
i * 97°26
* 96:28 96°266 96°31
* 91:97 91:978 92°01
* 91:46 — 91:46
91:13
90°45
89°87 Cr?
89°51
= * 88:96
* 87:97 87:98
* 86°57 86:57
ah : 86°24
85°60
| = 84:19 84:208 84:26.
| * . 83:06 83:10"
| to 12 79:10
: Teeal lot 77101 77:14
: ao > ; * 76°47.
“ -74:96Cr?
* 7354.
* 72:90"
ee alee 71:°706 71°68.
* - 70°49 70°5
* 69°92t 69:91
* "68°78 68°787 68°83.
ee 68°C0.
* . 67-50f 67°55
* . 65:28 65°31
64°65
64:00
- tet D 62°311 62°32
pase 37t 61:4

Intensity and

Reduction to

Character Vacuum
1

Are Spark| a+ ay
3 2 1:18 6-4
2 “ 65

5 6 ” ”
5 4 ” ”
2 ” ”

4 ” ”

2 ” ”

2n ” ”

4 ” ”
t ” ”

2 ” ”

4b’ ” ”

2 ” ”

2n ” ”

2 2 » ”
2 » ”

5 8 9 ”
5 8 ” ”
2 ” ”

5 10 ” ”
6 | 10bY or 7?
4 4 » ”
2n ” ”

2n ” ”

2 ” ”

2 ” ”

2 ” ”

4 4b° 2 ”
4 4} ” ”
. 2n, ” ”
2: ” ”

6 12 i ” ”
4 6 : ” ”)
3 10 | 1:17. a
6 12 - »” 99!
¥ 2 ’ ”
Py a seta

2 ' ” a

2n, ” ”

6. 4 ‘ ” vi
4 4by ” ”
4 i 4 ” ”
6-- -| 14 ” ”
2 ” ”

3 4n ” ”
4b 4 ” ”
2n ” »

2 ” ”

4 6br ” ”
4 2n ” ”

Oscillation
Frequency

in Vacuo

22197°2
202°9
209°6
2149
216°5
219°0
222°4
226°1
229°3
2348
236°8

242°1 |

245-4
247°9
253°7
255°8
259°0
260°9
2641
269°4
292°8
295°6
297°3
3011
3042
306°2
309°2
314'5
3222
323:9
327-4

.335:0 |

341-2
362-9
373-7
3773

385'5 |

393'3
3968
403-4
410-0
413-2
4193
423-7
426-3
438°5
442-1
445-7
454-9
460-0

113

* Lockyer and Baxandall, 4309-75, 08-61, 07: "32, 06:40, 05°64, 03-70, 02°32, 4299-27,

98°79, 98°17, 97°85, 97:29, 96:30, 91:96, 91- 45, 89:00, 87:93, 86:57, 84:19, 83° 08, 79°12,

17 10, 76°50, 73°50, 72:93, 71-75, 70°51, “oh 89 63°78, 67°43 65° 25, 62°30, and also
‘431804, 06°76, 4278! 53,°66-07, 61: 32.”

Us tae ee lew Be

hs

bien LoS

114 ~ REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.

: Intensity and | Reduction to
Are Spectrum all Character Vacuum Geallation
——— _ pied
in Vacuo

Hasselberg |"iitraon" | “Haschex | 7° [Spek] at | a7
4260'90 2 117 65 22462°7
* 60°47 2n + + 4651
* 60°31 2n a AS 466:0
* 4959-46+ 4259°454 59°46 4s 4 PS + 470°7
AaB 57517 57°54 4s 4 “A rs 481'9
5717 2 a a 483°3
* 55°60 65°63 3 2 AS AN 491°8
54:51 Cr? 4b* rr if 498:0
* 53:02 53°00 3 2 + 9 506°3
* 51°45 51°45 2 2 a 66 514'8
49°49 2 as re 5256
48:96 2 ” as 528°6
* 47°46 475 2 2b 2 A 536°7
* 46°83 2 Ae FS 540°4
43°98 2 1:16 - 556°2
43-02 4 , _ 5615
* 41:48 41°45 4 4 ay “f 570°3
* 40:53t 40°51 4 2 fe a 575°5
* 40:25T 40°23 4 2 a a 5770
* 39:12 3 se + 583°2
36°99 2 eB 7 5951
* 36:78 2 aT e 596:2
* 35:90f 35 909 5 Fa - 601:1
35:47 4 “ “a 603°5
* 34: 70f 34:°671 34:71 5 4 + a 6079
34:3 2n rs a 610°1
* 34-12 34149 34:17 6 4 iN ‘: 610-9
* 33-09¢ 33-007 33:12 6 4 é st 616-9
* 32°62f 32°604 32°66 6 6 "3 ‘3 619°4
32°20 6 ae “4 621°8
31°30 2 3 4: 626°8
* 29°87 29°82 4 6 = a 6351
ea OT 27°90 4 4 _ = 645°8
26871 26°85 Ca?} 8 10 fe + 6517
26°78 4 i a 652°1
* 25°40f 25°369 25°40 2 8n = > 659°9
24:70 2 = 5 663°7
* 24:30 24°32 4 4 a 6659
22°77 2 " 5. 675'5
* 99-49 22°50 2 2 e 4 6761
* 21:17 21:20 2n 2n 3 os 683:°3
20°21 4 a es 686'9
* 19°65 19°70 3 2 a a 691°9
* 18°86+ 18°87 4s 4 nd a 696°8
18°65 2 ” ” 697'7
18:20 2 ¥ is 700°2
* 16:52 16°53 2 2 < ‘i 709°7 |
15°77 Sr? 2 : | ae 713-9
14-12 2n > a Ss) 7231
13:8 | 2n i ae | 724-9
13:17 i 2n om Pe 7285

* Lockyer and Baxandall, 4260°46, 60:28, 59:47, 57°50, 55°59, 53:00, 51°42, 47°43,
46°91, 41°52, 40°54, 40:29, 39°15, 36°78, 35°92, 34°71, 34:18, 33:09, 32°68, 29°92, 27-92,
25'41, 24°36, 22°54, 21°22, 19°60, 18°89, 16°50. ‘

a ——

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, (115

Are Spectrum

Hasselberg

4211-02
10°55
09-98+

* 05-234

* 04-67

*

* 02:52
* 00:35
* 4198°78t
97°7+
* 97-45t

94:17
91:70

* *

89°99
87°82
86°95
83°59T
83°43
82:74
82°23
80°99t
79°53

Eee EE EE

* T71-25t
* 77-02
* 76:83

« 75:30
* 74:18t

* 71°45
* 69°40T

*¥ Ke F
[=r]
i=)
Or
~“I

* Lockyer and Baxandall,

Rowland and
Harrison

4210:002
05-201

02°506

4190011

83:07
82°733

74155

59°822

VANADIUM—continued.
(20 ee Se ee ee ere

Spark
Spectrum

Exner and
Haschek

4211-02

10°02
05°30

* 04:39
02°52
* 01:08
00°38
00:00
4198°80
97°79
97°47
= 90:8
94°21
91:80
91-11
90°59
90:03

86:93
83°67

82:77
82:26
81:03
79°60
79°22
78°55
77-76
77°22

* *

76°00
75°30
75°15
74:19
71:46
69°41
* 69:06
67-1
66°32
64°60
63°82
62°52
62:2
60°57
59°87

*

Intensity and | Reduction to

Character Vacuum
1
Arc Spark | A+ ah
2 2n 1:16 66
Z ” ”
5 12 “ rH
2 16 115 Fr
” ”
2 4 ” ”
2 8 ” ”
2 ” ”
4 2 ” ”
2n 7 67
4s 4 ” ”
4s 4 ” ”
2 2 ” ”
2n ” ”
2 2 ” ”
5 6b’ ” ”
4 ” ”
4 ” ”
5 6 ” ”
2 ”” ”
2 2 ” ”
2 16 ” ”
2 ”» ”
5 4 ” ”
3 4 ” ”
2 2n ”» ”
5 6 ” ”
2 ” ”
6 ” ”
2 ” ”
4 4 ” ”
2 ” ”
2 » ”
2n ‘3 is
2 2 nn »
2 ” ”
4 4 ” ”
4 4 od) ”
3 4 ” ”
2 » ”
2b 1-14 3
2 ” ”
4 ” | ”
2n | ” ”
2 2 ” ”
2n Fe rp
2 2 ”
5 6 ” ”
04:34,

4210°00, 05°28, 04°67,

23740°6

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

743-3
746-4
1734
7765
778°1
788°7
796'8
8009
8028
809°6
815-4
8173
826-7
835°7
849-4
853°3
856:3
859°6
872-1
877-1
896-0
898"1
901-0
902°9
909-9
9192
921-2
925-0
928°6
932°5
933°8
934-9
939:7
943-7
944-5
949-1
965°8
967°5
979°5
990°8
995°3

24005-2
009-7
0172
019-0
028°5
032-7 |
042-6

02°50, 01:05, 00:30,

4198-74, 97-74, 97°43, 95°73, 94: 13, 91°69, 89- 95, 87:74, 86:91, 83°60, 83°45, 82°74,
82°21, 80: 95, 79°54, 78°53, 17 67, 77°19, 77:00, 76°85, 75°24, 74:18, 71:42, 69:37,
ot 08, 67°15, 62°48, 60: 48, 59: 82, 58:11, and also 4260: 00, 39°80, 23-15, 06: 73, 4199: 97,

12

116 REPORT—1901.
VANADIUM —continued.
Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Ate BpepEam Ssantedal Oharasten Vacuum
Hasselberg Bowland po He aT and Are Spark | A+ . -
* Leia. 00 4156:00 3 gr 1:14 6°7
55°39 2 ” ”
=e tbo :49 53:49 3 2 5 >
* 52°81 52°80 4 4 AS *
52:3 2n Ms “5
* 51°52 51°50 2 2 o =
* 50°84 50°83 4 4 i 68
* 49:02 49:00 3 4 3 s
* 47°85 2b’ "i a
* 43:02 43°07 2 2 2 =
* 42-75T 42-77 3 2 i ie
* 41:96 42°00 3 2 < "
* 41°51 2n A 5
40°22 2n - 5
2939:39 39°40 4 6 .5 .
* 38°27 4 ” ”
* 37°14 2br es is
* 36°52 36°53 4 4 ue on
* 36°25 36:21 4 4 i 3
* 35°40 2 S
* 34°61T 4134°617 34:62 a 14 a =
* §6©33'92 33°91 4 4 a os
esc 13; 32°123 32°15 7 16 5 i
SSL 32 31:297 31:32 2 2 y _
30:3 2b 1:13 oF
* 29:00 28:99 4 6 3 2
* 28:25T 28°152? 28°25 if 16 ; -
26:07 2 a "
* 24:23 24-196 24:26 4 4 i 3
* 23°65T 23-70 6 8 =
* 23°30 4 a -
S113 21°15 2 2 vi 5
* 20°69 20°655 20°69 4 6 eS m
* 19°58T 19°575 19°60 4 6 "= 5
* 19-25 2 aa *
* 18°73 4 * eS
* 18°34 18°320 18°38 5 10 x 3
16°85t . ey
* 1664+ 16631 } q6m70 6. | 14 op | es
* 15°32t 15°311 15°38 6 16 a Fe
* 14:69 At 14:68 3 4 fs Me
T1365. 13°637 13°66 5 8 i =
* 12-47+ 12°50 3 6 a a
my . - . * f 12:10 f 8n ” ”
11:92 11°916 118 8 1 Sn ze »
1 10:93 2 ” ”
* 09°94T 09°906 09:98 7 14 ~ Pe
% 09:19 2 ” ”

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

24054:9

058°4
069°4
073°4
076°3
079'9
084°8
095:3
102°1
130-0
131:7
136°2
139:0
1465
151°3
157'9
164°5
168°1
169°8
174:7
1792
183'3
193°8
198°6
204°5
212-2
216°5
229°3
240-1
243-4
245°6
258°3
261°0
267°5
269°5
272°5
_ 2748
*. 283°6
. 284:9
292°5
296-4
302°5
309-4
311-7
312°7
3186
. 8245
3289

* Lockyer and Baxandall, 4155°95, 55°34, 53°47, 52°80, 51:46, 50°80, 50:2 22, 49:01,
47°90, 43:02, 42°80, 41:91, 41°50, 39°34, 38: 17, 37°36, 37-06, 36:55, 36°27, 35°40, 34°61,
33°86, 32° 08, 31:26, 30° 28, 28°94, 28°20, ‘24+ 15, 23°59, "93: on 21:08; 20°65, 19°56, 19:23,

18°76, 18°34, 16°64, 15°33, 1469, 13°62,

12°50, 12-00, 11°22, 10°86, 09°89, 09- 20, also
4184-55, 80°12, 66°86, 58°58, 56-65, BL 16, 46°15, 45:62, 43°47, 32:93, 31:07; pe 44;
27:56, 27°15, 22°94, 22°45, 21°75.

we le

A

#s

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 117

VANADIUM—continued.

Te Spark Intensity and
Are Spectrum Gpeetran ses
Hasselberg eeane Heed Arc | Spark
|
* 4108'36 4108:38 4 6
* 07°64T 4107:599 07°64 3 2
= ©05:32T 05°38 6 8b*
* 04-92t | - 04:92 4 6
* 04:55 04516 | 04:59 4 | 6
* 03°57 | 2
Or sit 02:285 02°31 6 10
01:15 | 4
* 4099-931 4099:921 00:00 7 | 16
*4099°03 2
* 98-541 98°510 98°55 4 | 4
pee oT OOT 97:08 3 2
* 95°64f 95-607 95°66 6 12
* 94:42 94°41 4 4
* 93°65 93°66 4 4
* 92:83T é 92°86 6 8n
* 92°54f 92°532 92°53 - 4 4
; * 92:09 92°10 3 4
Peo: .OT; 90:703 90:79 6 16
85°81 4
* 84:90 2
* 83:07 6
80°6 26
77-849 Sr 77°86 2
* '72'30 72°32 + 2
* 7167t |- 71:664 71°65 5 +
* 70:92 2
* 68:13 4
pee 07°90 67:87 3 4
67-13 2
* 65°21 12
* 64:09 64:061 64:12 5 6
* 62°86 2
* 61:75 2
= 60:97 61:00 2 2
58°95 2
Be Dre) 57:206 57°22 6 8
56°41 4
* 53°76 8
* 53°40 2
* 52:60 52°60 2 2
* 51:48t 51485 51°52 5 10
* -61-11 51:13 5 10
49:20 4
cpanel: Hoan df 48:78 4 4
47:60 2
* 47-05 47-08 2 2
46:50 6
*- 42°78 42°759 42°81 4 4
* 41°72 4

Reduction to
Vacuum

>
+

> le
1

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

24333°'8
338:1
351°6
3542
356°4
3622
369°9
376°6
383°7
389-1
39271
400°7
409°4
416°6
421°1
4260
427-9
430°4
438°6
468-0
473°5
484°5
487°3
515°8
549°2
553°1
557°6
574-4
575°9
580°4
592:0
598°9
606°3
613:0
617-7
630°0
640°5
645-4
661°6
663°7
668°6
675-4
677°6
689°3
6929
699-1
7024
705°8
729°6
7350

» Lockyer and Baxandall, 4108-32, 07°60, 05°33, 04°93, 04°52, 03°54, 02°25, 4099°94,
98:99, 98:50, 97:05, 95-60, 94°38, 93°61, 92°81, 92°55, 92-08, 90°74, 84-92, 83:07, 72°28,
71°67, 70:94, 68°16, 67:96, 65°54, 64°11, 62°92, 61°76, 61:00, 57°21, 53°81, 53°41, 52°60,
51:52, 51°10, 48°77, 46:99, 42°80, 41°66.

118 REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.

Aro Speer Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Nd a tars Spectrum Character Vacuum Oscillation
sete so eens.
il in Vacuo

Hassetborg | aglandand) Benen end | are |spark| a+ | >
* 4040-46 4040°50 2 2 1-11 | 69 24742°7
* 39°76 4 ” 70 7469
38°72 2 ” ” 753°3
* 36:93f 36°95 2 8 ” ” 7642
* 35°77 35°82 4 16 ” ” 7703
34:91 2 ” ” T7167
* 33:01 33:04 2 2 ” ” 788°2
* 32:62t 32°67 3 2 ” ” 790°6
A Sues he 4031:961 32°05 4 6 ” ” 794°6
* 31:37f 31:43 3 4 ” ” 798°3
30°32 2 ” ” 804:9
* 30°04f 30:07 3 2 ” ” 806°5
29:2 2n % ” 811°8
28°27 2 » ” 8175
27:52 2n ” ” 822-2
26°65 2 ” ” 827-5
* 25°46 25°50 2 2 » ” 8348
* 24°60 2 » ” 840°2
* 23-50 23°51 23°63 4 20 ” ”» 846°9
* 22-038 22°05 2 2 » » 856:0
21°61 2 ” ” 858-7
* 20°70 2 ” % 8643
* 196 2b ” 5 871-1
* 19:20 6 ” ” 873°6
17-44 6 ” ” 884:'5
* 16:98 6 ” ” 887°3
15°81 2 1:10 » 894°6
15°51 2 ” ” 896°4
* 15:20 16°23 2 2 ” z 898-2
14:46 2 ” ” 903-0
* 13°68 2n ” ” 907°8
13°55 2n ” 7 908-6
12°70 2n ” ” 913-9
11-74 2n » i: 919-8
* 11°45 11:47 2 2 ” » 921°5
* 09:94 09°95 2 2n ” » 931-0
* 08°36 6 ” ” 9409
* 05'86+ 05'838 05°90 4 16 ” 5 956°4
* 03:70 03°66 3 2 . T1 969°9
* 03°10 03°12 3 10 ” # 973°5
01°83 2 ” " 9815
01:29 2 ” + 984°8
* 00-24 00°25 2 2 ah 5 991-4
3999-40 6 ” ” 996°7
* 399887 3998°847 98-90 6 8 ” ” 25000:0
ee ST-30t 97:28 3 10 ” » 009°8
* 92:95T 92:916 92:96 6 12 rh = 037-1
92-14 2 ” ” 042-1
91°65 2 a t 045-2
* 91:30 2n ” ” 047-4

* Lockyer and Baxandall, 4040-43, 4039-76, 36°93, 35-77, 33-00, 32°64, 31:99, 31°36,
30:05, 25°47, 24°63, 23°48, 22:07, 2073, 19°58, 19-18, 16°86, 15 26, 13°69, 11:50, 09-99,
08°33, 05:90, 03°70, 03°12, 03:24, 3998°91, 97°31, 92-95, 91:22, and also 4106-08, 01-65,
19:99, 4090-05, 88:00, 83°44, 78°10.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS,

Are Spectrum

Rowland and

Hasselberg Harrison

* 3990°71T 3990°693

* 88:97

* 8475+

* 80°66
* 79°59 79540
* 79°30

aks 09
* 73-49T
* 72:10

68°588 Ca
* 68:24

* 63-77t
61-652 Al

*

52-09+
50°37

52:073

*

44:133 Al
43°77
42°16
41-40f
40°75
39°48

* eee

* 38°35
* 37:68

* 36°42
* 35:28
* 3416
33'775 Ca

*

31:50
* 30°19

119

VANADIUM—continued.

4h)

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to

Spectrum Character Vacuum | ggcitlation
F

Exner and 1 in Vecua

Haschek Are | Spark) A+ 7 ai
Bap: 6 “a 110 | 71 25051'1
9: 3 4 056-0
88-96 4 6 fl 062'1
* 83-29 2 3: - 0667
87-82 2 ie é. 069:2
85:40 8 + 084:5
84:73 4 6 2 . 087°6
* 84-45 6 i i 090°5
84-08 2 i od 092'8
* 381-92 2 Bi 4 106-4
80°69 4 6br | E: 1143
79°56 4 6 # - 121°3
79:23 4 6 123-0
* 77°88 10 i 131:9
* 75-47 STO | a 147-2
73:80 4 16 ; - 157-7
we 2 i 3 159°7
qoar’. | ae gs || ee gees
68-60 Ca?} 2 2 - i 190-8
68:19 4 8 a # 1931
*64-65 4 it - 215'8
63:77 6 he : 221-4
61:65 Al?) 10 4 » | 72 2348
60°49 2 | |. ul 2424
58-33 Be be 256-0
5211 4s | 18 - , 295°8
50°37 4 4 cf i 306-9
41983 a1 2 mal Otaea
‘s ge) 2 lance
44-20 All| 6 2 ef 2 346-7
43-79 5 6 : c 349-2
42°16 4 4 Z as 359'6
41:43 3 4 . x 364-4
40-74 2 2 S Zs 368-7
39-48 4 4 ie y 376-9
eu [a [i fe] | ae
37-69 4 4 Ms E 388-4
36-61 2 |108 | ,, 395-4
36-43 4 4 , 3 396'6
35°30 5 6 oe He 403°9
34-20 7 6 * 4111
33°81Ca!] 6 6 be i! 4136
31:49 4 8 yy i 498-4
30-21 2 4 4 é: 436'8
#29-89 6 Ke fi 438:8
28°73 2 ” ” 446°3

* Lockyer and Baxandall, 3990°72, 89:95, 88°98, 88°21, 84:78, 84°51, 81:78, 80°66,
79°61, 79:31, 77°88, 75°48, 73°79, 73°53, 72°12, 68°29, 64°64, 63°78, 52°12, 50°38, 48-79,
46:04, 43°81, 42°18, 41°40, 40°75, 39°49, 39:04, 38°37, 37°65, 36°43, 35:28, 34:18, 31°46,
30°19, 29:93, 28°64, and also 3990:05, 88:00, 83°44, 78°10, 23°28, 3995:08.

120

i

{

Arc Spectrum

: Hasselberg

*3995-36

* 24°84
22°58t
22:05
20°65
20°15

x ee ¥

*

16°55t

13-03
12°36
10:95
10:01t

% KK

06:89+

*
* 0463
| * 03:42¢

02-71

| * 02-40t

* 01:30

*" 00:33
*3899:30t
gestalby;
*. 97:22

* 96:29
* 94-19}
*° 93-03

91-97
, * 90:33

* 88:50
*, 88:23
86°72
85:91T

85:00 +
- 84:60

Rowland and

*

Harrison

3925°350
24:768
22°548
22023

19-600

*14°437

* 09:995

02371

3898082
96:259
92°471

90:298

86-691

REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.

Spark
Spectrum

Exner and
Haschek

*3926°68
26°45
25°40
24°86
22°61
22:08
20°68
20°16

16°59
*15°55
*16°28
14:51
*13°67
13:07
12°37
10:95
10°05
09°85
*08°5
*07:35
06:93
04:65
04:27
03°50
02°70
02°41
* 01°86
01:30
00-72
00°32
3899-32
98-2

Intensity and

Reduction to

Character Vacuum
1
Are Spark | A+ =
4n 1:08 |} 7:2
4 2 ”
4 6 ” ”
5 8 ” ”
5 8 ” ”
4 6 » 9
3 4 ” ”
2 2 ” ”
2 ve ”
3 14 ” ”
2 ” ”
2 ” ”
2 1 4 ” ”
2n ” ”
t 4 ” ”
5s 6 ” ”
4s 4 ” ”
6 6 ” ”
4 ” ”
2br ” 73
2n ” ”
4s 4 ” ”
2 4 » ”
2 ” ”»
3 8n ” ”
2 4n ” ”
7 6n ” ”»
2 ” ”
5n 4n + -
5n 2 ” ”
2 4 ” ”
2 8 ” ”
6 6b ” ”
4 4 ” »
2 1:07 5
4s 6 ” a”
4s 4n ” ”
6s , 6 ” ”
2n ”» ”
4b 4b * op
6s 6 ”
. 2 ” ”
4n ” ”
2 2 ” ”»
4s 4 ” ”
2 2 ”» ”
2 ” ”
2 6 ” ”
3 2

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

25459°6

4611
4682
470°7
486°2
489°7
498°7
502:0
505-6
525°3
532°0
533°8
539-0
544:3
548°3
552°8
562:0
5680
569'2
578

585°5
588-4
603°3
605°7
611:0
616:0
618:0
621°5
6252
629°0
6316
638°6
645'9
652'0
654'8
658°1
672:0
679'6
682°8
690°8
697-4
703'8
709°6
7114
7214
726°6
727°2
732°6
735°4

* Lockyer and Baxandall, 3925:36, 24°85, 22°57, 22°11, 20°67, 20°10, 16°57, 15°57,
15:30, 14:49, 13°71, 13°04, 12°35, 10°92, 09-96, 08:46, 07°33, 06°92, 04°51, 03°32, 02°45,.
01°81, 01-28, 00:29, 3899-23, 98°17, 97°20, 96°83, 96°29, 94:16, 92°95, 92:53, 91-25, 90:30,
89°36, 88°47, 88:20, and also 3945°36, 28°07, 26°86, 26°64, 14:08, 11:90, 10°57, 09-58,
03°86, 3898°44, 95°86, 93°88, 91°88, 89:91, 87-69. 1

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 121

VANADIUM—continued.

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to

Are Spectrum Spectrum Gloatantee Vacuum aoe
Oscillation
Frequency

Hasselberg | "rion || “Haschek’ | Are | Spark] a+ | 2— | in Vacuo
3884-04 | 3884-05 3 2 |1:07 | 73 | 25739-0
83°53 2 nd | PR. 742°5

83°37 2 i bs 743°5

81:78 2 ” ” T5471

eee || Seve ||) ee

en 3 ” ’ f
79°82 7979 3 ae a T672
2 ” ’ 7 d

76-90 7 a ee a 786°

7621+ 76°25 5 4 s a 791-0
76-05+ 76-03 4 4 Ms - 792-2
1552 a. i| nee?) |erydpes

“OL ” ’ 5°

7522+ | 3875-195 75-21 6 6 a3 : 7978
74°50 2 : a 802°5

73°80 73:79 2 4 oe bs 807-2
oo || ged || ol) oh ee

71-23 71-21 4 6 a is 8243
70°72 70°73 2 4 4 827-7
68.20 nt'| Wowk || |hongens

' n ‘ A'5

67-77t 67-75 5 6 aie 847-4
67°50 67-49 2 Dey aes if 849-2
A aie a eM lat

65-9 ris Biles % 860

65-02+ 64-980 65-02 7 gt |-t8 b 865:8
64-02 64-00 4s 8 ks : 872-6
62:37 6285 4s 4 . ‘ 8836
° Qn ; 5)

59:51 59-49 3 4 2 . aaa
58-83t 58°81 4 ie 2 907°4
e731 ont | Stow 77) vounee

- - n ” ’ ce

56-00+ 55-965 56-00 8 6én | 106 | ” 926-4
55-50 55-486 55-49 6 6 7 920-7
52-27 52-21 2 4 ie ae 951°6
51°32 51°30 3 4 0s ie 9579
5030 re deca lites || pete =

. 2n i 964:

49-48 49-433 49-44 27oM) 6 ps A 970-4
47-46 47-453 47°50 Bs |/10 eee, ite 983°8
- 45:03 45:03 2 i 2 " e 26000'3
44-58t 44-565 44-60 Bs 8 KS 4 003°3
43-65 4 i 3 009°6

49:08 a 4 ji i a ene
40-88+ 40-866 40-92 6 8 Nel sie 028°3
40°56 40°56 5 6 i 0306
40:27 40°26 4 4 4 ’ 032°5
39°53 39°53 4 6 2 037°6
— 39-12¢ | & sp 4 6 zB y 040°3
. « th @ gygooe |. msl © a 048-2

122 REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.
Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Are Spectrum Seecteant Ghaceick Vacuum Oscillation
a ee a Frequency
Hasselberg ee a ier and Are Spark] A+ -— Soa
3836°58 2n 1:06 | 73 26057°6
383620 36:19 4 4 5 s 060°2
35°70 35°69 4 4 aS i 063°6
34:97 2 a i 068°5
33°36f 33°38 2 2 ” ” 079°4
32°97 33°00 2 2 “ - 081:9
32°50 2 nS a 085°3
31:98 2 a “ 088°9
31:19 2 +s re U94-2
30°42 2n a i 099°5
29°77 4n 5 - 103°9
28°9 6n 3 An 110
28°67T 3828°680 28°72 7 6n = Pe 111°3
27:13 6 a a 121°9
26°95 2n a es 123-2
25°47 2 on a 133°3
Dale 2 “a 55 135°3
24:12 24:14 4 4 ” ” 142°4
23:90 2 3 = 144:0
23°5 4b 5 os 147
23°35 ft 23:37 4 4 “A 3 147'7
23:00 ¢ 23-008 23°05 4 4 - A 149°9
22°86 2 “4 Ps 1511
22°14f 22°21 5 6b’ 5 + 1558
21°63t 21-607 21°66 4 4 ” ” 159°6
20°589 — 4 is a 166°7
20°41 — 2 = - 167:9
20°10 20:087 20°14 4 4 9 5 170:0
18-94 2 Ps ze 178:0
18°48 4 % PA 1811
18:37 18:370 18°39 6 4 ” ” 181°8
18°12 18:10 3 4 a 74 183°6
17-98t 17:99 + 4 a 5 184°4
15°65 15°55 4 10 1:05 . 200°8
13-63 13°612 13 63 6 8 at FP 2144
09-80 6 Sb ss 240°7
08-64 08°70 5s 6 as - 2485
08136 — 8 . \ 2521
07°64 07:626 07°69 4 6 PN A 257°5
07°425 — 4 aA a 257°1
06:93 07:00 4 4 = + 2533
06°65 2 x || 262-4
06°37 2 or + 2643
05°12 2 = a 273:0
04:80 2 5 * 275:2
04°6 2n =" 45 277
04:05 04:07 3 4 ” ” 280°3
03°92 03°97 3 4 ” ” 2811
03-62t 03°613 03°64 5 6 = 5 283:3
03:06 2 7 a 287:2
01:4 2n i 5 299
00:05 3799:992 00:07 5 8 ” ” 308°1
3799°43 2 4 * 312°3
98°82 4 a 5 3166
98°41 2 a a 319-4

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPEOTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 123

VANADIUM—continued.

Spark Intensity and Reduction to
Are Spectrum Spectrum Character Vacuum Oscillation
Frequency
Rowland and} Exner and Arc Spark | A+ ot in Vacuo
A

Hasselberg Harrison Haschek

105 | 74 26331°5

3796°66 4
9637 2 & -3 333-5
379512 95:08 7 10 ” ” 342°3
94-49 8 i . 346-6
93°76T 93°76 4 4 ” ” 351°7
93°53 2 > * 353'3
91:47 2 As 7 367°6
90°62tt | 3790593 90°64 3 6 ” ” 373'5
90°46 90°448 90°48 5 6 “; ” 574°6
88:92 2 ae ese 385-5
87°68 87°39 2 16 3 + 395-0
84-98 2 4 . 412'8
84:84 84:88 2 2 7 9s 413-7
83°6 abt} ,, 3 499:5
83-08 2n ss - 4261
82°70 82°70 2 2 ‘s » 428'8
82:27 On| 4; ‘i 431°8
81:90 2 rf z 434-3
81:54 81-55 3 4 ¥ a 436'8
80°85 2 a i 441-7
79:80 79°86 3 6 a a 448-8
78:83t 78°808 78°82 5s 10 ” ” 455°9
78-48 78°50 2 12 sg a 458-2
TT-63t 77°63 2 4 ” ” 464-2
1731 17°30 2 4 : 2 466-5
77:00 2 ay ” 468°6
76°31 76°29 3 4 1:04 ” 4735
75°85 75°80 3 4 = ” 4769
75°34T 75°32 3 4 a ” 480'3
74:82 6 ‘s a 483-9
74:27 74:29 2 4k sf 487-7
73°92 2 + ” 490°3
73°14 10 a ” 495°7
72°30 PAG) sein LATS 501-5
71-87 3n = ¢ 504°5
71°31t 2 z “ 5U8'5
TL-11t 71:13 4 20 a i 509°8
70°68 70°67 2 2 Z 3 5129
70°10 On) | ae 3 517-0
69:97 ant |’. 517-9
69:23 69:18 2 6 5: if 523-3
67°84 8 ‘ 532-9
66°53 2 4 mn 542-1
64:96 64°94 2 4 7 7 553°3
63°30 63°26 4 4 ” ” 565°5
61°55 4 2 a 577°3
61:43 4 ar * 578-1
60°96 60°95 2 4 ” ” 581°5
60-40t 60:40 2 10 i 9 5854
59°41 6 + - 592-4
58°90 2 » ss 596-0
57°82 2 rs . 603-7
67-51 2 -f ar 605°9

¢ Ru 3790°65, Cr 3790-61.

124 THAIS ce REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.

Spark Intensity and_ |- Reduction to
Are Spectrum Bevan Chardster Vacuum Oscillation
Frequency
Rowland and} Exner and 1 in Vacuo
Hasselberg Hageicon Haschelkk Are Spark] A+ 5
375618 375615 2 2 1:04 75 26615°4
55°85 5577 2 4n “5 Fe 617°9
b:20 8 2n ay 7. 622°0
54:65 2n i AS 6261
53°44 53°38 2 4n- - o 634°9
53:00 2 5 6387°8
51°94t 51:94 2 2 Ar es 647°4
61-021 4s S ¥ 651°9
50°43 8n 55 ;, 656'1
50:10 12n BS “ 658°4
48°14 48°10 2 2 ” ” 672°5
47°28 2 “0 “ 678°5
46°02 , 46:00 4s 14 3 e 687°5
43°77 8bY Pr = 703°6
4L65t 3741'°630 41°63 3 6n ” ” 7188
41:20 - 2 as a 7219
38°93 38901 38°92 4 4n * 93 738°2
37°60 2 1:0 =) 7476
36°16 10 a 5 7579
84:59 34°62 3 4n die TIES 769°1
33°75 4n - s T7152
32°88 32:98 4s 14 -y; 3 7811
32°15 8 “9 - 7866
31:20 2n i ad 793°4
30°36 2 = ~~ 799°5
29:99 2 a 0 802°2
29°22 29:21 3 6 ss io 8077
28°51 10 FA 76 812°9
27:49t 2 dd & 4 16br si a 820-0
25°83 2 + " 832°1
251 2n * ca 837
24:6 . 2n ms Fi 839
23°75 2 “ 5 © 847°1
23°52 23°49 3 2 . - 848°8
22°76 4 8 Fh 855:2
22-277 22334 22°39 2 6n 3 i 857°3
22°15 22°136 22°18 2 4n ns "A 8585
21°55 2n = A 862°9
21-1 2n 5 pe 866
19°124 ;
ae | 19-07 6 wee 880-9
; 18°35 ‘10 3 af 886:0
15°62t 15:70 4s 20 * - 905:2
14:12 14:12 2 4 ' 99 916-7
13°72 2 33 pe 919-6
12°69 4 5 7 927-0
11:90 4 is ; 932°8
11°28 8 a ey 937°3
08°88 08°852, 08°86 3s 6 ss a 9549
06°167 06:20 6 5 se 974:3
05°19} . 05-167 05:22 5 - 6 Rs 55 981°5

+ Ni 3715-61,

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 125

Arc Spectrum

Hasselberg

3704:85f

03:71T

~3696-00t
95°48t

92:36+
90-414
88:22+
87°61t
86-40t
84:83

83:26

80°26

76:86}
76'85+

“4365+
72:53t
6 TV37t

-- 69°57+
2 67°87

© 65°30
© 6373

VANADIUM—continued.

Spark | Intensity and | Reduction to
Spectrum Character Vacuum Oscillation
Hpoanenes
Rowland and| Exner and 1 in Vacuo
Harrison Haschek | Are Spark) A+ AE
3704°831 3704°90 6 6bY | 1:03 76 26984:0
04°664 2 5 Pe 985°4
03°80 7 12br Pe ; 992:0
01:13 6 5 sf 27011°1
00°50 12 i y 015°8
00°35 6n 9 a 017:0
3699°63 2 = PP 022'1
_ 8695:995 96:02 6 8 1:02 i 048°7
95°449 95°50 5 6n ep i 052°5
94:74 2n a Fe 057'9
92:357 92°38 6 10 i fe 0753
90°407 90°43 5 8 5 a 090°3
88:207 88:21 5 8 7 rr 105'8
87:60 5 6n - 4 110°3
86°83 2 ‘ # 116:0
86°392 84°40: 4 6 % = 119-2
85°31 6 i 127:2
3 is oe 130°7
84:47 2 *, - 133-2
83°2438 83:25 6 6 a a 142°2
81-5 2b pS P 155
80°214 80°15 6 8n: Pr 4 164:7
80:055 2 3 * 165°8
TTAT 2n A Pe 184:9
7717 2n - is 187-1
76:807 76°80 6n 6n y ab 189°7
75'835 75°83 5s 6 a a 197:0
75°58 2 Fr ii 198:9
74°83 6 Pr Be 204°4
73:50 6n 6n >. ii 2143
72519 72°51 4n 4n 3 Pe 221°6 |
71:840 2 > 226°6
71:33 4 6 , = 230°2
s 69°53 3 i6 = is 243°6
67°841 67°84 5n 6n = pS 256°2
> 65°9 2n FP 5 271
65°256 65°22 4 4n 3 275°5
63°694 63°68 - 5 6n 3, i 287:1
61°53 i ¥y " 303°3
58°38 4 - 5 326°8
57:92 2 101 4 330°2
57°60 2 x 332°6
56°80 4b e Ps 3386
54:8 2b 5 a 354
53°61 2 *s 3 362°5
52°51 2n * of 370°7
49:057 49:10 4 4 3 3 3963
Cut 47°45 2n f sf 408°7
46-98 4 E 412°3
46:02 6 Fe 419°4
45°7 3 2b F a 421
44:83 3 4 a re 428°2
44-038 43 99. 3 4 ACH * A847

:.. } Ru 3676°82, 72°53.

126 REPORT—1901.
VANADIUM—continued.
Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Are Spectrum Spectvnin Glimsaeter Vacuum Oscillation
Frequency
Hasselberg een fone con Arc Spark] A+ 3 an Vane
3643°27 2 101 | 77 27440'1
42°82 2 “4 mA 443°5
3641:28 41°25 3 2b - R 4552
40°25 40:20 2n ” ” 462°6
39°21f 3639°160 39°14 3 4 _ 78 471:0
38°57 2 " es 475°5
37:95t 37°89 2 4 + ‘3 480°4
36°09 36:03 4 2n + - 494:°5
35°57 2 * a 498°2
34:06 2 " f 509°6
33°02 2 - * 617°5
29°45 2n Py ss 5446
27°83 8 a a 5569
25°71 8 si % 5730
24:98 2 a Ps 578°6
22°82t 22°82 2 2n A 7 595:0
22°43 2 <5 rs 598'1
21°35 8 a ‘6 606°2
20°62 6 = FA 6118
19:10 19-09 2s 12 a 3 623°4
18°6 2 = PA 627
16°91 16°83 2 + 1:00 FS 640°4
15°4 2b 5 pa 652
12°4 2b - = 675
Ea 4 5 _ 679°9
09°45t 09°40 3s 2 eS oy 697-4
08:07 : 2 a = 707°8
05-75 05°73 3 4 a “ 725°8
05°46 2 i S 7279
05:0 2n 5 731
04:25 2n He + 737°2
03°10 2 re RS 7460
00:20 00°166 00°16 2 2 ” ” 768°6
35971 2n’”' a geo 792
95°77 2 i 3 802°6
3593-48 3593°519 93°53 4 16 7 x 820:0
92°71 92°70 2 2 5 = 826°2
92:15t 92°159 92°19 4 18 e Ee 830°5
89-91f 89°889 89:90 4 18 - 848:0
88:25 6 9 os 860°8
84:56 2 re x 889°5
- 83°84 83°840 83°85 2 2 ” ” 895:1
83:00 82°953 82°97 2 2 . a 901:9
81:00 80°94 2 2 re me 917°7
79°49 2 os a 929°0
78:78 4 + 5 934°6
73:01t 78-007 78:00 2 4 5 * 940°6
77°80 2n 0:99 ” 942°2
: 77:35 4 5 es 945°7
75°26F 75°25 2 2 oy A 959-1
74°92F 74915 74-94 2 2 - * 964°7
74:51 8 > * 968-0
73°69 73°652 2 % + 974:3
- 7321 8 ae af 977'8
72°82 2n a Bs 981:2

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 127

VANADIUM—continued.
Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Arc Spectrum Spectrum Character Vacuum | Oscillation
Brequeney
1 in Vacuo
Hasselberg poner i we mand Arc | Spark; A+ Be

3572°50 0 2 0:99 | 7:9 27983°8
3571°82f 7181 3 4 ” ” 989°1
71°38 2 + a 992-4
71:18 71:18 3 2 en Fr 994-0
69°46 2 FP a 280075
69°11f 69-09 3 2 ff “e 010°3
68°45 2 rT op 0154
66°33t 66°32 3 12 7 F 032-1
63°90 2b +s En 0512
63°59 63°53 2 2n 7 AS 053'9
62°31 62°31 2 2 “ A 063°7
61°54 2 + on 069°8
60°75t 60°78 2 8 ” ” 0759
59°43 2 a - 086°4
56°97 56°93 5s 20 os 7 106°1
66:42 56°40 3 4n ” ay 110°3
55°90 2 ” *f 114°4
55:32 55°30 3 2 f 7 119-0
53°43 3553-412 53°44 6 4 ” ” 134:0
51-669 51°69 2 2 rf 8-0 147'7
49:10 2n ‘ a 168:1
48°82 2n 65 A 170°4
47:22 2 j, s 183-0
46:96 2 a os 1851
45°52 45-419 3 ” ” 197:0
45°34t 45°330 45°36 4 20r ” ”» 198-0
43°68 43°631 43°63 3 4 Fe a 211°5
42-63 2n 7 5 219°6
41°50 10 of * 228°6
40°66 2 op * 235°3
38°88 8 ” ” 249°5
35°54 2 0:98 = 2762
34:83 2 Fe eS 281:°9
33°85t 33°820 33°86 6 8 a = 2962
32°45 6 +5 re 300-9
31°63 4 # a 307°5
30°91T 30°96 4 20 ” ” 3133

30°6 2n » ” 316
29:90t 29°876 29°89 4 6 $s “+ 321°5

28°4 2b *% a 333
28:00 6 ” ” 336°7

27-4 2b 95 “i 341
25°96 2 ” ” 353-1
24°89 24°89 3 1 16 = i Ga | 361°7
24:38t 4 ” | ” 365'8

23'8 2b bb ” 370
23°35 2n ” ” 374:0
22°75 2 3 3 378°9
22°02 12 wat 384-7
20°7 6br | i 3953
20°18t 20°19 4 14 2 a 399-5
19°33 2 st és 406°4
17:-44¢ 17-436 17°46 4 20r > 5 421-7
1616 2 a ie 432-0
14°60 6 Nd beg 444-7

128
Arc Spectrum
Hasselberg Bowand and
3505°83T
04:57+
01°65 3501°614
349823
93°34
89:64 89°648
86:05t
57-048

REPORT—1901. —

VANADIUM—continued.

Spark
Spectrum

Character

Intensity and Reduction to

Vacuum

Exner and
Haschek

3514-02
12°33
11°57
11:02
09-18
07°69
07:00
06-70
05°84
04:58
03°35
01°65
01-03
00°50
00:00

349834
97:23
93°27
90°11
89°59
87-13
86:09
84°82
84°48
80:01
79:10
77-67
775
76°38
70°44
69°69
66°75
65°39
64°34,
64-00
63°50

+ 63°22:
61°71
57°30

55:02
53:23
51:20
47-7
45°95
44°46
42-48
42°17
37:90
36°52
35°52
34:15
33°96_
32:1
30°30

Are | Spark

ww bo

bo
a
bis RO OSM SLO lor sb ae) CO ESC) POSH SS I SAS 19 ISS) 2) |e HOSED LS oe

—

bwehynwnhwary
=] lox

A+

0:98

1
a

8-0

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

28449°4

463:0
469°2
_AT3T
496°7
500°6
506'3
508:7
515'8
526-0
535°9
550:9
5548
559-2
563'3
BIT2
586°5
6181
644°3
648'1
670'8
677°5
687°8
690'5
727°4
735-0
746-0
748
757-4
806'6
812'8
837°3
848°6
857°3
860°2
8643
866'6
879:2
916-1
918-1
935°1
950°2
967°2
-. 997
29011°4
023-9
040°6
043°2
059°3
091:0
099-4
111-0
112°7 |
128 |
143°7

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES. OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 129

VANADIUM —continued.

Spark Intensity and Reduction to
Arc Spectrum dpectrain Charantor Vacuum Oscillation
oe | phe a
Hasselberg Bor ans ang prem Are | Spark] A+ 2. ih
3425°35 2n | 0:96 | 83 291848
8425204 25:22 2n 4 ” ” 1869
24:00 2 a 14 197'3
22°40 2 = a 2109
20°86 2 i a 223'8
20°35 2n Ar eh 228°4
18°676 2n % 3 242°7
17-22 2 0°95 3 265:2
15:00 2n Fr, a 2743
14370 14°35 2n 4 Fi 279°8
09°10 4b’ Fh H 3249
08:15 2 is 33 3332
06-989 07:00 2n 2 #3 a 343:0
06°36 2 A a 3485
06:19 2 a5 FE 350°0
06:012 2n a 3 3515
05°31 2 " 4 357°6
05°12 2 ac Pe 359:2
04:60 8 ‘ aa 363°7
03°50 2 ra a 373°2
03°32 2 i a 3747
02°73 2 PR a 379°9
02°15 2n Pe os 384:9
01°50 2 5 Fe 390°5
00°54 4 - = 398°8
3398°40 2 * a 4173
97:97 2 tt 9 421°0
97°69 2 é rp 4242
96°68 2 Fr 3 432:2
95'7 2n FA 8-4 441
94°73 2 a9 53 4490
92°81 6 F FF 4657
90:90 2 a 3 482:3
89:0 2b F 499
87°95 2 is 3 5080
87:52 2 a a 511-7
85°9 2b - 4 525°8
84:73 2 3 4 536
: 83°87 4 if FF 543°6
.) 82°67 4 33 554:0
{ 80°42 2 Py 3 573°7
. 795 2n 3 Fe 582
717-74 4 0-9 a 597-2
17-49 2 3 = 599-4
76°16 2 Fe s 611-0
| 74:13 2 7 + 628°8
| , 72°91 6 PF + 639°6
71:60 2 re 3 651°4
. | 71-25 2 3 rn 654-2
| 70:60 2 i cy 659°9
67°80 2 e . 684:6
| | 66:98 b. ee s 691°8
| 3365°670 | 65°68 6 2 4 3 7033
63°70 2 “ * 7208
| 61°67 6 i; A 7387

1901. 5

|

{
1
!

130

Are Spectrum

Hasselberg

Rowland and| Exner and

Harrison

3356°471

83°693
29°983

24514

22°084

14-980
14143
13°141
09°305

3299°223
98°276

91-805

90362
89515

83:437

REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—-continued.

Spark
Spectrum

Haschek

3361°37
56°51
55°51
54°85
53°92
49°56
49:19
48°57
46:08
42:04
41-4
40:53
38°00
35°65
35°37
33°88

32°30
30°02
29°63
29°10
28°60
28:13
24:57
23°88
23°12

21°72
20°95
20°33
19-05
18:04
17:02
15°65
15°35
15:00

09°32
08-62
04°62
01°82
01:05

3298°89
98°26
97°66
96:19
93°30
91°80
91°18
90-40
89°52
89:11
88°47

Intensity and | Reduction to

Character Vacuum
14
Arc | Spark} A+ “a
6 | 094] 85
4 2 o ”
2 ” bh]
2 ” ”
6 ” ”
6 ” ”
4 ” ”
2 » ”
6 ” ”
4 ”» ”
2n ” 39
2 ” ”
12 0:93 i
2 ” ”?
2 ” ”
2 ” ”
2 ”» ”
2 ” ”
6 4 ” ”
2 » ”
2n ” ”
2n ” ”
2 FH 86
2 2 ” ”
2 ” ”
2 ” ”
2
” ”
10 ” ”
2 ” ”
2 ” ”
4 ” ”
4 ” ”
4 ” ”
2 ” ”
6 ” ”
2 6 ” ”
2 ” ”
2 ” ”
4 2 ” ”
4 ” ”
6 ” ”
2 ” ”
2 ” ”
4 ” ”
8 ” ”
2 ” ”
” ”
. 6 | o92] ,
6 2 1 ”
| 2 ” ”
4 | 6 ” ”
4 8b” ” ”
| 4 ” ”
2 6 otc

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

29741°4

784°5
793-2
7991
807°4
846-2
849:5
855-0
8772
913-3
919
926'9
949-6
970°7
9731
986'6
988'3
30000'8
021:5
0249
029°6
034-2
038-4
070°9
076:7
083°6
093-0
096-3
103°3
110-9
120°5
129°7
138-9
151-4
154-1
157-4
165°1
1743
209:2
215-5
252-1
277°8
284-8
301°5
3046
3103
315-9
329'5
356'1
369'9
375°6
383-0
391-0
3947
400°7

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 131

Are Spectrum

Hasselberg

Rowland and
Harrison

3285°133
84-489

82°659
81:238
79976

78°053
77°881

76252

73°137
71:759
71:243

67°823
66:027

62°422

61°198
59°658
56°892
55-769
54°836
51°886

50'894
49-690

37:990

33°878 {

33-300

VANADIUM—continued.

Spark
Spectrum

Exner and
Haschek

3287°78
87:3
85-80
85:29
84-50
83°46
82°69
81:92
81:26
80:02

17°88
77°55
T7221
76°25
74:65
74:35
73:17

71:27
70°25
69:07
67°84
66:06
64:5

63°45
62°45
61-90
61°73
61:20
59°80
59°63
58:02

5B:72
54:90
53-00
52-01
50:90
49-71
48-74
48-00
47°69
475

4914
41:30
40:90
40:00
39°17
38-08
36:72
34-64
33:98
33°67
33°36

eet

Intensity and

Reduction to

Character Vacuum Oscillation
Frequency
hag atark ae le in Vacuo
2 0:92 | 8:7 30407:0
es ee 411
2 ” ” 425
2 6 ” ” 430°7
2 2 ” ” 437-3
2 09 ” 446°9
2 10 0 » 454°2
4 » ” 461°3
2 6 A aS 467-4
2 16 = 7" 4791
2n A a 497°1
2n 6 ” ” 497°8
6 Ph Hf 501°9
4 » 505:0
16 20r a a 513°9
4 ” ” 528°9
2 ” ” 531°6
2 2 ” ” 542°8
4 ” ” 555°9
16 20r ” ” 560°6
10 rr a 569°9
2 2 ” 581-9
16 20r ” » 592°6
2 10 x 4 609-3
2b ” ” 624
8 ” ” 633°7
2 2 ” ” 643°2
2 ” ” 6483
2 ” ” 649°9
2 2 » ” 654-9
2 0-91 s 668-0
2 2 » » 669°5
8 ” ” 684°8
2 ” ” 695-4
2 2 sg E 7062
4 10 5 #3 7145
2 a oc 732°1
2 10 oF Pa 732°6
2 10 x, 88 7519
2 8 ” ” 763°3
2 ” ” 7723
2 ” ” 779-4
2 7 fe 782:3
2n ee 8 784
2 » ” 8350
2 i at _843°0
2 ” ” 846°8
2 ” ” 855-4
2 ” ” 863°3
t 12 ” 3 874:2
2 ” ” 886°7
4 ” »- 906°5
2 8 ” ” 912°9
{ 6 * Be 915°8
4 2 we i cand S109
K2

182 REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.
res
Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Arc Spectrum Spectrum Character Vacuum | Oscillation
clos Gere
in Vacuo
asestbarg | eee eS (emer 4, |) Aso | Gpark Ae
3232-064 3232°10 2 6 0°91 | 88 30931:0
31:09 2 ” ” 940°5
80°765 30°80 2 2 ” ” 943°5
29°724 29°75 2 2 ” ” 953°5
29°30 2n ” ” 957°7
28°7 2b ” » 963
28°3 2b a ” 965
27°520 27:54 2 2 - AS 974:7
27:05 6b ” ” 979°3
26:223 26:22 2 2 - a 987°2
24°20 2 ” ” 31006°6
22:97 2 » ” 018°4
21°52 2 " op 032°4
18:985 18:98 2 2 0:90 a 056°9
17°240 17°23 2 12 ” ” 073'8
15°487 2 ” ” 090°7
14:86 8 ” ” 096°8
14:10 2 * re 104°1
12'550 12°55 2 4 ” ” 1191
11:70 2 ae oh 127°3
10°546 2 ” ” 138°5
10°253 10:21 2 2 *5 rs 141°6
08°464 08°46 2 8b’ ” ” 15838
07°521 07°52 8 2 ” ” 1679
06°4 2b i PA 179
05°689 05:70 6 2 3 89 185°5
05:378 05°45 2 2 ” ” 188:0
04°30 2 “ a 199°1
02°80 2 1.5 213°8
02°495 02°50 12 2 a} en 216'7
01°8 4b ns ” 223°5
3199:934 3199°95 2 2 ” ” 2417
98:121 98:09 2 2 ”» 7) 259°6
97°65 2 6 3 264°1
96°66 4 4 » 273°7
95°7 2b ” ” 283
94-030 94:06 2 2 en — 299-4
93:29 4 ” ” 306°8
92°78 4 ” 311°8
90°798 90°80 10 16r ch a 3312
89°87 2 3 ” 340°3
88:624 88:60 2 10r ” ” 352°7
88:18 4 Ay ” 3569
87°820 87:78 8 10r ” ” 361:0
86:93 4 ” ” 369°3
85507 85°46 20 4r ” ” 383°5
84:097 84:04 20 4r ” ” 397-4
83°525 83°48 18 4r ” ” 403:1
82-71 8 3 5 410°9
79°50 2 0°89 | 9:0 442-5
W775 2 Hy “6 4598
76 2 2b o ” 475 {
T7461 8 ” ” 4909 |;
T7417 6 af “4 495°3
72°34 2 af »? §13°5

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 1388

VANADIUM—continued.

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Arc Spectrum Spapiras ices Vacuum Oscillation
SS ay aa
in Vacuo
Hasselberg lee eee eet A Spark] a+ 2.
3171°82 2 0°89 | 9:0 31518°6
70°35 2 ay 3 533°3
68°62 2 3 is 550°5
3168:244 68°24 2 6 ” ” 554-4
67°55 10 “ + 561°1
66°48 2 3 as 571°8
65:96 4 A 7 577:0
63°85 2 i FF 5981
63°13 6 a P 605'2
62°81 6 “ * 608°5
62°46 2 “F a 612:0
61:42 6 re + 622°4
60°87 4 o 3 628°9
59°45 4 aS B 642-1
58-01 4 ar 9 656°5
56°35 2 rr Pr 6731
55°51 6 a 3 681:7
54:9 2n + or 688
51:42 8 Fn 3 722-7
48°86 4 a pa 7485
46°95 4 rf, 9-1 1677
46:40 6 +9 ‘é 7732
46-086 46°10 2 4 ” ” 176°4
45°48 4 3 ag 782°5
44°85 4 s 3 7879
43°61 4 + * 801°5
42-596 42°67 4 8bv or " 810:0
42°33 4 rf - 813-4
41°63 4 0°88 Zs 821°5
41°23 2 a rs 825°6
39°862 89°88 2 10 ” ” 839°3
38:17 4 * Pf 856°6
37°304 2 ” ” 865°4
36°64 12 + -r 872°1
35:060 35°08 2 12 ” ” 888'1
33°455 33°48 10 10 ” ” 904:4
32°90 2 -F y 910°2
32°72 2 a + 912:0
30°408 30°40 10 12 “ sa 935°7
28°81 4 + AF 951°9
28°40 4 $5 “r 956°1
26'338 26°31 10 8 33 a 977°3
25°52 8 7 a 985°6
25°402 10 r PP 986'°8
25°20 8n * 3 988°8
23°49 2 os rf 32006°3
23-020 23:01 2 10 BS 3 011:2
21-261 21:27 2 8 a 5 029°2
20°849 2 oc “ 033°4
20°36 8 * a 038°5
19°44 2 a ia 047°9
18°406 18°51 16 12r 7 4 058°0
16°90 6 a FF 0741
16:18 2 a ail 081°5

134 REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—vontinued.

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Are Spectrum Sheciraia Ghuraster Vacuum Oscillation
—————E EE Frequency
Rowland and| Exner and 1 in Vacuo
Hasselberg Hactison acho Arc | Spark} A+ re
3113038 3113°19 2 8 0°88 | 9:2 32113°0
10°826 10°82 2 12r x * 136:7
09°51 4 " < 1502
09°381 2 Be “a 1515
09-283 2 i a 152°5
08°81 4 mi 5 157:4
07°85 2n a 5 167°4
06:9 2n ‘3 . 177
06°08 2n 4 a 185:7
05-03 fant ais tes
3" ” i
02-415 02:39 20 jortil as 224-9
01:038 01:09 2 10 0:87 3 2376
3094-793 2n “a 3 313°6
3094:33 12 F te 307°9
93-23 16r i Ss 319-2
89°78 2 x i 355°6
88:1 2bv 5 Bs 373
86°61 4 - % 388°8
86°33 2 8 E 391°8
83:31 6 : e 423°
82°65 6 " i 430°4
82°20 2 = iv 435°1
81:39 2 £ " 443-7
81:13 a * _ 446-4
80-4 2n - . 4540
79:0 nth ‘ 469
78°75 2n : 471°5
76:12 2 9:3 499-2
TET 2b Me 504
753 2b as s 508
T4717 2 i i 513°5
72°96 2 ae ae 532°6
70°31 2 3 - 560:0
69:82 2 5 5659
67:20 10 i * 593-7
66°5 2b fe ie 601
65°71 4 = . 609°6
63°80 10 + ‘ 629-9
62°80 4 0°86 x 640°5
62°31 2 - a 645:8
60-60 2n a se 664:0
59°3 2b by = 678
57°55 2 3 a 696°6
56:46 2 a “s 7083
56:03 2 m a 7129
54:00 8 Fr 9-4 734-5
523, op leader
” ”
51:44 2n ¥ ay 762:0
50°85 6 Be 768°4
49 00 6 a oa 7882
48:76 10° a Hi 790'8
45:10 2A i * 830°5

43-62 4 % Bs 846-2

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 135

Are Spectrum

Hasselberg

Rowland and
Harrison

VANADIUM—continued,

Spark
Spectrum

Exner and
Haschek

3043°27
42°39
41°52
39°9
38°63
35°28
34°55
33°99
33°55
32°30
3L15
29°65
28°15
27:70
25:08
23.99
22°70
22°29
20°4
19-1
16°81
16:20
16:03
14:87
13:12
12:09
09-60
08°61
07:37
06°57
05:87
03-50
02:72
01°82
01-28

2999°57
99°30
98-00
96:7
96:05
94:59
89:72
89-67
89°35
88:07
85:25
83°62
83°10
82°82
82:00
81:27
796
79°16
78°25
77°60

Intensity and

Character Vacuum
1
Arc Spark] A+ =
2 0°86 9:4
8 ? ”
6 »” 5)
2n 9 ”
4 ” ”
2 ” ”
2 ” ”
8 ” ”
sr ” ”
2 > ”
2n ” »”
2 ” ”
6 ” ”
4 ” ”
6 ” ”
6 ae 9°5
6 0°85 a
2 ” ”
2b ” ”
2b ”» 2?
6 ”» ”
4 ” ”
4 ” 39
8 2” ”
6 ” ”
6 ” ”
2 ” ”
8 7? >
4 ” ”?
4 ” ”
4 ” ”
8 ” »
2 ”? ”
4" ” ”
10r ” ”
2 ” ”
2 ” ”
2 ” ”
2b A 9-6
8 ” ”
8 ”» ”
2n ” ”
6 ” ”
4 ch) ”
8 ” ”
6 ” ”
8 ” ”
2 ” ”
4 0:84 33
4 ” ”
8 ” th]
2b x %
2 ” ”
4 ” ”

Reduction to

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

32850:0

859°9
868°9
886
900°1
936°5
944-4
950°5
9553
968-9
981°5
997-7
330141
019-0
037°6
059°4
073°5
078:0
099
»113
136°2
144°8
146'8
159°4
178°7
189°9
2175
228°4
242°1
250°9
258°7
285°0
293°6
303°6
309°7
328°6
331°6
346°1
360
367°7
3840
438°3
438°9
442°5
4566
4873
5067
5126
515°7
5249
533°1
552
5569
567°1
5745

136 REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.
ee A ee OK Se 2S Seb ab i Te ah

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Are Spectrum Bpedicai Ciliesetee Vacuum Be ie
| requency
Rowland and} Exner and 1 in Vacuo
Hasselberg FinkriGh Faschok Arc Spark} A+ 3
2976°56 10r | 0°84 | 96 33586°4
76°20 8 ” ” 590°3
75:70 8 + ‘i 5959
74:06 6 » 614:4
72°31 10 +. + 634:2
71°65 2 ” ” 641°7
70°53 2 ” 97 654-3
69°93 2 ” ” 661°1
68°40 12r 5 is 678°4
68°15 4n Pe i 681:2
67°65 2 ” ” 687:0
64-1 2b ” ” 728
63°34 2 ” ” 7359
62°87 2 ” ” 7413
62:10 2 ” ” 750-0
60:87 2 ” ” 764-1
58°68 6 ” ” 789-1
57-74 10 s 3 7999
56-70 2 ” ” 8118
55°65 6 * - 823'8
64°45 2 nr +. 837-5
‘ ” ” 843-4
52°12 10r A rf 864-2
61°65 4 3 Pe 869'7
50°40 8 - x 884-0
49:70 2 » 892°1
49°24 8 : * 897-4
48:15 8 i a 909:9
159. ab | | ee
; : ” ” 936
44°68 10r “ 9°8 949°7
i + és 66:2
42°48 4 0°83 on 975°1
41°51 10r a8 3 988°3
38°35 4 5 . 34022°3
ue 2 ee 029-0
37:13 4 a 7 037:0
35°99 2 oe “5 050°3
34:48 8 a - 067-7
33°95 4 0 = 073-9
32°42 8 - +5 091:7
32°00 4 x es 096'5
31°73 4 is . 099-8
30:96 St ||: eae 108-7 °
30°25 6 ‘s Ks 117-0
29-12 2 sh 130-1
2540 ves |e? tte
24-79 0c |e a 180°7
24:14 10r a5 = 188°2
23°47 6 - - 196°1
22°75 2n aS a 2046

20°50 | | 10 fi i 230°9

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 187

VANADIUM—-continued.

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Are Spectrum Spectrum Character Vacuum | Oscillation
—_— |} ccm Frequency
Rowland and; Exner and 1 in Vacuo

Hasselberg

Harrison Haschek Are | Spark| a+ -
2920°11 8 0°83 | 9:8 342354
18-32 6 a 4 256-4
17°41 8 ‘5 “! 267-1
16:00 6 Pe 283°6
15°46 6 és i 2900
14:97 4 re RA 295°8
14:40 6 3 “ 302°5
13°85 2 Fr a 309-0
13:17 2n a a 316°9
12:7 2b oe a 322'5
11:78 4 rf ue 333°3
11:17 8r As re 340°6
10°50 8r Fe F 348°5
10°15 8r ij Fe 3526
08-96 8r - a 366°6
08:56 6 iz a 371:3
07:60 8 a 5 382°7
06°60 8r ~ . 394°5
05°75 6 is es 404°6
05:13 6 = - 411°9
04:23 2 re ot 422°6
03°70 rl 0'8 ¥ 428°9
03:20 8r PA - 4348
00-06 2 ee i 472-1
2899°5 2b = - 479
98-02 4 i a 496°4
96:98 2 + 10:0 508°8
96°31 8 a i 516°7
95°74 2 s B 523-5
94:96 2 - é 532°8
94°78 2 55 re 5349
93°47 10r ‘i - 550°5
92°82 10r 7 5 558°3
92°51 6 + = 562:0
91:78 10r ae “- 570°8
90°69 4 * 0 583°8
90-28 4 Ri > 588'7
89:71 ‘| 10r 33 is 595°6
88°36 10 . aa 6116
87:30 4 a Fr 624°4
87:08 4 - 93 627-1
84:91 12r 3 653°1
84:20 4 a Ee 661:°7
82°60 10 + fr . 680°9
80:92 6 + rp, 701°1
80:14 10 ” os 710°5
79:26 6 a a 7211
78:40 2 + 5 7315
78:13 2 5 3 7348
77:80 8 J i 738°8
77-05 4 Ee ‘ 7478
75:78 6 ¥3 7632
74:34 2 = 7 780°6
73:30 6 43 7 7932
71°61 2 F- F 813°6

138 REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to

Are Spectrum Spectrum Character Vacuum | Oscillation
—_—_____—__| Frequency
in Vacuo
Hasselborg |Papendand) Wemeiee, | Are |Spark| a+ | F-
2870°66 2 0°82 | 10-1 348251
70°27 4 Ps » 829°3
70:08 4 - Pf 832-1
69°22 12 rl ec 8426
68°24 2 4 0 854-4
66°75 2n ” 872°6
66:57 2n ” » 8748
64-60 8 0°81 % 898°7
64:0 2b % i 906
63:1 2b rf a 917
62°41 L i ( 923°5
61:53 2 yy 935-2
60°11 2 7 = 953-0
58:1 2n + ‘: 968
55:39 6 7 iy 35011°3
4-41 12 E 023-4
53°85 2 ‘ 040'3
53°01 2n . 040°5
52°63 6 3 045'2
51°36 4 re ai 060°8
50°33 10 ; 7 073°5
49°19 8 = 087°5
47-65 10 sn LO 106-4
46°70 2 : FS 118:1
46°40 2 5 3 121°8
45°37 8 ne 134°6
44:95 2 " x 139°8
44°4 2n 30a hee aes 147
43°97 4n * eS 151:9
43°35 2 3 is 159°5
42°83 2 m 5 166:0
42°50 2n 5 + 1701
42:2 2n ss es 174
41:20 8 % 5 186°1
40°72 4 6 a 192°1
40 24 4 _ a 198:0
39°52 2 = - 207°0
38°64 2 % i 217°9
38°16 4 ‘ . 223-8
36°62 8 s $ 243-0
35:7 2n ip : 254
35°55 in |e * 256'3
34°75 6n 3 * 266°2
32°55 2 5 “4 293°6
31°8 4b % . 303
31:15 2n 4 % 3111
30°9 2b “5 i 314
30°52 6 b y 319:0
28°75 2 “6 > 341-1
271 2n Ay 3 362
26:02 8n i » 375:2
25:20 2n 3 385°5
24°59 2 080 | ,, 393'1
22°6 8br ay LOS 419

21°26 6 a 0 4348

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 139

VANADIUM —continued.

eS eee

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Are Spectrum Seeatritin Chanactte Vacuum Oscillation
—_———— | ———__— eae ee
1 in Vacuo
Hasselberg Boriens ins ae nA Are | Spark] A+ 7%
2819°56 6 0:80 | 10°3 35456'2
18:70 2n Pe e 467:0
17°61 8 x 4 481:7
16°30 2n 5 < 497°2
15°70 2 » ” 504'8
15°10 2 ” f 512°3
15:03 4 . ss 513-1
14:40 2 cen ae 521-3
13°41 2 ” ” 5338
12-9 2n ” 3 540
12°32 2 ” ” 547°5
19/12 penta ee 5501
11°74 2 ” i 554-9
10°39 12 ” ” 571°9
09°66 6 ” ee 581-2
08°85 2 on a 591°5
08°39 6 ” 0 5973
08-2 2n ” ” 600
07:05 2n ” fy 6144
06:95 2 ” BS 615°6
06:67 2 * oP 619-1
06:2 2b x e 626
05°69 6 re Rs 631°6
04°58 2 ¢ or 645°6
03°60 10 7 “rp 658°4
02°93 8 oe He 666°6
01°15 6n - cf 689°3
00°23 2 oe fr 701:0
2799°59 10 yh) 59 709°0
98°88 8 » | 104 7182
98°40 2 + af 7243
97°93 8 rr is 730°4
97°60 2n rs fc 7345
97:12 8 oc 4 740°6
95°61 4 oF 3 760'0
95:02 4b ay F 767°5
94:50 2n “5 i 774:2
94:02 2 a " 780°3
92-6 2b* “ He 7985
91:7 4b’ 5) rf 810
90:2 2b 5 ae 829
88°8 2b 5 ay 847
88°11 6n 7) aa 856'2
87:2 4b 5 or 868
87:18 Hin: & of or 868-1
86:0 4b - 5 883
84:40 8b re i 904:0
84:1 2b i! af 907
83°12 2 0-7 +: 920°6
82°70 2 % 925'9
81:69 12n a ‘3 939:0
80°25 2b = e 957°6
78°75 8b” “a a 977:0
78:23 2 es s 983-7

17°86 10 ia iS 988°5

140 REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.

lAvie(peatearn Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
P Spectrum Character Vacuum Oscillation
| Frequency
Rowland and} Exner and 1 in Vacuo
Hasselberg Harrison iSiecaitel = Are | Spark] At le
2776°4 2n 0°79 | 10°4 36007
75°69 8 ” ” 016°6
75°11 4 ” 10°5 026°0
74°81 6 ” ay 028:0
74:40 8 7 a 033°3
73°82 2 > + 040°9
72:2 10b* 4 “ 062
71:60 8n ay * 069°7
71:12 2 ” ” 075'9
69°84 6 of) y 092°7
68°69 10 “A oe 107'7
48°24 6 By ~~ 113°4
eueo a ” ” 126°4
i ” 135'1
65°81 Tm oe 145-2
eg a “A - 165°0
; n rf F 1715
62°7 4n"” ” E. 186
61°53 2n "s ; 2013
; ” ’ 218:0
59-25 Bohl as 4 231:3
58°95 4 7 as 235°2
58°67 4n 3 - 238-9
a et: | Sila
3 n ” 67
55:20 iat] eee 284:5
53°54 16b* ae 7 306-4
i n ” ” 336:0
50°2 4b a3 10°6 350
48:6 2n = 8715
47:55 10 % Ay 385°5
46:00 2 oa 406:0
44:63 2 Pi b 424-9
43°85 4 > Pa 4345
42°80 6 + ” 448°5
42:53 6 & ‘p 452°1
aan a 0:78 +. a
; ” >” 4 1
39°80 8 55 > 488°4
39°30 4n e rf 4951
37:42 2 3 a 5197
irae |
pa o ’ ” Y
35°55 on | > . 545-1
34.05 a | | eee
33-8 anil) a é 568'5
33:15 4n Pe i 677°2
32°35 4n Fe i 588:0
31°50 2 ‘S 599°3
2981 10), 1 ne
28-06 2 ilies 4 645°5

a

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 14]

VANADIUM—continued.

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Are Spectrum | peanut Charice Vacuum Oscillation
ee Frequency
Hasselberg pees oe ees Arc Spark| A+ i a ha

2726°67 6 0-78 | 10°6 36664'1
24°80 2 “ ay 689°2
24°52 2 f a 693-0
23°59 6 ) FP 705°5
23°34 6 rf " 708 9
22°73 2 » “. (alt
22°40 2 Fr aa 721°6
21:9 2n Fr Pr 728
21:30 2 7 a 736-4
20°35 2n rp A 749°3
18°55 2n FS " 773°6
1871 2n + a 780
17°56 2 “F 3 787:0
15°80 16 op a 810'9
15:20 2n 7 re 8190
14°31 6 “ 9 8311
13°20 6 6 of 8861
13:0 4n a PA 849
12-4 8n on 7 857
11°88 10 “f os 8641
10°30 4 Ap 55 885°6
09:2 2b $s 5 900°5
08°68 2 rf of 907°7
08:00 10 =n a 916°9
06:87 10 rs 3 932°3
06°34 8 oP a 939-6
06:24 8 Fi 107 940°0
05°34 6 a ay 953°2
03-26 2 “f f 981-6
02°31 14 AY re 994-7
01°66 2 ” 10°8 37003°5
OL-16 10 ae + 010°3
01:01 6 A “ 012°3

2699°82 2n PA “a 027°7
99:27 2 ” Ps 036°3
98°83 2 0-77 - 042:3
97°86 2 + Re 055°6
97°31 4 53 f 063°2
97:16 2n "5 5 065°2
96°65 4n a PH 072°3
94°85 6n “e s 097:0
94-6 | 2n 3 100°5
9371 2n v7 4 121:2
90°91 12 A is 151-4
90°41 10 $s Fe 158°3
89°99 10 55 se 164-1
88°82 10 Fr 8 180°2
88-12 10 7 s 189°9
87:90 8 el ies 193°0
87:7 | ie; Glam jini) eee’ ss 196
86°60 2 ieee es 211:0
85°77 | 6 . a 222-5 |
85:22 | 6 is s 230°1
84:91 6 ss - 234-4

83°5 2b ; . 254

142 REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Arc Spectrum Spectrum Character Vacuum Oscillation
| —_________} _____|____| Frequency
Rowland and} Exner and 1 in Vacuo
Hasselberg Haetan TWacchor Arc | Spark) A+ fie
268321 10 077 | 108 37258°0
82°98 10 5 4 261°2
82°60 2 5 Ey 266°5
fe . 1 ” ” 295'1
A ’ ” 3111
78°66 12 [109 321-2
7791 12 “0 3 331-7
77°25 2 re 4 340°8
76:3 4b “7 aS 354
74:27 2nr # “6 382'°5
73°40 8n “4 FA 3946
72:11 14 3 a 412°7
70°38 10 eS 436°9
69°08 2 =F 455°1
68°70 2 es 460°5
68°18 4n A ss 4678
67°65 2 5 3 475'3
He he)
65°5 a”| ” | ” | ° S058
63°42 18 “ * 534'8
62°45 2 a 55 5485
61°67 10 5 s; 559°5
59-74 8 = es 5867
59°10 8 ” ” 597-7
58°62 4 3 — 602°6
35.82 ie || |
54-50 m | 076! | 661-0
53°94 2 » {11:0 668'8
52°90 10 +5 oA 683°6
52:03 2n = a 6959
ae = 3 a 700°6
: n ’ ’ 09
50°55 2n Z 4 7170
49°50 16 a i 7320
as 12 - “A 752°8
ba S ” ” 7559
ds S a ” 3° Soe
; n ” ’ xs
| 45:90 14 ater 783°
45°38 2n - zs 720'7
44:50 16 - ef 803°3
43°8 4b 2 09 813
aoe 4 ” ” 821°5
42°32 14 * ‘ Lk
41-05 16 ‘ 4 852°7
40:40 2 ‘ 3 861-0
ie a
ay | ” ” y
37°81 5 Woes : 899:2
| 37°30 Qn i < 9066

| 3613 : 2n 11.5) “1 yy, 0) eee

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 1438

VANADIUM—continued.

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Are Spectrum Spectrum Character Vacuum Oscillation
te eas
in Vacuo
-Hasselberg | Poping and) Etusckek | Are | Spark) a+ | 2—
2635°73 6 0-76 | 11:0 37929°1
35°52 ; 4n fp 3 932:2
34-64 2n o <,, 9448
34:02 | 2n i 3 wip cy!
33°31 2n 5 a 9640
32°50 | 2n 3 sd 9757
30°72 12 o lil 38001°3
29°88 10n oe Fe 013°4
28°88 8n s 027:9
28°35 2n - F 035°6
28-2 2n » ” 038
25°73 2 “¢ 3 073°5
25:00 8n 3 BS 0841
23°86 8n e 3 100:7
22°85 8n 33 | 115-4
21:9 8b “9 “= 129
20°4 2b a 3 151
20:2 2b a 4 154
19°55 2n A é 163-7
18°5 2b 5 E 178
17:28 6n 3 | 196°5
16°75 6n 3 a 2042
16°31 8 is Pe 210°6
15°50 8n + 3 222°5
14:49 6 5 Fe 237°3
139 4b . 7 246
12°4 4b iz ag 268
11:6 4n “ 3 280
11:35 6n “ a 283°3
10°8 8b sy a 291
2509-91 2 0:75 i 304-4
09°68 2 Pye pla ie 307°8
08°11 i | 6n ey 3 3307
07°5 2n =H 3 340
06°60 20. a a 353-0
05:8 4b Pr S 365
03°52 6n 5 3983
03°05 6n a PS 405:2
02°40 4n “f Fo 414:8
01:20 &n tH eS 432°5
00:65 20 “A a 440-7
00°15 2 ” ” 448-1
98°9 2n 3 . 467
97°33 4 =F % 489°8
96°55 ' 2n » % BOLE
95:20 16 ~ BS 521-4
94:0 2n » _ 539
93°83 2n » 2 542
93°18 16 ; 4 549-9
92°32 2 9 3 564:3
91°68 2 = tie 5738
91:3 ; 2b . Fe 579
} 90°7 | 2b ” | ” 588
| 90°3 | 2b 39a + Seas 694
88:39 ‘a2 cea 6144

144 REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—-continued.
LLL
Spark Intensity and | Reduction to

pre Epon Spectrum Character Vacuum | Oscillation
—— = — re ae
1 in Vacuo
Hasselberg |Powland and) Hamer and | avo | Spark| A+ | 2—
2588°55 2 0-75 |11:2 38620°5
88:22 2 yy kes 625°3
87°5 4b ie * 636
85:02 10 5 - 673°1
83°7 2b % ” 693
83°12 6 ” ” 701°5
81:95 2 a - 7191
78°53 4 ” ” 770°4
7778 10 ” ” 781-7
17°39 2 ” ” 7875
76°56 6 ” ” 800°1
76°20 2 * 3 805°5
74:61 10 ” ” 829°5
74-14 4 Pe 3 8366
73°3 4b 5 ” 849
72°85 4n ” ” 856'1
72:0 6b ” ” 869
7114 10 ” ” 881°9
68°47 4n . 11:4 922°3
68°18 2 is » 926°6
67°6 4b ” ” 935°5
66°70 6n ” ” 949-2
66:13 4 ” ” 957'9
65°8 2n * ” 963
65°65 4 ” ” 965°1
65°32 2 ” ” 970°2
64:90 4 0°74 7 976'5
64°25 6n ” ” 986°4
63°45 6b a : 998°6
62°87 6 ” ” 39007'4
62°3 4b ” ” 016
613 2b | » » 031
60°25 ” ” 047°4
59°20 2n |» : 063-4
58°99 2 5 s 066°5
56°87 2 A 098°9
56:00 10 55 5 112-2
55°6 2b a ” 118
54:93 2 Pn 5 128°6
54:30 14 i h 1383
53°76 8 a ay 146°6
53°11 12 ss a 156°6
52°75 2n a cf 16271
52°35 2n ¥ * 168°2
51°83 6 in x 176°6
50°7 2n < = 194
49°76 4 - 3s 208°0
49°36 14 - i 214°2
48°80 12 s 11:5 222-7
48:28 14 i foe 230:7
| 46°40 2 SMe eet ll. eae os
46:00 2 Jats ney 265°8
45°79 2 ab bis 269°1
45°54 4 53 a 272'9
44-40 4n FA a 290'5

a

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 145

VANADIUM—continued.

Aral Siteut Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
ea eeu Spectrum Character Vacuum | Oscillation
NE ooo gig end
in Vacuo
Hasselberg other lee Henen pe Are | Spark] a+ a

2543°75 2 0:74 | 11:5 39300°5
43-05 2 Poe ae 311-4

42°6 10g) |... : 318
41:90 2 eh ” 329°2
4)-1 2b Fr Fr 341°5

39°3 ry ae J 369
37-67 6 4 4 394-7
35-20 2 2 i 433-1
34-60 8 i 2 442'5
34-34 2 2 aH 446°5
34-04 4 = i 451-2
33°93 4 Dp ” 452°9
32-07 ro 4 ae ee 481-9
31-71 2 7 A 487°5
31-23 2 : ; 493-4
30-22 4 ig Tan 510°7
28-97 14 i 4 5302
28°59 14 iz i 536 1
28-00 18 é i B45-4
26°80 16 He s 5642
25-63 2 ¥ ‘ BS2°5
25-44 2 y, { 5854
25-07 10 . ; 591-2
23-76 4 ie sf 611°8
23:50 2 4 ; 615°9
22-95 2 eC iae 6245
22-60 6 + i 630°
22:50 4 ts ie 631-7
21°62 12 . a 645°6
21-30 10 ce 7 650°5
20°85 Ce a iq 657-6
20°40 on | | + 664-6
19°77 ane) 4, Gi 674:9
19:2 aha ‘ 683°5

18:7 2b | 2 if 691
18:07 2n * A 7013
17:54 2 0:73 7 709'7
17-20 4 ia 4 715-1
16-19 14 * 4 731-0
15°76 2 Es r 7378
15:20 2 “ J 746'6
14-70 12 e i 754-6

13°7 2b “ + 770
13-43 Sa Bl i 774-6
12°95 2n aS ss 782:3

12°5 2b oe AS 789
12:05 + “5 11:7 796°5
11:74 4 i if 801°3

11:3 2b rh a 808
10:90 2 re + 8146
10°37 2 is g 823-0
ee - Be ie ty 830-4
08:93 2 mb 8458
07:87 4 2 + 862°8
07°70 § x i 865°5

1901. L

146 REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.

rE ila Rea Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
P Spectrum Character Vacuum Oscillation

> Mia =e Frequency
Hasselberg Hoviend snd ee Are | Spark] a+ =~ in Vacuo
250697 4 0:73 | 11:7 39877°1
06:27 10 ” + 8882
05°63 2 ” ee 898-4
05°32 2 ” a 903°9
05:02 2 3 a 908°1
04°34 4 ” af 918-9
03:98 2 ” ” 924-7
03°33 2n ” 7 935-1
03:08 10 ” 5 939°0
02°44 2 » A; 949°3
01°67 4 ” + 961-6
01:20 2 ” A 9691
00°10 2n ” y 986°7
2499-30 2 ” As 999-4
99°12 2 ” 7 40002'3

98°3 2b ”» 43 O15
97:08 2 ” + 035-0
95°85 2 Ph + 0547
94:20 2n ” ns 081:2
93°66 4 » = 089-9
92:4 2b ”» A 1103
91:24 2 x (Lis 128°9
90°74 2 ” Fs 136°9
89°86 2 ” Ee 1511
88°66 4 ” * 1705
88:20 4 ” 6 1779

87°6 2b 9 A 188
85°55 2 5 és 220°7
84:27 2 ” BA 241°5
83°40 2 » a4 255°5
83°11 10 5 3 260°3
82°39 10 ” a 272:0
80°68 2n a 7 299:7
79°60 12 ” AS 3173
79:09 12 9 + 325°5
78:64 8 % ‘. 332°9
76:33 4 ” TIES 370°4
75°92 6 ” . 377-1
75°49 6 PA 5 3841

74:8 2b » iy 395
72°94 2 ri 5 4258
71:18 6 3 4 4546
69°85 2n | 0-72 ‘ 476°4
69°46 2 3 “5 482°8
68°69 2 +5 * 495-4
65°34 10 ” is 550°5
64:14 6 + eA 570-2
62°99 8 > 5 589°2
61:57 8 ” » 612°5
60°65 2n ” ” 627°7
59°40 rs ” 12:0 648°3
59°31 2 By 5 649°8
58°35 8 ” i 665°7
| 57°85 2 ” 3 674-0
57°50 8 ” ue 679°7

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 147

VANADIUM—continued.

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Are Spectrum Seecianim Ghakaait Vacuum Oscillation |
a i i ae eS —] . | Frequency
Hasselberg | Rowland and Menge and | ig | Spark| A+ 1. in Vacuo
245656 2 0:72 | 12:0 40695'6
53°90 2 5) » 739'5
53°41 10) gs 4 7475
52°83 2 rn PA 7572
52:1 2b +5 *» 769
51°6 2b “h > 778
50°80 2 + . 791:0
50°69 2 * > 792°8
50°29 4 ss > 799°5
48°50 2 ih 5 829°3
47:70 10 as “c 842°7
46°75 8 % # $585
45°61 2 7 » 8776
45°38 2 + 2 881-4
45:00 10b” c i 887°8
42°65 2n is 12:1 927:0
41°96 2 a + 938°8
41°71 2 % 3 942°8
41-40 2 si +. 948-0
39°81 2 % f 974-7
39°35 Fe 6 i i 982°4
39°17 2 x » 985°4
39°09 4 of) £ 41003°5
36°62 2 % h 028-4
35°56 4 aa - 0462
33:05 6 . 5 088°5
32:06 2 + f 105°3
31°65 2 és 4 112°3
30°10 10 rs » 138°5
28°35 4 a ‘ 168-1
27:80 4 + 12:2 177'4°
27°37 6 ty 184:7
26:18 2 A x 205:0
24°83 2n = s 227°8
24:23 2 i 4 248-1
23°47 2 = be 251:0
23°27 Fe 2 es ly 2544
23-11 2 i 4 2571
22:06 4 - 4 2750
21:15 4 O71 5 290°6
20°20 4 53 + 306°7
18°80 2 39 s 330°6
17-60 10br - Af 3612
16°84 4 5 366°4
15:40 2 $3 BS 388'8
15°23 4 fe + 391°8
14:00 14 5 a 412°8
13:15 2 s 4 427°4
12°80 4 : 12°3 433°3
08°53 4 5 z 506°8
08:01 2 i » 5158
07:70 2 2 3 5211
07:25 12 i Ke 5289
05°96 2 94 KS 551°2
05:30 = 16 . 5 562°7

L2

148

Arc Spectrum

Hasselberg

Rowland and
Harrison

|

REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Spectrum Character Vacuum
ine es Are Spark} A+ ; -
2403°35 4 O71 | 12:3

02°01 4 6 ”

00:99 4 “5 i
2399°77 12 as ?

98:22 2n 5 “

97°74 2 A »

97:2 2n 3 2

97-1 2n Fs PS

96°62 2 » |124

9571 2n ” »

93:70 18 » -

92°8 2n ” ”

91:33 2 “A oy

90°56 4 i. 5

89°79 8 “A “

89:01 2 7 a

88°35 2 af

88:0 2b ” ”

87:04 2 “A

86°51 2 ” ”

85:92 6 ” ”

85:70 4 ” ”

85°05 2b ” ”

84:09 8 ” ”

83°55 22 | » "

82°59 16 ” ; ”

81:00 10 spe een

80°3 2n ” ”

79°24 10.2 Sn ee

77-0 2b ” ”

759 2n ” ”

74°75 2 ” ”

74:2 2n ” ”

73°15 10 0:70") %,

72°67 2 ” ”

72°25 6 Ss *

71:19 18 a

67-71 6 as .

66:96 2 ss i

66°53 4 B

66°40 16 * +

65°73 2 5 ss

62°71 4 <5 a

60°42 6 3 se

58°82 14 “ 12°6

57°89 6 i a

57°60 2b 3 ~

56°3 2n » ”
55°3 2 ” ”

54:74 4 - A

52:25 10 ss =

51°64 6 7 12:7

51°33 4 - oe

49°87 8 ” ”
49°37 2n ” ”

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

415964

619°6
637°5
658-4
685°3
693°7
703
705
W131
740
7639
780
805'4
8188
832°3
8459
8571
864
880°5
889°9
9002
9040
915-4
932°5
941°9
958°8
9867
999
420178
057
077
097:2
108
125°6
132°4
159°5
160°6
222-4
235°7
243°5
245°8
257:3
311-7
352°8
3816
398°2
4034
427
445
455:0
500:0
510°9
516°5
5429
5438

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 149

VANADIUM—continued.
on ee Se A ee Ee ee eee

Rie Spacican Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
P Spectrum Character Vacuum | Ogeittation
Enrol Cl = oll Frequency
Hasstberg |P@plendend] Bemererd | ary |spark| ay | 2 | im Vecw
2348°30 8 0°70 | 12:7 42571°5
47-57 2 se _ 584'8
47:20 8 FF fi 591°3
46°92 6 Fes + 596-4
46°41 10 . 8 605°8
43°91 6 ig 5 651:0
43:20 10 ; a 664:2
42:26 10 as 5 681:2
41:49 2 ‘i > 695:3
40°6 2b rf + 711
39°9 2n es + 724
39:02 2 i 12°8 740°3
37°46 6 3 7688
37:28 8 3 A T7231
36°20 6 a ” 791°8
35°59 6 % op 803:0
35°44 2 ot ~) 8058
34°30 10 a x 8268
33°70 6 ae ‘ 833°6
31°86 10 - cr 871-4
31:38 6 # “ 880°4
30°53 12 i " 896:0
30°3 6n as + 900
29:03 8 ~ 923'8
28-2 2b - + 939:0
26°13 4 a 12°9 97771
25:22 10 0:69 ” 9939
23°92 12 3 =P 43017'8
19:91 4 # F 092:2
19:07 8 + 6 1078
18:10 10 i * 1259
17°61 6 i A 135-0
16°8 2b 5 fn 150
158 2b Pe a 169
15:07 2 fe a 1823
14:25 8 a x 197-8
12°5 2b 5 es 230
11-40 8 5 13:0 251°0
09°91 8 5 + 278°7
09°14 2 i re 293°3
08:87 2 ts " 298°2
08°35 2b a a 308°1
06°45 2n a " 343°8
04:82 2 3 ” 374:3
03°29 2 x “ 403°2
02°30 2 - os 421°8
2297:01 8 Be ” 504°8
96:93 C2 | 4 is + 523°3
96°39 2 - 13:1 533°6
95°91 2 i 9 542°6
95°65 4 3 A: 547°6
95:55 4 Fs “ 549°5
95-03 6 a 33 659°4
92:91 8 ss Fe) 599°6
92 64 6 F, % 6048

150 REPORT—1901.

VANADIUM—continued.

‘Age Reber Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
EN a Spectrum Character Vacuum | Ogcillation
oe ee : ey
Hasselberg mac a aie ss Are | Spark} A+ Ta ind tases
2291°5 2n 0°69 | 13:1 | 43626
90°62 6 ” ” 636°7
89:27 4 ” ” 656-4
88°69 4 ” 3 674:7
88:12 4 ” + 691-1
85°50 6 ” ” 7409
84:98 2 ” ” 750°9
84°80 2 ” ~ 754-4
84:6 2n ” 15 758
83°85 4 ” ” 7725
83°42 4 ” ” 780°8
82-92 2 ” 7 790°3
81°66 4 ” ” 814°6
81:27 4 ” ” 822:0
80°38 4 ” - 847'1
79°78 4 ” + 850°7
79°40 2 ” ” 858:0
78:99 4 ” ” 865°9
78:16 2 ” ” 88271
75:97 2 0°68 4 924°1
75°62 2 » oF 930'9
75°28 4 ” + 937°5
73°69 2 ” 13°3 968'1
73:09 4 ” ” 978°2
71:92 2 “ “5 44002'3
71:22 2 a » 015'8
69-2 2n . F 3 055
68°35 4 5 is 069:0
67°7 2n 9 ” 084
64:43 2 ” 7 1479
63:7 2n ” ” 162
62°44 2 » 13-4 1868
61:9 2 + * 197
61°44 2 % » 212°3
60:90 2 yy ” 216°8
58°83 + + 5 257°3
57:04 2 + 5: 292°5
53:00 2 y a 3719
51°60 2 -p 7 399°5
51:20 2 PA + 407°4
50°8 2n ” ” 415
50°50 2n * 13°5 4211
49°13 6 ; a 4481
43°50 2 as + 5438
41°57 8 os “: 5982
40°66 4 “5 i 6161
37:25 2 . 13°6 684°2
32:97 10 x 5 769°8
30:05 4 . 828-4
29°81 4 0°67 % 833°3
| 28°33 4 ” ” 863'2
22°79 4 op 13°7 974'8
21°58 2 7 + 999-2
20°29 2 =H ‘ 45025°5

ON WAVE*LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 151

VANADIUM— continued,

Spark Intensity and | Reduction to
Are Spectrum Gnesimisn Character Vacuum | Ogcillation
—_— Frequency
Rowland and} Exner and ue in Vacuo
Hasselberg Harrison Haschek Ars Spark | A+ Be
2218°51 6 0°67 | 13:7 | 45061°5
18:07 4 6 * 070°5
te see pasar
” ”
15:92 2n rf ~ 114:3
14:11 6 3 13°8 151:3
10:40 2 oF i: 226°8
10°19 2 Fp 7 233°0
09°31 4 cs, PA 249°3
09:02 4 3 7 255'3
07°83 2 7 279°6
04°60 2 y A 3459
02°62 ; ig 13°9 3863
01:77 A 1 44671
2199°72 2 " . 446-4
99°57 2 5 rf 449°5
af piled eee
” ” :
95°82 an” A ny 527:1
94:98 2 P| os 5446
93:03 2 5 4 585:2
91:20 2 “ 7 6080
90°60 2 4 14:0 639°6
90°30 2 x, > 6418
87:00 2 i 5 710°7
86:02 2 4 a 7311
85°45 2 a * 743°2
84:25 2 A: Fs 768°3
82:30 2n a F 809°1
81:95 2 +) 8166
17:3 2n 0°6 5 915
77:0 2n 3 14:1 921
759 2 A . 944
73:2 2 Ay yy 46001
71:9 2 7 . 047°5
66:2 2n | 7 134
63:7 2n Es 14:2 207
61°6 2n A rp 248
51:9 2 4 re 456
51‘1 2 if 14:3 474
50:9 2 | Fr 478
484 2 3 ri 532
475 2 4 14-4 551
46:0 2 a Hf 584
43:1 2 y 7 627
42:0 2 Fr 3 671
40-1 2 F | mY 7125
39°8 2 4. 14°5 719
381 2 . 7 756
37:3 4 z ” 774
34:1 4 a a 844
33°0 2 R 4 868
318 2 A rr 894

152 REPORT—1901.

Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor W. A. TILDEN (Chairman) and Dr. H. E. ARM-
STRONG (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

TuE investigation of the bromo-derivatives of 8-naphthol, referred to in
several previous reports, has been continued during the year with the
assistance of Mr. W, A. Davis, and practically completed. The results
are embodied in the following tables :—

Isomeric Bromo-B-Naphthols.

Bromo-derivative

as lea naphthol and
OH
Ex dibromo No. 1 and

Monobromo-f-naphthols.

iodhydric acid at
se mat tempera-
ture.

No. .
OH
[ch

B-naphthol in
Poa acetic acid

and 2Br,.

4

2

a.

3

5

ue

s

5 | No. 2.

| \ on

Ex tribromo-naphthol
| No. 1, and iodhydric
acid at 100°,

Properties

Slender needles, easily
soluble in acetic acid,
m.p. 82°,

From benzene in long
needles, m.p. 127°;
from glacial acetic
acid in massive crys-
tals, m.p. 84°, which
effloresce in air,

Acetate, m.p. 103°.

From glacial acetic
acid in lustrous nee-
dles + 1 mol. C,H,0,,
m.p. 84° ; from light
petroleum in slender
needles, m.p. 106°.

Acetate, lustrous plates,
m.p. 1

From toluene in silky
needles, m.p. 137°5°.
Acetate, ex acetone in
ge rhombs,

m.p. 1

Convertible by HNO,
into

1- Mite aa” i CEE,
m,p. 1

1 - Nitro - 2 - naphthol,
m,p. 103°.

(1) 1-Nitro-6-bromo-2-
naphthol; from al-
cohol in __ slender
yellow needles, m.p.
122°.

(2) 1-Bromo - 8 - naph-
thaquinone (m.p. de-
pendent on rate of
heating), and 4 :6-
dibromo- f - naphtha-
quinone, m.p. 171°;
both quinones crystal-
lise from ethylic ace-
tate in magnificent
red prisms,

Remarks

Readily dissolvesin iod-
hydric acid, yielding
f-naphthol,

Both the naphthol and
the dibromoquinone,
m.p. 171°, yield 4-
bromophthalic acid
on oxidation with di-
lute nitricacid. Both
the mono- and dibro-
moquinone yield with
aniline a mixture of

Oo

OH

Br 7
NPh
m.p, 273-275°,
oO
NHPh

Br
NPh
m.p. 206°.

When heated with
alcohol and H,SO,
65 hours at 100°
yields 55 per cent. of
ether, Or0H Br, 0Et,
m.p. 98°,

—— —

————— eee

ON ISOMERIC NAPHTHALENE DERIVATIVES.

Isomeric Bromo-B-Naphthols—continued.

153

Tribromo-p-naphthols,

=

Bromo-derivative | Properties

No. 3.
Br (?)

OS"
eae tribromo- W

thol No. 2 and iod-
hydric acid,

Br Br

Ex f-naphthol in
acetic solution and
3Br,.

No. 2.
Br(?) Br

Ch)”

By action of bromine

(excess) on dry B-
naphthol at 100°.

thol No, an
boiling iodhydric
acid.

From benzene and light
petroleum in long
needles, m.p. 134°5°,

Acetate, crystallises in
small colourless
needles, m.p, 87-88°.

From acetic acid in
non-effiorescent, lus-
trous needles, m.p.
155°,

Acetate, from ethylic
acetate in long,
slender, lustrous
needles, m.p. 184°,

Benzoate, m.p. 187°.

Conyertible by HNO,
into

(1) 1- Nitro - 3 : 6 -di-
bromo - B - naphthol,
slender golden needles
from alcohol; melts
and decomposes at
about 156°.

(2) 3 : 6-Dibromo-l : 2-

naphthaquinone,
from ethyl acetate in
deep -red rhombs,
or orange-red needles,
m.p. 150° ; changesin
air into
10)
\ of

De

m.p. sas

With aniline the latter
yields an additive com-
pound, O,,H,O,Br, +
O,H,NH.), crystallising
from benzene in red
prisms and decompos-
ing at 195°,

oh

From acetic acid in| (1) 1-Nitro-6 :8(?)-

small efiorescent nee-
dles + 1 mol. O,H,0,,
m.p. 159°.

Acetate, from ethyl ace-
tate or acetone in
brilliant, slender
needles, m.p. 149°.

Benzoate, ex ethyl ace-
tate in silky needles,
m.p. 164°,

From glacial acetic
acid in flat, efiores-
cent needles (with
1mol. C,H,0,) ; melts
at 134°.

Acetate, from ethylic
acetate in_ slender
lustrous needles, m.p.
147°,

dibromo-2 - -naphthol,
compact, canary-yel-
low needles from
benzene ; on heating
becomes orange at
155-160°, and melts
and decomposes at
163°,

(2) 6 : 8-Dibromo-1 : 2-
naphthaquinone,
orange-red, efflores-
cent needles from
benzene, large prisms
from ethyl acetate,

m.p. 186°,

Remarks

With alcohol and
H,SO, 6 hours at
100° yields 61:0 per
cent. of ether, which
crystallises from alco-
hol in silky tufts of
needles, m.p, 68°.

On oxidation with di-
lute HNO, the dibro-
moquinone yields 4-
bromophthalic acid ;
anhydride, m.p. 106°.

With aniline the qui-
none yields a mixture

and

On oxidation both the
naphthol and the de-
rived quinone yield a
new dibromophthalic
acid, m.p. 195-196° ;
anhydride, m.p. 147°5°,

Does not etherify when
heated with alcohol
and H,SO, at 100°.

154

REPORT—1901.

Isomeric Bromo-B-Naphthols—continued.

Bromo-derivative

No, 4.

Br (?)
\“\ of

Br | | Br (?)

Extetrabromo-f-naph-
thol No. 2 and boil-

ling iodhydric acid.

No.1.

Br

a ak

Br SVS Br
Br

Ex -naphthol in
glacial acetic acid
and excess of Br, in

presence of iron.

Tetrabromo-f-naphthols.

iron.

No. 3.

Formed along with 1
and 2 in small quan-

tity.

|

No. 1.

naphthol

tetrabromo, No. 2.

No. 2.

thol,

Pentabromo-f-naphthols,

No. 2.
Br (?) Br
i
Br el Br (?)

By excess of Br, on
dry B-naphthol at
100° in presence of

By action of bromine

in excess on dry f-
in pre-
sence of Al or Fe;
also by bromine on

Ex tetrabromo-f-naph-
No. 1, by
dropping into bro-
mine containing Al.

Properties

From acetic acid in flat,
efflorescent needles
(with 1 mol. C,H,0,);
melts at 135-136°,
Acetate, small leaflets
ex ethyl acetate, m.p.
147°,

From acetic acid in
small balls of
needles (efflorescent),
m.p. 172°.

Acetate, from ethylic
acetate in long, lus-
treless prisms, or
small six-sided plates,
m.p, 192-193°,

From acetic acid or
chloroform in long
slender needles (non-

efflorescent), m.p.
184°,
Acetate, from ethylic

acetate or acetone in
small dumbbell-like
aggregates of needles,
m.p. 155°,

Small, colourless
needles from acetic
acid, m.p. 191°.

Acetate, from acetic
acid (very sparingly
soluble) in felted
mass of needles, m.p.
210°.

Tiny colourless needles
from _ nitrobenzene,
m.p. 241°.

Acetate, ex ethylic ace-
tate, small needles,
m.p. 209°,

Acetate, m™.p.
white granules,

203°,

Convertible by HNO,
into

(1) 1- Nitro - 3:4 :6-
tribromo-g-naphthol,
dark yellow needles,
m.p. between 135-
143°, depending on
rate of heating.

(2) 3:4: 6-tribromo-
1 ; 2 - naphthaqui-
none, from ethylic
acetate in large, deep-
red nearly black
rhombs, m.p. 190°.

(1) Nitro - tribromo - B-
naphthol, yellow tufts
from alcohol, m.p.
156° (decomposes).

(2) Tribromo - £ -naph-

thaquinone from
ethylic acetate in
large red _ prisms,
mp. 183°.

Does not yield a keto-
compound initially
with HNO,, but gives
immediately a tetra-
bromo - B - naphtha -
quinone, m.p. 241°
(small red needles),

A tetrabromo-B-naph-
thaquinone, m.p.164°.

Remarks

Does not etherify.

Note close resemblance
of naphthols 3 and 4
and acetates 2, 3,
and 4,

Oxidation by dilute
HNO, converts the
naphthol and _ the
derived quinone into
4-bromophthalic acid;
anhydride, m.p, 106°.

Oxidation of either
naphthol or quinone
gives a new dibromo-
phthalic acid, m.p.
195-196° ; anhydride,
m.p, 147'5°,

Attempts at oxidation
hitherto unsuccessful.

On oxidation yields
a tribromophthalic
acid.*

» Flessa, Ber, 17, 1479.

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. 155

Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor H. McLeop (Chairman), Sir W. C. Rogerts-AUSTEN
(Secretary), Mr. H. G. Mapan, and Mr. D. H. NaGet.

Tue Committee beg to present herewith the last instalment of the list of
spectroscopic papers, continued until the end of the year 1900; it is
unnecessary to continue it farther, as the work will now come into the
hands of the compilers of the International Catalogue of Scientific Papers.

In the first report, presented in 1881, will be found a list of periodicals
from which titles have been taken, but as in recent years the work has been
entirely in the hands of only two members of the Committee, it was found
impossible to look through all the periodicals mentioned in that list. The
serials that have been recently examined are the following :—‘ Philo-
sophical Transactions,’ ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ ‘Journal of
the Chemical Society,’ ‘ Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft,’
‘Chemisches Centralblatt,’ ‘ Proceedings of the Physical Society,’ ‘ Science
Abstracts,’ ‘ Beiblatter,’ ‘ Nature,’ and ‘Chemical News.’ The abstracts
and notices contained in these periodicals have been verified by reference
to the original papers, and it is hoped that all the most important con-
tributions to the knowledge of spectroscopy have been included in the
list.

PAPERS ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH SPECTROSCOPY.

The previous instalments of this catalogue will be found in the Reports of the
Association for 1881, pp. 328-422; 1884, pp. 295-350; 1889, pp. 344-422; 1894, pp.
161-236 ; 1898, pp. 439-519,

[In cases where it has not been found possible to verify a reference, the latter is
placed in brackets, in the same column as the title of the paper. A list of the
chief abbreviations used will be found at the end of the catalogue. ]

L
INSTRUMENTAL,
1897.
J. Melander . . | Sur un prisme 4 angle variable. { ‘Oefvers. af Finska Vet.
(Read Dec, 13.) Soc. Forhandl.’ xl. 33-
35; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxii,
555 (Abs.)

)
=M.Hamy i. .| Sur un appareil permettant de | ‘C. R.’ cxxv. 1092-1094,

eS eS eee

séparer des radiations simples
trés voisines. (Read Dec. 20.)

J. Melander , .| Ein Spectrometer zur directen | ‘ Beiblitter, xxiii. 178-179
Unterscheidung der tellurischen | (Abs.)
Linien im Sonnenspectrum (‘ Fin-
ska Vet. Soc, Forh. xxxix. 247-
255).

1898,

H. Kriiss + «| Spectro-photometer mit Lummer- | ‘Zeitschr.f£. Instrumenten-
Brodhun’schen Prismenpaar,(Jan.)| kunde,’ xviii.12-18; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xxii. 839 (Abs.)

156

C. Fabry and A.
Perot.

L. M. Dennis.

H.C. Vogel .

A. A. Michelson

W. Hemmelmann .

C. Zeiss .

Q

. Pulfrich

A. Jobin

A. A. Michelson

C. Zeiss . 3
F, Pfuhl A
C. R. Mann
H. Olsen

W. A. Adeney and
J. Carson.

‘

REPORT—1901.

INSTRUMENTAL, 1898.

Sur un spectroscope interféren-
tiel. (Read Jan. 24.)

Fine neue Form des Entladers fiir
Funkenspectren in Lésungen,
(Jan.)

Einige Bemerkungen iiber den
Kirchhoff’schen Spectralapparat.
(Read Feb. 17.)

A Spectroscope without Prisms or
Gratings. (March,)

Verbessertes Absorptionsflaschchen
fiir Spectralanalyse. (April.)

Neue Construction des symmetri-
schen Doppelspaltes nach v. Vier-
ordt. (April.)

Ueber einige Neueinrichtungen an
dem Doppleprisma des Abbe’schen
Refractometers, und iiber die von
der Firma Zeiss hergestellten
Refractometer dieser Art. (April.)

. | Spectroscope interférentiel de MM.

A. Perot et Ch. Fabry.
May 20.)

The ‘Echelon’ Spectroscope. (June.)

(Read

Spectralapparat nach E. A. Wiilfing
zur Beleuchtung mit Licht ver-
schiedener Wellenlange. (July.)

Ein einfacher Apparat zur Demon-

stration des Brechunggesetzes der
Lichtstrahlen. (July.)
The Echelon Spectroscope. (Aug.)

Ueber einen Gitterspectralapparat.
(Sept.)

On the Mounting of the large Row-
land Spectrometer in the Royal
University of Ireland, (Sept.)

‘C. RR. exxvi. 331-333;
‘ Nature,’ lvii. 325
(Abs.); ‘Science Abstr,’
i. 247; ‘Chem. News,’
lxxvii. 82-83 (Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem.’
xvi. 19-21; ‘Beiblatter,’
xxii. 218 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
Centr.’ 1898, I. 428
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxiv, II. 185 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berlin,’
1898, 141-147; ‘ Nature,"
viii, 19-20 (Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci’ [4], v. 215-
217; ‘Beiblatter,’ xxiii.
555-557 (Abs.); ‘ Science
Abstr.’ i. 386; ‘Nature,’
lvii. 500 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Zeitung,’ xxii.
297-298; ‘Chem. Centr.’
1898, I. 1063 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumenten-
kunde,’ xviii. 116-117.

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumenten-
kunde, xviii. 107-116;
‘Beiblitter,” xxii. 661
(Abs.); ‘Science Abstr.’ i.
536.

‘Séances de la Soc. Frang.
de Phys.’ 1898, 46*-49*.

‘Astrophys. J.’ viii. 37-
47; ‘Nature,’ lviii, 280
(Abs.) ; * Science Abstr.’
1. 589-592.

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumenten-
kunde,’ xviii. 209-213.

‘Zeitschr. f. phys. u. chem,
Untery.’ xi..159-161.

‘Science,’ viii. 208-210.

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumenten-

kunde,’ xviii. 280-283;
‘Beiblatter, xxiii. 6557
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc. Dublin’

[N.S.], viii, 711-716;
‘Phil. Mag.’ [6], xlvi.
223-227 ; ‘Science Abstr.’
ii, 98 (Abs.)

W. W. Campbell

R. Straubel .

C. Zeiss. e

70. Pulfrich .

C. Zeiss . ‘

V. Schumann.

_E. A. Wiilfing

J. H. White .

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

C Zeiss. -

H. Starke .

©. P. Butler .

C. 8. Hastings

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

INSTRUMENTAL, 1898, 1899.

The Mills Spectrograph of the Lick
Observatory. (Oct.)

Hin Beleuchtungs apparat fiir mo-
nochromatisches Licht mit festen
Spalten. (Oct.)

Ueber Quarzspectrographen und
neuere spectrographische Hiilfs-
apparate. (Noyv.)

Ueber ein Vergleichspectroscop fiir
Laboratoriumszwecke. (Dec.)

Totalrefractometer (Krystalrefrac-
tometer) nach H. Abbe,

Verbindung eines Dichroscopes mit
einem Spectroscop.

Von den brechbarsten Strahlen
und ihrer photographischen Auf-
nahme.

Ueber einen Spectralapparat zur
Herstellung von intensivem mono-
chromatischem Licht.

1899.

Simplified Apparatus for Spectro-
scopic Photography. (Jan.)

A simple Spectroscope and its
Teachings. (Lecture, Feb. 16.)

Neues Refractometer mit Erhitz-
ungseinrichtung nach Eykman.
(March.)

Ein Refractometer zur Bestimmung
des Brechungsexponenten von
Fliissigkeiten mit dem Microscop.
(Read April 7.)

On the Use of Photographic Films

in Astronomical Photography.
(April.)

The Michelson Echelon Spectro-
scope. (April.)

A new Type of Telescopic Objective
specially adapted for Spectro-
scopic Use. (April.)

157

‘ Astrophys. J.’ viii. 128-
158; ‘Science Abstr.’ ii.
91 (Abs.)

‘Anns Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xvi. 350-352 ;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 97
(Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumenten-
kunde,’ xviii. 325-331;
‘Beiblitter’ xxiii. 249
(Abs.); ‘Science Abstr.
ii. 346.

‘Zeitschr. f. Instruamenten-
kunde,’ xviii. 381-383;
‘Beiblatter, xxiii. 249-
250 (Abs.)

‘Neues Jahrb. f. Min.
Geol. u. Paldont.’ 1898,
II, 65-67.

‘Neues Jahrb. f. Min.
Geol. u. Palaont,’ 1898,
II. 68-69,

‘Jahrb. f. Photog,’ xii.
20-22; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxii.
841 (Abs.)

‘Neues Jahrb f. Mineral.’
Beilage-Band xii. 343-
404; ‘ Beiblatter’ xxiii.
355-356 (Abs.)

‘Scientific American,’ lxxx.
43; ‘Science Abstr.’ ii,
739.

‘Nature,’ lix. 371-373,
391-393; . ‘Zeitschr. f.
phys. u. chem. Unterr.’
xii, 157-158; ‘Beiblitter,’
xxiii. 554-555 (Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f. Instrumenten?
kunde,’ xix. 65-74 ; * Bei-
bliatter,’ xxiii. 767 (Abs.)}

‘Verh. Deutsch. pbys.
Gesellsch, i. 117-122;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 596;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiv, 27..29
(Abs.) :

‘Nature,’ lix. 614,

‘Nature,’ lix. 607-609.

‘Amer, J. Sci.’ vii. [4],
267-270; ‘Nature,’ lix.
621 (Abs.); ‘Science
Abstr,’ ii. 660.

158

A. A. Michelson .,

A, de Gramont ¢

8, A. Mitchell

Ph. Pellin and A.
Broca.

A. A, Michelson .

D.P. Brace . ;

G.E., Hale .

C.Pulfrich «|

F. F. Martens

W.H. Perkin.

E. Beckmann

L. Levy. . .

A. A. Michelson

F, Wallerant,

D.P. Brace .

REPORT—1901.

INSTRUMENTAL, 1899, 1900.

On the Echelon Spectroscope. (Read
June 5.)

Sur un spectroscope de laboratoire
4 dispersion et a échelle réglables.
(Read June 26.)

The direct Concave Grating Spec-
troscope. (June.)

Spectroscope a déviation fixe.
(June. )

The Echelon Spectroscope. (Oct.)

On a new Spectrophotometer and
an Optical Method of Calibration.
(Nov.)

Some new Forms of Spectrohelio-
graphs. (Nov.)

Ueber ein neues Refractometer
mit veriinderlichen brechenden
Winkel. (Noyv.)

Ueber eine Neuconstruction des
Konig’schen, Spectralphotometer.
(Read Dec. 15.)

An improved Spectrometer Scale
Reader. (Read Dec. 21.)

Ueber die Erzeugung leuchtender

Flammen zu_ spectroscopischen
Zwecken mit Hilfe der Electro-
lyse. (Zeitschr. f. Electrochem.
vy. 327.)

Das Interferenzspectrometer von
Ch. Fabry und A. Perot (‘ Der
Mechaniker,’ vii. 111-113.)

Sur le spectroscope a échelons.

. | Perfectionnement au réfractométre
| pour les cristaux microscopiques.

1900.

On a new System for Spectral
Photomettic Work. (Jan.)

‘Trans, Phil. Soc. Cam-
bridge,’ xviii. 316-323.

°C. R.’ cxxviii. 1564-1568 ;
‘Beiblatter,’ xxiv. 178
(Abs.) ; ‘Science Abstr.’
li. 739.

‘Astrophys. J.’ x. 29-39;
‘Nature,’ lx, 302 (Abs.);
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 824.

‘J. de Phys.’ [3], viii. 314-
319; ‘Astrophys, J.’ x.
337-342 ; ‘ Beibliatter,’
xxiv. 462 (Abs.) ; ‘Science
Abstr.’ ii. 663.

‘Proc. Amer. Acad.’ xxxy.

111-119; ‘J. de Phys’
[3], viii. 305-314; ‘Bei-
blitter, xxiv, 457-468
(Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag,’ [5] alviii. 420-
430; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiv.
458-459 (Abs.); ‘ Science
Abstr.’ iii, 14-15,

‘ Astrophys. J.’ x. 288-290,

‘ Zeitschr. f. Instrumenten-
kunde,’ xix. 335-339.

‘Verhandl. Deutsch. Phys.

Gesellsch.’ i. 280-284;
‘Beiblitter, xxiv. 466
(Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxvii.
267-294; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xxiv. 929-930 (Abs.)

‘ Beiblatter,’
(Abs.)

xxiii. 778

‘Beiblitter,’ xxiii, 773
(Abs.)

‘J.de Phys.’ [3], viii. 305-
314; ‘Science Abstr.’ ii.
740.

‘Bull. Soc. Min. de Paris,’
Xxii. 67-69.

‘Astrophys. J.’ xi. 6-24;
‘ Beiblitter,” xxiy, 779-
780 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

E. V. Capps .
F, F. Martens

C. Fabry and A,
Perot

J. Hartmann. ;

C. J. Abbot and
F. E. Fowle

W. 8S. Adams

W. W. Campbell .

G. B, Rizzo .

E. Beckmann ;

“H.C. Vogel .
20) Fabry and A,
Perot

J. Hartmann. c

H, Lehmann.

INSTRUMENTAL, 1900.

. | Calibration of the Slit in Spectral

Photometric Measurements. (Jan.)

Ein Colorimeter als Zusetzapparat
fiir Spectroscope mit Wellen-
lingescala. (Jan.)

Nouvelle source de lumiére pour la
spectrométrie de précision, (Read
Feb. 12.)

Bemerkungen iiber den Bau und
die Justirung von Spectrographen.
(Feb.)

A Prism of Universal Dispersion.
(March.)

The Curvature of the Spectral Lines
in the Spectroheliograph. (May.)

The Temperature Control of the
Mills Spectrograph. (May.)

Una vantaggiosa disposizione speri-
mentale per lo studio degli spettri
di diffrazione dei reticoli concavi.
(Read June 18.)

Ueber Spectrallampen, I. (June.)

Description of the Spectrographs
for the great Refractor at Pots-
dam. (June.)

Sur les sources de lumiére mono-
chromatique. (July.)

Remarks on the Construction and
Adjustment of Spectrographs. II.
(July.)

Ueber Spectralapparate mit dreh-
barem Gitter. (July.)

159

‘ Astrophys, J.’ xi. 25-35 ;
‘Science Abstr.’ ili. 302 ;
‘Beiblatter, xxiv. 777
(Abs.)

‘Phys. Zeitschr.’ i, 182-
183; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xxiv.
465 (Abs.); ‘Science
Abstr.’ iii, 627,

‘C.R’ cxxx. 406-409;
‘Beiblitter, xxiv. 256
(Abs,); ‘Science Abstr.’
iii. 376.

‘ Zeitschr. f.Instrumenten-
kunde,’xx. 17-27, 47-58 ;
‘Beiblatter,’ xxiv. 459-
461 (Abs.); ‘ Astrophys.
J.’ xi, 400-413.

‘Astrophys. J.’ xi, 135-
139; ‘Nature,’ lxi. 597
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiv.
993 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J’ xi. 309-
311; ‘Science Abstr.’ iii,
688.

‘Astrophys. J’ xi. 259-
261; ‘ Nature,’ lxii. 137
(Abs.) ; ‘Science Abstr.’
iii. 687.

‘Atti R. Accad. Torino,

xxiv. 794-799; ‘Mem.
Soc. Spettr. Ital.’ xxviii.
241-244; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xxiv. 462-463 (Abs.);
‘Nature, Ixi. 561-562
(Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. , f. physikal.

Chem.’ xxxiv. 593-611;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1900. IT.
801 (Abs.); ‘ Beiblitter,’
xxiv. 1282 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixxviii. II,
701-702 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ xi. 393-
399; ‘ Nature,’ Ixii. 459
(Abs.)

‘J. de Phys.’ [3], ix. 369-
382; ‘Nature, lxii. 350
(Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ xii, 30-47

‘ Zeitschr. f. Instrumenten«
kunde, xx. 193-204;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiv. 1115..
1116 (Abs.)

160

REPORT—1901.

InsTRUMENTAL, 1900—Emission SpEcTRA, 1897.

F. Paschen

C. Fritsch .

C. Fulfrich .

E. Beckmann

W.H. Wright

E. Beckmann

O.Lummer ,. =

M. W. Travers

O. Lohse ae

W.N. Hartley .

F, Exner and E.
Haschek,

G. B. Rizzo .

Lecoq de Boiskau-
dran.

“F, Exner and &.
Haschek,

Ein Geissler’sche Rohre mit Queck-
silber Electroden zum Studium
des Zeemaneffectes, (Aug.)

Eine neue Spaltvorrichtung an
Spectralapparaten. (Sept.)

Vergleichsspectroscope fiir Far-
bentechniker. (Oct.)

Ueber Spectrallampen. II. (Nov.).

The Auxiliary Apparatus of the
Mills Spectrograph for Photo-
graphing the Comparison Spec-
trum. (Noyv.)

Ueber Spectrallampen. III. (Dec.)

Ueber neuere Interferenzrefrac-
tometer. (‘ Der Mechaniker,’ viii.
25-28, 37-40.)
II,
EMISSION SPECTRA.
1897.

Some Experiments
(Read Feb. 4.)

on Helium.

Untersuchung des violetten Theiles
einiger linienreicher Metallspec-
tren. (Read March 4.)

Experiments on the Flame Spec-
trum of Carbonic Oxide. (Read
Mar. 18.)

Ueber die ultravioletten Funken-
spectra der Elemente. VIII.
(Read May 13.)

Ricerche
argon.

spettroscopiche sull’

(Read May 23.)

Examen de quelques

spectres,
(Read June 8 and 21.)

Ueber die ultravioletten Funken-
spectra der Elemente. IX.
(Read July 8.)

‘Pbys. Zeitschr.’ i. 478-
480.

‘Phys. Zeitschr.’ i. 543-
544; ‘Beiblitter,’ xxiv.
1117-1118 (Abs.);
‘Science Abstr.’ iv. 26.

‘ Zeitschr. f. Instrumenten-
kunde, xx. 299-301;
‘ Beiblaitter,’ xxiv. 1277
(Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. pbysikal.
Chem.’ xxxv. 443-458;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1901, I.
1 (Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’
xxv. 37 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J. xii. 274-
278; ‘Beiblatter,’ xxv.
39-40 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. ff. physikal.
Chem.’ xxxv. 652-660;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xxv. 129-
130 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ lxxx. II. 81 (Abs.)

‘ Beiblatter,’ [37]
(title).

Xxiy.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc,’ Ix. 449-
453; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixxiv. II, 375-376 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berlin,’
1897, 179-197.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixi. 217-
219; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixxiv, II. 361-362 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
evi. Il.a, 337 -356 ;
‘Science Abstr,’ i. 195.

‘Atti R. Accad. Torino,’
xxxil. 670-579; ‘ Bei-
blitter, xxii. 666 (Abs.)

°C. RY cxxiv. 1288-1290,
1419-1421 ; * Chem.
News, Ixxvi. 46-47
(Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb, Akad. Wien,’
evi. ILa, 494-520;
‘Science Abstr.’ i. 248,

ON

A. de Gramont

H. L. Callendar and
N. N. Evans.
A. L. Foley .

H. Konen

B. Hasselberg

J. R, Rydberg sel

8. Forsling .

F. Exner and E.
Haschek.

H. Wilde

E. Rancken .

J. M. Eder and
E. Valenta.

Birkeland .

M.Hamy .

1901.

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1897, 1898.

Sur le spectre du carbone.
July 19.)

(Read

Sur le spectre des lignes du car-
bone dans les sels fondus. (Read
July 26.)

The Behaviour of Argon in X-ray
Tubes. (Aug.)

Arc Spectra. (Sept.)

Ueber die Spectren des Jod. (Bonn
Dissertation, Oct. 1897.)

Untersuchungen tiber die Spectra
der Metalle im electrischen Flam-
IV. Spectrum des

(Read Noy. 10.)

The New Series in the Red Spec-
trum of Hydrogen. (Noy.)

menbogen.
Mangans.

Om Praseodidymensspectra. (Read
Dec. 8.)

Ueber die ultravioletten Funken-
spectra der Elemente. X. (Read
Dec. 16.)

On New Spectral Lines of Oxygen.
(Dec.)

Untersuchung iiber das Linien-
spectrum des Schwefels. (Dis-
sert. Helsingfors, 52 pp.)

1898.

Das Linien-spectrum des Silicium, |

(Read Jan. 13.)

Sur le spectre des rayons catho-
diques. (Read Jan. 17.)

Sur le spectre du cadmium dats
un tube 4 vide. (Read Jan, 17.)

161

*C. R. exxy. 172-175.

°C. BR. exxv. 238-240.

‘Nature, Ilvi, 624-625:
‘Brit. Assoc, Rep.’ 1897,
553 (Abs.)

‘Phys. Review,’ v. 129—
151; ‘Science Abstr,’
1s OD. ‘

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lxv. 257-286 ; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixxiv. II.
493 (Abs); ‘Nature,’

lili. 335 (Abs.)
‘Handl. k. Svensk. Vet.
Akad.’ xxx. 20 pp.

‘Astrophys. J.’ vi. 233-
238; ‘Nature,’ lvii. 157
(Abs.)

‘ Bihang till K. Vet. Akad.
_Handl.” xxiii. Afd. i.
No. 5, 20 pp.; ‘Bei-
blatter, xxiii. 484 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
evi. II.a, 1127-1152.

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxvi, 288.

‘Zeitschr. f. anorg, Chem.’
xviii. 86 (Abs.) ; ‘Chem.
Centr.’ 1898, II. 1004
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xxiii, 96-97 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb, Akad. Wien,’
evii. Il.a, 41-43; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xxii. 774 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898, I.
1095 (Abs.); |‘ Chem.
News,’ Ixxvii. 206.

“CO. Biv exxvi, (228-931:
‘Beiblatter, xxii. 174-
175 (Abs.)

iCreihaae CXXVIE Dol=oods
‘Beiblatter, xxii. 153
(Abs.); ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxviil. 71 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lxxiv. II,
321 (Abs,)

M

162

A. Perot and C. |

Fabry.

F. Exner and £,
Haschek.

A. Schuster ,

H. Kayser . .

H. Rubens and E.
Aschkinass,

E, Demareay °

G. C. Schmidt :

H. A. Rowland and
C. N. Harrison.

W. Ramsay and
M. W. Travers.

H. Moissan and
H. Deslandres,

©. Fabry and A,
Perot.

W. Ramsay and
M. W. Travers.

T. N, Thiele

REPORT—1901.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1898.

Ktude de quelques radiations par
la spectroscopie interférentielle.
(Read Jan. 31.)

Ueber die ultravioletten Funken-
spectra der Elemente. XI., XII,
XIII, XIV. Mitth, (Read Feb. 10,
July 7, Dec. 15.)

Profs. C. Runge and F, Paschen’s
Researches on the Spectra of
Oxygen, Sulphur, and Selenium.
(Feb.)

On the Arc Spectra of the Plati-
num Group. I., II, (Feb.)

Beobachtungen tiber Absorption
und Emission von Wasserstoff
und Kohlensiiure im ultraroten
Spectrum, (March.)

Sur le spectre et la nature du
néodyme. (Read April 4.)

Sur les radiations émises par le
thorium et ses composés. (Read
April 23.)

The Arc-spectrum of Vanadium,
(April. )

Are-spectra of Zirconium and Lan-
thanum. (May.)

On a new Constituent of Atmo-
spheric Air. (Read June 9,)

Recherches spectrales sur air
atmosphérique. (Sealed packet
deposited May 11, 1896; opened
and read June 13, 1898.)

Sur Vétude des radiations du
mercure, et la mesure de leurs
longueurs d’onde. (Read June 13.)

On the Companions
(Read June 16.)

Resolution into Series of the Third
Band of the Carbon Band Spec-

| tram,

of Argon,

}

°C. RR’ cxxvi. 407-410;
‘Nature,’ lvii. 359 (Abs.) ;
‘Science Abstr.’ i. 247;
‘Beiblatter,’ xxiii. 29-30
(Abs. )

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
cvii. 102-206, 792-812,
813-837, 1335-1380 ;
‘Wien, Anz.’ 1898, 182
(Abs.)

‘ Nature,’ lvii. 320-321.

‘Astrophys. J.’ vii. 93-
113, 173-197.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’
[N.F.] lxiv. 584-601.

°C. RY exxvi. 1039-1041 ;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898, I.
101 (Abs.)

°C. RY cxxvi. 1264,

‘Astrophys, J.’ vii. 273-

294; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xxii.
841-842 (Abs.)
‘Astrophys. J.’ vil. 873-

389.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc,’ Isziii.
405-408 ; ‘ Chem. News,’
Ixxvii, 287; ‘ Nature,’
lviii. 127-128,

‘OC, RY cxxvi. 1689-1691;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898, II.
82 (Abs.); ‘ Chem. News,’
Ixxvii. 288.

“C. R’ exxvi. 1706-1708 ;
‘Science Abstr.’ i. 640;
‘ Beiblatter, xxiii. 781
(Abs.)

‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixiii. 437,
440; ‘Chem. News,’

Ixxviii. 1-2; ‘Nature,’
lviii. 182-183.

‘ Astrophys. J.’ viii. 1-27;
‘Beiblatter,’ xxiii, 357
(Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

L. E. Jewell .

J. M. Eder and
E. Valenta.

A. Schuster . ,

W. Ramsay, M. W.
Travers, and E.
C. C. Baly.

R. Nasini, F. Ander-
lini, and R. Sal-
vadori.

A. Kalihne . A

J. Dewar r
R, 8. Hutton ,

H. Erdmann . :

E. C. C. Baly ;
Sir W. Crookes

' J. M. Eder and
E. Valenta.

GD. Liveing °

W. Ramsay a

EMISSION SPHCTRA, 1898.

The structure of the shading of
the H and K and some other lines
in the spectrum of the sun and
are.

Spectralanalyse der Leuchtgas-
flamme, (Read July 7.)

Ueber das Funkenspectrum des
Calciums und des Lithiums, und
seine Verbreiterungs und Um-
kehrungserscheinungen. (Read
July 7.)

The Spectrum of Metargon. (July.)
The Spectrum of Metargon. (July.)

Terrestrial Coronium, (July.)

Ueber die Spectra einiger Elemente
bei der stetigen Glimment-
ladung in Geissler’schen Rohren,
und die Abhangigkeit der Licht-
strahlung von Stromstiirke und
Druck. (July.)

(Aug.)
The Compound Line Spectrum of
Hydrogen. (Sept.)

Metargon.

Ueber die farbige Abbildung der
Emissionsspectra. (Sept.)

Helium in the Atmosphere. (Sept.)
Helium in the Atmosphere. (Oct.)

Ueber das rothe Spectrum des
Argons, (Read Oct. 24.)

Vorliiufige Mittheilung iiber das
Spectrum des Chlors. (Read
Nov. 17.) ‘

On the Flame-spectrum of Mercury,
and its bearing on the Distribu-
tion of Energy in Gaseg. (Read
Nov. 28.)

The Spectrum of Krypt }

165

‘Johns Hopkins Univ.
Cire.’ xvii. 62-63 ; ‘ Astro-
Dhysisde Vall. 51253):
‘Beiblatter,’ xxiii. 359-
360 (Abs.); ‘Nature,’
lviii. 280 (Abs.)

‘Denkschr. Akad. Wien,’
Ixvii. 12 pp. ; ‘ Beiblittez,’
XXlii, 251-252 (Abs.)

‘Denkschr, Akad. Wien,’
lxvii. 11 pp.; ‘Chem.
Centr.’ 1898, II. 1118
(Abs. ); ‘ Beiblitter,’ xxiii.
250-251 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ lviii. 199, 269
270; ‘Beiblatter” xxii,
513-514, 772-773 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ lviii. 245-246;
‘ Beiblatter, xxii. 772-773
(Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxviii. 43
(from the ‘Times’ of
July 20); ‘ Beiblitter,’
xxii. 842 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lxv. 815-848;
‘J. Chem. Soe.’ Ixxiv. IT,
549 (Abs.); ‘ Science
Abstr.’ ii. 14.

‘Nature,’ lviii. 319.

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xlvi. 338-

343; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxxvi. II, 3 (Abs.);
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1899, I
12 (Abs.)

‘Naturw. Rundschau,’ xiii.
465-467.

‘Nature,’ lviii. 545,

‘Nature, lviii. 570;
‘Chein. News,’ Ixxviii.
198-199.

‘Monatsh. f. Chem,’ xvi.
893-895 ; ‘J.Chem. Soc.’
Ixxiv. II, 2-4 (Abs.)

‘Wien, Anz.’ 1898, 252-

255.

*Proc. Phil. Soc, Cam-
bridge, x. 38-48; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xxiii. 781 (Abs.) ;
‘Nature,’ lix. 142 (Abs.)
Nature,’ lix. 53.

M 2

164

J. Trowbridge

E. Demargay .

Pp. Curie, Mme.
Curie, and G.
Bémont

E., S. Ferry

J. M. Eder and

E. Valenta.

Mme. 8. Curie

A, Schuster and G.
Hemsalech.

J. W. Richards

J. M. Eder and

KE. Valenta.
L. E. Jewell .

C. Fabry and A.
Perot.

A. Perot and C.
Fabry.

C. Runge

W. W. Campbell

REPORT—1901.

EMIssIon SPECTRA, 1898, 1899.

Some Results obtained with a
Storage Battery of Twenty Thou-
sand Cells. (Address at a meeting
of the Amer. Acad. Dec. 14.)

Sur le spectre d’une substance radio-
active. (Read Dec. 26.)

Sur une nouvelle substance forte-
ment radio-active contenue dans
la pechblende. (Read Dec. 26.)

A Photometric Study of the Spectra
of Mixtures of Gases at Low Pres-
sures. (Dec.)

Die Spectren des Schwefels.
(‘Denkschr. Akad. Wien,’ Ixvii.
97-151.)

1899.

. | Les rayons de Becquerel et le |

Polonium.

(Jan.)

The Constitution of the Electric
Spark. (Read Feb. 2.)

Note on the Spectra of Hydrogen.
(Feb.)

Das Spectrum des Chlors.
April 13.)

Notes on the Papers of Hartley and
Ramage concerning the Spectrum

of Gallium and the Spectra of
Meteorites. (April.)

Sur une source intense de lumiére
monochromatique. (Read May 8.)

(Read

Sur Valimentation des tubes de
M. Michelson par diverses sources
électriques. (Read May 15.)

On the Red End of the Red Argon |

Spectrum. (May.)

A Comparison of the Visual Hydro-
gen Spectra of the Orion Nebula
and of a Geissler Tube. (May.)

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xvii.

651-663 ; ‘ Nature,’ 1]xii.
325-327. 5;
'C. Re. exxvil, 1218s

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1900, I. 4
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soe.’
Ixxviii. II. 83 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxix. 13.

°C. RY exxyii, 1215-1217 ;
‘Chem. News,’ xxix. 1-2;
‘Nature,’ lix. 232 (Abs.) ;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 280.

‘Phys. Review,’ vii. 296-
306; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xxiii,
251 (Abs.)

‘ Beiblatter,’xxii 773(Abs.)

‘Rev. gén. des Sciences,’
x. 11-50; ‘Chem. News
lxxix. 77-78 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixiv
331-336; ‘Nature,’ lix
350-352; ‘Chem. News,
lxxix. 62-64.

‘Amer. Chem. J.’ xxi.
172-174; ‘Chem. Centr.’
1899, I. 659 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixxvi. IL
266 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixxix. 159-160.

‘Denkschr. Akad. Wien,’
Ixviii. 437-447.

‘ Astrophys. J.’ ix. 229-

230; ‘ Beiblitter, xxiii.
789 (Abs )
‘CO. R2 exxvin. 1756=

1158; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixxvi. IL 261 (Abs.);
‘Science Abstr,’ ii. 659.

‘Cl RY exxvil. 122T=
1223; ‘Science Abstr,’
li. 508.

‘Astrophys. J” ix. 281-
283; ‘Science Abstr.’ ii.
823; “Beibliitter,’ xxiii.
780 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ ix. 312-
316; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiii.
793-794 (Abs.)

ON

Exner and &.
Haschek.

J. M. Eder and E.
Valenta,

G. A. Hemsalech .

C. Runge .

E. P, Lewis

”

R. Nasini, F. An-
derlini and R.
Salvadori.

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

A. Wiillner

B. Hasselberg

H, Lehmann .

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

EMIssion SPECTRA, 1899.

Ueber die ultravioletten Funken-
spectra der Elemente. XV. (Read
June 15.)

Ueber die ultravioletten Funken-

spectra der Elemente. XVI.
XVII. (Read June 15.)

Das Spectrum des Broms, (Read
July 6.)

Sur les spectres des décharges
oscillantes. (Read July 31.)

The Spectra of Krypton. (Aug.) .

. | The Spectral Sensitiveness of Mer-

cury in an Atmosphere of Hydro-
gen, and its influence on the
spectrum of the latter. (Sept.)

Ueber den Einfluss kleiner Beimen-
gungen zu einem Gase auf dessen
Spectrum. (Oct.)

Sopra alcune righe non mai osser-
vate nella regione ultrarossa dello
spettro dell’ argo. (Read Nov. 19.)

Note on the Spectrum of Silicium.
(Read Nov. 23.)

. | Ueberdie Spectra der Canalstrahlen

und der Cathodenstrahlen. (Dec.)

Untersuchungen tiber die Spectra
der Metalle im electrischen Flam-
menbogen. V. Spectrum des
Vanads. (‘Handl. Svensk. Vet.
Akad.’ xxxii. No. 2, 32 pp.)

Die ultraroten Spectren
Alkalien. (Arch. f,
Photogr.’ ii. 216-222.)

der
Wiss.

165

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’

eviilil. IIa, 825-859;
‘ Beiblatter, xxiv. 109-
110 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb, Akad. Wien,
Cyn, sha, LOM ite.
1123-1151, 1252-1266;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 782-
783.

‘Denkschr. Akad. Wien,’
Ixvili. 523-530; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xxiv. 260-262

(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixxviii. IT. 830 (Abs.)

‘@, RY cxxix. 285-288 ;
‘J. de Phys.’ [8], viii.
652-660; ‘ Beiblitter,
xxiii. 1050-1051 (Abs.)
‘Nature,’ lx. 360 (Abs.)
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 853.

‘ Astrophys. J.’ x. 73-79 ;
* Beiblatter,’xxiv.108-100
(Abs.); ‘Science Abstr,’
iii. 20.

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1899,
660-661,

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

[N. F.], lxix. 398-425;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxviii.
II. 1-2 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,
lxi. 93 (Abs.)

© Rend. R. Accad.d. Lincei’
[5]} vii. IL. 269-271;
‘Gazz. chim. Ital.’ xxx. J.
189-191; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxxviii. II. 181 (Abs.);
‘ Beiblatter,’xxiv.259-260
(Abs.)

*Proc. Roy. Soc’ Ixy. 449-
461; ‘Nature,’ lxi. 262-
263; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiv.
262 (Abs.)

‘Phys. Zeitschr.’ i. 132-
134; ‘Science Abstr.’ ii.
531.

‘Beiblitter, xxiii. 634
(Abs.) ; ‘ Astrophys. J.’ x.
343-361 ; ‘ScienceAbstr,’
iii. 308.

XXV

‘ Beiblitter,’ 27-28

(Abs.)

166

L. Rummel

R. Pribram

F. Exner and E,
Haschek.

C. Fabry and A.
Perot.

A. Ladenberg and
C. Kriigel.

R. Hasselberg :

E. Goldstein .

V. Schumann

W. Muthmann and
E. Bauer.

C. C. Schenk .

W.B. Aufk 5

G, A. Hemsalech

REPORT—1901.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1899, 1900.

The Spectra of Oxygen, Sulphur,
and Selenium. (‘ Trans. Roy. Soc.
Victoria [2], xii. 14-17.)

1960.
Ueber das Austrium. (Read Jan, 4.)

Ueber die ultravioletten Funken-
spectra der Elemente. XVIII.
Mittheilung.[Skandium,Samarium,
und Gadolinium.] (Read Feb. 1.)

Sur la constitution des raies jaunes
du sodium, (Read March 5.)

Ueber das
March 22.

Krypton. (Read

Note sur les spectres des décharges
oscillantes. (March.)

Ueber Spectra von Gasgemengen
und von Entladungshiillen. (Read
May 11.)

A second Spectrum of Hydrogen
beyond A=185 wu. (May.)

Einige Beobachtungen tiber Lumin-
escenzspectren. (Read June 5.)

Some Properties of the Electric
Spark and its Spectrum. (June.)

The Spectra of Mercury. (June.)

Ueber das Bandenspectrum des
Aluminiums. June.)

‘Beiblatter, xxiv. 180

(Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
cix.” Ila, 16 =23i<
‘Monatsh.’ f. Chem. xxi.
148-155 ; ‘ Chem. Centr,’
1900, I. 346 (Abs.); ‘J,
Chem. Soc.’ Ixxviii. II.
347-348 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
cix, IL.a, 103-169.

°C. R’? exxx. 653-655;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiv. 674
(Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ Lxi. 483
(Abs.); ‘Science Abstr.’
iii. 376.

‘ Sitzungsb, Akad, Berlin.’
1900, 212-217; ‘Chem.
Centr.’ 1900, I. 945-946
(Abs.); ‘Chem. News,’
lxxxi. 205-207.

‘J. de Phys.’ [3], ix. 153
165; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiv.
472 (Abs.)

‘Verh. Deutsch. Phys.
Gesellsch,’ ii, 110-112.

‘Astrophys. J.’ xi. 312-
313; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiv.
910 (Abs.)

‘ Ber.’ xxxiii. 1748-1763 ;
‘Chem. Centr. 1900, II.
233-234 (Abs.) ; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xxiv, 1126-1127
(Abs.)

‘Johns Hopkins Univ.
Circ.’ xix. 63-64.

‘Johns Hopkins Univ.

Cire.’ xix. 62; ‘ Astro-

phys. J.’ xii. 103-119;

‘ Beiblitter, xxiv. 1293

(Abs.); ‘Science Abstr.’

iii. 950-951.

‘Ann. der Phys.’ [4], ii.
321-334; ‘Science Abstr.’
iii. 690; ‘Nature,’ Ilxii.
335 (Abs.); ‘Chem.Centr.’
1900, II. 86 (Abs.)

ON

BE. Demarcay .

F, Exner and E,
Haschek.

E. Demarcay .

C. J. Rollefson

C. Runge -

J. Trowbridge

H. Crew a

H. Kayser .

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

W. Ramsay and
M. W. Travers,

E. Demarcay . s

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar.

G. Berndt . E

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

EMISsion SPECTRA, 1900.

Sur le spectre du radium. (Read
July 23.)

Sur le gadolinium, (Read July 30,)

Note on the Spectrum of Silicon.
(July.)

Sur quelques nouveaux spectres
des terres rares, (Read Aug. 6.)

Spectra of Mixtures. (Aug.)

Ueber das Spectrum des Radiums.

The Spectrum of Hydrogen and
the Spectrum of Aqueous Vapour,

(Sept.)

On the Arc Spectra of some Metals
as influenced by an Atmosphere of
Hydrogen. (Oct.)

Normalen aus dem Bogenspectrum
des Hisens. (Oct.)

Note on the Spectrum of Silicium.
(Read Nov. 2,)

Argon and its Companions.
Nov. 15.)

Sur les spectres du samarium et
du gadolinium. (Read Dec. 10.)

(Read

On the Spectrum of the more Vola-
tile Gases of Atmospheric Air,
which are not condensed at the
Temperature of Liquid Hydrogen.
PreliminaryNotice. (Read Dec.13.)

Ueber die Spectra von Radium
und Polonium, (Dec.)

167

°C. R.’ cxxxi, 258-259 ;
‘Beiblatter, xxiv. 1121
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc,
Ixxviii, II. 586 (Abs.)

°C, RR.’ cxxxi. 343-345;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1900, II,
557 (Abs,); ‘Chem. News,’
lxxxii. 97-98.

‘Astrophys. J,’ xii. 48-49;
‘Science Abstr,’ iii. 950,

*C. RB.’ cxxxi. 387-889;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxxviii,
II, 656 (Abs.) ; ‘ Science
Abstr.’ iii. 854; ‘Chem,
News,’ lxxxii, 127,

‘Phys. Review,’ xi. 101-
104.

‘Ann, der Phys.’ [4], iii.
742_745; ‘Nature,’ lsii.
568 (Abs.); Ԥ Science
Abstr.’ iii, 853-854.

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ [4], x. 222-
230; ‘Nature,’ Ixii. 568
(Abs.) ; ‘ Phil. Mag,’ [5],
1. 838-347; ‘J, Chem.
Soc.’ Ixxviii. II, 701
(Abs. )

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], 1. 497~
505; ‘ Astrophys. J.’ xii.
167-175 ; ‘ Nature,’ xiii.
114 (Abs.); ‘* Science
Abstr.’ iv. 24.

‘Ann, der Phys.’ [4], ii.
195-203.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixvii,
402-409 ; ‘ Chem. Centr,’
1901, I. 436 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixvii.
329-333 (Abs.)

GOO} iis) Giesal, LER SCE RIE
‘ Beiblitter,’ xxv.193-194
(Abs.) ; ‘Chem. News,’
lxxxiii. 11 (Abs.)

‘Prec. Roy. Soc.’ Ixvii.
467-474; ‘Chem. News,’
Texting Sa 13216
‘Nature,’ Ixiii. 189-190
(Abs.)

‘Physikal. Zeitschr.’ ii.
180-181 ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xxv. 38-39 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixxxiii. 77-78 ;
‘Science Abstr.’ iv. 225,

168

REPORT—1901.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1900—ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1898.

W.N. Hartley

H. Lehmann .

G. Kriiss and E.
Thiele.

G, Dimmer

D. F. Harris .

W,N. Hartley and
J.J, Dobbie

G. Urbain .

O, Boudouard

C. A, Schunck

H. Rubens and EH,

Aschkinass

V, Arnold

Spectrum of Cyanogen.

Die ultraroten Spectren. (/rei-
burg i. B. Univ. Buchdr. Chr.
Lehmann Nachf,, 13 pp.)

III.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA,

1894. °

Ueber die Lésungzustand des Jod,
und die wahrscheinliche Ursache

der Farbenunterschiede seiner
Lésungen, (Jan.)

1897.
Ueber die Absorptionsspectren

von Didymsulfat und Neodym-
ammonnitrat. (Read Dec. 16.)

1898,

Some Contributions to the Spectro- |

scopy of Hzmoglobin and its
Derivatives. (Read Feb. 7.)

The Ultra-violet Absorption Spectra
of some Closed-chain Carbon Com-

pounds, (Read Feb. 17.)

| Notes on the Absorption Bands in

the Spectrum of Benzene,
Feb. 17.)

(Read

Sur une nouvelle méthode de frac-
tionnement ces terres yttriques.
(Read Mar. 14,)

Sur le néodyme, (Read Mar, 21.)

A Photegraphic Investigation of
the Absorption Spectra of Chloro-
phyll and its Derivatives in the
Violet and Ultra-violet Region of
the Spectrum, (Read Mar, 24.)

Beobachtungen iiber Absorption
und Emission von Wasserdampf
und Kohlensiiure im ultrarothen
Spectrum. (March.)

Ueber die Heller’sche Probe zum
Nachweis des Blutfarbstoffes im
Harn. (March.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc. Dublin,’
ix. 289-297,

‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiv, 1119-
1120 (notice,)

‘ Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem,’

vii. 52-81; ‘J. Chem,
Soc.’ Ixvi, II. 445-446
(Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
evi. Ila, 1087-1102,

‘Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin,’
xxii. 187-208,

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxxiii. I,
598-606 ; ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxvii. 103 (Abs.); ‘ Na-
ture,’ lvii, 430 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soe.’ lxxiii. I,
695-697 ; ‘Chem. Centr.’
1899, I. 198-199; ‘Chem.
News,’ lxxvii, 103 (Abs.);
‘Science Abstr,’ ii. 739.

°C. R. cxxvi. 835-838);
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898, I.
879 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ lxxvii, 147-148
(Abs.)

‘C. R’ cxxvi. 900-901;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898, I.
983 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixxvii, 193.
‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixiii.
389-396; ‘J. Chem.

Soe.’ Lxxvi. II. 540 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.
[N.F.], lxiv. 584-601;
‘ Nature,’ lviii, 93 (Abs.)

‘Berl. Klin. Wochensch.
xxxv. 283-285; ‘Chem.
Centr.’ 1898, I, 1002,
| (Abs,)

ON

EF, Demargay , ;

R. Zsigmondy
K, Angstrém :

A. Etard
Bouilhac

and

R. von Zeynek

G, D. Liveing

E, Deussen

8. Forsling
K. Ibsen

G. J. Katz

C. von Scheele

H. Kreusler

P, Baccei A

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

169

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1898, 1899.

Sur le spectre et la nature du
néodyme, (Read April 4,)

Ueber wisserige Loésungen metal-
lischen Goldes, (April.)

Om absorptions fermogen hos en
sotad yta, (Read May 11.)

Présence des chlorophylles dans un
Nostoc cultivé a Vabri de la
lumiére. (Read July 11.)

Ueber das Himochromogen. (July.)

On the Variation of Intensity of
the Absorption-Bands of different
Didymium Salts dissolved in water,
and its bearing on the Ionisation
Theory of the Colour of Solutions
of Salts. (Read Nov. 28.)

Ueber die Absorption des Uranyl-
salze. (Dec.)

Om praseodidyms spectra.

Ein Beitrag zum _ Blutnachweis.
(Vierteljahrschrift fiir gericht.
Med. 1898, 111.)

Verschiebung der Absorptions-
streifen in verschiedenen Lésungs-
mitteln. (Inaug. Diss. Erlangen,
33 pp.)

Ueber Praseodidym und dessen
wichtigste Verbindungen.

1899,

Hine einfache Methode fiir die
Umkehrung des Natriumspectrum,
(Jan.)

Sullo spettro di assorbimento dei
gas. (Jan.)

‘C. R. exxvi. 1037-1041;
‘Beiblatter,* xxiii, 401
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixxiv, IT. 518-519 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxvii,
219-220.

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
ceci. 29-54; ‘J. Chem,
Soc.’ lxxiv. II. 522-523
(Abs.)

‘Oefvers. af K. Vet.
Akad. Forh.’ lv. 283-
295; ‘Beiblatter, xxiii.
97-98 (Abs.)

*C. BR.’ exxvii. 119-121;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898, II.
493-494 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physiol.
Chem.’ xxv. 492-506;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898, II.
122-128 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lxxiy. I.
720 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Phil. Soc. Camb.’
XG, 40-44 ; ‘Science
Abstr.’ ii. 379-380 (Abs.) ;
‘ Nature,’ lix. 142 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lxvi. 1128-1148;
‘ Nature,’ lix. 347 (Abs.) ;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 78.

‘Bihang till K. Vet.
Svensk. Akad. Handl.’
xxil. I. No. 5, 20 pp.

‘Chem. Centr,’ 1898, I.
417-418 (Abs.)

‘ Beiblitter,’ xxii. 774-775
(Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f. anorg.
Chem.’ xvii. 310-326;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxiv.
II. 519-520 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Zeitung,’ xxiii.
37; ‘J. Chem. Soc’

Ixxvi. II. 717 (Abs.)

‘Il Nuovo Cimento’ [4],
ix. 177-191 ; ‘ Beiblitter,’
Xxili. 635-636 (Abs.);
‘Science Abstr.’ ii, 603,

170

A. Dastre and N.
Floresco

W. N. Hartley and
J, J. Dobbie

W.N. Hartley

A. Etard A

C. A. Schunck

G. D, Liveing

A. Wynter Blyth. .

W. N. Hartley,
F. R. Japp, and
J. J. Dobbie.

W. Muthmann and
L. Stiitzel.

L. Puccianti .

G. D. Liveing

REPORT—1901.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1892.

Contributions 4 l'étude des chloro-

phylles animales. Chlorophylle
du foie des invertébrés. (Read
Feb. 13.)

AStudy of the Absorption Spectrum
of Isatin, Carbostyril, and their
Alkyl Derivatives, in relation to
Tautomerism., (Read Feb, 16.)

On the Absorption Spectrum and
Constitution attributed to Cyan-
uric Acid, (Read Feb, 16.)

Les chlorophylles. (April.)

Yellow Colouring Matters accom- |
panying Chlorophyll, and their |

Spectroscopic Relations.
May 18.)

(Read

On the Influence of Dilution, Tem-
perature, and other circumstances,
on the Absorption Spectra of
Didymium and Erbium Salts.
(Read June 5.) (‘ Trans. Phil. Soc.
Cambridge,’ xviii. 298-315.)

The Ultra-violet Absorption Spectra

of Albuminoids in relation to that |

of Tyrosin. (Read June 15.)

Report on the Relation between
the Absorption Spectra and
Chemical Constitution of Organic
Substances. (Interim Report.)
(Sept.)

Beitriige zur Spectralanalyse von
Neodym und Praseodym. (Read
Oct. 4.)

Ueber die Absorptionsspectren der
K ohlenstoffverbindungen im
Ultrarot. (Vorlaiufige Mitthei-
lung.) (Oct.)

On the Influence of Temperature
and of Various Solvents on the
Absorption Spectra of Didymium
and Erbium Salts. (Read Noy.
27.)

| ‘J. Chem.

‘C, R? exxviii. 398-400;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxvi.
II. 374 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soe.’ Ixxv. I.
640-661; ‘Proc, Chem.
Soc. xv. 47-48 (Abs.) ;

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxix.
101. (Abs.); ‘Chem,
Centr. 1899, I. 788-
789 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Chem. Soc.’ xv.
46-47 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixxix. 101 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. Centr,’ 1899, I,
784 (Abs.)

‘ Ann, Chim. et Phys.’ [7],
xill. 556-574.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixv. 177-
186; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxxxviii. II, 36-37 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Llxxviii,
II. 517 (Abs.)

Soc.’ Ixxv.
1162-1166; ‘Proc. Chem.
Soc.’ xv. 175-176 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1899, II.
257 = (Abs.); | ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixxx. 82 (Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc.
1899, 316-358.

Report,’

‘Ber.’ xxxii. 2653-2677 ;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1899, II.

931-933 (Absi)§ SJ:
Chem. Soc.’ Ixxviii. II.
18-19 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-

blitter,’ xxiv. 478 (Abs.)

‘Phys. Zeitschr.’ i. 49-52 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxviii.
II. 585 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Phil. Soc. Cam-
bridge,’ x. 213-214;
‘Science Abstr.’ iii. 530-
531; ‘ Nature,’ lxi, 214-
215 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY, 171

8. Forsling

G. Bode. A

P. Baccei > °

V. Arnold

V. Arnold

W.N. Hartley and
J. J. Dobbie.

E. Marchlewski

W. N. Hartley

W N. Hartley anc

J. J. Dobbie.

M. Radais

B, Glatzel .

L. Puccianti .

W.N. Hartley and
J. J. Dobbie.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1899, 1900.

. | Om Absorptionsspectra hos Urbium,

Holmium och Thulium,

Ueber Phylloxanthin.
Centralbl.’ xx. 227-239.)

(‘ Bot,

Sullo spettro di assorbimento delle
mescolanze gassose.

Ein Beitrag zur Spectroscopie des
Blutes. (‘Centr. med, Wiss,’
XXxXvil, 465-468.)

1900.

Ueber das neutrale MHimatin-
spectrum. (‘Centrabl. f. med.
Wiss,’ xxxvii. 833-836, 849-851.)

The Absorption Spectra of Am-
monia, Methylamine, Hydroxyl-
amine, Aldoxime, and Acetoxime.
(Read Feb. 1.)

Phyllorubin, ein neues Derivat des
Chlorophylls. (Read Feb. 5.)

The Action of Heat on the Absorp-
tion Spectra and Chemical Con-
stitution of Saline Solutions.
(Read Feb, 21.)

Spectrographic Studies in Tauto-
merism. The Absorption Curves
of the Ethyl Esters of Dibenzoyl-
succinic Acid. (Read March 1.)

Sur la culture pure d’une algue
verte ; formation de chlorophylle
a Vobseurité. (Read March 19.)

Bestimmung von Absorptions-
coéficienten im ultravioletten
Spectralgebiete. (May.)

Spettri di assorbimento di liquidi
nell’ ultrarosso. (May.)

The Ultra-violet Absorption Spectra
of some Closed-chain Carbon
Compounds. II. Dimethylpyra-
zine, Hexamethylene, and Tetra-
hydrobenzene. (Read June 7.)

‘Bihang till K. Vet. Akad,
Handl.’ xxiv. I. No. 7,
35 pp.; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xxiv,
477-478 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1899, II.
529 (Abs.)

‘Il Nuovo Cimento’ [4],
ix. 241-253; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xxiii. 636-637 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1899, II,
344 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc,’ Ixxviii. I, 127 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Centr,’
209 (Abs.)

1900, I,

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxxvii. I,
318-327; “Prec. Chem.
Soc.’ xvi. 14-15 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxxi, 81
(Abs.); ‘Chem. Centr.’
1900, I. 581 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Akad.
1909, 63-64;
Ixiii. 66 (Abs.)

Cracow,’
‘ Nature,’

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Dublin’
[2], vil. 253-312; ‘Na-
ture,’ Ixiii. 313 (Abs.);
‘J. Chem. Soc,’ Ixxx, IT,
53 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soe.’ lxxvii. I,
498-509; ‘Proc. Chem.
Soc.’ xvi. 57-58; ‘Chem,
Centr.’ 1900, 1750 (Abs. )

C. BR. cxxx. 793-796;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxviii.
II. 362 (Abs.); ‘Nature,’
lxi. 532 (Abs.)

‘Phys. Zeitschr.’ i. 285-
287; ‘Beiblitter, xxiv.
476-477 (Abs.) ; ‘Science
Abstr.’ iii. 688.

‘Il Nuovo Cimento’ [4],
xi. 241-278; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xxiv. 1122-1123 (Abs.);
‘Science Abstr.’ iii. 783.

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxvii. I.
846-850; ‘Proc. Chem.
Soc.’ xvi, 129-130 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxxi.
307 (Abs.)

172

W.N. Hartley, J.
J. Dobbie, and
P. G. Palliatseas.

L. Marchlewski and
Cc. A. Schunck.

J. Formanek .

P. Lemoult

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

A. Miethe

C. Camichel .

J. Form4nek .

B, Glatzel

R. Kobert

H. J. Moller

REPORT—1901.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1900.

A Study of the Absorption Spectra
of o-Oxycarbonil and its Alkyl-
derivatives, in Relation to Tauto-
merism. (Read June 7.)

Notes on the Chemistry of Chloro-
phyll. (Read June 21.)

Der Farbstoff der roten Reihe und
sein Absorptionsspectrum. (Oct.)

Relation entre la constitution
chimique des colorants du tri-
phénylmethane et les spectres
dabsorption de leurs solutions
aqueuses. (Read Nov. 19.)

Further Note on the Spectrum of
Silicium. (Read Nov. 22.)

Photographische Platten zur Auf-
nahme von Absorptionsspectrum.
(Nov.)

Remarques sur le Note’ de M.
Lemoult intitulée: Relation entre
la constitution chimique des
colorants du triphénylmethane et
les spectres d’absorption de leurs
solutions aqueuses. (Read Dec. 10.)

Nachweis der Metallsalze mittels
der Absorptionsspectralanalyse
unter Verwendung von Alkanna.
sy LUE

Quantitative Untersuchungen tiber
Absorption und Reflexion im
Ultraviolett.

Beitriige zur Kenntniss des Methi-
moglobine.

Ueber gefiirbte Glaser.
spectralanalytische | Untersuch-
ung der Gliser (‘ Ber. Deutsch.
pharm. Gesellsch.’ x. 234-264.)

II. Die |

‘J. Chem. Soo.’ Ixxvii. I.
839-845; ‘Proc. Chem.
Soc.’ xvi. 130-131 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. News, Ixxxi. 307
(Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxvii.
1080-1094; ‘ Proc. Chem.
Soc.’ xvi. 148-149 (Abs,)

‘J. prakt. Chem.’ [2] lxii.
310-314; ‘ J. Chem. Soc,’
lxxx. 35 (Abs.)

&@. Re sexxsd:
‘Beiblatter,’ xxv. 36
(Abs.); ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxxii. 290-291; ‘Nature,’
Ixiii. 124 (Abs.)

839-842 ;

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixvii.
403-409.

‘ Zeitschr. f. angew. Chem,’
1900, 1199-2000 ; ‘Chem.
Centr.’ 1901, I. 12-13
(Abs.)

*C. R” exxxi. 1001-1002 ;
‘Chem. News,’ Ilxxxiii.
11 (Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’
xxv, 36 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr, anal. Chem,’
xxxix. 409-434, 673-693 ;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1900, IL.

741 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc. Ixxviij. II. 687
(Abs.), Ixxx, II. 128-
129 (Abs.)

‘Phys. Zeitschr.’ ii. 173-
178; ‘Beiblitter’ xxv.
35 (Abs.); ‘Science
Abstr.’ iv. 223-224,

‘Arch. f. d. gesammte
Physiol.’ “Ixxxii. 603-
630; ‘Chem. Centr.’ 1901,
I. 61-52 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ ixxx. I. 242-
243 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1900, II,
1286-1287 (Abs.)

ON

H, Th. Simon F

J. Widmark .

A, Konig

D. Dijken
W. Konig

H. Becquerel.

T. Preston

H. Becquerel.

P, Carnazzi

T. W. Engelmann .

A Perot and C.
Fabry.

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

IV.
PHYSICAL RELATIONS.
1896.

Ueber ein neues photographisches

Photometrirverfahren, und seine
Anwendung auf die Photometrie
des ultravioletten Spectralge-
bietes.

1897.

Om grinsen for det synliga spec-
trum. (Read May 12.)

Die Abhiangigkeit der Farben- und
Helligkeitsgliihungen von der ab-
soluten Intensitiit. (Read July
29.)

Die Molecularrefraction und Dis-
persion dusserst verdiinnter Salz-
lésungen unter Beriicksichtigung
der Dissociation.

. | Hinfache Demonstration des Zee-

man’schen Phiinomens.

Sur une interprétation applicable
au phénoméne de Faraday et au
phénoméne de Zeeman. (Read
Noy. 5.)

Radiation Phenomena in a strong
Magnetic Field. I, (Read Dec. 22.)

The Zeeman Effect photographed.
( Dec.)

Explication de quelques expéri-
ences de M. G. le Bon.

Influenzadella pressione sull indice
di rifrazione dei gas.

| Tafeln und Tabellen zur Darstel-

lung der Ergebnisse spectroscop-
ischen u. spectrophotometrischen
Beobachtungen. (Book, Leipzig.)

1898.

Sur une nouvelle méthode de spec-
troscopie interférentielle. (Read
Jan. 3.)

173

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lix. 90-115; ‘ As-
trophys. J.’ v. 69-70
(Abs.)’; ‘Science Abstr.’
i, 55.

‘ Oefvers. af K. Vet. Akad.

Forh.” liv. 287-307;
‘Beiblatter, xxii. 573
(Abs.)

‘ Sitzun&sb. Akad. Berlin,’
1897, 871-882; ‘ Bei-
blatter, xxii. 575-576
(Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.

Chem.’ xxiv. 81-113; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixxiy. IT. 1
(Abs.)

‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lxiii. 268-272;
‘Science Abstr.’ i. 131.

°C. RY exxv. 679-685; ‘J.
de Phys.’ [3], vi. 681-
688; ‘Scierice Abstr.’ i.
56-58; ‘ Nature,’ lvii. 72
(Abs.)

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Dubl.’
[2] vi.385-392; ‘Nature,’
lvii. 239 (Abs.); ‘Science ’
Abstr,’ i. 538.

‘Nature,’ lvii. 173,

‘J. de Phys.’ [3], vi. 525-
528; ‘Nature,’ lvi. 619
(Abs.)

‘Il Nuovo Cimento’ [4],
vi. 385-400; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xxii. 661 (Abs.); ‘Science
Abstr.’ i. 383-384.

‘Beiblatter, xxii.
(notice),

62-63 .

°C. RY exxvi. 34-36; ‘Nas

ture,’ lvii. 263 (Abs.);
* Beibliitter, xxii. 567
(Abs.)

174

A. Cornu A an

T. Preston . 5

A. Cornu .

P. Daude .

G. J. Burch .

H, A, Lorentz .

P. Zeeman

G. Abati :

J. Stscheglayew

A. Cotten .

A, A, Michelson

EK. Carvallo .

R. A. Lehfelat

W.N. Hartley and
H. Ramaze.

REPORT—1901.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1898.

Sur quelques résultats nouveaux
relatifs au phénoméne decouvert
par M. le Dr. Zeeman. (Read
Jan. 17.)

On the Modifications of the Spectra

of Iron and other Substances
radiating in a Magnetic Field.
(Read Jan. 20.)

Additions 4 ma note précédente
sur le phénoméne de Zeeman.
(Read Jan. 24.)

Die optische Constanten des Na-
triums. (Jan.)

On Artificial Temporary Colour-
blindness, with an Examination of
the Colour Sensations of 109 Per-
sons. (Read Feb. 17.)

Optische Verschijnselen die met de
Lading en de Massa der Ionen in
Verband stand. (Read Feb. 26.)

Measurements concerning Radia-
tion Phenomena in a Magnetic
Field. (Feb.)

Ueber des Refractions- und Disper-
sionsvermoégen des Siliciums in
seinen Verbindungen. (Feb.)

Ueber das Brechungsvermégen des
mit Fliissigkeiten getriinkten Hy-
drophans. (Feb.)

Sur les expériences d’Egoroft et
Georgiewsky, et l’explication de
Lorenz. (Feb.)

Radiation in a Magnetic Field,
(Feb.)

Recherches de précision sur la dis-
persion infra-rouge du quartz.
(Read March 7.)

On the Properties of Liquid Mix-
tures. Part II. (Read March 11.)

A Determination of the Wave-
lengths of the Principal Lines in
the Spectrum of Gallium, showing
their Identity with two Lines in
the Solar Spectrum. (Read March
16.)

‘C. BR’ cxxvi. 181-186;
‘ Nature,’ lvii. 310(Abs.) ;
‘Science Abstr.’ i. 59.

Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xiii. 26-
31; ‘ Beiblatter, xxiii.
299-300 (Abs.) ; ‘ Science
Abstr.’ i. 386.

*C. RB. exxvi. 300-301;
‘Nature, lvii. 335 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], Ixiv. 159-162;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxiv. II.
273-274 (Abs.) ; ‘Science
Abstr.’ i. 382.

Phil. Trans.’ exci. 1-34;
‘Proc. Roy. Soe.’ Isxiii.
35-38 (Abs.)

‘ Zittingsversl. d. K. Vet.
Akad. Amsterdam,’ vi.
506-529, 555-565; ‘ Bei-
bliatter,” xxiii. 51-53
(Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ lviii. 48
(Abs.)

Phil. Mag.’ [5], xlv. 197-
201; ‘Science Abstr,’ i.
250.

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ xxv. 353-364;
‘Beiblatter, xxii. 397-
398 (Abs.); ‘Chem.

News,’ Ixxvii. 271 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], Ixiv. 325-332;
‘Science Abstr.’ i. 382.

L’Eclairage’ électrique,’
xiv. 299-300; ‘Science
Abstr.’ i. 390.

Astrophys. J.’ vii. 131-
138; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5],
xlv. 348-356; ‘Science
Abstr.’ i. 537-538.

°C. Rl? cxxvi. 728-731 ;

‘Beiblatter, xxiii. 31-
32; (Abs.); ‘Nature,’
lvii. 472 (Abs.)
‘Proc. Phys. Sec.’ xvi,
83-102.

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Dublin’
[2], vii. 1-6 ; ‘ Astrophys.
J.’ ix. 214-220; ‘ Beibliat-
ter,’ xxiv. 107, 108 (Abs.);
‘Science Abstr,’ ii. 816-
817.

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

A..Ootton .

H. Becquerel and
H. Deslandres

H.S. Ferry .

H. G. Madan .

H. Dufet 5
T, Preston . 5

T. C. Porter .

D. Edser and C. P.
Butler.

C. Klein ‘i

P. Zeeman , ,

td

H. A. Lorentz *

C, HE. Mendenhall
and F. A, Saun-
ders.

A. Trowbridge

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1898.
- | Radiations dans un champ mae-

nétique. II. Renversement des
raies de sodium, et application.
(March.)

Contribution 4 l’étude du phéno-
méne de Zeeman. (Read April 4.)

Ueber das Verhiiltniss der Span-
nung des electrischen Strémes
und der Stiirke der Strahlung der
Spectra reiner Gase in Vakuum-
rohren. (Read April 13.)

On some Organic Substances of
High Refractivity, available for
Mounting Specimens for Exami-
nation under the Microscope.
(Read April 20.)

Sur les propriétés optiques du
calomel (protochlorure de mer-
cure). (Read April 21.)

Radiation Phenomena in the Mag-
netic Field. (April.)

Contributions

to the Study of
Flicker,

(Read May 26.)

A Simple Method of Reducing Pris-
matic Spectra. (Read May 27.)

Die Anwendung der Methode der
Total-reflexion in derPetrographie.
(Read May 26.)

Over eene Asymmetrie in de
Verandering der Spectraallijnen
van Ijsen bij Straling in een mag-
netisch Veld. (Read June 25.)

Beschoningen over dem Invloed
van een magnetisch Veld op de
Uitstraling van Licht. (iiead
June 25.)

The Energy Spectrum of an abso-
lutely Black Body. (June.)

Ueber die Dispersion des Sylvins,
und das Reflexionsvermégen der
; Metalle. (June.)

;

175

‘ L/Kclairage électrique,’
xiv. 540-547; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xxii. 890-891 (Abs.)

*@. RY exxvi. 997~1001;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Llxxiv.
II. 493-494 (Abs.) ;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 12.

‘ Oefvers. af K. Vet. Akad.
Forh.’ lv. 189-198 ; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xxii. 900-901
(Abs.)

‘J. Roy. Micro. Soc,’ 1898,

273-281, 385-386; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xxii. 769-770
(Abs.)

‘Bull. Soc. Frang. Min.’
xxi. 90-94 ; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xxiii. 32-33 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5]. xlv. 325-
339; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxii,
888-889 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lxiii,
347-356 ; ‘ ScienceAbstr.’
i. 691-692; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xxii, 855-856 (Abs.);
‘Nature, lviii, 188 (Aks.)

‘ Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xvi. 207—
218; ‘ Phil Mag.’ [6] xlvi.
207-216 ; ‘ Nature,’ iviii.
119(Abs.); ‘Chem News,’
lxxvii. 260 (Abs.)

‘ Sitzungsb. Akad. Berlin,’
1898, 317-331.

‘ Zittingsversl. d. K. Vet.
Akad. Amsterdam,’ vii.
122-124; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xxii. 890 (Abs. )

‘ Zittingsversl. d. K. Vet,
Akad. Amsterdam,’ vii.
113-122 ; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xxiii. 49-51 (Abs.)

‘Johns Hopkins Univ.
Circ’ xvii. 55; ‘ Naturw.
Rundschau,’ xiii. 457 ;
‘ Beibliitter,’xxii.770-771
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], Ixy. 595-620;
“Science Abstr.’ i. 690.

176
C. lL. Poor & S. A.

Mitchell.

L. E. Jewell .

J. S. Ames, R. F.
Carhart, and
H. M. Reese.

O. M. Corbino

H. Becquerel and
H. Deslandres.

. Aschkinass

—

A, Konig

A. Righi

E. 8. Ferry

J. A. Reed

J. Stscheglayew

F, F. Martens

. | The Structure of the Shading of

REPORT—1901.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1898.

The Concave Grating for Stellar |
Photography. (June.)

the H- and K- and some other
Lines in the Spectrum of the Sun
and Arc. (June.)

Some Notes on the Zeeman Effect.
(June.)

A propos de J’interprétation du
phénoméne de Zeeman donnée
par M.Cornu. (June.)

Observations nouvelles sur le phé-
noménede Zeeman. (Read July 4.)

Ueber die Emission des Quarzes in
dem Spectralbereiche seiner metal-
lischen Absorption. (Read July 8.)

Ueber ‘Blaublindheit.’ (Read
July 8.)

Di un nuovo metodo sperimentale

per lo studio dell’ assorbimento
della luce nel campo magnetico.
I. (Read July 17.)

Sur l’absorption de la Iumiére pro-
duite par un corps placé dans un
champ magnétique. (Read July
25.)

On the Relation between Pressure,
Current, and Luminosity of the
Spectra of Pure Gases in Vacuum
Tubes. (July.)

Ueber den Einfluss der Temperatur
auf die Brechung und Dispersion
einiger Krystalle und Glaser.
(July.)

Nachtrag zu der Abhandlung
‘Ueber das Brechungsvermogen
des mit Fliissigkeiten getrinkten
Hydrophans.’ (July.)

Streifen gleicher Helligkeit beim
Durchgang des Lichtes durch

‘Ann, » Phys.

zwei grob getheilte Gitter. (Aug.)

‘Johns Hopkins Univ.
Cire.’ cxxxv. 61-62;
‘ Astrophys. J.’ vii. 157-
162; ‘Nature,’ lvii. 520
(Abs. :

‘Johns Hopkins Univ.

Circ.’ xvii. 62.

‘ Astrophys. J.’ viii. 48-50;
‘Johns Hopkins Univ.
Circ.’xvii.53; ‘Beiblitter,’
xxii. 892 (Abs.)

‘ L’Kclairage électrique,’
xv. 548-550; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xxii. 891 (Abs.)

C. oR. <cxxvile 18-24:
‘ Beiblatter,’xxii. 891-892
(Abs.); ‘Nature,’ Iviii.
264 _(Abs.); ‘Science
Abstr.’ ii. 12-13.

‘Verh. phys. Ges. Berlin,’
xvii.101-105;‘Beiblitter,’
xxiii. 357-B58 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berlin,’
1898, 718-731; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xxii. 575 (Abs.)

“Rend. R. <Accad: d.
Lincei’ [5], vii. II. 41-
46; ‘Il Nuovo Cimento,’
[4], viii. 102-109; ‘Bei-
blatter,’ xxiii. 300-302
(Abs.); ‘Science Abstr.’
ii. 661.

°C. RY’ cxxvii. 216-219;
‘ Sitzungsb. Akad. Berlin,’
xxviii. 600-604; <Bei-
blitter,’ xxiii. 300-302
(Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ lix. 263
(Abs.)

‘ Phys.’ Review,’ vii. 1-9;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 15;
‘ Nature,’ lviii. 463 (Abs,)

u. Chem,
[N.F.], Ixv. 707-744;
‘Science Abstr.’ i. 690.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

[N.F.], lxv. 746.

‘ Zeitschr. f. Instrumenten-
kunde’ (‘ Beiblitter’),
1898, 121; ‘Science
Abstr.’ ii. 163-164,

ON

T, BE. Doubt .

D. Macaluso and
O. M. Corbino.

8. P. Thompson

D. Macaluso and
O. M. Corbino

W. Voigt

H. Becquerel .

R. W. Wood .

C. Palfrich

J. Hartmann.

W. Voigt

A. Cotton

H. Becquerel.

1901.

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1898.
Colour Measurement. (Aug.)

Sopra una nuova azione che la luce
subisce attraversando alcuni vapori
metallici in un campo magnetico.
(Read Sept. 22.)

On the Discovery by Righi of the
Absorption of Light in a Magnetic
Field. (Sept.)

Sur une nouvelle action subie par
la lumiére traversant certaines

vapeurs métalliques dans wun
champ magnétique. (Read Oct.
30.)

Ueber d. Zusammenhang zwischen
dem Zeeman’schen und dem
Faraday’schen Phinomen. (Read
Oct. 29.)

Remarques sur la polarisation ro-

tatoire magnétique et la disper-
sion anomale 4 loccasion d’une
expérience nouvelle de MM.
Macaluso et O. M. Corkino, (Read
Oct. 31.)

On the anomalous Dispersion of
Cyanin. (Oct.)

Ueber die Anwendbarkeit der
Methode der Totalreflexion auf
kleine und mangelhafte Krystal-
flichen. (Oct.)

Ueber die Scale des Kirchhoff-
’schen Sonnenspectrum. (Read
Nov. 17.)

Doppelbrechung von im Magnet-
felde befindlichem Natrium-
dampf in der Richtung normal zu
den Kraftlinien. (Read Nov. 26.)

Absorption dans un champ mag-
nétique. (Read Dec. 5.)

Sur la dispersion anomale et le
pouvoir rotatoire magnétique de
certaines vapeurs incandescentes.
(Read Dee. 5.)

| *Gétt. Nachr’

177

‘Phil, Mag.’ [5], xlvi. 216-
222; ‘Science Abstr.’ ii.

a3

93-94.

‘Rend. R.Accad.d. Lincei,’
[5], vii. II. 292-301; viii.
I. 38-41; ‘Il Nuovo Ci-
mento’ [4], viii. 257-
259; ‘ Beibliatter,’ xxiii.
672-673 (Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1898,
789-790.

*C. RY exxvii. 548-551;
‘Beiblatter,’ xxiii. 298—
299 (Abs.); ‘Science
Abstr.’ ii, 167-169 ; ‘ Na-
ture,’ lviii. 635 (Abs.)

‘Gott. Nachr.’ 1898, iv.
329-344: ‘Science Abstr.’
ii. 601-602.

*C. R. cxxvii. 647-651.
‘Nature,’ lix. 47 (Abs.)

‘ Phil. Mag.’ [5], xlvi. 8380_
386 ; ‘Science Abstr.’ ii.
279 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xxiii. 983 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Krystallogr.’

Xxx. 568-586; ‘Bei-
blatter,’ xxiii. 354-355
(Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berlin,’
1898, 742-756; ‘Science
Abstr.’ ii. 347,

1898, iv.
356-360; ‘ Science Abstr.’
ii. 602.

‘C. R.’ exxvii. 953-955;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 164—
165.

*C. R.’ exxvii. 899-904;

‘Beiblatter,’ xxiii. 509
(Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ lix. 167
(Abs.); ‘Science Abstr.’
ii. 169.

N

178

J. Dewar 0

(V. Ramsay and
M. W. Travers

E. Hagenand H.

Rubens ;

A. Righi °

E.S. Ferry .

EE. van Aubel.

R. Dongier

J. Kanonnikoff

E. 8. King

E. Matthiessen

A. EB. Schiotz

KE. S. Shepherd}

BE, E. Sundwik

REPORT—1901.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1898.

Application of Liquid Hydrogen to
the Production of High Vacua,
together with their Spectroscopic
Examination. (Read Dec. 15.)

The Preparation and some of the
Properties of Pure Argon. (Read
Dec. 15.)

Ueber das Reflexionsvermogen von
Metallen. (Read Dec. 16.)

Di un nuovo metodo sperimentale
per lo studio dell’ assorbimento
della luce nel campo magnetico.
II. (Read Dec. 18.)

A Photometric Study of the Spectra
of Mixtures of Gases at Low
Pressures. (Dec.)

Action de magnétisme sur les spec-
tres des gaz.

Méthode de contréle de l’orientation
des faces polies d’un quartz épais
normal a, l’axe.

Ueber Lichtbrechungsvermogen der
K6rper in fliissigem und gasférmi-
gem Zustande.

Conversion of Prismatic into Normal
Spectra, (Harvard Astronomical
Conference.)

Ueber den Hinfluss des Prozent-
gehaltes und der Temperatur auf
das Brechungsvermégen von eini-
gen Zuckerlosungen. (Inaug. Diss.
Rostock, 1898, 34 pp.)

Ueber das Spectrum der Kathoden-
strahlen (‘Christiania Vidensk.
Selsk. Forh.’ 1898, 6 pp.)

Photographic plates and the spec-
trum. (‘ Journ. Camera Club,’ xii.
No. 150.)

Ueber die Refraction von Losungen
und eine einfache Methode den
Gehalt der Lésungen vermittelst
der Refractiou zu Bestimmen.
(Chem, Centr. Halle, xxxix.: 681-
685.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc,’ Ixiv.
231-238 ; ‘Science Abstr.’
li. 247 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
lix. 280-281; ‘Chem.
News, Ixxix. 73-75;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1899, I.
819-820 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lxxvi. II.
741-742 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lxiv.
183-192; ‘Nature,’ lix.
308-309 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ lxxix. 37-39, 49_-
50; ‘Chem. Centralbl.’
1899, I. 469-470 (Abs.)

‘Verh. Deutsch. phys.
Gesellsch.’ xvii. 143-147 ;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 439-
440,

‘Rend.R. Accad. d. Lincei’
[5], vii. IL. 333-338 ; ‘Il
Nuovo Cimento’ [4], ix.
295-302; ‘ Beiblitter,’
XXlil. 670-671 (Abs.)

‘Phys. Review,’ vii. 296-
306.

‘J. de Phys.’ [3] vii. 408-
409 ; ‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898,
iI. 1160 (Abs.) ; ‘ Science
Abstr.’ ii. 170.

‘J. de Phys.’ [3], vii. 643-
648 ; ‘Science Abstv.’ ii.
277.

‘J. Russ. phys.-chem. Ges.’
xxx. 965-975; ‘Chem.
Centr.’ 1899, I. 581 (Abs.)

‘ Nature,’ lix. 330 (Abs.)

‘Beiblitter, xxii. 557-558
(Abs.)

‘Beiblitter, xxiii.

(title).

[9],
‘Nature,’ lix. 83-84 (Abs.)

“Chem. Centr.’ 1898, II.
847 (Abs.)

ee

ON

R.Thalen . J

P. Zeeman .

A. Righi

D. Macaluso and
O. M. Corbino

H. Becquerel

T. Preston

Sir J. Conroy

H, A. Lorentz

A. Cotton

G. Johnstone
Stoney.

YT. Preston .

C. E. Guillaume

C. Fabry and A. |
Perot.

A. Schuster and G.'
Hemsalech.

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

179

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1898, 1899.

Ueber der absolute Bestimmung
der Wellenlingen einiger Strahlen
des Sonnenspectrums. (‘ Roy. Soc.
Upsala’ [3] (1898.)

Sur lesdoublets et les triplets pro-
duits dans le spectre par des forces
magnétiques extérieures,

1899.

Sur l’absorption de la lumiére par
un corps placé dans un champ
magnétique. (Read Jan. 2.)

Sulle modificazioni che la luce
subisce attraversando alcuni va-
pori metallici in un campo mag-
netico, (Read Jan. 8.)

Sur la dispersion anomale de la
vapeur de sodium incandescente,
et sur quelques conséquences de ce
phénoméne, (Read Jan. 16.)

Radiating Phenomena in a Strong
Magnetic Field. Part II. Magnetic

Perturbations of the Spectral Lines.

(Read Jan. 18.)

On the Refractive Indices and
Densities of Normal Solutions and
Semi-normal Aqueous Solutions
of Hydrogen Chloride and the
Chlorides of the Alkalis, (Read
Jan, 19.)

Trillingen van electrisch geladen
Stelsels in een magnetisch Veld.
(Read Jan. 26.)

Biréfringence produite parle champ
magnétique, lige au phénoméne
de Zeeman. (Read Jan. 30.)

Illusory Resolution of the Lines of
a Spectrum, (Jan.)

. | Radiation Phenomena in the Mag-

netic Field. (Jan.)

L’échelle du spectre. (Jan.)

Théorie et applications d'une nou-
velle méthode de spectroscopie
interférentielle. (Jan.)

On the Constitution of the Electric
Spark. (Read Feb. 2.)

‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiv, 472-473
(Abs.)

‘Arch. néerland,’ [2], i,
383-392,

°C. R. cexxviii. 47-48;
‘Beiblatter, xxiii. 510
(Abs.); ‘Science Abstr.’
ii. 167.

‘Rend. R.Accad. d. Lincei’
[5] viii.I.38_41 ; ‘Science
Abstr,’ ii. 346.

°C. R. cxxviii. 145-151;
‘Beiblatter, xxiii, 352~
353 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixxvi. II. 266
(Abs.) ; ‘Science Abstr.’
ii, 442-443; ‘Nature,’
lix. 311 (Abs.)

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Dublin’
[2], vii. 7-22; ‘Nature,’
lvii. 431 (Abs.)

*Proc. Roy. Soc,’ lxiv. 308—
318; ‘Science Abstr.’ ii.
505-506 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc,’
Ixxvi. II, 717 (Abs.)

‘ Zittingsversl. d. K. Vet.
Akad. Amsterdam,’ vii.
320-340.

°C. RB? exxviii. 294-297;

‘ Beiblitter,’ xxiii. 509-
510 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
lix. 359 (Abs.); ‘Science
Abstr.’ ii, 220-221.

‘ Nature,’ lix. 294-295.
‘Nature,’ lix. 224-229,

* Rev. générale des
Sciences,’ x. 5-8; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xxiv. 259 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [7],
xvi. 115-144.

‘Phil, Trans.’ exciii. A.
189-213; ‘ Beibliatter,’
xxiv, 552-554 (Abs.)

N2

180

O. Lummer and E,
Pringsheim.

D. Macaluso and
O, M. Corbino.

O. M. Corbino

T. Preston

ae ~

O. M Corbino

Lord Rayleigh,

D. A. Goldhammer

T. Preston P

A. A. Michelson

A. Righi

F, Paschen

Lord Rayleigh

H, C. Lord

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

REPORT—1901.

HYSICAL RELATIONS, 1899.

Die Vertheiluug der Energie im
Spectrum der schwarzen K6rper.
(Read Feb, 3.)

Sulla relazione tra il fenomeno di
Zeeman e la rotazione magnetica
anomala del piano di polariza-
zione della luce. (Read Feb. 5.)

Sui battimenti luminosi e sull’
impossibilité di produrli ricor-
rendo al fenomeno di Zeeman.
(Read Feb. 19,)

Magnetic Perturbations of the
SpectralLines. Further Resolution
of the Quartet. (Feb.)

Radiation Phenomena in the Mag-
netic Field. Magnetic Perturba-
tions of the Spectral Lines. ( Feb.)

Sulla dipendenza tra il fenomeno

di Zeeman e le altre modifica-
zioni che la luce subisce dai
vapori metallici in un campo
magnetico. (Read March 5.)

Transparency and Opacity. (Read
March 24.)

Das Zeeman’sche Phiinomen, die
magnetische Circularpolarisation,
und die magnetische Doppelbre-
chung. (March.)

Radiation in a Magnetic Field.
(March.)

Radiation in a Magnetic Field.
(March,)

Intorno alla questione della pro-
duzione di un campo magnetico,
per opera di un raggio luminoso
polarizzato circolamente. (Read
April 9.)

Ueber die Vertheilung der Energie
im Spectrum des_ schwarzen

Ko6rpers bei niederen Tempera-
turen, (Read April 27.)

The Interferometer. (April.)

Ona Graphic Method of Comparing
the Relative Efficiencies of Differ-
ent Spectroscopes (April.)

A Chapter in the History of Spec-
trum Analysis. (April.)

| *Verh. Deutsch.

phys:
Gesellsch.’ i, 23-41;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 664.

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lincei’
[5], viii. I. 116-121; ‘Il
Nuovo Cimento’ [4], ix.
384-389; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xxiii. 673-674 (Abs.)

‘ Rend. R. Accad. d. Lincei’
[Diya valle ylemeln le hviogs
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 346,

‘Nature,’ lix, 367.

‘ Phil. Mag.’ [56] xlvii. 165-
178; ‘Science Abstr.’ ii,
443-444,

‘Rend R. Accad. d, Lincei’
[6], viii. I. 250-255,

‘ Proc. Roy. Inst.’ xvi. 116-
119; ‘Nature,’ lx. 64-65
(Abs.)

‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lxvii. 696-701 ;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii, 278-
279.

‘Nature,’ lix. 485; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xxiv. 835 (Abs.)

440-441 ;
xxiv. 835

‘Nature,’ lix.
‘ Beiblatter,’
(Abs.)

‘ Atti R. Accad.d. Lincei’
[5], viii. I. 825-326;
‘Science Abstr,’ ii, 601,

‘ Sitzungsb. Akad. Berlin,’
1899, 405-420; ‘ Bei-
blitter, xxiv. 31-32
(Abs.) ; ‘Science Abstr.’
ii. 604.

‘Nature,’ lix. 533; ‘Bei-
blitter, xxiv. 835 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ ix. 191-
202; ‘Science Abstr.’ ii.
824; ‘ Beiblatter, xxiii.
776-777 (Abs.)

‘ Nature,’ lix. 585-539.

ON

Lord Rayleigh

R. W. Wood .

L. E. Jewell .

A. Cotton .

J. W. Briihl .

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

T. Preston

A, Righi d
H. Wanner .
M. Hamy .

A. Haller and P. T.
Miiller.

W. de W. Abney

C. Bender

W. W. Campbell

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1899,

Transmission of Light through an
Atmosphere containing Small
Particles in Suspension. (April.)

An Application of the Diffraction
Grating to Colour Photography.
(April.)

The Wave-length of Hé, and the
Appearance of the Solar Spectrum
near the Hydrogen Lines. (April.)

The Present Status of Kirchhoft’s
Law. (April.)

Physikalische Higenschaften einiger
Campherarten und verwandter
Korper.

On Spectrum Series.

(Lecture to
Working Men.

May 1.)

Magnetic Perturbations of the
Spectral Lines. (Read May 12.)

Sull’ assorbimento della luce per
parte di un gaz posto nel campo
magnetico. (Read May 28.)

Notiz tiber die Verbreiterung der
D Linien. (May.)

Sur la détermination de points de
repére dans le spectre. (Read
June 5.)

Sur les réfractions moléculaires, la
dispersion moléculaire, et le pou-
voir spécifique des combinaisons
du camphre avec quelques aldé-
hydes aromatiques. (Read June 5.)

The Colour Sensations in Terms of
Luminosity. (Read June 15.)

Brechungsexponenten reinen Was-
sers und normalen Salzlésungen.
(June.)

The Influence of the Purkinje
Phenomenon on Observations of
Faint Spectra. (June.)

181

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] xlvii. 375-
384; ‘Science Abstr.’ ii,
(Bil

‘Phil, Mag,’ [5] xlvii. 368-
372.

‘Astrophys. J.’ ix. 211-
213; ‘Science Abstr.’ ii.
823; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiii.
780 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ ix. 237-
268.

‘Ber.’ xxxii. 1222-1236;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1899, I.
1265-1267 (Abs.)

‘ Nature,’ Ix. 368-370, 392 -
396.

* Proc. Roy. Inst.’ xvi. 151-
163; ‘Nature,’ Ix. 175-
180; ‘Science Abstr.’ ii.
662-663.

‘Il Nuovo Cimento’ [4],
x, 20-42; ‘ Beiblitter,’
Xxlil. 666-670 (Abs.);
‘Nature,’ lx. 276 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lxviii. 143-144;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 603-
604.

°C. R.’ exxviil. 1380-1382 ;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 727
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiii.
777-778 (Abs.)

°C. R. cxxviii. 1370-1373 ;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1899, II.
116-117 (Abs.) ; ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixxx. 11 (Abs.);
‘Nature,’ lx, 167 (Abs.) ;
‘J. Chem. Soe.’ lxxvi. II.
622 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Trans.’ excili, 259-

287; ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’
282-283 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
Ix. 237-238; ‘Science
Abstr.’ iii. 303.
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.
[N.F.], Ixvili. 343-349 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxxvi. II.
621 (Abs.); ‘Science
Abstr.’ ii, 659.

‘Astrophys. J.’ x. 22-24;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiii. 776
(Abs.)

182

H. M. Reese ,

F, A. Saunders

J. M. Eder
EK. Valenta.

and

J. Wilsing , .

J.C.Shedd . .

W. Sedgwick.
W. W. Randall

W. Konig,

J. W. Gifford.

G. J. Burch . ‘

T. Preston . :

First B. Galitzin
and J. Wilip.

O.N. Rood , :

E, B, Frost A

REPORT—1901.
PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1899.

Notes on the Zeeman Effect. (June.)

Notes on the Energy Spectrum of a
Black Body, and on the Absorp-
tion of Ice in the Ultra-red.
(June.)

Normalspectren einiger Elemente
zur Wellenlangebestimmung im
aussersten Ultraviolett. (Read
July 13.)

Ueber den Einfluss des Drucks auf
die Wellenlangen der Linien des
Wasserstoffsspectrums. (Read
July 27.)

An Interferometer Study of Radia-
tion ina Magnetic Field. L., II.

(July.)
Spectrum Series. (Aug.)

On the Permeation of Hot Plati-
num by Gases. (Aug.)

Dispersionsmessungen am Gyps.
(Sept.)

Temperature and the Dispersion in
Quartz and Calcite. (Sept.)

On the Spectroscopical Hxamina-
tion of Contrast Phenomena.

(Sept.)

Preliminary Report of the Com-
mittee on Radiation froma Source
of Light in a Magnetic Field.
(Sept.)

Untersuchungen tiber das _ Bre-
chungsverhaltniss des Aethyl-
athers in der Nahe des kritischen
Punktes. (Read Oct. 6.)

Colour Vision and the Flicker
Photometer. (Oct.)

On Titanium for a Comparison
Spectrum. (Oct.)

‘Johns Hopkins Univ.
Cire.’ xviii. 59; ‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [5] xlviii. 317-319;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiv, 130-
131 (Abs.)

‘Johns Hopkins Univ.
Cire.’ xviii. 58-59.

‘Denkschr. Akad, Wien’

Ixviilil. 531-554; ‘ Bei-
blatter’ xxiv. 474-475
(Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berlin,’

1899, 750-752; ‘Astro-
phys. J.’ x. 269-271;
‘Beiblatter, xxiv. 475
(Abs.)

‘Phys. Review,’ ix. 1-19,
86-115.

‘Nature,’ lx, 412.

‘ Amer. Chem. J.’ xix. 682-
691 ; ‘Chem. News, Ixxvi.
168-170.

‘Ann. Phys, u. Chem’
ENE], ix. peel
‘Science Abstr.’ ii, 819-
820 (Abs.)

‘ Brit. Assoc. Report,’ 1899,
661-662; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xxiv. 791 (Abs.)

‘ Brit. Assoc. Report,’ 1899,
624; ‘Electrician,’ xliii.
811-812; ‘Nature,’ 1x.
585; ‘ Beibliatter, xxiv.
272 (Abs.)

‘ Brit. Assoc. Report,’ 1899,
63-64 ; ‘ Nature,’ lx. 586
(Abs.)

‘Bull. Akad. St. Petersb.’
[5], xi. 117-196; ‘Bei-
blatter,’ xxiv. 448-450
(Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xxviii. IT. 461-462 (Abs.)

‘Amer, J. Sci.’ [4], viii.
254-260; ‘Nature,’ lx.
611 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J. x. 207-
208; ‘Science Abstr.’ iii,
20-21.

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

O. Lummer and

E. Pringsheim.

F. Gand :

A. Chilesotti

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

C. Bender ,

E. B. Frost .

T. Preston .

F. Paschen ,

A. Haller and P. T.

Miiller.

A. Righi 3

W. H. Perkin

P. Zeeman

A, Wiillmer .

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1899.

I. Die Vertheilung der Energie im
Spectrum des schwarzen Korpers
und des blanken Platins. II.
Temperaturbestimmung _ fester
glithender Korper. (Read Nov. 3.)

Sur la spectrophotometrie des
lumiéres électriques. (Read Nov.
13.)

Sul potere rifrangente di alcuni
idrocarburi a nuclei benzolici con-
densati. (Read Nov. 19.)

Preliminary Table of Wave-lengths
ofEnhanced Lines. (Read Noy. 23.)

Brechungsexponenten reinen Was-
sers und normaler Salzlésungen.
II. Abth. (Nov.)

Corrections to Determinations of
‘absolute Wave-length. (Nov.)

Some Remarks on Radiation Phe-
nomena in a Magnetic Field,
(Nov.)

Ueber die Vertheilung der Energie

im Spectrum des _ schwarzen
Kérpers bei héheren Tempera-
turen. (Read Dec. 7.)

Sur les réfractions moléculaires,
la dispersion moléculaire, et le
pouvoir rotatoire spécifique de
quelques alcoylcamphres. (Read
Dec. 11.)

Sul fenomeno di Zeeman nel caso

generale d’un raggio luminoso
comunque inclinato sulla dire-
zione della forza magnetica.
(Read Dec. 17.) (Mem. Accad.
Bologna [5], viii. 263-294.)

The Refractive and Magnetic Rotary
Power of some Benzenoid Hydro-
carbons. The Refractive Power of
Mixtures. An Improved Spectro-
meter Scale-reader. (Read Dec.21.)

Waarnemingen over eene asym-
metrische verandering van ijzer-
lijnen bij straling in een magnet-
isch veld. (Read Dec. 30.)

Ueber die Spectra der Canalstrahlen
und Cathodenstrahlen. (Dec.)

183

‘Verh. Deutsch. phys
Gesellsch.’ [2], 215-235.

‘C. RY’ cxxix. 759-760;
‘Nature,’ Ixi, 95 — 96
(Abs.) ; ‘Science Abstr.’
iii. 15.

‘Gazz. chim. Ital.’ xxx. I.
149-169; ‘Il Nuovo Ci-
mento’ [4], xii. 290-293
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliatter, xxv.
283 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc,’ Ixv. 452-
461; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiv.

262-263 (Abs.); ‘Nature,’
lxi. 263 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lxix. 676-679 ;

‘Science Absir.’ iii. 13
(Abs.)
‘Astrophys. J!” x. 283-

285; ‘Science Abstr.’ iii.
176.

‘Nature,’ lxi. 11—13.

‘ Sitzungsb. Akad. Berlin,’
1899, 959-976.

°C. R, cxxix. 1005-1008;

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1900, I.
297 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
Ixi. 192 (Abs.)

‘Il Nuovo Cimento,’ xi.
177-206 ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xxiv. 541-544 (Abs.) ;
‘Science Abstr.’ iii. 689.

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxxvii.
267-294 ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xxiv. 929-930 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1900, I.
797-798 (Abs.)

‘Zittingsversl. R. Akad.
Amsterdam,’ 1899-1900,
Deel viii. 228.-331 ; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xxiv. 835 (Abs.);
‘Nature,’ xi. 408 (Abs.)

‘Phys. Zeitschr.” i. 132-
134; ‘ Beiblitter, xxiv.
314-315 (Abs.)

184

Sir W.de W. Abney

E. van Aubel.

W. Hallwachs

G. A. Hemsalech

J.J. Manley .

H. Rubens

D. P. Brace

Hi, Aschkinass

S. Young and E. C.
Fortey.

C. Fabry and A.

Perot.

A. Perot and C.
Fabry.

M. Hamy

W. Voigt

E. Hagen and H.
Rubens.

C. Viola

REPORT—1901.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1899, 1900.

Ueber die Zerlegung des Spectrums
des electrischen Lichtesin Leucht-
kraftmengen von drei Farben.
(Jahrb. f. Photogr. 1899, 338-350.)

Ueber die Brechungsexponenten
der Metalle.

Refractive Indices of Solutions.
(Sitzungsb. Isis.)

Sur le spectre des décharges oscil-
lantes.

1900.

An Optical Method of determining
the Density of Sea-water. (Read
Jan. 8.)

Recherches sur le spectre infra-
rouge. La résonance électrique
des rayons de chaleur. (Jan.)

On a New System for Spectral
Photometric Work. (Jan.)

Ueber anomale Dispersion im ultra-
roten Spectralgebiete. (Jan.)

Note on the Refraction and Mag-
netic Rotation of Hexamethylene,
Chlorohexamethylene, and Dichlo-
rohexamethylene. (Read Feb. 13.)

Nouvelle source de la lumiére
pour le spectrométrie de pré-
cision, (Read Feb. 12.)

Détermination de nouveaux points
de repére dans le spectre. (Read
Feb. 19.)

Sur la détermination de points de
repere dans le spectre. (Read
Feb. 19, March 12.)

Ueber eine Dissymmetrie der Zee-
man’schen normalen Triplets.
(Feb.)

Das Reflexionsvermégen von Me-
tallen und belegten Glasspiegeln.
(Feb.)

Ueber die Minima der Lichtablen-
kung durch Prismen anisotroper
Medien. (March.)

|

‘ Zeitschr. .f. physikal.
Chem.’ xxx. 665-567 ;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1900, I.
161 (Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.” Ixxviii. II. 125
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ 1x.328-329 (Abs.)

‘J. de Phys.’ [3], viii. 652-
660; ‘ Nature,’ lxi, 258-
259 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb.

xxiii. 35-43 ; ‘ Nature,’
lxi, 286 (Abs.)
‘Rev. générale des

Sciences,’ xi. 7-13.

‘Astrophys. J.’ xi. 6-24;
‘ Nature,’ lxi. 521 (Abs.)

‘Ann, der Phys.’ [4], i.
42-68; ‘Phys. Zeitschr.’
i. 53-54; ‘Science Abstr.’
lil. 237-238.

J. (Chem. ‘Soc. wlzxvit.
372-374 ; ‘ Beibliatter,’
xxiv. 928-929 (Abs.)

°C. RB. cxxx. 406-409 ;
‘Nature,’ lxi. 407 (Abs.)

SC. JR. (exaxx, (402=495"
‘ Beiblatter, xxiv. 473-
474 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’ 1xi.
435 (Abs.)

°C. RY cxxx. 489-492, 700-
701; ‘ Nature,’ lxi. 435
(Abs.); ‘Science Abstr.’
iii. 377, 464; ‘ Beiblat-
ter,’ xxiv. 472 (Abs.)

‘Ann. der Phys.’ [4], i.
376-388.

‘Ann. der Phys.’ [4], i.
353-375 ; ‘ Nature,’ Ixi.
555 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Kryst. uw.
Min.” xxxii. 545-550;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiv. 1292-
1293 (Abs.)

ON

E. H. J Cunzus

Lord Blythswood
and KE. W. Mar-
chant.

L. E. Jewell .

D.W. Murphy .

T. Preston .

A. Righi

K. Goldstein .

W.S. Adams.

C. Bender

A. Laur.

G. J. Burch

A. Partheil and J.
von Velsen.

A. Schmaus

VY. Schumann

G. Pellini and A.
Menin.

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1900.

Die Bestimmung des Brechungs-
vermégen als Methode fiir die
Untersuchung der Zusammen-
setzung der coexistirenden Phasen
bei Mischungen von Aceton und
Aether. (April.)

The Echelon Spectroscope and its
Application to investigate the Be-
haviour of the Chief Lines of the
Mercury Spectrum under the Influ-
ence of a Magnetic Field. (April.)

The Use of the Lines of Titanium
for Comparison Spectra and their
Prominence in the Chromosphere.
(April.)

A Method of Determining the
Luminosity Curve of the Solar
Spectrum. (April.)

The Interferometer. (April)

Ueber das Zeeman’sche Phiinomen

in dem allgemeinen Falle eines
beliebig gegen die Richtung der
magnetischen Kraft geneigten
Lichtstrahles. (April.)

Ueber Spectra von Gasgemengen
und von Entladungshiillen. (Read
May 11.)

The Curvature of the Spectral Lines
in the Spectroheliograph. (May.)

normaler
(May.)

Brechungsexponenten
Salzlosungen. III.

Ueber den normalen refractome-
trischen Werth von Butter. (May.)

On the Spectroscopic Examination
of Colour produced by Simultane-
ous Contrast. (Read June 21.)

Die Grundlagen der refractome-
trischen Butteruntersuchung.
(June.)

Ueber anomale electromagnetische
Rotationsdispersion. (June.)

. | The Transparenoy of Thin Films of

Glycerin. (June.)

Sul potere rifrangente del tellurio
in alcuni suoi compositi. (Read
July 30.)

| ‘Chem. Zeitung,’

185

‘Phys. Zeitschr.’ i. 316-
317; ‘Science Abstr.’ iii.
730.

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xlix. 384—
403 ; ‘Science Abstr.’ iii.
375-376,

‘Astrophys. J.’ xi. 243-
244; ‘Science Abstr.’ ili.
691.

‘Astrophys. J.’ xi. 220-
225; ‘Beiblitter,’ xxiv.
910-911 (Abs.) ; ‘ Science
Abstr.’ iii. 69L.

‘Nature, lix. 605; ‘Bei-
blitter,” xxiv. 835-836
(Abs.)

‘Phys. Zeitschr.’ i, 329-
334,

‘Verb. Deutsch. phys.
Gesellsch.’ [2], ii. 110~
112; ‘Beiblatter,’ xxiv.
1191-1193 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ xi. 309~
311; ‘Beiblatter,’ xxiv.
908 (Abs.)

‘Ann. der. Phys.’ [4], ii.
186-196; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixxviii. If. 461 (Abs.)

Xxiv.
394-395 ; ‘J. Chem. Soe.’
lxxvili. II. 634 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Isxvii.
224-228; ‘Nature,’ Ixii.
615-616 (Abs.); ‘ Science
Abstr.’ iii. 181.

‘Arch. Pharm.’ ccxxxviii.
261-279 ; ‘Chem. Centr.’
1900, II. 215-216 (Abs.)

‘Ann. d. Phys. [4], ii.
280-294; ‘Nature,’ Ixii.
335 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ lxxxi. 267-
268.

‘Gazz. chim. Ital.” xxx.
II. 465-475; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixxx. II. 94 (Abs.)

186

G. A. Hemsalech

E. Hoppe .

C. Runge and F.
Paschen.

E. Carvallo .

W. Marshall Watts

N. E. Dorsey.

8. P. Langley

H. M. Reese .

C. Riviere . :

A. Perot
Fabry.

and C.

J. Meyer

O. Lummer and E£.
Jahnke.

8. P. Langley

H. B. Dixon .

R. W. Wood .

REPORT—1901.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1900.

Sur les spectres des décharges
oscillantes. (Aug.)

Spectroscopische Beobachtungen
am Wehneltunterbrecher. (Aug.)

Studium des Zeemaneffectes im
Quecksilberspectrum. (Aug.)

Sur la dispersion exceptionnelle du
spath d’Islande.

On Wave-length Tables of the
Spectra of the Elements and Com-
pounds [containing Index toTables
in the Reports from 1884 to 1900.]

Prism and Grating Spectroscopes.
(Sept.)

On the Infra-red of the Solar’ Spec-
trum. (Sept.)

An Investigation of the Zeeman
Effect with Reference to Zinc, Cad-
mium, Magnesium, Iron, Nickel,
Titanium, Carbon, Calcium, Alu-
minium, Silicon, Mercury, &c.
(Sept.)

Indice de réfraction et dispersion
du brome. (Read Oct. 22.)

Méthode interférentielle pour la
mesure des longueurs d’onde dans
le spectre solaire. (Read Oct. 29.)

Die Photographie der ultraroten
Strahlen. (Oct.)

Ueber die Spectralgleichung des
schwarzen Korpers und des
blanken Platins. I. (Oct.)

Sur les derniers résultats obtenus
dans l'étude de la partie infra-
rouge du spectre solaire. (Read
Nov. 5.)

Reversal of Lines of the Spectrum
of an Explosion Wave. (Read
Noy. 13.)

The Anomalous Dispersion of Car-
bon. (Read Nov. 23.)

‘J. de Phys,’ ix. 437-444;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiv. 1283-
1284 (Abs.)

‘Electrotechn. Zeitschr.
xxi. 507-508; ‘Beiblatter,
xxiv. 1026-1027 (Abs.)

‘Phys. Zeitschr.’ i. 480-
481; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiv.
1329-1330 (Abs.) ;
‘Science Abstr.’ iii. 949-
950. :

‘J. de Phys.’ [3], 465-
479; ‘Science Abstr.’ iv.
17-18.

‘ Brit.Assoc. Report,’ 1900,
193-297,

‘Astrophys. J.’ xii. 164-
165; ‘Science Abstr.’ iv.
25-26,

‘ Brit. Assoc. Report,’ 1900,
659 (title only); ‘Nature,’
Ixii. 562 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ xii. 120-
135; ‘Beiblatter,’ xxiy.
1329 (Abs.)

°C. Re (cxxsayioml=ones
‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiv. 1275
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxxx. II. 1 (Abs.)

°C. R.” exxxi. 700-702
‘ Beiblatter, xxiv. 1291-
1292 (Abs.)

‘Phys. Zeitschr.’ ii. 67
‘Science Abstr.’ iv. 24.

‘Ann. der Phys.’ [4], ii.
283-297.

°C. Re cxxxi.. 734-736:
‘ Nature,’ lxiii. 75 (Abs.);
‘Science Abstr.’ iv. 24—
25.

‘Mem. and Proc. Man-
chester Phil. Soc.’ 1900-
1901, 4-5.

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xvii.
651-663 ; ‘ Nature,’ lxiii.
122 (Abs.);\ ‘Chem.
News,’ lxxxii, 267 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

187

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1900.—FLUORESCENCE, 1899, 1900.

G. J. W. Bremer

C, E. McClung

C. E. Magnusson .

E. A. Partridge

W. Ramsay . 5

H. M. Reese .

F.Riegler . ‘

J. R. Rydberg

K. Stockl

R. W. Wood and
C. E. Magnusson

P.Zeeman .

Sir W. Crookes

F. E. Kester .

P. Lewis P

Indices de réfraction de solutions
du chlorure du calcium.

Refractive Index and Alcohol-sol-
vent Powers of a Number of Clear-
ing and Mounting Media. (‘Kansas
Univ. Quarterly,’ vii. No. 4.)

TheA bnormal Dispersion of Cyanin.
(‘Bull. Uniy. Wisconsin,’ ii. 247-
296.)

Series in Spectra (‘J. Franklin
Inst.’ exlix. 193-206.)

Notes on the Refractivities of the
Inactive Gases.

The Zeeman Phenomenon. (‘ Elec-
trical World and Engineer,’ xxxvi.
248-249.)

The Refractometry of Mineral
Waters. (‘Buletinul Societatii de
le Sciinte d. Bucuresci, Romania,’
ix. 251.) '

Distribution of Spectrum Lines.
(‘Report of the International

Physical Congress at Paris,’ ii,

141-174.)

Messungen iiber die Dispersion und
Absorption von Lésungen anomal
brechender Substanzen bis zu
grossen Verdiinnungen. (‘ Inaug.
Dissert. Miinchen,’ 1900, 34 pp.)

The Anomalous Dispersion of
Cyanin.
Weiteres zur unsymmetrischen

Aenderung der Spectrallinien in
einem Magnetfelde.

Vv.
FLUORESCENCE.
1899.

Photographic Researches on Phos- j

phorescent Spectra. On Victorium,
a New Element Associated with
Yttrium. (Read May 4.)

A Method for the Study of Phos-
phorescent Sulphides.

1900.

. | Ueber Fluorescenz und Nachleucht-

en bei der electrischen Entladung
in Stickstoff. (July.)

‘Arch. néerland.’ [2], v.
202-218 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixxx. II. 141 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ lxxxii. 88
(Abs.)

‘Beiblitter’ xxv. 36
(Abs.); ‘Nature,’ Ixiii.
210 (Abs.)

* Science Abstr.’ ili. 465.

‘Arch. néerland.’ [2], v.
356-859 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc,’
lxxx. IT. 141 (Abs.)

‘Science Abstr,’ iii. 853.

‘Chem. News,’ lxxxii. 78.

‘Beiblitter, xxiv. 1276.
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xvii.
542-552.

‘Arch, néerland.’ [2], v.
237-241,

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lxv. 237—
243; ‘Nature,’ lx. 317-
319; ‘Chem. News, xxx.
49-51; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixxvi. II. 751 (Abs.);
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 767.

‘Phys. Rev. ix. 164-175;
‘ Beiblitter, xxiii. 988-
989 (Abs.)

‘Ann, der Phys.’ [4], i.
459-468; ‘Nature,’ lxii,
381 (Abs.)

188

8. J. Perry

”

REPORT—1901.

Wal.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS.

1882.

. | The Solar Eclipse, 1882, May 16.

|

(June.)

1885.

|

‘Monthly Not. R. A. S.
xlii. 408-410.

. | The chromosphere in 1884 (Feb.) | ‘ Observatory,’ viii. 53.

1889.

8 J. Perry and | Comparison of the Spectrum, be-

A. L. Cortie

A. L. Cortie .

J. N. Lockyer

W. Sidgreaves

A. L. Cortie .

W. Sidgreaves

A. L. Cortie .

”

W. Sidgreaves

A. L. Cortie .

tween C and D, of a Sun-spot
observed 1884, May 27, with
another of 1889, May 7. (June.)

1890.
Observation of the Spectra of Sun-
spots, in the region B_D, made at
Stonyhurst College Observatory,
1882-1889. (Read Dec. 12.)

1891.

On the Causes which produce the
Phenomena of New Stars. (Read
April 16.)

1892.

The bright Solar Prominence of
1891, Sept. 10. (Jan.)

The large Sun-spot Group of Aug,
28-Oct. 4, 1891. (Feb.)

| The Spectrum of Nova Aurigz.

(Read May 13.)

Some Recent Studies in the Solar
Spectrum. (May.)

Notes on the Spectra of Sun-spots.
(Aug.)

Nova Aurigz (Aug.)

Report of the Solar Spectroscopic
Section of the British Astronomi-
cal Association. (Read Oct. 26.)

The Nova of 1892. (Oct.)

1893.

Errata to ‘Note on the Revival of
Nova Aurige’ in ‘Astron. and
Astrophys.’ xi. 883 (note). (July.)

The Temporary Star in Auriga.
(June.)

‘Monthiy Not. R. A. 8.’
xlix. 410-418.

‘Monthly Not. R. A. §.
li. 76-78.

‘Phil. Trans,’ clxxxii. A.
397-448; * Beiblatter,’
xvii. 1067-1068 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xi. 66-67.

‘Observatory,’ xiv. 363-
366; ‘Astron. and Astro-
phys.’ xi. 130-133.

‘Mem. R. Astr. Soc.
29-43.

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xi. 393-407.

‘Astron, and Astrophys.’
xi. 587-593.

‘Astron, and Astrophys.’
xi. 604-607.

‘Jour. Brit. Astron. Assoc.’
lii. 31-35.

‘Jour. Brit. Astron.
Assoc.’ ili. 22-24; ‘Obser-
vatory,’ xv. 361-365.

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii. 560.

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii. 521-539.

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

189

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1893, 1894, 1896, 1897, 1898.

W. Sidgreaves

F. McClean .

W. Sidgreaves

A. Belopolsky

C. G. Abbott .

H. Deslandres

A.C. Maury .

A. J. Cannon.

E. C. Pickering

F. McClean

»”

H. Deslandres

The Variable Spectrum of f Lyrx
in the region F—h. (Dec.)

The Physical Constitution of the
Sun. (Nov.)

1894.

Notes on Solar Observations at
Stonyhurst College Observatory.
(Nov.)

1896.

Stellar Spectrum Photography at |

Stonyhurst. (Lecture Jan. 15.)

1897.

Comparative Photographic Spectra
of Stars to the 35 Magnitude.
(Read April 8.)

The Spectrum of 8 Lyrz as observed
at Stonyhurst College Observatory
jn 1895. (May.)

New Researches into the Spectra
of 8 Lyre and 7» Aquilz (in Rus-
sian). (Nov.)

Report of the Work of the Astro-
physical Observatory for the year
ending June 30, 1897.

Observation de l’éclipse du soleil
du 16 Avril, 1893.

Spectra of Bright Stars.

1898.

A Variable Bright Hydrogen Line,
(Jan.)

A New Spectroscopic Binary. (Jan.)

Comparison of Oxygen with the
Extra Lines in the Spectra of the
Helium Stars 8 Crucis, kc. Also
Summary of the Spectra of South-
ern Stars to the 34 Magnitude, and
their Distribution. (Read Feb. 3.)

The Total Eclipse of the Sur.

Nouvelle série de photographies de
la chromosphére entiére du soleil. |

(Read March 21.)

‘Month. Not. R.A. S.’ liv,
94-99.

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xil. 826-834.

‘Month. Not. R. A. S.’ ly.
6-12.

‘Jour. Brit. Astr. Assoc.’
vi. 196-197 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Trans.’cxci. A. 127-
138; ‘Science Abstr.’ ii.
435-436 (Abs.)

‘Month. Not. R, A.S.’ lvii,
515-531.

‘Bull. Acad. St. Peters-
burg’ [5], vii. 355-374;
‘Nature,’ Ixii. 70 (Abs.)

‘Smithsonian Inst. Rep,’
1897, 66-68.

‘Ann. du Bureau des
Longitudes,’ 1897, c. 1-
74.

‘Annals of Harvard Coll.
Obs.’ 1897, xxviii. I.

PA

‘Nature,’ lvi. 206-208;
‘Naturw. Rundschau,
xii. 581-583.

‘Harvard Coll. Obs. Cire.’
No. 21; ‘Nature,’ lvii.
284 (Abs.)

‘Harvard Coll. Obs. Circ.’
No, 21; ‘Nature,’ lvii.
284 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lxii. 417-
423; ‘ Astrophys. J.’ vii.
367-372; ‘Nature,’ lvii.
405 (Abs.); ‘Science
Abstr.’ i. 635-636.

‘ Nature,’ lvii. 265-267.
‘C. RB. cxxvi. 879-882;
‘Science Abstr.’ i. 470-
471,

190

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

J. Scheiner

W. Sidgreaves

A. L. Cortie .

R. Copeland .

E. H. Hills and H.

F. Newall

A. L. Cortie .
W. H. 8S. Monck

E. C. Pickering

C. Runge

C. L. Poor and §.

A. Mitchell

A. J. Cannon.

L. E. Jewell .
J. R. Rydberg

A. Belopolsky

J. E. Keeler «

REPORT—1901.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1898.

Total Eclipse of the Sun, January
22, 1898. Preliminary Account
of the Observations made by the
Eclipse Expedition and _ the
Officers and Men of H.MS.
‘ Melpomene,’at Viziadrug. (Read
March 28.)

On the Spectrum of Hydrogen inthe
Nebule, (April.)

The Spectrum of o Ceti as photo-
graphed at Stonyhurst College
Observatory. (April.)

On the Level of Sun-spots and the
Cause of their Darkness. (April.)

Total Solar Eclipse of January 22,

1898. Preliminary Report on
Observations made at Ghoglee,
Central Provinces. (Read May
10.)

Total Solar Eclipse of 1898, Jan-
uary 22. Preliminary Report on
the Observations made at Pulgaon,
India, (Read May 25.)

Vanadium in the Spectrum (C—D)
of Sun-spots. (May.)

The Spectra and Proper Motions of
Stars. (June.)

Stars having Peculiar Spectra.
(June.)

On the Relative Intensities of the
Lines in the Spectrum of the
Orion Nebula. (June.)

The Concave Grating for Stellar
Photography. (June.)

Additional Hydrogen Lines in Stars
resembling ¢ Puppis. (June.)

The Concave Grating for Stellar
Photography. (June.)

Metargon and the Interplanetary
Medium. (July.)

Ueber ein Versuch die Geschwin-
digheit im Visionsradius der Com-
ponenten von vy Virginis und
y Leonis zu bestimmen. (Aug.)

The Hydrogen Atmosphere sur-
rounding the Wolf-Rayet Star
D.M. + 30°'3639. (Aug.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixiv. 27-
42.

‘Astrophys. J.’ vii. 231-
238; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxii.
841 (Abs.); ‘Science
Abstr.’ i. 583; ‘ Nature,’
lviii. 41 (Abs.)

‘Month. Not. R. A. 8S’
lviii. 344-343.

‘Astrophys. J.’ vii. 239-
248.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixiv, 21-
26.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lxiv. 43--
61.

‘Month. Not. By-A: §:
lviii. 370-373.

‘ Astrophys. J.’ viii. 28-31,

‘Harvard Coll. Obs. Cire.’
No. 32; ‘Nature,’ Ilviii,
258 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ viii, 32-
36; ‘Beiblatter,’ xxiii,
362-363 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ viii, 157—
162; ‘Science Abstr.’ i.
316.

‘Harvard Coll. Obs. Cire.’
No. 32; ‘Nature,’ lviii.
258 (Abs.)

‘Johns Hopkins
Cire.’ xvii. 61-62.

‘Nature,’ lviii. 319; ‘Bei-
blitter,’ xxiii. 395 (Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nach.’ cl. (No. 3510),

90-94; ‘Nature,’ lviii.
400-401 (Abs.)

Univ.

‘Astrophys. J.’ viii. 113-
114; ‘Nature,’ lviii. 463
(Abs.)

H.C. Lord .

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

K. D. Nargamvala

”

H. Deslandres

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

W. W. Campbell

A. C. Maury .

H.C. Vogel .

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

Mrs. Fleming

”

G.E. Hale .

W. W. Campbell .

H. Deslandres

: W. W. Campbell
:
q

|

| Sauerstofi auf

Some Observations on Stellar Mo-
tions in the Line of Sight made at
the Emerson McMillin Observa-
tory. (Aug.)

Photograph of the Spectrum of the
‘Flash’ at the Eclipse of Jan. 21,
1898. (Aug.)

The Nebulaof Andromeda. (Sept.)

Photographie de la vitesse radiale
des étoiles. (Sept.)

The Chemistry of the Stars. (In-
augural Address, Birmingham
and Midland Institute. Oct. 26.)

Some Stars with Great Velocities in
the Line of Sight. The Variable
Velocity of n Pegasiin the Line of
Sight. (Oct.)

The K-lines of 6 Aurigz. (Oct.)

Ueber das Spectrum von a Aquil,
und iiber die Bewegung des
Sternes im Visionsradius. (Read
Nov. 17.)

Preliminary Note on the Spectrum
of the Corona. (Read Nov. 24.)

Stars of the Vth Type in the
Magellanic Clouds. (Nov.)

Classification of Spectra of Variable
Stars of Long Period. (Nov.)

On the Spectra of Stars of Secchi’s
Fourth Type. (Noyv.)

The Variable Velocities of o Leonis
and of x Draconis in the Line of
Sight. (Dec.)

Remarques sur les méthodes em-
ployées dans la recherche des
vitesses radiales des astres. (Dec.)

der Sonne. Znu-
sammenfassung der Resultate
von Runge und Paschen, Janssen,
Dunér, Schuster, und Jewell.
(‘Himmel und Erde,’ x. 425.)

1899,

The Variable Radial Velocity of
¢ Geminorum in the Line of Sight.
(Jan.)

191

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1898, 1899.

‘ Astrophys. J.’ viii, 65-69 ;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiii. 180
(Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ viii. 120-
121; ‘Nature,’ lviii. 526
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ lviii. 515.

‘Bull. Soc. Astron. de
France, xii. 387-390;
‘Nature,’ lviii. 490 (Abs.)

‘Nature, lix. 32-36;
‘Chem. News,’ lxxviii.
233-235 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ viii. 1£7—
160; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xxxiii.
180 (Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ lix,
43 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ viii. 173-
175; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xxiii.
181 (Abs.)

‘ Sitzungsb. Akad. Berlin.’
1898, 721-734; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xxiii. 181 (Abs.);
‘ Astrophys. J.’ ix. 1-15;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 436¢—
437,

‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lxiv. 168—
170; ‘Nature,’ lix. 279_
280; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixxvi. II. 717-718 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ viii. 232;
‘ Nature,’ lix. 330 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ viii. 233;
‘ Nature,’ lix. 330 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ viii. 237—
238; ‘Nature,’ lix. 330
(Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ viii. 291-
292; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xxiii,
362 (Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ exlviii, 23.
28; ‘Astrophys. J.iz
167-172; ‘Science Abstr.
ii. 728.

‘ Beiblatter,’ xxii. 561-562
(Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ ix. 86;
‘Nature,’ Ix. 114 (Abs.)

192

J. E. Keeler .

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

”

A, Mulle
A, Cornu
H. C. Dunér .
G.E. Hale .

Mrs. Fleming

Sir J. N. Lockyer

” ”

D.Gill .

G. E. Hale

G. E. Hale

J. Wilsing

REPORT—1901.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1899.

Variation of Spectrum of Orion
Nebula. (Jan.)

Note on the Enhanced Lines in the
Spectrum of a Cygni. (Read
Feb. 2.)

On the Order of Appearance of
Chemical Substances at Different
Stellar Temperatures. (Read Feb.
23.)

Les trois types
étoiles. (Feb.)

spectrales des

La photographie des _ spectres
d@étoiles, (Read March 1.)

Spectra of Stars of Class III. b.

(March.)

The Spectrum of Saturn’s Rings.
(March. )

A New Star in

Sagittarius.
(March.)

The Chemistry of the Stars in Re-

lation to Temperature. (March.)

On the Distribution of the various
Chemical Groups of Stars. (Lec-
ture to Working Men. April 10.)

On some Recent Advances in
Spectrum Analysis relating to
Inorganic and Organic Evolution.
(Lecture to Working Men, April
24.)

On the Presence of Oxygen in the
Atmospheres of certain Fixed
Stars. (Read April 27.)

Comparison of Stellar Spectraof the
Third and Fourth Types. (April.)

Photographs of the New Star in
Sagittarius. (April.)

Spectra of Stars of Secchi’s Fourth
Type. (April.)

Ueber die Deutung des typischen
Spectrums der neuen Sterne.
(Read May 4.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ cxlviii. (No.
3541) 207; ‘ Nature,’ lix.
379 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lxiv. 320-
322; * Beiblitter.’ xxiii.
361 (Abs.); ‘Science
Abstr.’ ii. 435.

‘ Proc. Roy. Soe.’ lxiv. 396-
401 ; ‘Chem, News,’ lxxix.
145-147; ‘ Beiblatter,
xxiii. 792 (Abs.)

‘Rev. - Scientifique,’ xi.
238-242.
‘Bull. Soc. Astron. de

France,’ Sept. 1899, 379-
382.
‘Astrophys. J.’ ix. 119-

132; ‘Nature,’ Ix. 18
(Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ ix. 185-
186; ‘Nature,’ lix. 595
(Abs.)

‘Harvard Coll. Obs. Cire.’
No. 42; ‘ Nature,’ lix. 561
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ lix. 463-466.

‘Nature,’ lx. 617-620, Ixi.
8-11.

‘Nature,’ lx. 103-108.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixv. 196-—

206; ‘Nature,’ Ix. 190
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixxvi. II. 718 (Abs.);
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 729
(Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ x. 273-274.

‘Astrophys. J.’ ix. 269;
‘ Nature,’ lx. 88 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ ix. 271-
272; ‘Nature,’ lx. 186~
187 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berlin,’
1899, 426-436 ; ‘ Science
Abstr’? ii. 728-729 ;
‘Astrophys. J.” x. 113-
125.

Sir J.N. Lockyer .

A. Belopolsky

G. E, Hale
F, Ellerman.

W. W. Campbell

J, Scheiner .

W. W. Campbell

W. H. Wright

E. B. Frost

W. W. Campbell

A. Belopolsky

G. E. Hale
Sir J. N. Lockyer

J. Lunt

A. Belopo!sky

J.Fényi.

1901.

and |

ON

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

OF SPECTROSCOPY,

193

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1899.

On the Chemical Classification of
the Stars. (Read May 4.)

Ueber die Bewegung von ¢ Gemi-
norum in den Gesichtslinie.
(May.)

The Spectra of Stars of Secchi’s
Fourth Type. (July.)

New Spectroscopic Multiple Star
(Polaris). (Sept.)

Ueber die photographisch-photo-
metrischen Untersuchungen des
Herrn Keeler am _ Orionnebel.
(Oct.) (Reply of J. Keeler, ‘ Astr.
Nachr.’ cli. (No. 3601) 3-4.)

The Variable Velocities in the Line
of Sight of « Libra, A Draconis,
A Andromedz, e Urs Minoris, 6
Urse Minoris, and w Draconis.
(Oct.)

Observations of Comet Spectra.
(Oct.)

The Variable Velocity of Polaris.
(Oct.)

The Spectroscopic Binary Capella.
(Oct.)

The Wave-length of the Green
Coronal Line, and other Data re-
sulting from an Attempt to Deter-
mine the Law of Rotation of the
Solar Corona. (Oct.)

Ueber das Spectrurm von P Cygni.
(Nov.)

| Carbonin the Chromosphere. (Nov.)
. | The Piscian Stars, (Read Dec. 14.)

On the Origin of certain Unknown
Lines in the Spectra of Stars of
the B Crucis Type, and on the
Spectrum of Silicon. (Read
Dec. 14.)

Notes on the Spectrum of P Cygni.
(Dec.)

The Great Sun-spot, September
1898. (Dec.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc,’ Ixv. 186-
191.

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ cxlix. (No.
3565) 239; ‘ Nature,’ lx,
114 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ x, 87-112;
‘Beibliatter, xxiv. 110-
111 (Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ Ix,
429 (Abs.)

‘Nature, lx. 513 (Abs,)

‘Astr. Nachr,’ cl. (No,
3593) 299-302; ‘ Astro-
phys, J.’ x. 164-168.

‘Astrophys. J.’ x. 175-
183; ‘Nature,’ lxi, 114
(Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ x. 173-176;
‘Beiblatter, xxiv. 481-
482 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ x. 184-185;
‘Nature,’ lxi, 114 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ x. 177;
‘Nature, lxi, 114 (Abs.);

‘ Beiblitter, xxiv. 482
(Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ x. 186-
192, 306-307; ‘Bei-

blitter,’ xxiv. 183 (Abs.);
‘Science Abstr.’ iii. 176.

‘Astr. Nachr,’
3603) 37-40;
lxi. 137 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ x. 287-288.

‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixvi. 126-
140; ‘Beiblitter, xxiv.
789-790 (Abs.); ‘Nature,’
lxi. 213 (Abs.)

*Proe. Roy. Soc.’ Ixvi. 44—
50; ‘Astrophys. J.’ xi.
262-269; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xxiv. 912-913 (Abs.)

cli. (No,
‘Nature,’

‘ Astrophys. J.’ x. 319-321.

“Astrophys. J.’ x. 333-
336; ‘Science Abstr.’ iii.
300,

10)

194

REPORT—1901.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1899, 1900.

C. A. Young .

W. Sidgreaves

H. C. Vogel and

J. Wilsing .

C, A. Schultz-Stein-
heil.

A, Elvins a
C. Dufour ;
C. G. Abbot .

Sir J. N. Lockyer
and A. Fowler.

A. Belopolsky

H. Deslandres

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

H, C, Vogel .

W. H. Wright

K. Schwartzchild .

W.W. Campbell .

Sir J. N. Lockyer . |

The Wave-length of the Corona
Line. (Dec.)

Notes on the Spectra of y Cassio-
peive and o Ceti.

Untersuchungen iiber die Spectra
von 528 Sternen. (‘Publ. d.
Astrophys. Observat, zu Potsdam,’
xii. I. 73 pp.)

The Rotation of the Sun.
Observatory.)

(Lund

Sun-spot of September and October,
1898. (Proc. Canadian Instit. ii.
35-38.)

Comparaison entre la lumiére du
soleil et celle de quelques étoiles.

Report of the Work of the Astro-
physical Observatory for the year
ending June 30, 1899.

1900.

The Spectrum of a Aquile. (Read
Feb. 8.)

Ueber eine Methode zur Verstiirk-

ung schwacher Linier in Stern-
spectrogrammen (in Russian.)
(Read Feb, 9.)

Variations rapides de la vitesse
radiale de Jlétoile & Orionis.
(Read Feb. 12.)

Preliminary Note on the Spectrum
of the Corona, (Read Feb. 22.)

Ueber die im letzten Decennium in
der Bestimmung der Sternbewe-
gung in der Gesichtslinie erreich-
ten Fortschritte. (Read March 29.)

The Orbit of the Spectroscopic
Binary x Draconis, (March.)

Hin Verfahren der Bahbnbestim-
mung der spectroscopischen Dop-
pelsternen (March.)

The Variable Velocity of B Herculis
in the Line of Sight. (March.)

A Short Account of the Physical
Problems now being investigated
at the Solar Physics Observatory
and their Astronomical Applica-
tions, (Phys. Soc. April 27.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ x. 306-
307; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xxiv.
480 (Abs.); ‘ Science
Abstr.’ iii, 299-300.

‘Month. Not. R, A. 8, lix.
502-512.

‘ Nature,’ Ix. 577 (Abs.)

‘Science Abstr.’ iii. 176-
LTT.

‘Arch. de Genéve,’ viii.
209-217.

‘Smithson. Inst. Report,’
1899; ‘Nature,’ lxi. 546
(Abs.)

© Proce. Roy. Soc.’ lxvi. 232-
238; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xxiv.
995 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Acad. St. Petersb,’
[5], xii. 205-210; ‘ Bei-

blitter,’ xxv. 131-132
(Abs. )
UO) 2 Cxaxamono-ocee

‘Nature,’ lxi, 407 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soe.’ xvi. 189-
192; ‘Science Abstr.’ iii.
524-525.

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berlin,’
1900, 373-390.

‘Astrophys. J.’ xi. 131-
134; ‘ Beiblitter, xxiv.
996 (Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr.’ clii. (No.
3620) 66-74; ‘Nature,’
Ixi. 521-522 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ xi. 140;
‘Beiblatter,’ xxiv. 790
(Abs. )

‘Nature,’ lxii. 23 (Abs.);
‘ Chem. News,’ Ixxxi. 214
(Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

L. E. Jewell .

W. W. Campbell

A. Belopolsky

H. Deslandres

W. H. M. Christie

and F. M. Dyson.

J. Evershed

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

H. H. Turner and
H. F. Newall.

G. Meslin *

H. Deslandres

W. 4H. Julius.

P. de Heen

195

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1900.

Spectroscopic Determinations of
Motion in the Line of Sight, &c.

(April.)

Some Spectrographic Results ob-
tained at the Indian Eclipse by
the Lick Observatory Crocker
Expedition. (April.)

HinVersuch die Rotationsgeschwin-
digkeit des Venuszquator auf
spectrographischem Wege zu be-
stimmen. (May.)

Observations de Véclipse totale du
soleil le 28 Mai 1900 4 Argamasilla
(Espagne). (Read June 18.)

Total Eclipse of the Sun, 1900,
May 28. Preliminary Account of
the Observations made at Ovar,
Portugal, (Read June 28.)

Solar Eclipse of May 28, 1900.
Preliminary Report of the Expe-
dition to the South Limit of
Totality to obtain Photographs of
the Flash Spectrum in High Solar
Latitudes. (Read June 28.)

Total Eclipse of the Sun, May 28,
1900. Preliminary Account of the
Observations made by the Solar
Physics Observatory Eclipse Expe-
dition and the officers and men of
H.M.S. ‘ Theseus’ at Santa Pola.
(Read June 28.)

Total Solar Eclipse of 1900, May 28.
Preliminary Report on the Obser-
vations made at Bouzareah (in the
grounds of the Algiers Observa-
tory). (Read June 28.)

Sur les images spectrales de la
chromosphére et des _ protubé-

rances, obtenues & Jaide de
la chambre prismatique. (Read
July 30.)

Premiers résultats des recherches
faites sur la reconnaissance de la
couronne solaire avec l’aide des
rayonscalorifiques. (Read Oct.15.)

Solar Phenomena and Anomalous
Dispersion. (Oct.)

Constatation de quelques faits re-
latifs aux stratifications des tubes

4 vide et au spectre quils pré- |

sentent. Conjecture sur Jo me-
chanisme de ce phénomeéne, (Read
Noy. 3.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ xi.234—-240 ;
‘Science Abstr.’ ili. 691.

‘Astrophys. J.’ xi. 226-
233.

‘Astr. Nachr.’ clii. (No.
3641) 263-276; ‘Nature,’
Ixii. 160-161 (Abs.)

°C. BR.’ cxxx. 1691-1695;
‘ Nature,’ lxii. 233 (Abs.);
‘ Astrophys. J.’ xii. 287—

290; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxv.
40. (Abs.)
‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixvii.
392-402.
‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixvii.
370-385.
‘Proc. Roy Soc.’ Ixvii.

337-346.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixvi
346-369.

°C. BR.’ exxxi. 328-330;
‘Beibliitter,’ xxiv. 1124—
1125 (Abs.)

°C. BR.’ cxxxi. 658-661 ;
‘ Nature,’ lxiil. 67 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ xii. 185-
200; ‘ Science Abstr.’ iv.
14.

‘Bull. Acad. Belg. 1900,
803-811; ‘Beiblitter ’xxv.
154 (Abs.)

196

REPORT—1901.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1900.—METHOROLOGICAL APPLICATIONS, 1898, 1899.

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

W. W. Campbell

E. B. Frost

W. J. Knight

J. F. Mohler and
F, C. Daniel.

J. Wilsing

A. Berberich .

J. Hartmann.

KE. C. Pickering

A. Schuster

Sir W. Crookes

T. W. Backhouse .

C. Runge

A. de la Baume |

Pluvinel.

|
|

|

On Solar Changes of Temperature
and Variations in Rainfall in the
Regions surrounding the Indian
Ocean. (Read Nov. 22.)

The Visible Spectrum of Nova
Aquile. (Nov.)

Spectroscopic Results obtained at
the Solar Eclipse of May 28, 1900.
(Dec.)

Can Spectroscopic Analysis furnish
us with precise Information as to
the Petrography of the Moon?
(Dec.)

The Reversing Layer photographed
with a Concave Rowland Grating.
(Dec.)

Untersuchungen iiber das Spec-
trum des Nova Aurigz. (‘ Publ.
d. Astrophys. Observat. zu Pots-
dam,’ xii. 77-102.)

Die Sonnencorona. (‘ Naturw.
Rundschau,’ xv. 29-30.)

Anwendung der Photographie zur
spectralphotometrischen Messung
der Helligkeit von Himmelsk6r-
pern. (‘Jahrb. f. Photogr.’ 1900,
240-244.)

arg EF

‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Lxvii. 409-
431.

‘ Astrophys. J.’ xii. 258;
* Beiblatter, xxv. 41
(Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ Ixiii.
260 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys, J.’ xii. 307-
351; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxv.
267-268 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ lxiii. 180.

‘Astrophys. J.’ xii. 261-
365; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxv.

268-269 (Abs.)

Beibliitter,’ xxiv, 995-996
(Abs.)

* Beiblatter,’
(Abs.)

480

Xxiv.

METEOROLOGICAL APPLICATIONS.

1898.

The Photographic Spectrum of the
Aurora, (May.)

The Origin of the Aurora Spectrum.
(June.)

Helium in the Atmosphere. (Oct.)

The Origin of the Aurora Spectrum.
(Nov.)

The Origin of the Aurora Spectrum,
(Nov.)
1899.

Observation du groupe des raies B
du spectre solaire faite au sommet
du Mont Blane. (Read Jan. 30.)

‘Harvard Coll. Obs. Cire.’
No. 28; ‘ Astrophys. J.’
vil. 392; ‘Beiblitter,’ xxii.
843 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
lvii. 591 (Abs.)

‘ Nature,’ lviii. 151.

| ‘Chem. News,’ Ixxviii, 98;
| * Beiblitter,’ xxiii. 317
(Abs.)

| ‘Nature,’ lix. 127.

|

‘Nature,’ lix. 29.

\

‘C. R. exxviii. 269-272;
‘Beiblitter, xxiii. 359
(Abs.); ‘Science Abstr.’
ii, 437-438; ‘ Nature,’
lix. 359 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

197

METEOROLOGICAL APPLICATIONS, 1899.—CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1896, 1897.

B. Hasselberg :

Paulsen

B. Hasselberg

A. Wréblewski

B. Hasselberg

G. Abati

B. Hasselberg

A. de Gramont

W. N. Hartley and
H. Ramage.

| Note sur la diffusion cosmique de

vanadium.

Sur le spectre des aurores polaires.
(Read March 5.)

|

|
VILE
CHEMICAL RELATIONS.

1896.

Ueber das Vorkommen des Vanads
inden Scandinavischen Rutilarten.
(Read Dec. 9.)

1897.

photometers auf die Thierchemie.
I. Quantitative Bestimmung des
Oxyhemoglobin im Blute. II.
Quantitative Bestimmung der
Rhodansalze im Speichel.

Zur chemischen Constitution des
Rutils, (Read March 10.)

Sul potere rifrangente e dispersivo
del silicio nei suoi composti.
(Read June 12.)

Note on the Chemical Composition
of the Mineral Rutile. (June.)

Observations sur les spectres des
composés. (Read July 23.)

Spectres de dissociation des sels
fondus. Métaux alcalins, sodium,
lithium, potassium, (Read July
23.)

Spectres de dissociation des sels
tondus; métalloides, chlore,brome,
iode, (July.)

The Spectrographic Analysis of
Minerals and Meteorites. (Aug.)

Anwendung des Glan’schen Spektro-

‘Mem. Soc. Spettr. Ital.’
XXVili. 113 -119; ‘ Nature,’
lx. 487 (Abs.)

‘C. R. cxxx. 655-656;
‘Beiblittez, xxiv. 479-
480 (Abs.) ; ‘Nature,’ ]xi.
621 (Abs.)

‘Bihang till K. Vet. Akad.
Handl.’ xxii. Afd. i. No.
7, 7 pp.; ‘Zeitschr. .f.
anorg. Chem.’ xviii. 85
(Abs.); ‘Chem. Centr.’
1898, II, 1068 (Abs.);
* Chem. News,’ Ixxvi. 112-
113.

‘Cc. R. de VAcad. des
Sci. de Cracovie,’ 1896,
386-390; ‘ Chem. Centr.’
1897, II. 532 (Abs.) ; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lxxiv. II.
415 (Abs.)

‘ Bihang till K. Vet. Akad.
Handl.’ xxiii. Afd. i. No.
3, 8 pp.; ‘Zeitschr. f.
anorg. Chem.’ xvili. 85
(Abs.); ‘Chem. Centr.’
1898, II. 1068 (Abs.)

© Gazz. chim. Ital.’ xxvii.
II. 437-455 ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xxii. 557 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ ]xxiv, II. 274
(Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ vi. 22-26 ;
‘ Chem, News,’ lxxvi. 102-
104.

‘ Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3] xvii.

774-778; ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxvi. 277 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lxxvi. II.
197-198 (Abs.)

© Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3] xvii.
778-782; ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxvi. 244-246 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixxvi. II. 198 (Abs.)

‘ Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3] xvii.
897-901; ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxviii. 28-29; ‘Science
Abstr.’ i, 247-248.

‘ Brit. Assoc. Report,’ 1897

610 (Abs ); ‘Chem. News,
Ixxvi. 231 (Abs.)

198

C. Runge and F,
Paschen.

F. Kehrmann

A. de Gramont

H. Kayser .

A. de Gramont

W. Ramsay and
M. W. Travers,

”

J, Werder , P

J. J. Dobbie and
F.. Marsden.

P. Schutzenberger
and O. Boudouard.

J. Thomsen ,

B. Brauner
A, Boudouard 4
G. Urbain .

REPORT—1901.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1897, 1898.

Ueber die Serienspectra der Ele-
mente, Sauerstoff, Schwefel und
Selen. (Aug.)

Ueber die Constitution der Oxazin-
Farbstoffe und den vierwerthigen
Sauerstoff. (Read Oct. 9,)

Dissociation Spectra of some Fused
Salts. (Oct.)

Ueber die Spectren der Elemente
der Platingruppe, (Read Dec. 2.)

Spectres de dissociation des sels
fondus ; soufre, phosphore, com-
posés phosphoreux solides. (Read
Dec. 24.)

1898.

The Companions of Argon, (Read
Jan, 29.)

The Homogeneity of Helium.

(Read Jan. 29.)

Das Refractometer in der Wachs-
untersuchung. (Jan.)

Preparation and Properties of
Orthochlorobromobenzene. (Read
Feb. 17.)

Sur les terres yttriques contenues
dans les sables monazités. (Read
Feb. 25.)

Ueber Abtrennung von Helium aus

einer nattirlichen Verbindung
unter starkes Licht und Wirm-
entwickelung. (Feb.)

On Praseodidymium and Neodidy-
mium. (Read March 17.)

Sur la néodyme. (Read March 21.)

Sur la nature du didyme qui ac-
compagne l’yttria provenant des
sables monazités. (Read March
26.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], Ixi. 641-686;
‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1897,
555; ‘Chem. News,’ lxxvi.
255-256.

‘ Ber.’ xxxii. 2601-2611.

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxvi. 201~
204.

‘Abhandl. Akad. Berl.’
1897, 44 pp. ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xxii. 667 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3], xix.
54-59; ‘J. Chem. Soc,’
lxxvi. II. 345 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixiii.
437-440; ‘Science Abstr.’
i.718 (Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’

xxii, 6513-514 (Abs.);
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ xxvi. 564-567
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixii.
316-324 ; ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxvii. 61-64; ‘Chem.
Centr.” 1898, I. 707
(Abs.)

‘Chem. Zeitung,’ xxii. 38,
59; ‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898,
I. 477, 581-532 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc, I1xxiii.
254-255; ‘Chem. Centr.’
1898, I. 1103 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Soc. Chim. [3],
xix. 227-244.

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ xxv. 112-114;

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898, I.
656-657.

‘Proc. Chem. Soc.’ xiv.
70-72; ‘Chem. Centr.’
1898, I. 919-920.

*‘C. R. exxvi. 900-901;
‘J. Chem. Soe.’ lxxiy. II.
518 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3],
xix. 381-382; ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixxviii. 74; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixxvi. II.
424-425 (Abs.)

ON

A, de Gramont

J. W. Brihl .

A. de Gramont

J. W. Briihl

F. Kriger .

W. Ramsay and
M. W. Travers.

A. Boudouard

Sir W. Crookes .

W. Ramsay and
M. W. Travers.

A. de Gramont

_W. Ramsay and
M, W, Travers.

| Spectrochemie des

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1898.

Analyse spectrale des composés
non conducteurs par les sels
fondus. (Read April 18.)

Spectrochemie des
VI. (Read May 12.)

Analyse spectrale de quelques
minéraux non conducteurs par
les sels fondus et réactions des
éléments. (Read May 23.)

Stickstofts ;
VII. Sauerstoffverbindungen des
Stickstoffs im geléstem Zustande.
(Read May 23.)

Die Bestimmung des Haimoglobin
im Katzenblute. (May.)

Sur un nouvel élément, consti-
tuant de l’air atmosphérique.
(Read June 6.)

Sur les terres yttriques contenues
dans les sables monazités. (Read
June 6.)

On the Position of Helium, Argon,
and Krypton in the System of
Elements. (Read June 9.)

On a New Constituent of Atmo-
spheric Air. [Krypton.] (Read
June 9.)

Spectres de dissociation des sels
fondus; metalloides, carbone.
(Read June 10.)

Spectres de dissociation des sels
fondus; metalloides, silicium.
(Read June 10.)

Nouveaux gaz de Tair atmo-
sphérique. [Néon.] (Read June
20.)

Stickstoffs.

199

‘C. R. cxxvi. 1155-1157 ;
‘ Nature,’ lvii.624 (Abs.);

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxvii.
118-119.

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ xxv. 577-650;

‘Ber.’ xxxi. 1350-1370;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxxiv. II.
362-363 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ xxix. 202 (Abs.)

°C. RB.” cxxvi. 1513-1515 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Lxxiv. II.
635-636 (Abs.) ; ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixxvili. 2-3,

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ xxvi. 47-76;
‘Ber.’ xxxi. 1465-1477;
‘Beiblatter,’ xxii. 661-
662 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc,’ Ixxiv. II. 417-418
(Abs.); ‘Chem. News,’
lxxix. 215 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physiol.
Chem,’ xxv. 256-257;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898, II.
494 (Abs.)

°C. R. exxvi. 1610-1613 ;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898, II.
81 (Abs.); ‘Chem. News,’
lxxvii. 270 (Abs.) ; ‘ Na-
ture,’ lviii. 167 (Abs.)

°C. R.’ cxxvi. 1648-1651 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxxiv. II.
587(Abs.); ‘Chem.News,’
xxviii. 28.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xiii.
408-411; ‘Zeitschr. f
anorg. Chem,’ xviii. 72~76,

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixiii.
405-408; ‘C. R.’ exxvi.
1610-1613 ; ‘ J. de Phys.’
[3], vii. 393-396; ‘ Bei-
blatter,” xxii. 513-514
(Abs.)

* Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3] xix,
548-550 ; ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxviil. 270-271.

‘Bull, Soc. Chim.’ [3], xix,
551; ‘Chem. News,’
lxxviii. 268 (Abs.)

°C, R? exxvi. 1762-1768 ;
‘Chem. Centr,’ 1898, II,
81 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem,
Soe,’ Ixxiv. II. 574 (Abs.)

200

G. Urbain ,

A. de Gramont

R. Nasini, F. An-
derlini, and R.
Salvadori.

J. Dewar ;

O. Neovius .

W. Ramsay and
M. W. Travers,

A. de Gramont

H. R. Procter.

W. Ramsay and M.

W. Travers.

W. Ramsay

HE. Riegler ,

A, J. Swaving

REPORT—1901.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1898.

Sur les terres yttriques provenant
des sables monazités.
July 11.)

Analyse spectrale des corps non-
conducteurs par les seis fondus,
(Read July 22.)

Sulla probabile presenza del
coronio e di nuovi_ elementi
nei gas della Solfatara di Pos-

suoli e del Vesuvio. (Read
Aug. 7.)
Metargon. (Aug.)

Ueber das vermuthliche Vorkom-
men eines bis jetzt unbekannten
Stoffes in der Atmosphire.

(Sept.)

On the Extraction from Air of the
Companions of Argon, and on
Neon. (Sept.)

Observations sur quelques spectres;
aluminium, tellure, sélénium,
(Read Noy. 28.)

The Refractive Constant in Oil and
fat analysis. (Nov.)

The Preparation and some of the
Properties of Pure Argon. (Read
Dec. 15.)

Ueber die neuerdivgs entdeckten
Gase und der Beziehung zum
periodischen Gesetz. (Read Dec.
19.)

Hine neue Methode zur Bestim-
mung der Phosphorsiiure auf re-
fractometrischem Wege. (‘ Bule-
tinul Soc. Sci. Bucarest,’ vii, 172—
174.)

Ueber die practische Verwendung
des Refractometers fiir die Butter-
untersuchung. (‘Landw. Ver.
Stat.’ xlix,341-347.)

| ‘C. R. cxxvii. 107-108;
(Read |

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898, II.
408 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixxviii. 61.

‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3], xix.
742-746; ‘Chem. Centr.’
1898, II. 788 (Abs.)

‘Atti R. Accad. d. Lincei’
[5], vii. 73-74; ‘ Chem.
Centr.’ 1898, II. 617
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc,’
Ixxvi. IT. 482-483 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ lviii. 319; ‘ Bei-
blatter, xxiii. 395 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], Ixvi. 162-169;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898, II.
252 (Abs.); ‘Science

Abstr.’ ii. 52; ‘Nature,’
lix. 46 (Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Report,’ 1898,
828-830; ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxvii. 154-155; ‘ Chem,
Centr, 1898, II. 852-853
(Abs.) ;

‘OC. R. exxvii. 866-868 ;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1899, I,
14(Abs.); ‘ J. Chem. Soe.’
Ixxvi. II. 199 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxix. 35
(Abs.)

‘J. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ xvii,
1021-1025; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixxvi. II. 258 (Abs.);
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1899, I.
233-234 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixiv,
183-192; ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxix. 49-50; ‘ Zeitschr,
f. physikal. Chem,’ 241-

250.

‘Ber.’ xxxi. 3111-3121:
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1899, I.
323-324 (Abs.); Crile
Chem. Soc.’ lIxxvi. II.
211-212 (Abs.); ‘Science
Abstr.’ ii. 870-371.

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898, II.
313-314 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898, I,
352 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

H. Zikes 2

Sir J. Conroy

A. Nabl.

B. Hasselberg

M. Wager

W. N. Hartley and
H. Ramage.

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

W. Hallwachs

R. T. Giinther .and
J. J. Manley.

M. Berthelot .

P. Lewis

C. Benedicks .

J. B. Frankforter
and E. P. Hard-
ing.

A Chilesotti .

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

. | Refractometrische

201

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1898, 1899.

Bieranalyse
nach Herkules Tornoe. (‘ Oesterr.
Chem. Zeitung,’ i. 7-9.)

1899.

| On the Refractive Indices and

Densities of Normal and Semi-
normal Solutions of Hydrogen
Chloride and the Chlorides of the
Alkalis. (Read Jan. 19.)

Ueber farbende Bestandtheile des
Amethysten, Citrins, und gebrann-
ten Amethysten. (Read Feb. 3.)

Note sur la diffusion cosmique de
vanadium. (Read March 8.)

Oel- und Firnisanalyse mittels Re-
fractometers. (March.)

A Spectrographic Analysis of Iron
Meteorites, Siderolites, and Me-
teoric Stones. (April.)

The Present Standpoint in Spec-
trum Analysis. (April.)

Ueber ein Doppelrefractometer
und Untersuchungen mit dem-
selben an Loésungen yon Brom-
cadmium, Zucker, Di- und Tri-
chloressigsiure, sowie deren
Kaliumsalze. (May.)

On the Waters of the Salt Lake of
Urmi. (Read June 15.)

. | Nouvelles recherches sur l’argon et

ses combinaisons. (Read July 10.)

Ueberden Hinfluss kleiner Beimen-
gungen zu einem Gase auf dessen
Spectrum. (July.)

Beitrige zur Kenntnis des Gado-
liniums. (Sept.)

A Chemical Study of Wheat. (Sept.)

Sul potere rifrangente di alcuni
idrocarburi a nuciei benzolici con-
densati. (Read Noy. 14.)

The Methods of Inorganic Evolu-
tion. (Noyv.)

‘Chem. Centr.’
1311 (Abs.)

1898, I

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lxiv. 308—
318,

‘Monatsh. f. Chem.’ xx,
272-281; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixxvi. 11. 561 (Abs.)

‘ Oefvers, K. Svenska Vet.
Akad. Forhandl, lvi.131-
140; ‘J. Chem. Soc,’
lxxx. II. 251. (Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f. angew. Chem.’

1899, 297-300; ‘ Chem.
Centr.’ 1899, I. 1004—
1005 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J. ix, 221-
228.

‘ Nature,’ lix. 585-588.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lxviii. 1-4 ; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixxvi. II.
461-462 (Abs.) ; ‘Science
Abstr,’ ii. 597.

‘Proc. Roy. Soe.’ Ixv.
312-318: ‘Nature,’ lx.
359-360 (Abs.)

LOR” cxxix: . 71=84 »
‘ Nature,’ lx. 288 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lxix. 398-425;
‘Astrophys. J.’ x. 137-
163 ; ‘Science Abstr.’ iii.
181,

‘Zeitschr. f, anorg. Chem.’
xxii. 393-421; ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixxxi. 51-53, 62-
63, 77-78.

‘J. Amer. Chem. Soc.’

xxi. 758-769 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soe.’ lxxvili. II. 37 (Abs.)

‘Gazz. chim. Ital.’ xxx. I.
149-169 ; ‘Chem. Centr.’

_ 1900, I. 797 (Abs.)

‘ Nature,’ lxi. 129-131.

202

A. Haller and P. M,
Miiller.

F. Stolle

J. Formanek .

V. Arnold .

8. Young and
Emily C. Fortey.

W.N. Hartley and
J. J. Dobbie.

A. Ladenberg and

C. Kriigel.

K. Demarcay.

J. Formanek .

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

E. Demargay .

G. v. Georgievics

and Hi. Valenta .

H. Demargay .

REPORT—1901.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1899, 1900.

Sur les réfractions moléculaires, la
dispersion moléculaire, et le pou-
voir rotatoire de quelques alcoyl-
camphres. (Read Dec. 11.)

Untersuchungen tiber Karamel-
korper. II. Quantitative Bestim-
mung des Karamels in wasserigen
Lésungen mittels des Spectro-
scops.

Ueber den spectroscopischen Nach-
weis der organischen Farbstoffe
(‘Z. Unters. Nahr.-Genus.’ ii, 260-
273.)

Ein Beitrag zur Spectroscopie des
Blutes (‘ Centralbl. f. med. Wiss.’
XXXVii. 465-468.)

1900.

Note on the Refraction and Mag-
netic Rotation of Hexamethylene.
(Read Feb. 15.)

Spectrographic Studies in Tauto-
merism. The Absorption Curves
of the Ethyl Esters of Dibenzoyl-
succinic Acid. (Read March 1.)

Ueber das Krypton. (March.)

Sur le Samarium, (Read April 30.)

Ueber Acetophenon Azobilirubin.
(April.)

On the Chemical Classification of
the Stars. (Read May 4.)

Sur les terres inconnues contenues
dans la samarine brute. (Read
May 28.)

Ueber die Azofarbstoffe aus B-
naphtol und den Monosulfosiiuren
des a-naphtylamins. (Read
June 15.)

Sur le gadolinium, (Read July 30.)

‘C. R.’ cxxix. 1005-1008 ;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xxiv. 448
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxxviii. I. 182 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. ver. Riiben-
zucker-Industr.’ xlix.
839-842; ‘Chem. Centr.’
1899, II. 1099 (Abs.);
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxxviii.
II. 249-250 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Centr,’ 1899, I.
947 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1899, II.
344 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxvii.
372-374; ‘Proc. Chem,
Soe.’ xvi. 44 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Isxvii.
498-512; ‘Proc. Chem.
Soc.’ xvi. 57-58 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. News,’ lxxxi, 141
(Abs.)

‘ Sitzungsb. Akad. Berlin,’
1900, 212-217 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.” Ixxviii. II. 540
(Abs.)

°C. R.’ cxxx. 1185-1186 ;
‘Chem. Centr,’ 1900, I,
1199-1200(Abs.); ‘Chem.
News, lxxxi. 251 (Abs.) ;
‘J. Chem. Soc,’ xxviii.
II. 459 (Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr.f.physiol.Chem.’

xxix. 411-415; ‘Chem.
Centr” 1900, II. 129
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixv. 186—
191; ‘Nature,’ lx. 52-54 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixsvi. II.
718 (Abs.)

‘C. RB.’ cxxx. 1469-1472;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1900, II.
19-20 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ lxxxi. 311 (Abs.)

‘Monatsh. f. Chem.’ xxi.
831-844; ‘Chem. Centr.’
1901, I. 222 (Abs.) ; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xxv. 194 (Abs.)

°C. RY’ exxxi. 348-346 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxviii.
Il, 597-598 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

203

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1900.—THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1897, 1898.

P. Lewis ‘

C. Riviére .
W. Ramsay and
M. W. Travers .

W. N. Hartley and
H. Ramage.

W. Muthmann and
L. Stiitzel .
F, Emich 4

K. Ibsen . é

G. Hiifner .

J. A. Grober .

G. F. FitzGerald .
A. Cornu 5

H. A. Lorentz

P. Drude

A. Schuster

Ueber den Einfluss kleiner Bei-
mengungen zu einem Gase auf
dessen Spectrum. II, Abth. (July).

Indice de réfraction et dispersion
du brome. (Read Oct. 22.)

Argon and its Companions.
Nov. 15.)

(Read

On a Simplified Method for the
Spectrographic Analysis of Mine-
rals. (Read Noy. 15.)

Beitrige zu Spectralanalyse von
Praseodym. (Noy.)

Zur Empfindlichkeit der Spectral-
reactionen. (‘ Wien. Anz.’1900, 78.)

Ein weiterer Beitrag zum spec-
tralen Blutnachweis. (‘ Viertel-
jahrb. f. ges. Med,’ xix. 1-9.)

Ueber die gleichseitige Bestim-
mung zweier Farbstotfe im Blute
mit Hiilfe des Spectrophotometer.
( Arch. f. Physiol.’ 1900, 39-48.)

Quantitativen Zuckerbestimmun-
gen mit dem Hintauschrefracto-

meter. (‘Centralbl. f. inn. Med.’
xxi. 201-247.)

IX.
THEORETICAL PAPERS.
1897.

Zeeman’s Phenomenon. (Sept.)

Sur l’observation et l'interpretation
cinématique des phénoménes dé-

couvertes par M, le Dr. Zeeman.
(Read Nov. 5.)

Ueber den Hinfluss magnetischer
Krafte auf die Emission des
Lichtes. (Dec.)

1828.

Die optische Constanten des Na- |

triums. (Feb.)

Prof. C. Runge and F. Paschen’s |
Researches on the Spectra of Oxy- |
gen, Sulphur,and Selenium. (Feb.) |

‘ Ann. der Phys.’[4] i. 447-—
458; ‘Nature,’ Ixii. 381
(Abs.); ‘Astrophys. J.
xii. 16-23; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixxviii. I. 701 (Abs.)

oC he Cxxxt 6i—o1e)s
‘ Nature,’ lxiii. 24 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixvii.
329-333; ‘ Nature,’ lxiii.
165; ‘Chem. News,’
lxxxil. 257-258.

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxix. 61-
71; ‘Proc. Chem. Soc.
xvi. 191 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ 1xxxii. 277 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxxii. 2653-2674 ;
‘Chem. News,’ 1xxxii.
282 (Abs.)

‘ Beiblitter,’
(Abs.)

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1900, i.
688-689.

xxiv. 471

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1900, i.
512-513 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixxviii. II.
459 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Centr.’
626-627 (Abs.)

1900, i.

‘Nature,’ lvi. 468.

‘Séances de la Soc. Franc.
de Phys.’ 1897, 138-143.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], Ixiii. 278-284;
‘Science Abstr.’ i, 387-
388

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lxiv. 159-162;
‘Nature,’ lvii. 500 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ Ivii. 320-321;
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xi. 641; ‘Bei-
bliitter ’ xxii. 400 (Abs. )

204

G. F. FitzGerald

A. Pfltiger

J. G. Leathem

J. Wilsing

A, Righi

H. A. Lorentz

8. A Mitchell

Lord Kelvin .

C. A. Mebius.

W. Voigt

A. Bovida

REPORT—1901.

THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1898.

Note on the Connection between
the Faraday Rotation of Plane of
Polarisation and the Zeeman
Change of Frequency of Light Vi-
brations in a Magnetic TVield.
(Read March 10.)

Priifung der Ketteler-Helmholtz-
’schen Dispersionsformeln an den
optischen Constanten anomal-
dispergirender fester Farbstoffe.

(April.)

Nachtrag zu der Abhandlung
‘Priifung der Ketteler-Helm-
holtz’schen Dispersionsformeln
an den optischen Constanten
anomal - dispergirender fester
Farbstoffe.’ (April.)

Priifung der Cauchy’schen Formeln
der Metallrefiexion und den opti-
schen Constanten des festen Cya-
nins. (April.)

On the Possibility of Deducing
Magneto-optic Phenomena froma
Direct Modification of an Electro-
dynamic Energy Function. (Read
May 16.)

Theoretical Considerations respect-

ing the Dependence of Wave-
length on Pressure which Messrs.
Humphreys and Mohler have
observed in the Arc Spectra of
certain Elements. (May.)

Sulla interpretazione cinematica
del fenomeno di Zeeman. (Read
June 11.)

Beschouwingen over den Invloed

van een magnetisch Veld op de
Uitstraling van Licht. (Read
June 25.)

Notes on the Concave Grating,
(June.)

TheDynamical Theory of Refraction
and Anomalous Dispersion, (Sept. )

Om B. Galitzin’s teorie for spectral-
liniernas utbredning. (Read Oct.
12.)

Zur Theorie der von den Herren
Macaluso und Corbino entdeckten
Erscheinungen, (Read Nov. 26.)

monocromatica come
(Noy.)

La luce
vibrazione ammortita.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Lxiii. 31~
35; ‘Science Abstr.’ i.
386-387; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xxli. 869-870 (Abs.)

Chem.’
173-2138 ;
637-

‘Ann. Phys. u.
[N.F.], lxv.
‘Science Abstr.’ i.
638.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lxv. 225-228.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’
[N.F.], lev. 214-294;
‘Science Abstr.’ i. 639
(Abs.)

‘Trans. Phil. Soc. Camb.’
xvii. 16-40; Proc. Phil.
Soe. Camb.’ ix. 530-531
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xxiii. 257-258 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J. vii. 317-
329; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxii.
558-559 (Abs.) ; ‘ Science
Abstr.’ i. 639-640.

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Li«cei’
(5), vil. I. 295-301 ;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 165-—
167.

‘Zittingsversl. R. Akad.
Amsterdam,’ 1898-9,
Deel, vii, 113-122;

‘ Nature,’ lviii. 360 (Abs.)

‘Johns Hopkins Univ.
Circ.’ xvii. 56-58 ; ‘ Astro-
phys. J.’ viii, 102-112,

‘ Brit. Assoc. Report,’ 1898,
782-783.

‘ Oefvers.af. K. Vet. Acad.
Forh.’ lv. 485-495 ; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xxili. 419-420
(Abs.)

‘Gott. Nachr.’ 1898, IV.
349-354,

‘Rivista scientifica,’ xxx.
225-236; ‘Science Abstr.’
ii. 599-600.

ON

R, v. Kovesligethy

J. Hartmann,

Ch. Fabry and A.
Perot,

D. Macaluso and
O. M. Corbino.

A, Cotton

Lord Kelvin .

O. M. Corbino

J. Larmor

F, Schlesinger

H. Poincaré .

H. Veillon

W. Voigt

Lord Rayleigh

W. Voigt

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1898.

Der beiden Parametergleichungen
der Spectralanalyse.

Ueber ein einfache Interpolations-
formel fiir das prismatische Spec-
trum. (‘Publ. d. Astrophys.
Observat. zu Potsdam,’ xii. 25 pp.)

Théorie et applications d’une
nouvelle méthode de spectroscopie
interférentielle. (Jan.)

Sulla relazione tra il fenomeno di
Zeeman e la rotazione magnetica
anomala del piano de polarizza-
zione della luce. (Read Feb. 5.)

L’aspect actuel de la loi de Kirch-
hoff. (Feb.)

Application of Sellmeier’s Dynami-
cal Theory to the Dark Lines, D,,
D,, produced by Sodium Vapour.
(Feb.)

Sulla dipendenzatra il fenomeno di
Zeeman e le altri modificazioni
che la luce subisce dai vapori
metallici in un campo magnetico.
(Read March 5.)

On the Origin of Magneto-optic
Rotation. (Read March 6.)

Reduction to the Sun of Observa-
tions for Motion in the Line of
Sight. (Feb.)

La théorie de Lorentz et le phéno-
méne de Zeeman. (April.)

Elementare geometrische Behand-
lung des Minimums der Ablenkung
beim Prisma, (May.) ;

Weiteres zur Theorie des Zeeman-
effectes. (June.)

Zur Erklarung der unter gewissen

Umstiinden eintretenden Ver-
breiterung und Umkebrung der
Spectrallinien. (July.)

The Theory of Anomalous Disper-
sion. (July.)

Bemerkung tiber die bei dem
Zeeman’schen Phinomen statt-
findenden Intensitatsverhalt-
nisse. (Sept.)

| (Abs.)

i)
(=>)
or

‘Math. u. naturwiss. Ber.
aus Ungarn,’ xvi. 1-50;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xxiv. 1280-
1281 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ viii. 218-
222.

‘Ann. Chim, et Phys.’ [7],
xvi. 115-144; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xxiv. 178-180 (Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad.d. Lincei’
[5], viii. I.-116-121; ‘11
Nuovo Cimento’ [4], ix.
384-389.

‘Rev. gén. des Sciences,’
x. 102-115.

‘ Phil. Mag.’ [5], xlvii. 362-
808; ‘Science Abstr.’ ii.
638 ; ‘Astrophys. J.’ ix.
231-236.

‘Atti R. Accad. d. Lincei’
[5], viii, I. 250-254;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 661—
662.

‘Proc. Phily Soc. Camb.’
x. 181-182 ; ‘ Nature,’ lix.
527 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ ix. 159-
161; ‘Science Abstr.’ ii.
728:

‘L’Eclairage électrique,’

xix. - 5-15; ‘Science
Abstr.’ ii. 737.
‘Zeitschr. f. phys. uw.

chem. Unterr.’ xii. 1450_-
152; ‘Beiblatter,’ xxii.
552 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], Ixviii. 352-364 ;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 662.
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lxvili. 604-606 ;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 737 -

738.

‘Phil. Mag. [5], xlviii.
151-152; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xxiii. 983 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lxix. 290-296;
‘Science Abstr.’ ii. 822

206

H. A. Lorentz

W. A. Michelson

A. de Gramont

E. Riecke .

W. W. Campbell

H. Lehmann .

E. V. Capps .

M. Planck .

” °

G, J. W. Bremer

C, Viola : ‘

REPORT—1901.

THEORETICAL PAPHRS, 1898, 1900.

Zur Theorie des Zeemaneffectes.
(Oct.)

Zur Frage iiber die richtige An-
wendung des Doppler’schen Prin-
zips. (In Russian.)

1900.

Sur quelques conséquences des
formulas du prisme. (Read Feb.
12.)

Zur kinetik der Serienschwingungen
eines Linienspectrums. (Feb.)

The Determination of the Moon’s
Theoretical Spectrographic Velo-
city. (March.)

Ueber Spectralapparate mit dreh-
barem Gitter. (July.)

Bestimmung des Spaltwerthes fiir
spectrophotometrische Messungen.

(Sept.)
Ueber eine Verbesserung der Wien’-

schen Spectralgleichung. (Read
Oct. 19.)
Zur Theorie des Gesetzes der

Energievertheilung im Normal-
spectrum, (Read Dec, 14.)

Indices de réfraction des solutions
du chlorure de calcium.

Le deviazioni minime della luce
mediante prismi di _ sostanze
anisotrope,

‘Phys. Zeitschr.’ i. 39-41 3
‘ Beiblatter, xxiv. 930-
931 (Abs.)

‘J. Russ. Phys. Chem.
yey beecue Ih S aye
‘ Beiblatter, xxiv. 251~
253 (Abs.)

‘Cc. RY cxxx. 403-406;
‘Beiblitter, xxiv. 450
(Abs.)

‘ Ann. der Phys.’ [4]i. 399-
413; ‘Science Abstr.’ -
iii. 308; ‘Physikal.
Zeitschr.’ ii. 107-108.

‘Astrophys. J. xi. 141-
142; ‘* Beiblatter, xxiv.
784, 785 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumenten-
kunde,’ xx. 193-204.

‘Physikal. Zeitschr.’ i.
558-560.
‘Verh. Deutsch. phys.

Gesellsch.’ [2], ii, 202—
204.
‘Verh. Deutsch, phys.

Gesellsch.’ [2], ii. 237-
245; ‘Science Abstr.’ iv.
230.

‘Arch. néerland.’ [2], v.
208-213; ‘Science Abstr.’
iv. 363.

‘ Rend. R. Accad.d. Lincei ’
[5], ix. I. 196-204.

List of the Chief Abbreviations used in the abcve Catalogue.

Abbreviated Title.
Amer. J. Sci.
Ann. Agron.

Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.
Ann. Chim. et Phys. .

Ann. de Chim.

Ann. Obs. Bruxelles . :
Ann. Phys. u. Chem. [N.F.]

Arch. de Genéve

Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol.

Arch, )i2°"'d:
Physiol.

gesammte

Full Title.
+ American Journal of Science (Silliman’s).

’ . Annales Agronomiques.

Annales de Chimie.

Annalen der
(Wiedemann).

Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie (Liebig).
Annales de Chimie et de Physique.

Annuaire de l’Observatoire de Bruxelles.
Physik und Chemie [Neue Folge]

Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles (Geneve).
Archiv fiir pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie

und fiir klinische Medicin (Virchow).

Archiv fiir die gesammte Physiologie (Pfliiger).

ON THE

Abbreviated Title.
Arch. f. exper. Pathol. u.
Pharmakol.
Arch. néerland . 3 A

Astr. Nacbr. r
Astrophys. J. .

Atti d. R. Accad. d. Lincei
Beiblatter .

Ber. .

Bied. Centr. 4 :
Bot. Zeitung . + ’
Bull. Astron. ' ps .
Bull. Soc. Chim. F
Bull. Soc. Min. de France
Bull. Acad. Belg.

Chem. Centr. . ; 6
GC. R. 5
Denkschr, Akad. Wien. '

Dingl. J. . : . .
Gazz. chim. ital. _ ®
Gott. Nachr.

Handl. Svensk. Vet. Akad.

Jahrb. f. Photogr.

J. Chem. Soc.

J. de Phys.

J. Physiol. .

J. prakt, Chem. . :

J. Russ. Phys. -Chem. Soc,

J.Soc, Chem, Ind. .

J. Soc. frang. de Phys.

Math. u. naturwiss. Ber.
aus Ungarn.

Mem. spettr. ital. . é

Monatsb. Akad. Berl. .

Monatsh. f. Chem. . 2
Month. Not. RAS. .

Oefvers. af K. Vet. Akad.
Forh.

Phil. Mag. .

Phil. Trans.

Phot. Mittheil. . : c
Phys. Review . : °
Phys. Revue : ‘
Proc. Phys. Soc.. 5
Proc. Roy. Inst. .

Proc. Roy. Soc. . :
Rec. des trav. chim. des

Pays-Bas.

Rend. R. Accad. d. Lincei
Rev. gén. des Sci.

Riv. sci. industry. . e

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. 207

Full Title.

Archiv fiir experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmako-
logie.

Archives néerlandaises des Sciences exactes et natu-
relles (Haarlem).

Astronomische Nachrichten.

The Astrophysical Journal (Chicago),

Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei.

Beibliitter zu den Annalen der Physik und Chemie
(Wiedemann).

Berichte der deutschen chemischen Geselischaft.

Biedermann’s Centralblatt fiir Agriculturchemie.

Botanische Zeitung.

Bulletin Astronomique (Observatoire de Paris).

Bulletin de la Société Chimique de Paris.

Bulletin de la Société Minéralogique de France.

Bulletin de Académie royale des Sciences, des Lettres
et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique.

Chemisebes Centralblatt.

Comptes Rendus de |’ Académie des Sciences (Paris).

Denkschriften der Akademie der Wissenschaften in
Wien (Mathematisch - naturwissenschaftliche
Classe).

Dingler’s polytechnisches Journal.

Gazzetta chimica italiana.

Nachrichten von der Georg-August-Universitiat und der
kénig]. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften (Gottingen).

Handlingar K. Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens (Stock-
holm).

Jahrbuch fiir Photographie (Eder).

Journal of the Chemical Society of London,

Journal de Physique.

Journal of Physiology.

Journal fiir praktische Chemie.

Journal of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society (in
Russian).

Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry.

Journal dé la Société francaise de Physique.

Mathematische und naturwissenschaftliche Berichte
aus Ungarn.

Memorie della Societd degli Spettroscopisti italiani.

Monatsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin.

Monatshefte fiir Chemie (Wien).

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society of
London.

Oefversigt af K. Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens For-
handlingar.

London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London.

Photographische Mittheilungen (Vogel),

Physical Review.

Physikalische Revue.

Proceedings of the Physical Society of London.

Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.

Recueil des travaux chimiques des Pays-Bas.

Rendiconti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei.

Revue générale des Sciences pures et appliquées
(Paris).

Rivista scientifico-industriale.

208

Abbreviated Title.
Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.

Sitzungsb, Akad. Miinchen
Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien.

Sitzungsb. phys.-med. Soe.
Erlangen.

Skand. Arch. f. Physiol.

Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berlin.

Versl. d. K. Akad. Wet.
Amsterdam.

Wien. Anz. :

Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem.

Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem. .

Zeitschr. f. Kryst.u. Min. .

Zeitschr. f. physikal. Chem.

Zeitsehr. f. phys. u. chem.
Unterr.

Zeitschr. f. physiol. Chem.

Zeitschr. f. wiss. Micro-
scopie.

REPORT—1901.

Full Title.

Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin,

Sitzungsberichte der kéniglich baierischen Akademie
zu Miinchen,

Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Wien.

Sitzungsberichte der phys.-medicinischen Societit zu
Erlangen.

Skandinavisches Archiv fiir Physiologie (Leipzig).

Verhandlungen der physikalischen Gesellschaft zu
Berlin.

Verslagen van de Koninklijke Akademie van Weten-
schappen te Amsterdam,

Anzeiger der k, Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien.

Zeitschrift fiir analytische Chemie.

Zeitschrift fiir anorganische Chemie.

Zeitschrift fiir Krystallographie und Mineralogie.

Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie.

Zeitschrift fiir physikalischen und chemischen Unter-
richt.

Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Chemie.

Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Microscopie.

Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances.—
Third Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W.
Noet Hartiey (Chairman and Secretary), Professor F. R. Japp,
Professor J. J. Dopprr, and Mr. ALEXANDER LAUDER, appointed
to investigate the Relation between the Absorption Spectra and
Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances.

APPENDIX.—List of Absorption Spectra investigated .

page 225

Tue Committee decided to report this year upon the examination of
isomeric cyanogen compounds. The preparation of some of these sub-
stances in a state of purity had proved to be an exceedingly tedious piece
of work, but the labour bestowed has been fully justified by the results
obtained.

A further contribution to studies in tautomerism has been completed
by an examination of the absorption spectra of dibenzoylmethane and
a-oxybenzalacetophenone (a-hydroxybenzylidene acetophenone).

Some work on the subject of dyes and the examination of phloro-
glucinol and its derivatives has also occupied much attention ; this work
is, however, not yet quite so complete as to admit of it being embodied
in this report. The Committee desire to be reappointed for the purpose
of completing the work now in progress.

The Absorption Spectra of Cyanogen Compounds. By Water Norn
Hartiey, /.2.S., James J. Dospir, D.Sc., W.A., and ALEXANDER
Lauper, B.Sc.!

The following investigation was undertaken with the view of ascer-
aining whether by an examination of the absorption spectra of the
cyanogen compounds it might be possible to throw some light upon the

1 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1901, 79, p. 848.

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 209

vexed question of the constitution of these substances. Some of the
substances of a simple constitution belonging to this group had been
previously examined.

W. A. Miller and also L. Soret proved the transparency of hydrocyanic
acid and the cyanides,! and Hartley, independently, found that hydrocyanic
acid is a remarkably diactinic substance which exhibits no trace of
selective absorption.” Cyanuric acid, owing to difficulties in its exami-
nation, arising out of its sparing solubility and the necessity for examining
warm solutions, at first appeared to give evidence of selective absorption.
It was subsequently proved, however, that there was no absorption band
even in layers of liquid 200 mm. thick, but that the rays between wave-
lengths 3330 and 2572—that is, to where the spectrum was sharply cut
off—were only feebly transmitted.’

In the present research some derivatives of cyanic acid have been
. included, but attention has been directed chiefly to cyanuric acid, melam-
ine, and their respective alkyl derivatives.

The derivatives of cyanic acid which were examined are highly
diactinic and show only general absorption.

Cyanuric acid is commonly represented as a closed chain compound
in which the chain is formed of alternate atoms of carbon and nitrogen
united by alternate double and single bonds (Formula I.), and a similar
structure is assigned to the methyl ester (methyl cyanurate ; m.p. 135°),
which is obtained from cyanuric chloride by the action of sodium
methylate. The methyl ester (methyl iso-cyanurate, methyl tricarbimide ;
m.p. 175°), on the other hand, which is prepared by the distillation of
potassium cyanate with potassium methyl sulphate, is represented as a
derivative of iso-cyanuric acid (Formula IT.), which contains three keto-
groups and has the carbon and nitrogen atoms united by single bonds
only. In this ester the alkyl radicals are directly united to the nitrogen
atoms.

Formula I. Formula IT.

HO.C : N.C.OH OC.NH.CO
| | | |
N:C.N HN.CO.NH
|
OH
Cyanuric acid. Iso-cyanuric acid or

tricarbimide.

Pyridine and dimethylpyrazine, in which there are carbon and nitrogen
atoms united by alternate double and single bonds, exhibit strong and
persistent absorption bands, the selective absorption being more pro-
nounced in dimethylpyrazine,* which contains two nitrogen atoms, than
in pyridine, which contains only one. It was therefore to be expected
that substances possessing the constitution assigned to normal cyanuric
acid and its esters would likewise exhibit marked selective absorption,
and that even to a greater extent than dimethylpyrazine.

On the other hand it was to be anticipated that the alkyl derivatives

! Phil. Trans., 1862, pp. 861-887 ; J. Chem. Soc., vol. ii. p. 68; Arch. des Sciences
Phys., Geneva, 61, 1878.
. * Trans. Chem. Soc., 1882, 41, p. 45. ° Proc. Chem, Soc., 1899, 15, p, 46,
4 Trans. Chzm. Soc., 1900, 77, 846,

1901, P

210 REPORT—1901.

of iso-cyanuric acid (Formula II.) would behave like piperidine and other
bodies composed of a closed chain of singly linked carbon atoms or of
carbon and nitrogen, where one or more carbons are replaced by nitrogen
atoms, and which exhibit general absorption only. All the cyanuric
compounds, however, which we have examined show only general absorp-
tion, and give no indication of the presence of absorption bands.

This result is what was anticipated in the case of derivatives of iso-
eyanuric acid ; but so tar as cyanuric acid and its esters are concerned it
is remarkable—especially when considered in connection with the fact
that no strict experimental evidence has yet been advanced in support of
the commonly received structural formula for cyanuric acid. Methyl cyan-
urate (m.p. 135°) yields on saponification with alkalies cyanuric acid and
methyl alcohol. It is therefore regarded as the ester of normal cyanuric acid
(Formula I.), a conclusion which is supported by its method of formation
from sodium methylate and cyanuric chloride. Trimethylcarbimide
(m.p. 175°), on the other hand, yields methylamine on treatment with
alkalies, and is therefore regarded as a derivative of iso-cyanuric acid
(Formula II.). It is generally admitted, however, that chemical evidence
of this kind and in such cases is frequently unreliable.!

In this instance the spectrographic examination confirms the result
arrived at on purely chemical grounds. The spectra of methyl cyanurate
(m.p. 135°) bear a close resemblance to those of cyanuric acid, the
absorption being somewhat greater owing to the replacement of three
hydrogen atoms by three methyl groups. On the other hand the spectra
of trimethylcarbimide (m.p. 175°), notwithstanding a similar replacement
of hydrogen by methyl groups, show considerably less absorption of the
more refrangible rays. :

Melamine and its esters show only general absorption, the amount
being somewhat greater than in the case of cyanuric acid. Melamine is
regarded as the triamide of normal cyanuric acid (Formula I.).

NH, NH
| |
N.C: N HN.C.NH
Ie 09 [2 a
H.N.C.N : CNH, HN=C.N.C=NH
|
H
Melamine or Iso-melamine or
cyanurtriamide. Iso-cyanurtriimide.

The triethyl ester (m.p. 74°), which is obtained by the action of
ethylamine on cyanuric chloride, is, from its method of formation, con-
sidered to be a derivative of melamine ; the ethyl] derivative (m.p. 92°), on
the other hand, which is prepared by the desulphurisation of thiourea, is
regarded as a derivative of iso-melamine. Here again the results of the
spectrographic investigation are in accord with the conclusions arrived at
on chemical evidence. The spectra of melamine and the triethyl ester
(m.p. 74°) are almost identical, while the general absorption exhibited
by the spectra of the isomeric ester is considerably less.

The general result of the examination of these bodies is in complete

1 Goldschmidt and Meissler, Ber., 1890, 23, 253; A. Michael, J. vx. Chem. [ii],
1885, 37, 513; Hartley and Dobbie, Zraxs. Chem. Soc., 1899, 75, 640.

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 211

agreement with the views now generally held as to their relationship with
one another. But, as already observed, the absence of selective absorp-
tion is not in harmony with the constitution of cyanuric acid when it is
represented by a formula so closely analogous to that of pyridine and
still more closely to that of dimethylpyrazine. On this account it may
fairly be considered as very doubtful whether the constitution of cyanuric
acid is rightly understood.

The Absorption Spectra of Dibenzoyl Methane and a-Oxybenzalacetophenone.

These two substances are related to each other in the same manner
as Knorr’s dibenzoyl succinicesters examined by Hartley and Dobbie.'
Their constitution is represented by the following formule :—

C,H,.CO C,H;.CO
CH, CH
| |
C;H;.CO C,H,;.COH
Dibenzoylmethane a-Oxybenzalacetophenone
m.p. 77-78° m.p. 77-78°

(a-Hydroxybenzylidene acetophenone)

The enolic form is, in this case, the more stable of the two, the keto
form in solution passing rapidly into the enolic form on the addition of an
acid. It is the reverse with the dibenzoylsuccinic esters ; the enolic ester
passes into the keto form spontaneously.

As the study of cases of this kind is of particular interest, and but
few have been examined, Miss Alice E. Smith, B.Sc., of the University
College of North Wales, Bangor, kindly undertook, at the request of the
committee, to investigate the absorption spectra of these substances.
Mr. R. D. Abell, B.Sc., 1851 Exhibition Scholar of the University
College of North Wales, Bangor, was good enough to supply pure
specimens of these substances for examination.

Dibenzoylmethane (C;H;.CO.CH,.CO.C;H;).— The preparation of
dibenzoylmethane may be divided into the following stages :—

(1) The preparation of benzalacetophenone from benzaldehyde and
acetophenone.’

(2) Preparation of dibrombenzalacetophenone from _ benzalaceto-
phenone.’

(3) Preparation of monobrombenzalacetophenone from dibrombenzal-
acetophenone.+

(4) Preparation of dibenzoylmethane from monobrombenzalaceto-
phenone.

a-oxybenzalacetophenone (C,H;.CO.CH :C(OH).C,H;) (or a-Hydroxy-
benzylidene acetophenone).—This substance was prepared by Baeyer and
Perkin by heating dibenzoylacetic ester with water.° The method of
acting with sodium ethoxide or metallic sodium on a mixture of ethyl
benzoate and acetophenone employed in the present case has been de-
scribed by Claisen.®

1 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1900, 77, 498.
2 Ber., 20, 665; 14, 2464; 29, 1492. 3 glnn., 308, 323.
4 Ann., 808, 226, 5 Ber., 16, 2134; Chem. Soc. Trans., 47, 250.
S Ber., 20, 655; Anz., 291, 52.
P2

212 REPORT—1901.

The method employed in photographing the spectra has already been
described,!

It will be seen from the accompanying curves that the relation
existing between the two bodies is similar to that which exists between
Knorr’s a- and /3-dibenzoylsuccinic esters. Both the substances show

Scate of Oscitlation-lPequ[encies.
34567 8 98000; 2345678

9001 23456

Patel Th ase tol cat (ios ais
csebesteierescadifescccds
Oe UGG REneeeee
POEBRSCAREECEE EEE
EEE EEE EEEEEE EeePC
BRINE CER EEE EE EEE EEE
HEE EEE H+ + +] + 1H
EEREEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE EEE
aie aie Wal dal lakcaeae a
Hid del Welch Wile hal tidl@lathdeal: kabel decibel
B88 So
Bet GHuml (SO Gedleuneaeee
HEHE EEE EEE EH
CES TSE aL AS
FEEEEEEEHEEE EEE PEEP
Ar | HII rag
REM Rea eeras
SCRA nny Rise eels
COSI CAE y AIEEE PLE
COREA AEE oo
aa nek aN aiae ZN
PERERA HERE
EHR AEE eS
poe Ee oe ips
ee eee Aeeneeee pay io uae

Curves of Molecular Vibrations.—Dibenzoylmethane, Ketonic,
a-Oxybenzalacetophenone (a-Hydroxybenzylidene aceto-
phenone), Enolic.

well marked absorption bands, and the amount of general absorption
caused by the enolic form is, as in the case of Knorr’s esters, considerably
greater than that caused by the keto form. In this case the gradual
change of the less stable into the more stable form has been traced by
photographing the acidified solution at intervals,

be Trans. Chem. Soc., 1885, 47, 685.

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION,

Thickness
of Layer
of Liquid
in Milli-
metres

so SO FS oC

eo He or

to

~~ Co

oo

F

Dibenzoyl Methane

The Ketonic Form

Description of Spectrum

C,H,.CO

CH,

|

>[R

1 Milligramme Mol. in 100 e.c. Alcohol,

Spectrum continuous to
Complete absorption beyond. —
Spectrum continuous to : .
Complete absorption beyond.
Spectrum continuous to . .
Complete absorption beyond:
Spectrum continuous to 3 .
Complete absorption beyond.

2701
2760

1 Milligramme Mol. in 500 e.c. Alcohol.

Spectrum continuousto . .
Complete absorption beyond.
Spectrum continuous to . :
Complete absorption beyond.
Spectrum continuousto . .
Complete absorption beyond.
Spectrum continuous to . 2
Complete absorption beyond.

2786
2871
2965

1 Milligramme Wol. in 2,500 c.c. Alcohol.

Spectrum continuous to .
Complete absorption beyond. —
Spectrum continuous to. .

Absorption band . .

Strong rays transmitted “from

3655 to . ° . . .
Absorption band . .

Weak spectrum from 4306 to .
Complete absorption beyond.

Spectrum continuous to .

Absorption band . : . :

Spectrum continuous to . .

Absorption band

Spectrum continuous from 4306 to
Complete absorption beyond.

Spectrum continuous to :

Strong rays partially transmitted
from 3175 to

Spectrum continuous from 3381 to

Strong rays partially transmitted
from 3911 to . .

Spectrum continuous from 4306 to
Weak spectrum from 4400.

Spectrum continuous . . .

5057

3057
8057 to 3555

3873
3873 to 4306
4400

3141
3141 to 3465
3911
3914 to 4306
4400

3175

3381
3911

4306
4400

3271

3271
3274 to 2842

2581
2581 to 2322
2272

3183
3183 to 2886
2556
2556 to 2322
2272

3149

2957
2556

2322
2272

218

214

REPORT—1901.

a- Oxybenzalacetophenone

(a-Hydroxybenzylidene acetophenone)

C,H;.CO

CH
|
C,H,.C(OH)

The Enolic Form
Thickness
of Layer 1
of Liquid Description of Spectrum — A
in Milli- | A
metres |
1 Milligramme Mol. in 100 ¢.c. Alcohol.
5 Spectrum continuous to 2545 3929
eee absorption beyond. |
4 Same as 5 mm. -- —
3 Spectrum continuous to : 2552 3918
Complete absorption beyond. —
2 Sameas3mm. . . . = =
1 Milligramme Mol. in 500 c.c. Alcohol.
5 Spectrum continuous to 2591 3859
Complete absorption beyond.
4 Same as 5 mm. — _
3 Spectrum continuous to < 2624 3810
Complete absorption beyond. —
2 Spectrum continuous to . 2624 3810
Complete absorption beyond,
except for the feeble trans-
mission of strong lines at 3555 2812
And at. ‘. . 3625 2758
1 Milligramme Mol. in 2,500 e.v, Alcohol.
5 Spectrum continuous to A 2624 3810
Absorption band 2624 to 3461 8810 to 2889
Strong rays partially transmitted
from 3461 to . 7 . - 3677 2719
Absorption band 3077 to 4306 2719 to 2322
Weak spectrum from 4306 to 4400 2272
Complete absorption beyond.
4 Spectrum continuous to 2624 3810
Absorption band 2624 to 3280 3870 to 3048
Spectrum continuous from 3280 to 3805 2628
Absorption band . 3805 to 4306 2628 to 2322
Spectrum continuous from 4306 to 4400 2272
Complete absorption beyond.’
3 Spectrum continuous to 2701 3702
Absorption band 2701 to 3260 3702 to 3067
Spectrum continuous from 3260 to 3866 2586
Absorption band 3866 to 4258 2586 to 2348
Spectrum continuous from 4258 to 4400 2272
Complete absorption beyond,
except for the feeble transmis-
sion of lines at . ° 4539 2203
And. : 4 . 4645 2153
2 Spectrum continuous to 2760 3623
Absorption band 2760 to 3139 3623 to 3183
Spectrum continuous from 3139 to 3905 2560

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 913

a- Oxybenzalacetophenone (The Enolic Form)—cont.

Thickness
of Layer
of Liquid Description of Spectrum
in Milli-

metres

>le

A

Se ee ee eee ee |
Absorption band . 3905 to 4100 2560 to 2439
Spectrum continuous from 4100 to 4400 2272
Strong rays feebly transmitted
beyond.
1 Spectrum continuous to . : 2871 3483
Strong lines transmitted from
2871 to . A 3130 3194
Spectrum continuous from 3130. to 3905 2560
Strong lines transmitted from
3905 to . 2 4100 2439
Spectrum continuous beyond.
Transmission of a continuous
spectrum on further dilution of
the solution.

The Absorption Spectra of Indophenols and Dyes derived from Triphenylmethane.

As much work has recently been published on the relationship between
the constitution of dyes and their absorption spectra, abstracts of the
more important of these memoirs are given, accompanied by remarks on
the conclusions drawn from previous examinations of triphenylmethane
derivatives.

Relation entre la constitution chimique des colorants du triphénylméthane
et les spectres d’absorption de leurs solutions aqueuses. Note de M. P.
Lemoucr.!

The examination of the absorption spectra of a large number of
artificial colouring matters was made in the hope of finding some cha-
racteristic belonging to each of the principal groups which enter into their
constitution, but up to the present the study of such colours as are
derived from triphenylmethane has led to nothing more than a demon-
stration of some connection between the position of the luminous bands
of these spectra and the constitution of the products examined. All the
solutions were so made that a gramme-molecule of the dye was contained in
1,000 litres of water, the thickness of liquid being variable. The follow-
ing were the substances investigated :—

1. Malachite green. 10. Pheny] blue, or phenylated
2. Brilliant green. blue.

3. Sulpho-green J. 11. Methyl green.

4. Sulpho-green B. 12. Hexamethylated violet.

5. Green o-nitro. 13. Hexethylated violet.

6. Green m-nitro. 14. Formy]! violet.

7. Solid green with alkali. 15. Acid violet 10 B.

8. Carmine blue. 16. Benzyldiphenylamine violet.
9. Victoria blue. 17. Benzylated violet.

1 Comptes Rendus, vol, cxxxi, 1900, p. 839

216 REPORT—1901.

The nature of the substitutions in the three benzene nuclei is explained
by the author. Observed in thickness of 6 mm. some of the substances
show simply a band of transmitted rays in the red, others are also in the
violet of much larger extent. The red band is much more persistent,
and apparently is characteristic of the triphenylmethane group of sub-
stances and not of the individual members of this group. The band in
the red belonging to the greens and blues, Nos. | to 11, is narrower than
in the remaining colours, which are violet-—namely, Nos. 12 to 17.

Nore.—The formule given by Nietzki for some of the dye-stuffs
examined are the following :—

1, Malachite green.
gag [C>H,N(CH3).].

OH

2. Brilliant green.

op ee
OH

9. Victoria blue B.
(CH3).N = Coins C Jools = eat

(Go) ear Fes al

ll. Methyl green.
C,H,N(CH,),CH,Cl
(CH) NOt OC
No, H,N(CH;)

Cl

12, Hexamethylated violet.
| Cl
((CH;),N.C;H,],—C—C,H,N(CH,),

18, Hevethylated violet.
A similar formula with C,H, substituted for CH;.

The author’s summary is as follows :—The colours derived from tri-
phenylmethane, which have in general at least two atoms of tertiary
nitrogen in the para-position relative to the central carbon atom, yield
aqueous solutions in which the absorption spectrum transmits a band of
rays in the red. The middle of this band is always situated at approxi-
mately the wave-length 686 in those compounds which have no more
than two tertiary nitrogen groups. The position is invariable, but
different for those which include a third tertiary nitrogen group, and lies
about wave-length 666,

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 219

Sur Vabsorption de la lumiere par les indophénols By P. Bayvrac and
C, CaMICHEL.!

The indophenols with tertiary nitrogen, prepared by one of the
authors, were studied, and it was found that when dissolved in the
same solvent, as, for instance, alcohol, they presented an analogous
spectrum in every case. They are characterised by a band in the red.
Lemoult studied a series of indophenols obtained by the oxidation of
mixtures of p-phenylenediamine and phenol or o-cresol, which have in
the para-position the nitrogen atom which unites the two benzene nuclei.
The nitrogen in this case is primary and not tertiary. The substances
are said to have a band in the red which is shifted from the position
characteristic of indophenols containing tertiary nitrogen. The authors
state that there may be displacement of the band, but it has no definite
direction ; and the experiments of Lemoult do not show that it has. The
method of measuring adopted by Lemoult is to take the mean of the
micrometer readings between either edge of the band. It is remarked
that the extreme reading at the extremity of least refrangible rays is not
the end of the band, but merely the limit of visible rays, and that this is
variable according to the brilliancy of the spectrum. They give reasons
for this statement which are capable of verification, and also for the
explanation that there appears to be a displacement, but the band really
terminates in the infra-red.

Sur les spectres d’absorption des indophénols et des colorants du
triphénylméthane. By C, CamicHEL and P. Bayrac.?

The indophenols with the tertiary nitrogen are much more absorbent
than those with the primary nitrogen when the two are compared in
solutions containing molecular proportions ; but the fact is that as the
less refrangible end. of the band visible in the red lies in the infra-red
there can be no increased width visible in this direction, and the rays on
the other side being more freely transmitted it appears as if the band
had been shifted towards the more refrangible rays. This having been
demonstrated with the two kinds of indophenols, it was thought desirable
to study the triphenylmethane derivatives—malachite green, sulpho-
green J, hexamethylene violet crystals, and methyl green. The result
was just the same; only one extremity of the band of red rays lies within
the region of visibility. The conclusion is that the law of auxochromes
has not been demonstrated in the case of triphenylmethane derivatives
nor of indophenols. The number of tertiary nitrogens in the molecule
is the factor which increases the absorbent power of the substance, just
as the substitution of (CH); for H, in indophenols, or vice versd, renders
the substance more or less powerfully absorbent. The authors state that
they have studied the influence of concentration upon alcoholic solutions
of indophenols and on aqueous solutions of those colouring matters derived
from triphenylmethane. They have found that the coefticient of absorp-
tion is proportional to the concentration of the solution.

Norr.—The nature of the indophenols is indicated by the following
formule and reactions, the notes being taken from Bernthsen’s ‘ Organic
Chemistry’ and Witt’s original papers.’

1 Comptes Rendus, vol. cxxxii. 1901, p. 338. ? Tbid., exxxii. 1901, p, 485.
% Berichte, 16, 2843, and 18, 2912.

218 REPORT—1901.

Indophenols. By Orro Wirt.
Phenol blue (indo-aniline)—
foe NCHS):
N

| No, H,.0
|

is produced by the oxidation of amidodimethylaniline with phenol.
Its analogue, a-naphthol blue,

oa N (CHa):
Ds
| C1oHu0

is prepared by means of naphthol. Such compounds exchange N(CH;),
for OH when boiled with a solution of NaOH ; thus, from phenol blue
there results indophenol (quinonephenolimide)

O,H,.0H
n/ 674
mah

a phenolic dye which dissolves in alcohol to a red and in alkali to a blue
solution.

It may be obtained also by the action of phenol upon quinone chlori-
mide.

fe fin
CoH | + C,H;0H=C,H, Ny |
NCI N—0;H,OH
O,H,.0H
nf +HCl

It may be obtained also by the oxidation of p-amidophenol with
phenol. Its leuco-compound is p-dihydroxydiphenylamine, NH(C,H,.0OH),,
a substance which unites in itself the properties of diphenylamine and
a diatomic phenol.

Sur la loi des auxochromes. By M. P. Lemoutt.'

In a recent note MM. Camichel and Bayrac having expressed the
opinion that the law of auxochromes has no further application to the
compounds of triphenylmethane than to the indophenols, the author believes
that this statement is not sufficiently justified, having regard to his
observations on four different colouring matters, namely :—

First group (with 2 ) No. 1. Oxalate of tetramethyldiamidotripheny] carbinol.
tertiary nitrogens) { No. 2. Sulphate of tetrethyldiamidotriphenyl! carbinol.
: No. 3. Chlorhydrate of hexethyltriamidotriphenyl carbinol.
ce No. 4. Dimethyldiethyldibenzyltriamidotriphenyl carbinol
y 8 sodium disulphonate.

ee

! Comptes Rendus, cxxxii. p. 784, March 25, 1901.

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION, 219

Solutions were made of such a strength that 1 gramme-molecule was
contained in 1,000 litres of water. Photographs of the transmitted rays
were taken through a constant thickness with a constant exposure and
exactly the same development. The photographs reproduced in the paper
are explained in the text. They exhibit a luminous band in the red
which in respect to substances 1 and 2 is the same in intensity and posi-
tion. In substances 3 and 4 it is more luminous and slightly broader,
and the luminous band of No. 3 lies rather more towards the less re-
frangible rays than No. 4. Wave-length measurements are not giyen,
but numbers on an arbitrary scale are recorded. On diluting these
solutions, the change in the spectrum is seen to be a decrease of the
intensity of the absorption bands more on the side of the rays of greater
refrangibility than on the other. The author proposes to enunciate
definitely the law of auxochromes in a future paper.

Notr.—That there is apparently a decrease in the intensity of the
absorption bands more in the direction of the rays of shorter wave-length
is due undoubtedly in the first instance to the property of the prism, there
being greater dispersion of the more refrangible rays.

Nouvelle méthode permettant de charactériser les matieres colorantes.
By MM, Camicuet and Bayrac.!

The absorption of light by solutions of indophenols in alcohol, ether
carbon disulphide, and chloroform has been studied by taking as abscissie
the wave-lengths and as ordinates the coefficients of transmission.
Curves have been obtained of parabolic form, of which the convexity is
turned from the side of the axis of the abscisse. That portion of the
curve corresponding to the transmitted red rays ascends much more
rapidly than that which corresponds to the green or the blue. The
minimum position of the ordinate lies between the wave-lengths 610 and
535 according to the nature of the indophenol and its solvent. In order
to characterise each of the substances studied, the lowest point of the
curve was determined—that is to say, its minimum of transmission or of
greatest absorption. This is determined with precision by cutting the
curve with a series of lines or chords lying parallel to the axis of the
abscissz. The conjugate diameter of these chords, obtained by joining
points at the middle of each line, is rectilinear in a sufiiciently large
interval lying between wave-lengths 670 and 510; in such a case, for
example, as that of an alcoholic solution of indophenol and of orthocresol
with two tertiary nitrogens. The minimum of transparency (maximum
of absorption) is independent of the concentration of the solution for all
substances of which the absorption coefficient is proportional to the degree
of concentration, according to the law of Beer. It varies with the solvent
according to a law which is not that indicated by Kundt.

Two series of indophenols have been studied ; those of Series A have
pre tertiary nitrogens, the simplest of which is indophenol of ordinary
phenol.

oo SET
O=€ _ Y=N-C,H.—N(CH,)2

The others (Series B) have the second tertiary nitrogen replaced by
' Comptes Rendus, cxxxii. p. 882, April 9, 1901.

220 REPORT—1901.

a primary nitrogen, the simplest of which is the indophenol of ordinary
phenol.

Oe Larad

< _=N-CH,-NB;,
Table of the indophenols studied.
Series A. Series B.
1. Indophenol of phenol. 1’. Indophenol of phenol.
Deo 3 orthocresol. Oa "4 orthocresol.
3 a metacresol. 3’. 33 metacresol.
4, D paraxylenol. 4', yi paraxylenol.
5. ov orthoethylphenol. Dis a orthoethylphenol.
6 1) metaisopropylphenol. 6". 33 metaethylphenol.
7 + thymol, Vie f thymol.
8 ‘ carvacrol. 8’. i carvacrol.
9. 55 cymophenol. abe = cymophenol a.
10. of phenol a of the para- 10’, # phenol a of the para-
ethyltoluene. ethyltoluene.
ings s orthoxylenol (1, 2,3).
12’. 5 metaxylenol (1, 2, 3).

a. The displacement of the minimum of transparency (maximum of
absorption) under the effect of a solvent is shown by the following
numbers representing divisions of the micrometer eyepiece. The substance
was No. 1.

Alcohol. Ether, Carbon disulphide. Chloroform,
120 169 147 128

The rays observed with the spectrophotometer gave the following
measurements :—

Solar A. 7-0 CaS Ist. 104 Tl 220
B. 49:5 a oc 104 Solar E 235

Li 60°5 Solar D1 138

Solar C. 72°5 DZ 139

b. When the tertiary nitrogen had been replaced by a primary nitro-
gen the following numbers were obtained :—

Solvent, alcohol.

1.120 1’. 142 displacement + 22
2. 136 2'. 162 + 26
3. 122 3’, 142 + 20

ce. By the introduction of the following alkyl radicals into the ortho-
position, the displacements shown below were measured :—

CH,

CH,, CH, CH<GH’

CH, cme CH, bs CH;.

Solvent, alcohol.

1,120 2. 136 displacement + 16 Substitution of CH,
3.122 4, 134 + 12 CH,
t. 11 9. 136 +19 CH,

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION, 221

A similar series of experiments was made on substitution in the meta-
position, the results being as follows :—

ZT. 120- 3. 122 displacement + 2 substitution of CH,
2,136 4. 134 -—2 CH,

Conclusions.—a. When a tertiary nitrogen is replaced by a primary
nitrogen, the minimum of transparency (maximum of absorption) is dis-
placed towards the more refrangible end of the spectrum, whatever the
solvent may be—alcohol, ether, carbon disulphide, or chloroform.

It is remarked that this law differs entirely from that indicated by
M. Lemoult, who studied the apparent displacement of the band of red
rays transmitted by indophenols.

6. Substitution in the ortho-position in the phenol from which the
indophenol is derived causes a considerable displacement of the minimum
of transparency (maximum of absorption), whatever the solvent may be.
This displacement may even exceed the foregoing in degree. The im-
portance of substitution is thus evident ; the auxochromic groups are not
the only ones to modify the nature of the dye.

ce. A substitution in the meta-position in the phenol from which the
indophenol is derived causes a very slight displacement of the minimum
of transparency towards the red or towards the blue; the shifting is
often so slight as not to exceed experimental errors in measurement.

The preceding two laws, the authors remark, enable the formula of a
phenol to be determined ; it is converted into the indophenol with a
primary or a tertiary nitrogen, and the alcoholic solution is then examined.
Only an extremely small quantity of the substance is required.

Nore.—Hartley has shown! the relationship of the absorption spectra
of benzene and triphenylmethane to the colouring matters derived there-
from by means of curves of molecular vibrations. __

No matter what their colour may be, a band of red rays is transmitted
with greater persistency than the rays in any other part of the spectrum,
and that these red rays are materially modified by the introduction of
alkyl radicals into the NH, groups of the rosaniline molecule, as in
methyl-violet, and they are more modified by the presence of iodine, as in
iodine green.

To illustrate this the following measurements of the transmitted red
rays in solutions at different dilutions and of different thicknesses are
stated both in wave-lengths and oscillation frequencies. The fiducial
lines in the solar spectrum are also given as useful for reference,

uf 1

A ee A
A 1314 7604 E 1897 5269
B 1455 6867 F 2056 4860
Cc 1523 6562 G 2321 4307
D 1696 5892 H 2519 3967

1 Chem. Soc. Trans., vol. li, 1887, p. 152; see also the report of this Committee,
1899, p. 31.

Thiek-
ness

MM.

Co

owe

REPORT—1901,

Rosaniline Base.

Rays transmitted

=
r

Mean
A

0°301 gr. or 1 Milligramme-molecule in 100 c.c. of Alcohol.

139 to 153 719 to 650 684:°5
to 166 to 600 ==
to 166 to 600 —

1 Milligramme-molecule in 500 c.e.

to 166

to 600 | 6595

1 Milligramme molecule in 12,500 c.c.

139 to 137 | 719 to 562 | 640-5

Rosaniline Hydrochloride.

Rays transmitted

>|

Mean

0°3375 gr. ov 1 Milligramme-molecule in 100 c.c. of Water.

139 to 149 719 to 669 694
to 157 to 636 6773
1 Milligramme-molecule in 500 e.c.
to 166 to 600 659°5
to 166 to 600 659°5

1 Milligramme-molecule in 12,500 e.c.

to 174
to ii

to 572 —
to 562

139 to 177 719 to 562 640°5

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION,

Methyl Violet.

Rays transmitted

223

Thick- Mean
ness a
saa a
a
0-416 gr. or 1 Milligramme-molecule in 100 c.c. of Alcohol.
MM
25 139 719 —
20 159 to 145 719 to 686 702°5
5 to 149 to 670 6945
1 139 to 153 719 to 650 679 5
1 Milligramme-molecule in 500 e.e.
5 139 to 153 719 to 650 at
4 to 156 to 639 ps
2 to 158 to 632 a.
1 139 to 160 719 to 624 659°5
1 Milligramme-molecule in 12,500 of Alcohol.
5 139 to 166 719 to 600 —_
4 to 166 to 600 —_
3 139 to 168 719 to 598 658°5
Lodine Green.
Rays transmitted
Thick-
ness 1 Sea
= A
A
0°672 gr. or 1 Milligramme-molecule in 100 c.c. of Water.
MM.
20 _— = tre
10 _— — —
5 133 to 139 749 to 719 at
4 to 139 to 719 —
2 | 133 to 139 749 to 719 =
1 Milligramme-molecule in 500 e.c.
5 | 133 to 144 749 to 694 721°5
4 to 147 to 680 —
3 to 148 to 675 ——
Bt | to 149 to 669 rl
1 | 153 to 151 749 to 660 704-5
1 Milligramme-molecule in 2,500 e.c.
5 | 133 to 151 | 749 to 660 | sf
4 133 to 151 699°5
3

749 to 650 |

224 REPORT—1901.

Aurine.

Rays transmitted

? 1 Mean
ness 1 x
a
0:29 gr. or 1 Milligramme-molecule in 100 e.c. of Water.
MM,
60 139 to 153 719 to 650 —
30 to 166 to 600 —
15 to 166 to 600 —_—
10 to 166 to 600 659°5
5 to 177 to 562 —
4 to 177 to 562 —
3 to 181 to 550 —_
2 to 183 to 545 --
1 139 to 188 719 to 530 624-5
1 Milligramme-molecule in 500 c.c.
5 139 to 188 719 to 530 —
4 to 192 to 520 —
3 to 193 to 516 —
2 to 195 to 511 —
1 139 to 198 719 to 504 6115
1 Milligramme-molecule in 2,500 c.c.
Fi 139 to 198 719 to 504 | a
t to 202 to 494 —
3 139 to 206 719 to 484 601°5

It may here be remarked that in the diagram given in the ‘Trans.
Chem. Soe.’ vol. Ji. 1887, pp. 152-202, of benzene and its derivatives (1)
the relationship of the absorption curves to the chemical constitution of
these substances is fully described ; (2) the band in the red is indicated
on the less refrangible side as not being the termination of the transmitted
rays, but as the ‘extreme limit of the visible spectrum,’ and on p. 201
it is pointed out that ‘instances where the light is almost entirely absorbed
are indicated by the curve being continued by a dotted line, as in
rosaniline hydrochloride,’ and also that ‘ iodine green appeared to transmit
more of the least refrangible red rays than the other rosaniline derivatives.
This may have been due to the colour being favourable to viewing this
end of the spectrum, the more brilliant rays being absorbed, and those
that are feeble thus rendered visible.’ This observation has been verified
by MM. Bayrac and Camichel’s examination of other substances of a similar
character.

It should, however, be distinctly understood that it is the absorption
bands which are of prime importance in the study of spectra.

It is the position and width of these which determine those of the
transmittent rays, and therefore greater attention should be paid to
measurements of the bands of absorption. Comparisons of spectra
measured on an arbitrary scale are liable to be very misleading when
deductions are drawn from them.

The apparent shifting of the band of transmitted rays in the red
observed by Lemoult is satisfactorily shown by Bayrac and Camichel
to be only apparent, and not a real alteration in position, -

-

ON ABSORPTION SPECIRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 225

The remark of Bayrac and Camichel that indophenols with tertiary
nitrogen groups are much more absorbent than those with primary
nitrogen is only what might be predicted from what we know of the
ultra-violet spectra. The homologues of benzene, such as toluene, ethyl-
benzene, and the xylenes, are more powerfully absorbent than benzene
itself. The tertiary monamines trimethylamine and triethylamine are
more absorbent than the corresponding primary bases. Moreover, it was
proved in the case of dyes that in the triphenylmethane derivatives the
replacement of 3H by (CH;), rendered the substance much more power-
fully absorbent, methyl violet and rosaniline hydrochloride being a case
in point. This is best shown by the curves which illustrate the original
paper : but it also appears from the measurements which have already been
quoted, if we consider that the red rays are freely transmitted by the
rosanile salt when even stronger solutions than those containing a milli-
gramme -molecule of substance in 100 c.c. The methyl derivative
barely transmits any light through 25 mm. of such a solution. Then,
again, the width of the band transmitted by the methyl violet is narrower.
The same observation applies to iodine green.

The mere position of a band of transmitted red rays cannot be
considered as indicative of a constitution similar to that of the triphenyl
methane derivatives or of the indophenols because many of the diazo-
colours show such a band. The difference between them lies in the effect
of dilution ; in fact it is the absorption curves which are of importance,
or, better still, the curves of molecular vibrations. There is a particular
curve for each class of derivatives, the particular members of each class
showing variations of the curve characteristic of the class. This is more
marked in the case of the azobenzene and azonaphthalene derivatives
than it is even in the derivatives of triphenylmethane, because a larger
number of individual substances belonging to the former class have been
examined than of the latter. It is quite evident that the nitrogen groups
are chiefly concerned in the development of the colours, and the hydro-
carbon radicals appear to be of comparatively small importance provided
they are of a benzenoid character.

APPENDIX.

List of Substances the Absorption Spectra of which have been studied in
connection with the Chemical Constitution of Organic Compounds.
Norr.—The method of indexing adopted by the Chemical Society has been followed.

Substance | Pormula eas Reference
A
Acetic Acid . . | CH;COOH .. : 4 - : . | Continuous | Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257; Schénn,
» Wied. Ann. 6 (New
é f } Series), 1879, 267.
Acetic Acid—Ba- | (CH;.COO).Ba . ; Se eal * / Hartley and Hunting-
rium salt of ton, Phil. Trans. I.
| (1879), 259.
Acetic Acid—So- | CH;COONa AUN PO ae - 3 /
dium salt of | |

226

REPORT—1901.

APPENDIX—cont.

Reference

Nature of
Substance Formula Absorption
Acetaldoxime CH;.CH:N.OH Continuous
Acetoxime . (CH;)2C:N.O ra
Acetylene CoH, . 4 A
a
Acid Brown—So- | HSO3.Cj >H».N:N.C;>H,OH One band
dium salt of aa
Aconitine (from | C3;HygNOj Selective

Aconitum na-
pellus)
Aconitine (Jap-
aconitine)
Aconitine (pseud-)
(from Aconitum
ferox)
Aconitine (foreign)
Alanine :

Aldehyde Green
(A rosaniline
derivative)

Alizarin

Alizarin ethyl
ester
Allantoin

Alloxan
Allylic Alcohol .

Amido- azo - ben-
zene

Amido - azo - a -
naphthalene

Ammonium Hy-
droxide

Amylene (B.P.) .

Amylic Acetate .

Amylic Alcohol . |

Amylic Butyrate

Amylic Formate.
Amylic Propion-
ate

CogHgg-N 2021
C5gHysNOj0

Maes ere
CH;.CH(NH,)COOH

CeH4(CO).CgH2(OH)2

CsH4(CO),CgHo(OC.H;)2

NH—CO\,
CO\nH—cOo/C°

C;H;0H
See under Azo Compounds.
See under Azo.

NH,.0H

‘ae
CH;C00.C;Hyp .

C3H;,COOC;H io .

HCO0.C.Hi .
C.H;.CO0.C;Hj,

Continuous

”

Selective

”

Continuous

Continuous

Hartley and Dobbie,
Chem. Soc. Trans.
77 (1900), 318.

Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 39 (1881), 153.

Hartley, Chem. Soc.

Trans. 51 (1887), 153.

| Hartley, Phil. Trans.

IT. (1885), 471.

”

”

”

J. L. Soret, Archives
des sciences phy-
siques et naturelles,
1893 (3rd Series), 429.

Vogel, Ber. 11 (1878),
1363.

Vogel, Ber. 11 (1878),
1363; Liebermann,
Ber. 19 (1886), 2827;
21 (1887), 2527.

Liebermann, Ber. 21
(1887), 2527.

J. L. Soret, Archives
des sciences phy-
siques et naturelles,
1893 (8rd_ Series),
429,

”

Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 39 (1881), 153.

Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257; Hartley
and Dobbie, Chem.
Soc. Trans.77 (1900),
818; Schonn, Wied.
Ann. 6 (1879), 267.

Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 89 (1881), 153

Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257.

Schonn, Wied. Ann. 6
(New Series) (1879),
267.

Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257.

”
”

2 ee

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 227

. APPENDIX—cont.
Substance Formula oka Reference
Aniline Selective Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans, I.
(1879), 257; Pauer, |
Wied. Ann.der Phys. |
61 (1897), 363.
Aniline Blue C.9H6(CsH;)3;N5.HCl a Melde, Pogg. Ann. 126
(1865), 264.
Anthracene Fourbands | Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 39 (1881),
| 153.
Apomorphine Hy- | C,;H,;NO,.HCl . Selective Hartley, Phil. Trans.
drochloride IT. (1885), 471.
Atropine. PE ae Continuous | AS
Astienfiavic Acid | OH. C,H;(CO). .C,H;.0H = | =
(2 : 6) —Dioxy-
anthraquinone
Anthraflayic Acid | C;H;0H(CO),C,H;(OH) Selective Libermann and Kos-
tanecki, Ber. 19
| (1886), 2327; Lieber- |
| mann, Ber. 21 (1887),
| 2527.
iso - Anthraflavic |OH.Cs;H;(CO)..C,H;.0H 5 3
Acid (2: 7)—
Dioxy anthra-
quinone
Anthragallol CCG OCs 5H(OH;) (1: 2:3] P
Aurin . P : : 5 Hartley, Chem. Soc. |
Trans. 51 (1887),
153.
Anthrarufin C,H,(CO)sC,Ha( OH), [1.5] s Libermann and Kos-
tanecki, Ber. 19
(1886), 2327.
Azo Compounds :
Amido - azo - ben- n, § CeHsNHe Landauer, Ber. 14
zene 21 C,H; : : ” (1881), 391.
Amido - azo -a- | CigH;N:N.Cj)H,NH,. ¢ Hartley, Chem. Soc.
naphthalene Trans. 51 (1887),
153; Landauer, Ber.
14 (1881), 391.
Azo-benzene C,H;N:NC,H; Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 51 (1887), 153.
Azo-benzene di- N Hs Landauer, Ber. 14
amido toluene = “ C,H,.CH;(NH. ” (1881), 391.
o-Azo-toluene- di- H,.CH;
amido-benzene CeHs(N Ba) J Hy
o-Azo-toluene- di- CH;
amido-toluene CoH! CEE (NH,) ” w
p-Azo-toluene-di- ee
amido-benzene CeH;(NHo)2 ”
p-Azo-toluene-di- 1 ft,
amido-toluene C,H. CH,;(NH,)» : : ” ”
Benzene-azo - 8 - | Cg5H;N:N. CioH,(HS0;),0H . | One band | Hartley, Chem. Soc.
naphthol — sul- B Trans. 51 (1887),
phonic acid (So- 153.
om Salt)
i - amido - azo - C.H;(NH.). : Hartley, Chem. Soc.
benzene (Chrys- Ns {oon ; é ae Selective risa 51 (1887),
oidin) 153; Landauer, Ber.

Di - amido - azo -
benzene _ sul-
phonic acid

Col Sone”

14 (1881), 391.
Landauer, Ber. 14

(1881), 391.
Q2

228 REPORT—1901.
APPENDIX—cont.
Substance Formula ieee Reference
Di-methyl-amido- C,H4N(CH3). oe Landauer, Ber. 14
Ba Nai6 5 Selective (1881), 391.
Di-methyl-amido- | C.H,N(CHs).
azo-benzene | 7 ( CgHy.SO;H ” ”
sulphonic acid
Phenyl-azo- | Ph.N:N.C,Hy.N:N.Cj9H;(HSO;)OH .| One band | Hartley, Chem. Soc.
phenyl-8-naph- B Trans. 51 (1887),
thol - sulphonic 153.
acid (Croceine
7 Scarlet) - Me *
ri - amido - azo - C.H;(NHe)2 sh andauer, er, 14
benzene Ne { C,Hy.NH2 Selective (1881), 391.
B
Benzene C.Hy Six bands | Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. II.
(1879), 257 ; Hartley,
Chem. Soc. Trans.
47 (1885), 685; Hart-
ley and Dobbie,
Chem. Soc. Trans.
73 (1898), 695; Pauer,
Wied.Ann.der Phys.
61 (1897), 363.
| Benzene - hexa - | CgH,Cl,; Highly di- | Hartley, Chem. Soc.
chloride | actinic Trans. 39 (1881),
153.
| Benzene-methyl. | See Toiwene.
| Benzene - tetra - | See under T.
hydro
Benzoic Acid C,H;.COOH Selective Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
Be tle ale noe
: C,H;.C.H artley an obbie,
Benz, -aldoxime H| One band Chem. Soc. Trans.
| cunanee:) OH.N 77 (1900), 509.
| iso - Benz -aldox- | CgH,.C.H
ime (sym. aldox- ll : = ve
ime) N.OH
Benzene - azo- B- | See under Azo Compounds.
naphth ol-sul-
| phonic acid
| Benzyl diphenyl- — Selective Lemoult, Compt. Rend.
amine— Violet 181 (1900), 839.
Biebrich Scarlet | HSO,.C,H,.N..0,H,(HSO,).N,.C,,H,.0H One band | Hartley, Chem. Soc.
(Sodium Salt) B Trans. 51 (1887),
153.
Bismarck Brown | CgH4y.NH».N:N.CgH;(NHo)2 “ ”
Triamidoazo-
benzene
Biuret . C.H;N5;0. . Continuous | J. L. Soret, Archives
des sciences phy-
siques et naturelles,
1893 (8rd Series),
429,
Brilliant Green . | PhO:{CsgH,N(Et)o}. Lemoult, Compt. Rend.
: “ . Selective 181 (1900), 839.

Brom-benzene

Brucine

OH
C,H;.Br. : .

Cy5HagN 204 aa 4H.O0

Pauer, Wied. Ann. der
Phys. 61 (1897), 363.

Hartley, Phil. Trans
II. (1885), 471.

—

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 229

APPENDIX—cont.

Substance Formula preted
iso-Butylic Ace- | CH;COO.C,H, . | Continuous
tate |
éso-Butylic Buty- | C;H;.COO.C,H,. | is

rate

zso-Butylic For- | HCOO.C,Hy A.
mate

tso-Butylic Vale- C;H,02.CyHy ”
ranate

Butyric Acid . | CH;.CH,.CH,.COOH *

Butyric Acid— | (C3;H;COO),Ba . a
Barium salt of

Butyric Acid— | C;sH;COO.Na
Sodium salt of

iso-Butyric acid | (CH;).:;CH.COOH p

Caffeine | CgHyoN4O. | General

Camphor . CioH 1.0 Highly

diactinic

Camphoric Acid . | C3H,,(COOH), . General

Carbohydrates :

Cane Sugar CyoH 92041 . . . ”
Highly
diactinic

Glucose . CeHy20g « =» General

o-Oxy-carbanil See under O.

Carbon disul- | CS, Selective
phide

Carbon disul- — “
phide vapour

Carbon disul- — a5
phide solution

Carbostyril . C,H;NO One band

Methyl Carbo- | C,,H,NO :

ae

ethyl pseudo- | CjoH,NO 5

Carbostyril 2a. | :

Cevadine (Merk’s | C3p.H4gNOg (?) .| General

Veratrin)

Chlor-benzene C,H;Cl | Selective
Chrysazin . C.H,(CO),CgHo(OH). ”

Chrysoidine (Di-
amido-azo-ben-
zene)

Cinchonine sul-
phate

Chinconidine sul-
phate

See Azo Compounds.

(Cy9HooN20)2.H SO, +2H,0
(CjoHogN20)2H.SO, + 6H,O

Reference

Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. II.
(1879), 257.

Hartley, Phil. Trans.
II. (1885), 471.

Hartley, Chem. Soc. |
Trans. 89 (1881), 158

J. L. Soret, Archives
des sciences phy-
siques et naturelles,
1898 (8rd Series),
429,

Hartley, Trans. Chem.
Soc. 51 (1887), 58.
J. L. Soret, Archives
des sciences phy-
siques et naturelles,
1898 (3rd _ Series),
429. Also Hartley.

Pauer, Wied. Ann. der
Phys. 61 (1897), 868.

Pauer, Wied. Ann. der
Phys., 61 (1897),
568.

Hartley and Dobbie,
Chem. Soc. Trans.
75 (1899), 640.

”

”

Hartley, Phil. Trans.
II. (1885), 471.

Pauer, Wied. Ann. der
Phys. 61 (1897), 368.

Libermann and Kosta-
necki, Bev. 19 (1886),
2827.

Hartley, Phil. Trans.
IL. (1885), 471.

230

REPORT—1901.

APPENDIX— cont.

Substance

Codeine

Codeine di-acetyl
Corallin 4

Cotarnine hydro-
bromide

Croceine Scarlet
(Phenyl - azo-
phenyl-8-naph-
thol - sulphonic
acid)

o-Cresol

m-Cresol
p-Cresol x
Cumeneazo - B -
naphthol-disul-
phonic acid
(Sodium Beith,
Cyanin

“Cyanogen—
Hydrocyanic
Acid

Cyanuric Acid

iso-Cyanuric Acid
—Methylic
ester of

Cyanuric Acid—
Metlaylic ester
of

Cyanuric Chlor-
ide

di- Acetyl Codeine
a-Ethylic di-ben-
zoyl succinate
B-Ethylic di-ben-
zoyl succinate
y-Ethylic di-ben-
zoyl succinate
Di - amido - azo -

benzene
(Chrysoidene)
Di-ethylamine

| Digitaline

Diketo hexame-
thylene

Di-methyl-amido-
azo-benzene
Dimethylamine .

Formula Piedad es Reference
CigHo:NO;. Selective | Hartley, Phil. Trans.
II. (1885), 471.
Cy5Hy9(C2H;0),.NO; .
ee ay # Vogel, Ber. 11 (1878),
1363.
C,,H,;NO4.HBr+2H,0 oy Hartley, Phil. Trans.
II. (1885), 471.
See under Azo Compounds.
C.H4(CH;)OH “5 Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 53 (1888),
641.
C.H,(CH;)OH ” ”
CgH,y(CH;)OH . - s
CoHy;.N:N. C,9H,(HS0;),0HB ? One band | Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 51 (1887),
153.
— Selective | Vogel, Ber. 11 (1878),
1363.
See under H.
C;N;(OH); . General | Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 41 (1882), 45 ;
Hartley, Dobbie and
Lauder, Chem. Soc.
Trans. (1901).
See Methyl iso-cyanurate.
See Methyl cyanurate.
C3N;Cl; " Hartley, Dobbie and
Lauder, Chem. Soc.
Trans. (1901).
D
See under Codeine.
See under E.
See under E.
See under BE.
See Azo Compounds.
NH(C,H;)2. Continuous | Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans.
I. (1879), 257.
CopH 4012 « Ki Hartley, Phii. Trans.
II. (1885), 471.
co 07 CH2- CH2\c9 Pr Hartley and Dobbie,
\CH2.CH. ye Chem. Soc. Trans.
(1898), 599.

See Azo Compounds.

NH(CHs).

Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans.I.
(1879), 257.

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

231

APPENDIX—cont,
Substance Formula peeote Reference
Dimethyl pyra- | C;H,N. One band | Hartley and Dobbie,
zine Chem. Soc. Trans.
77 (1900), 846.
m - Dioxyanthra- - Selective | Libermann and Kosta-
quinone [1:2] necki, Ber. 19 (1886),
| 2327.
Dipyridine . CypHy Ne . | One band | Hartley, Chem. Soc.
| Trans. 47 (1885),
685.
E
Emodin C,4H,0; Selective , Libermann and Kosta-
necki, Ber: 19 (1880),
2327.
Eosin . . |CypHgBr4O; = Vogel, Ber. 11 (1878),
1368; E. Vogel,
Wied. Ann. 48, New
Series (1891), 449.
Ethylamine 838 % | NH,(C2H;) . Continuous | Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257.
Ethyl-benzene C.H;(CoH;) Selective oy)
Pauer, Wied. Ann. der
Phys. 61 (1897), 336.
Ethylene Gas CoH, . Highly Hartley, Chem. Soc.
diactinic Trans. 89 (1881),
153.
Ethylic Alcohol . | C.H;.OH = Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257; Schonn,
Wied. Ann. 6, New
Series (1879), 267.
Ethylic Acetate . | CH;.COO.C,H; . . | Continuous +
Ethylic Butyrate | C;H,COO.C,H; . 3 4
Ethylic Formate | H.COO.C,H; | M4 “
Ethylic Isocyan- | CO.N.C.H; 9 Hartley, Dobbie and
ate Lauder, Chem. Soc.
Trans. (1901).
Ethylic Propion- | C,H;.COO.C.H; ss Hartley and Hunting-
ate ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257.
Ethylic Valerate | C;H,O,.C.H; rn +
Ethylic ether of | See under O.
© - oxycarbanil
(enolic form,
B.P. 225°-230°)
Ethylic ether of | See under O.
© - oxycarbanil |
(ketonic form,
M.P. 29°)
a-Ethylic diben- | Co.H».0, One band | Hartley and Dobbie,
zoyl succinate Chem. Soc. Trans.
77 (1900), 498.
B-Ethylic diben- | C2.H2.0, ” ”
zoyl succinate
y-Ethylic diben- | Cy.H 0, 5
zoyl succinate
F
a
Fast Red (Sodium | HSO;.C, oH,.N:N.C,oH,.OH ; One band | Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Salt) ot a a a B | Trans. 51 (1887), 158.

‘| Fuchsin

232

REPORT—1901.

APPENDIX—cont.

Substance

pe | 2

Flayo-purpurin

Fluorescein.

Fluorescein—De- |

rivatives of
Formic Acid

Formic Acid —
Barium Salt of

p-Fuchsin .

Furfuraldehyde .

Furfuramide

Furfuran

Glucose

Helianthine (Tro-
poeeoline O)

Heptane

Hexane
Hexamethylene

Hexame t hylated
Violet (Crys-
tal Violet)

Hippurie Acid

Hofmann’s Violet
Hydrocyanic Acid
Hydroquinone

m-Hydroxyben-
zoic Acid .

|
|

C.H,NO;

CooH(CH;);N.2HC1 .
HCN .

| See under Quinone
| Cs5H,(OH)COOH;

| Formula kong
. CyH,(0H) €69c,H2(0H), Selective
[1:2:6]
CoH 205 bo Sa
| rt ”
H.COOH : Continuous
| (HCOO),Ba i thee 8
. | CopHpN;-HCl+4H.0 . | Selective
| eee . ”
Cl |
| C,H;0.COH . | Continuous
|
- | (CxH30.CH5),No. 5
CH:CH,
| pO ”
CH:CH
G
| See under Carbohydrates.
H
| HSO5.CgH,.N:N.C,H,N(CH;). . | Selective
:| (4) (4) (1)
CrHig - Continuous
» CyHyy s | ”
. | CeHg-He tiBoas
Cl
| |_|
(Me.NC,H,).=C.C,H,.N.Me, Selective

. | Continuous

Three bands

Continuous

Selective

Reference

Libermann and Kos-
tanecki, Ber. 19
(1886), 2827 ; Lieber-
mann, Bev. 21 (1887),
2527.

Kriiss,- Ber. 18 (1885),
2586; E. Vogel,
Wied. Ann. 48, New
Series (1891), 449.

Kriiss; E. Vogel, loc.
cit.

Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257.

”

Melde, Pogg. Ann. 126
(1865), 264; Vogel,
Ber. 11 (1878), 1868.

Kriiss, Ber. 15 (1882),
1243,

Hartley and Dobbie,
Chem. Soc. Trans.
(1898), 599.

| Hartley, Chem. Soc.

Trans.
153.
Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans.

I. (1879), 257.

51 (1887),

Hartley and Dobbie,
Chem. Soc. Trans.
77 (1900), 846.

Lemoult, Compt. Rend.
181 (1900), 839.

Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans.
I. (1879), 257; J. L.
Soret, Archives des
sciences physiques et
naturelles, 1898 (8rd
Series), 429.

Hartley, Trans. 51
(1887), 153.

Hartley, Trans. 41
(1882), 45.

Hartley, Chem. Soc.

Trans.53 (1888), 641.

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

APPENDIX—cont.

{ Substance Formula Recrpeine Reference
p-Hydroxyben- | C;,H,(OH)COOH . | Selective Hartley, Chem. Soc.
/ zoie Acid. e | Trans. 58 (1888),641.
Hydroxylamine | NH,(OH).HCl Highly Hartley and Dobbie,
hydrochloride diactinic Chem. Soc. Trans.
77 (1900), 318.
Hyoscyamine C,;H.;NO; . Continuous | Hartley, Phil. Trans.
II. (1885), 471.
| Hypoxanthine | C;H,N,0 . | Selective J. L. Soret, Archives
(Sarcine) . des sciences physi-
ques et naturelles,
i 1893 (8rd _ Series),
429.
I
F 1 tr 7CO 4 CO :
Indigo. - | Cebuk any JC=C CH, Selective Vogel, Ber. 11 (1878),
j Ge Ww 1368; Kriiss, Ber.
18 (1885), 2586.
| Indigo — Deriva- — rE Kriiss, Ber. 18 (1885),
vatives of 2586.
Todo-benzene C,H;I . : 7 Pauer, Wied. Ann. der
Phuys. 61 (1897), 363.
Iodine Green(Tri- | CH;.HN.C;H,;\/N.CH;
methyl-rosanil- Cc ‘2CH;1 Four bands| Hartley, Chem. Soc.
ine di-methyl- | CH;.HN.C,H,“” \C,H;.CH; Trans. (1887), 158.
di-iodide)
Isatin . : C3H;NO, . | Two bands | Hartley and Dobbie,
Chem. Soc. Trans.
| 75 (1899), 640.
Methyl Isatin C,)H;NO, . One band 7
Methyl pseudo- | CsH;NO, . | Two bands fh
Tsatin 2
Iso Compounds . | See under substance to which Jso is
prefixed.
Todobenzene | C,;H;I. : . | Selective
Vapour |
Iodobenzene So- |
lution . 2 _ | Continuous
J
Jap-aconitine .| See Aconitine. |
L
Leucine. | CyH,3;NO. . . | Continuous | J. L. Soret, Archives
| des sciences phy-
| siques et naturelles,
| | 1898 (8rd Series),
| 429.
M
Malachite Green . | CyH;.C= {C,H «N(CH5)o} 2 - | Selective Lemoult, Compt. Rend.
l / 131 (1900), 839;
OH | Vogel, Bev. 11 (1878),
| 1363.
Melamine C3N3(NH2); - | Continuous | Hartley, Dobbie, and
|
|

Melamine — Tri-
ethyl ester of

See under T77-ethyl melamine.

Lauder, Chem. Soc.
Trans. (1901).

234

REPORT—1901.

APPENDIX— cont.

Substance

Formula

iso - Melamine —
Tri-ethyl ester
of

Mesitylene . :

Methylamine 33 %

Methylamine hy-
drochloride

Methylic Alcohol

Methyl Carbo-
styril

Methyl pseudo-
Carbostyril

Methyl Green

Methy] Isatin

Methyl pseudo-
Isatin

Methyl Pyridine .

Methylic Acetate

Methylic Alcohol

Methylic
rate
Methylic Cyanu-

rate (M.P.135°)

Buty-

Methylic Formate

Methylic
anate

Isocy-

Methyl] Iso-cyanu- |

rate (M.P.175°)

Methylic Pro-
pionate

Methylic Salicy-
late

Methylic Vale-
rate

Methyl Violet
[Penta - methyl
Violet ?]

Morphine

apo-Morphine

Methyl Morphine

Morphine - tetra-
cetyl

Murexide

See under 777-ethyl-iso-melamine.

See Tri-methyl Benzene.
NH,(CH;) .

CH;.NH,.HCl

CH;.0H

See under C.
” »
CyH4.N.Me,.MeCl
7
a eT eee Mes
| |

Cl
See under I.

” ”

See Picoline.
CH;.COO.CH;
CH;.0H
C3H,.COO.CH; .
C5N;(OCHs)5

H.COO.CH;
CON.CH; .

C;0;N;(CHs);
C,H;.COO.CH; .

C.H,(OH).COO.CH; .
C;H,0..CH;
CipHy.N3(CH;)sHCI .

C7Hy NO; .

See under A.
See Codeine.
C,7Hy5(CoH;0)4NO; .

C,H,NH,.N;0,
+H,0

Nature of
Absorption

Continuous

Highly di-
actinic

”

Selective

Continuous

Highly di-
actinic
Continuous

”

Selective
Continuous

Selective

”

Three bands

Reference

Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257.

Hartley and Dobbie,
Chem. Soc. Trans.
77 (1900), 318.

Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans.
(1879); Schodnn,
Wied. Anm. 6, (1879),
267.

Lemoult, Compt. Rend.
131 (1900), 889.

Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257.

”

Hartley, Dobbie, and
Lauder, Chem. Soc.
Trans. (1901).

Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257.

Hartley, Dobbie, and
Lauder, Chem. Soc.
Trans. (1901).

”

Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257.

”

”

Vogel, Ber. 11 (1878),
1363. c

Hartley, Phil. Trans.
II. (1885), 471.

Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 51 (1887),
153.

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

APPENDIX—cont.

.

235

Substance Formula oer. Reference
Naphthalene CioHs . . | Four bands | Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 39 (1881),
| 158 ; 47 (1885), 685.
Naphthalene Red | C39H.,N3.HCl.H,O . | Selective Vogel, Ber. 11 (1878),
(Magdala Red) 622.
Naphthalene | C5pHoaN4 — | —_—
Red?
Naphthalene | See under Azo Compounds. |
amido-azo-a- |
Narceine Co3Ho;NO3. Continuous | Hartley, Phil. Trans.
II. (1885), 471.
Narcotine Co2H2;NO; . | Selective Fs
oxy-Narcotine See under O. |
Nicotine CioHy4Neo | Continuous | Hartley, Phil. Trans.
| II. (1885), 471.
m-Nitraniline CgH4(NO2).NHe . . | Selective Hartley and Hunting-
| ton, Phil. Trans. I.
| (1879), 257.
p-Nitraniline CgH4(NO.)NH, . is ep
Nitro-benzene | CgH;NO, . | Continuous | Pauer, Wied. Ann. der
(vapour) Phys. 61 (1897), 363.
Nitro-benzene — | - ==
(solution)
o-Nitrophenol C,H,(OH)NO, | Selective Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1897), 257.
p-Nitrophenol CsH,(OH).NO, . oF 2
Nitroso - diethyl | CsH4(NO)N(C.H;). es Kock, Wied. Ann. 32
aniline (1887), 167.
Nitroso-dimethyl | C;H,(NO)N(CHs3). Pe or
aniline
Nitroso-ethylani- | C;H;N(NO)C.H; : $
line
Nitroso-iso-butyl | CgsH;N(NO)C,H, in Ay
aniline
Nitroso - methyl | CsH;N(NO)CH;. 5 rf
aniline
Nitroso- prophyl- | CsH;N(NO)C;H, 5 Ee
aniline |
Nitroso-di- | (CgH;),N.NO 5 | Fe
phenylamine
Nitroso - di - me- | CsH;Cl(NO)N(CHs). - 3 Ps
thyl m-chlor-
aniline
Nitroso - di - me- | C,H;Br(NO)N(CH3)2. s FA

thyl - m - brom-

aniline

Nitroso - di - me-
thyl-m-iod- ani-
line

Nitroso - ethyl - a-
naphthylamine

Nitroso - ethyl-o-
toluidine

Nitroso-methyl-o-
toluidine

|
\

C,H;I(NO)N(CH5)2

C,oH,;N(NO)C,H;
C,H,.CH;.N(NO)C,H;
C,H,.CH;N(NO)CH;.

Pyridine)
Picric Acid .

Nature of
Absorption

Reference

3 | One band
|
|

Continuous

»

Selective

”

Selective

”

Selective

. | Four bands

Selective

256 REPORT-—1901.
APPENDIX—cont.
Substance Formula
Oo
; Octane CH is
Octylic Aleohol . | C3;H,;.0H
Oxalic Acid (10 % | COOH
solution)
COOH
pies ZNH2 .
| Oxalurie Acid COC NH.CO.COOH
o-Oxybenzoic C,H,(OH)COOH
Acid (see Sali-
cylic Acid)
m - Oxy - benzoic | C;H,(OH)COOH
Acid (1.8)
p - Oxy - benzoic | CsH,(OH)COOH
Acid
o-Oxy-carbanil C;H;0.N
o-Oxycarbanil — | C>5H,0.N
Ethylic ether
of (enolic form,
B.P. 225°-280°)
o-Oxycarbanil — | C,H,0,N
Ethylic ether
of (ketonic form,
M.P. 29°)
Oxy-narcotine CaoHo-NOs .
Ozone . - | 0;
P
Paparerine . CopHo,NO, .
Penta - methyl- Sat / CgH4N(CH3)o
para-rosaniline (CH,)N—CeH. PA CEN (CH)2
|
Phenanthrene Cy Hy
Phenol C,H,OH
Pheny! Blue | —
Phlorizine . Cx,HaOio «
Phthalic Acid C,H,4(COOH),
Picoline (Methyl | C;H,N(CH;)

i

Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257.

2
”

J. L. Soret, Archives
des sciences phy-
siques et naturelles,
3rd Series (1898),
429.

Hartley, Trans. Chem.
Soc. 58 (1888), 641.

Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257.

”

Hartley, Dobbie and
Paliatseas, Cher.
Soc.Trans.77 (1900),
839.

”

Hartley, Phil. Trans.
II. (1885), 471.

Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 89 (1881), 57.

Hartley, Phil. Trans.
II. (1885), 471.

Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans.89 (1881), 1538.

Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257; Schonn,
Wied. Ann. 6, New
Series (1879), 267.

Lemoult, Compt.
Rend. 181 (1900),
839.

Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257.

”

Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trams. 41 (1882), 45;
45 (1885), 685.

Melde, Pogg. Ann.
126 (1865), 264.

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 237

APPENDIX—cont.

Substance

Picrotoxine

Piperidine .

Piperine

Potassium Cyan-
ate

Propionic Acid .

Propionic Acid—
Barium salt of

Propionic Acid—
Sodium salt of

Propylic Alcohol

Propylic Formate

Propylic Propio-
nate

Propylic Valera-
nate

Purpurin

Purpuro-xanthin

| Pyrazine - di -
methyl

Pyridine

Pyridine hydro-
chloride

Pyridine 2.5 di-
carboxylic acid
(iso - cinchome-
ronic acid)

Pyrocatechol

Pyrogallol .

Pyromucic Acid .
Pyrrole (Pyrro-
line)

Formula Aeon Reference
C5oH34015 - : . | Continuous | Hartley, Phil. Trans.
| | _ II. (1885), 471.
C;H,,N a Hartley, Chem. Soe.
Trams. 47 (1885),
685.
Cy7HyyNO. . Selective | Hartley, Phil. Trans.
II. (1885), 471.
KCNO Continuous | J. L. Soret, Archives
des sciences et natu-
relles, 8rd _ Series
(1898), 429; Hartley,
Dobbie and Lauder,
Chem. Soc. Trans.
| (1901).
C,H,COOH S | Hartley and Hunting-
| ton, Phil. Trans. I.
| (1879), 257.
(CgH;COO).Ba . ” ”
C,H;,COONa 2 4
C3;H,0H 5 ” ”
HCOO.C;H, . 3
C.H;COO.C;H,; . es a
C5H)02.C5H, ” ”
CpH,< CO c,H(0H); + H20 Selective | Vogel, Ber. 11 (1878),
[(OH)s 1:2: 4] 1368; Libermann
Lai: and Kostanecki, Ber.
19 (1886), 2327.
CgH4(CO).C,H(OH), [1 : 3] + Libermann and Kosta-
necki, Ber. 19 (1886),
2327.
See under D.
| C;H;N One band | Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 47 (1885), 685;
Hartley and Dobbie,
Chem. Soc. Trans.
77 (1900), 318; Pauer,
Wied. Ann. der
Phys. 68 (1897), 368.
C3H;N.HCl i Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 47 (1885),
685.
C:H;N(COOH), . Selective | Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 41 (1882), 45.
| CgH4(OH)s . H Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 53 (1888),
641,
C,H;(0H); 7 Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257.
C,H;0.COOH . | Continuous 5
CH:CH a | Hartley and Dobbie,
| SNH Chem. Soc. Trans.
CH:CH (1898), 599.

|

238

REPORT—1901.

APPENDIX—cont.

Substance Formula Radel Reference
Q
Quinidine = sul- | (Cy9H24N202),.H2SO, . 5 5 . | Selective | Hartley, Phil. Trans.
phate | II. (1885), 471.
Quinine CopHo4N20o : 4 : | FF, 5
Quinine sulphate (CosH»N»02)H»SO, : , : | a a
Quinizarin . C.H4(CO)2Cg,H2(OH), | " Libermann and Kosta-
[1:4] necki, Ber. 19 (1886),
2327; Liebermann,
Ber. 21 (1887), 2527.
Quinone C.H4(OH),. ns Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 58 (1888),
641; J. L. Soret, Av-
chives des sciences
physiques et natu-
relles, 3rd Series
(1898), 429.
Quinoline C,H,N | » Hartley, Chem. Soc.
| Trans. 41 (1882), 45;
47 (1885), 685.
Quinoline hydro- | CjH;N.HCl a a
chloride
Tetra -hydro-qui- | Co>H,,N One band *
noline
Tetra -hydro-qui- | C,H,,N.HCl xs =
noline hydro-
chloride
R
Resoreinol . C.H4(OH), (1 : 3) Selective | Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 58 (1888),
641.
Rosaniline (base) | H.N.C,H, oc Gel (CH;).NH, Three bands| Hartley, Chem. Soc.
LN .CH > CC Trams. 51 (1887),
153.
Rosaniline hydro- | Cy9Ha9N;Cl Two bands oF
chloride
Rosolie Acid Cy9H 1,05 Selective | Kriiss, Bev. 18 (1885),
| 2586.
Rufigallic Acid . | ci4ti02(OF)s i =| a Libermann, Ber. 21
/[1:2:38 : 7] (1887), 2527.
S)
N |
Saffranine . H,N—C,H< | CoH Selective | Landauer, Ber. 11
N (1878), 1772.
TON
Cl C,H,;.NH,
Salicylic Acid | CgH,4(OH)(COOH) . * Hartley and Hunting-
(5 % solution) ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257; Hartley,
Chem. Soc. Trans.
58 (1888), 641.
Salicine C,3H,,0, o
Santalin | CysH,405 . 5 Vash Ber. 11 (1878),
Sarcine . | See under Hypoxyanthine
Serine . . | C5SH,;NO; Continuous | J. T eae Archives
des sciences phy-
siques et naturelles,
8rd Series (1898),
429.
Sodium Carbo- | Na,CO; “s =

nate

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

Substance

Solanine

Strychnine .

Tetracetyl mor-
phine
desi droberisene

Thebaine

Thiophene .

Thymol

Toluene

o-Toluidine Hy-
drochloride

p-Toluidine.

Tri - amido - azo-
benzene

Tri-ethylamine

Tri-ethylmelamine
(M.P. 74°)

Tri - ethyl - zso -
melamine (M.P.
92°) )

Tri-methylamine.

Tri-methyl ben-
zene (1:3: 5)
(Mesitylene)

Trimethyl-rosanil-
ine di-methy]l-
di-iodide |

Triphenylmethane| CH

TropeolineO .
Tropeoline OOO

Tyrosine

239

APPENDIX—cont.
Formula Anesth e Reference
!
| /
Cs2HosNOj3 (?) . | Continuous Hartley, Phil. Trans. |
II. (1885), 471.
Co}Ho2N202 Selective *
els
See under Morphine.
C.H,Hy Continuous | Hartley and Dobbie, |
Chem. Soc. Trans. |
77 (1900), 846.
CigH2,NO; . Selective Hartley, Phil. Trans. |
II. (1885), 471.
|
CH:CH Hartley and Dobbie, |
l \s Strong Chem. Soc. Trans. |
CH:CH” continuous | (1898), 599; Pauer, |
. | Wied. Ann. der
Phys. 61 (1897), 368.
C.sH;(CH;)(C3;H;)OH Selective | Hartley and Hunting-
1 4 3 ton, Phil. Trans.
(1879), I. 257.
C,;H;CH; + Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans.
(1879), I. 257; Pauer,
Wied. Ann. der
Phys. 61 (1897), 363.
C,;H,.NH,.HCl “f Hartley, Chem. Soc.
| Trans. 47 (1885),
685.
C,H;.NH, . : " =
See Azo Compounds.
N(C.H5); Continuous | Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I.
(1879), 257.
C3N,H;(C.H;)5 ‘ Hartley, Dobbie, and
Lauder, Chem. Soc.
| Trans. (1901).
C3N,H;(C,H5)5 . | ” ”
N(CH3); % Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans. I. |
) (1879), 257.
C,H;(CHs3); Selective ”
See Iodine Green. |
(C.Hs)s . % Hartley, Chem. Soc
Trams. 51 (1887), 153.
See Helianthine. |
No. 1. OH.C,)Hg.N:N.Cg5Hy.SO;Na . | One band 9
a
No. 2. OH.C,sHg.N:N.CgH,.SO;Na . | _ ff
CoH,,NO; . Selective Hartley and Hunting-
ton, Phil. Trans.
I. (1879), 257; J. L.
Soret, Archives des
sciences physiques
et naturelles, 3rd
Series (1893), 429.

The Methods for the Determination of Hydrolytic Dissociation of Salt-
Solutions. By R. C. Farmer, Ph.D., MSc.

[Ordered by the Council to be printed in extenso.]

Ir is a matter of common experience that many salts, although containing
equivalent quantities of acid and base, react acid or alkaline towards
indicators in aqueous solution. If we take, for instance, a salt such as
potassium cyanide and dissolve it in water, we find that, although it con-
tains the amount of hydrocyanic acid theoretically necessary to neutralise
the potassium hydrate, it reacts strongly alkaline, thus showing the pre-
sence of free potassium hydrate in the solution.

A very superficial observation shows that the solution also contains
free hydrocyanic acid. Its presence is indeed rendered obvious by its
characteristic smell. It is therefore evident that the potassium cyanide

|

240 REPORT—1901.
APPENDIX—cont.
Substance Formula pce a Reference
U
Urea é . | CO(NH a). . Continuous | J. L. Soret, Archives |
| des sciences phy-
| siques et naturelles,
3rd Seties (1898),
| 429; Hartley, loc. cit.
Uric Acid . . | C5H,N,O; . . _ Selective J. L. Soret, loc. cit.;
| Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 51 (1887),
153.
V
Veratrin . . | C5gHygNOo . ' Selective | Hartley, Phil. Trans.
II. (1885), 47
Victoria Blue . Mey-N-C;Hy CioH,-NH.Ph F ee Lemoult, Compt. Rend.
| ‘7, ux | 131 (1900), 839.
Cc Viet oi
LNG
Mes-N-C,H,
WwW
Distilled Water . H,O . 5 Highly | Hartley and Hunting-
diactinic ton, Phil. Trans. I.
| (1879), 257.
x
Xanthine hydro- | C;H,N,O..HCl Selective | J. L. Soret, Archives |
chloride | des sciences phy-
stiques et naturelles,
3rd Series (18938),
| 429.
p-Xylene . . | CgHy(CH35)2 Two bands | Hartley, Chem. Soc.
Trans.47 (1885), 685;
Pauer, Wied. Ann.
der Phys. 61 (1897),
363.
m-Xylene . . | CyHy(CHs)o One band 7
o-Xylene . 2 / CyH4(CHs)2 5 3

DETERMINATION OF HYDROLYTIC DISSOCIATION OF SALT-SOLUTIONS. 241

has undergone a decomposition into free potassium hydrate and free
hydrocyanic acid
KCN +HOH=KOH+HCN.

Similarly we find that other salts, as, for instance, ferric chloride, react
acid in aqueous solution.

Even Rose,' who was probably the first to notice these phenomena,
recognised that this was the result of a secondary reaction, which was
brought about by the water. An analogy was sought in the decomposition
of acid chlorides and the breaking up of organic complexes such as saccha-
rose, in which the elements of water are taken up, and for this reason
the name ‘hydrolysis’ was, rather unfortunately, applied indiscriminately
to the two phenomena.

The nature of the decomposition formed the subject of considerable
discussion, but it was not until Arrhenius brought the theory of electro-
lytic dissociation to bear on it that a satisfactory explanation was found.
As this theory is almost universally accepted at the present time, it is not
necessary to make more than a passing reference to a theory which at
one time offered some opposition to that of Arrhenius. This was an
assumption that the salts in question formed hydrates in aqueous solution,
and that these hydrates possessed acid or basic properties.

Thus Werner ? attempted to explain the acid reaction of copper
chloride in aqueous solution on the assumption that it formed a hydrate of
the formula G> Cu ope which was acid in character. In this way, of
course, it would be possible to account for the acid or alkaline reaction of
all hydrolysed salts. Potassium cyanide would form a hydrate of a basic
nature and so on.

It is an unsatisfactory feature of this theory that it makes the
assumption of innumerable hydrates whose existence in aqueous solution
is still to be proved ; but apart from this it is shown that the acid or basic
reaction is the result of a dissociation and not of a formation of hydrates
by the fact that the acid and basic components can be easily separated,
This separation can be sometimes effected by mere warming, as in the
case of iron or aluminium acetate, in many other cases by dialysis.

In the case of diphenylamine hydrochloride repeated washing suffices
to completely remove the hydrochloric acid, and in the case of many
organic salts, as, for instance, sodium phenolate, one of the components
can be partially removed by extraction with ether.

Tn 1890 Arrhenius* brought forward a simple explanation of the
hydrolysis of salts on the basis of the theory of electrolytic dissociation.
All that was necessary in order to bring the phenomenon of hydrolysis
into complete harmony with the ionic theory was to consider water as an
electrolyte, to suppose that it is to a slight extent dissociated into
hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. Later investigations have completely justified
this assumption. Compared with the weakest of acids, the ionisation of
water is almost infinitesimal, but it has been determined with a consider-
able amount of accuracy. Water consists, then, of a solution of hydrogen
and hydroxyl ions of such a strength that ten million litres of water
contain approximately one gram equivalent of free ions. This means that
water can act at the same time as a weak acid and a base.

\ Jahresber., 1852, 310, * ZLeitschr. fiir anorg. Chem., 9, 408.
: .* Leitschr. fiir phys. Chem., 6, 16 (1890).
1901. R

242, REPORT—1901.

Thus, when an acid and a base are brought together, the neutralisation
never takes place quite completely. ‘There always remain as many free
hydrogen and hydroxyl ions over as are usually present in pure water.
The quantity of ionised water is, of course, so small as to be practically
negligible in most cases, but its effect becomes very marked when the acid
or base of a dissolved salt is very weak.

Tf we take, for instance, a salt like potassium cyanide, its acid, hydro-
eyanic acid, is very weak, and is still further enormously weakened by the
presence of its neutral salt, or, to put it in‘ionic language, by the presence
of excess of cyanogen ions. The water is therefore by virtue of its slight
acid properties capable of setting free a considerable quantity of the acid
from its salt.

It might appear at first sight as if the solution should still react
neutral, since the acid and base are set free in equivalent quantities. The
theory of electrolytic dissociation shows us, however, that this is not the
ease. If we consider the equilibrium :

KCN +HOH2ZKCH+HON

the potassium hydrate exists practically ccmpletely in the ionised state,
whereas the hydrocyanic acid is almost entirely unionised. Thus we have
a large excess of hydroxyl ions in the solution, and it is these that give
rise to the alkaline reaction. Expressed ionically the equilibrium will
read

CN’+HOHZHCN +0H".

This theory of Arrhenius has now met with almost universal accept-
ance, and has amply justified its adoption as a working basis for all
quantitative problems dealing with hydrolysis.

The conditions for the dissociation of a salt into free acid and base are
therefore—

1. That the acid or base of the salt, or both, be very weak,
2. That the solvent itself be somewhat ionised.

Hitherto the phenomenon appears only to have been studied in aqueous
solution. If the slight conductivities found for pure alcohol are really
due to an ionisation into hydrogen- and ethoxy-ions, then we should
expect salts such as sodium phenolate to be also split up to some extent in
alcoholic solution.

For the qualitative detection of hydrolysis, indicators afford the most
reliable test. From the results of Ley,' litmus appears to be the most
sensitive of these.

Still, the method of simply testing the solution with an indicator
might at times give misleading results owing to the presence of traces of
acid or alkali in the salt. Ley recommends a more satisfactory method.
This is to titrate the solution. If the salt of a weak base, for instance, is
really hydrolysed, it will not only react acid in the ‘pure state, but will
also continue to react acid even on addition of a considerable quantity of
alkali. Thus, whereas the least trace of sodium hydrate suficed to render
a solution of magnesium sulphate or barium chloride alkaline, solutions of
lead chloride and copper chloride continued to react acid until almost the
whole of the hydrochloric acid had been removed by the sodium hydrate.

As other qualitative methods any processes may be used which bring

l Zeitsohr. fiir phys, Chem., 86, 203 (1899).

DETERMINATION OF HYDROLYTIC DISSOCIATION OF SALT-SOLUTIONS. 243

about a separation of the components. Thus, the hydrocyanic acid may
be partially removed from a solution of sodium cyanide by a current of
pure air, the phenol may be partially extracted from a solution of sodium
phenolate by ether, and so on.

Quantitative Methods.—When we attack the problem of ascertaining
quantitatively to what extent this hydrolytic dissociation of salts occurs,
it is at once evident that the hydrolysis cannot be determined by any
direct measurement of the free acid or alkali in the system. If we attempt
to titrate the solution of a salt like potassium cyanide, the equilibrium
is at once disturbed, and as we neutralise the free potassium hydrate in
the system by the addition of acid, more potassium hydrate is supplied
from the potassium cyanide to take its place. As we have seen, the
neutral point is in many cases only reached when enough acid has been
added to completely split up the salt. We must therefore resort to some
indirect means of estimating the free acid or alkali in the system without
disturbing the equilibrium.

We will pass over such methods as the determination of the heat of
neutralisation, as these have led to very incorrect ideas as to the extent of
the hydrolysis. For instance, determinations of the heat of neutralisa-
tion of hydrocyanic acid led to the belief that a solution of sodium
cyanide was split up to the extent of 80 per cent. into free hydrocyanic
acid and sodium hydrate, whereas in reality its hydrolysis only amounts
to about 1 per cent. in ,', normal solution.

In fact, the hydrolysis proves in most cases to be much smaller than
was formerly imagined. Even salts like sodium phenolate, which react
strongly alkaline, are only hydrolysed to the extent of 2 or 3 per cent. in
about ,'; normal solution.

The quantitative methods which have hitherto been used are mostly
based on the measurement of the velocity of reactions, brought about by
the free alkali or acid in the solution. Of these reactions the chief have
been the saponification of esters and the inversion of cane sugar.

Saponification of Esters.—If we take an ester such as ethyl acetate
and dissolve it in pure water, it wil] remain for weeks practically
unaffected. If, however, we add acid or alkali, saponification sets in, and
proceeds with a velocity depending on the amount of acid or alkali added.
The velocity can be measured by means of titrations.

If we treat the ester with a hydrolysed salt, saponification will like-
wise take place by virtue of the free acid or alkali which the solution
contains. We must distinguish between the case in which the saponification
is brought about by free acid and that in which it is brought about by
alkali. The action of acids in saponifying esters is purely catalytic ; the
amount of acid remains unchanged throughout the reaction ; this is, there-
fore, the simplest case, and we will consider it first.

For the measurement of the velocity, known quantities of ester and
acid are brought together in aqueous solution and kept at constant
temperature. At measured intervals of time a part of the solution is
removed by means of a pipette and quickly titrated. This tells us how
much of the ester has been converted to acetic acid and alcohol in a given
time. From the results of these titrations the whole course of the reaction
can be followed.

By the law of mass action, the velocity of the reaction at any moment
is. proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reacting sub-
stances (the ester and acid). The velocity diminishes, therefore, as the

RB2

24,4 REPORT—1901.

ester is used up. If C, and C, be the two concentrations, and ¢ be the
time,

Pe aC ine :
V elocity = ——7, =KC,C,, where K is a constant.

If we always take the same amount of ester, the velocity of the
reaction is proportional to the amount of acid added. The general
method is therefore to determine by a preliminary experiment the velocity
cf saponification brought about by a known amount of pure acid, and
afterwards to determine its velocity as brought about by the acid in the
hydrolysed salt. If we have found the velocity of saponification brought
about by a known quantity of acid, then we can conversely calculate
from the velocity of saponification which the hydrolysed salt brings
about, how much free acid it contains, that is, the extent of its hydrolysis,
remembering always that the velocity of the reaction is proportional to
the amount of free acid present.

It should be mentioned that this proportionality does not hold quite
strictly in the catalysis of esters by means of acids. There are deviations
from it which are not fully understood. It differs in strong and weak
solutions of acids, apart from the difference which one would expect from
incomplete ionisation. The presence of neutral salts also has a consider-
able influence on the velocity. Consequently the results obtained by this
method are not to be taken as very accurate.

Since the velocity varies throughout the whole course of the reaction,
we cannot take a direct measurement of the initial velocity of saponi-
fication, as the velocity changes so quickly that no trustworthy results
could be obtained in this way. The calculation is carried out by means of
the well known equation

which holds for monomolecular reactions.

A is the initial concentration of the ester, « is the amount saponified
in time ¢, and K isa constant. The titrations taken during the whole
course of the reaction are used to determine K. By comparing the
constant K obtained for the hydrolysed chloride of a weak base with that
obtained for pure hydrochloric acid, the amount of free hydrochloric acid
in the solution of the salt can be easily calculated, and hence the degree of
hydrolysis.

The first experiments in this direction were carried out by Walker in
1889.! He determined the velocities of saponification of methyl acetate by
the hydrochlorides of very weak bases, such as thiazol, and thus deter-
mined the degrees of hydrolysis.

A similar method was worked out for the salts of very weak acids by
Shields, in 1895." He determined the hydrolysis of the alkali salts of
phenol, carbonic acid, boric acid, &. In this case it is not free acid that
we have to determine, but free alkali, and the matter is complicated by
the fact that the free alkali is removed from the system as the reaction
proceeds, so that the equilibrium of the hydrolysis, as, for instance,
KON + HOH 2 KOH + HON, is continually changing. It would lead
us too far to go into the details of how this is taken into account. It is

1 Zeitschr. fiir phys. Crcm., 4, 319 (1889). 2 Tbid., 12,167 (1893).

—— ee

DETERMINATION OF HYDROLYTIC DISSOCIATION OF SALT-SOLUTIONS. 245

sufficient to say that a formula can be deduced for the reaction, and that
Shields found it confirmed by experiment.

In spite of the complicated nature of the reaction, very good results
can be obtained by this method. The saponification proceeds very much
more quickly under the influence of hydroxyl ions than of hydrogen ions,
and so the measurement of even very small degrees of hydrolysis can be
carried out at the ordinary temperature, which is not the case in the
method mentioned previously. Shields was able to measure even such a
small degree of hydrolysis as that of sodium acetate—rather less than
0-01 per cent. in ,}, normal solution. This is a degree of precision which
greatly surpasses that of any determinations of free acid by the catalysis
of esters or of cane sugar.

Shields showed that the velocity of saponification was not disturbed
by the presence of ester and alcohol. He further showed by this method
that trisodium phosphate, Na,PO,, is quantitatively split up in aqueous
solution into Na, HPO, and NaOH.

According to Ley,! the saponification of esters sometimes takes place
even under the influence of neutral salts, such at KCl at 100°. It is
doubtful whether this points to a slight hydrolysis of the salts at this
temperature, which seems very improbable, or whether in certain cases
other ions besides hydrogen and hydroxyl can act as catalysers in
saponifying esters. In any case the velocity of the reaction is very small
as compared with that brought about by salts which are known to be
hydrolysed.

The following tables give the percentage of hydrolysis of a number of
salts of weak acids and bases as determined by this method by Walker
and others. For the sake of comparison the values have all been recal-
culated, so that the figures give the hydrolysis in ;}; normal solution.

I.— Hydrolysis of the hydrochlorides of weak bases as measured by the
catalysis of esters.

Temperature = 25°,

Percentage hydro- Percentage hydro-
fume of base. lysis of Hydrochloride Name ob bine, lysis of Hydrochloride
in — solution. in — solution,
10 10
Thiazol ° = Seely Acetoxime . - . 36
Glycocoll . 4 Ug Urea 5 ; . 90
Asparagine . : ese Acetamide . . 5 tah)
Thiohydantoin 5 Jeo Propionitrile - ay mee!
Asparaginic Acid . nol |. Thiourea. : AAR)
I1.—AHydrolysis of the alkali salts of weak acids as measured by the
saponification of esters.
Temperature = 25°.
Percentage Hydro- Percentage Hydro-
Name of Acid. bie oF salva i Name of Acid. ie of salts in
-— solution. —" solution.

10 - 10
Hydrocyanic acid . o gts o-Chlorphenol : 3) lelB
Acetic acid . . - 0008 2:4. Dichlorphenol OLE
Carbonic acid . pe eal 2:4:6Trichlorphenol . O21
Phenol | ; : - 38:05 p-Cyanphenol : 50:29
p-Chlorphenol - Les p-Nitrophenol - ne ORG

' Zeitschr. fiir phys. Chem., 30, 230 (1899).

246 REPORT—1901.

Inversion of Cane Sugar.—It is well known that the inversion of cane
sugar is brought about by the addition of acid to its aqueous solution, and
that the reaction can be followed by means of the polarimeter. The
velocity of the inversion is proportional to the amount of acid added, and
it is evident that this is a method which can be applied to the estimation
of the acid which is hydrolytically set free from the salts of weak bases.

The first application of this method appears to have been made by
Bruner in 1893. He measured the hydrolysis of a number of inorganic
chlorides, nitrates, and sulphates at 40°. His work was, however, very
much overlooked, through having been only published in a Polish journal.
In 1900 he republished it in the ‘ Zeitschrift fiir phys. Chem.’ (82, 133).

Meanwhile Walker and Aston ! had determined the hydrolysis of a
number of hydrochlorides of weak organic bases, and a few inorganic
nitrates by the same method at 60°. Ley extended this work on
inorganic salts at 100°.2 It is impossible to directly compare these
results with one another, as they were all obtained at different tem-
peratures. The temperature has been shown to have a very great in-
fluence on the hydrolysis, as the dissociation constant of pure water rises
abnormally rapidly with rise of temperature.

The inversion is a monomolecular reaction, and the calculations are
very similar to those of the catalysis of esters. Ley points out that this
method is somewhat limited in its applicability. Some salts which react
acid to litmus act as neutral towards cane sugar, and conversely some
neutral salts bring about inversion of the sugar. Even potassium
chloride brought about inversion of the sugar at 100°, but gave very
irregular results. A disadvantage of working at such a high temperature
is that the results may be vitiated by impurities dissolved from the glass,
and it is probable that something of this sort occurred in the determina-
tions on potassium chloride, &c., for Ley found similar irregularities on
making experiments with extremely dilute solutions of hydrochloric acid.
The inversion seems also to be considerably influenced by dissolved salts.
Ley considered the lin:it of accuracy to be about 0-5 per cent. in yh
normal solution.

The following tables contain a number of results obtained by the
abovementioned observers for the hydrolysis of organic and inorganic
chlorides :—

III.—Hydrolysis of the hydrochlorides of organic bases as determined
by the inversion of cane sugar.

Temperature = 60°.

Percentage Hydro- Percentage Hydro-
Namarat ese, lysis or Eipeeords icarah base: lysis of Hydrochloride
n _~ solution. in — solution.
10 10
Pyridine. ; 1:2 Glycocoll . : : 18
Monomethylaniline 1*2 Asparagine : - 21
Quinoline ; 1-2 Acetamide . : : 78
p-Toluidine 17 Urea A ° 3 81
Aniline 2°6 Thiourea . i : 92
o-Toluidine 3:2 Propionitrile . 5 92

1 J.C.8., 67, 576 (1895).
2 Zeitschr. fiir phys. Chem., 80. 216 (£899).

a

DETERMINATION OF HYDROLYTIC DISSOCIATION OF SALT-SOLUTIONS. 247

IV.—Hydrolysis of inorganic chlorides (inversion method).
Hydrolysis of Chloride

Metal. Temperature, oe As olution,
Zinc . 3 ; Sie LOOSE Ss F - 0-1
Lead . 3 - - 3 ° 0:2
Beryllium é ‘ : by - 18
Aluminium A ' ' on ° F ' 61

5 : - 4 rite . 5 2:7
Cerium : ey) oy WLOOCH Sw ° ‘ 0:3
Lanthanum : : or . . . - O-1
irom (Hein, . ; > AOE A * Apia 10)
Uranyl (UO,”). . . FD A f= : A 3

The chlorides of the alkali metals and of the alkaline earths, as also
those of yttrium, scandium, manganese, cobalt, and erbium, showed no
appreciable hydrolysis.

A method somewhat similar to the inversion method was recently
suggested by Wood.! He allowed diastase to act on starch in presence
of a hydrolysed salt. Acids or alkalies retard the action of the diastase,
and the retardation was taken as a basis of measurement of the amount
of acid or alkali present. The action is very much affected by changes of
temperature. So far only rough approximations have been obtained in
this way.

Electric Conductivity.—The electric conductivity has for a long time
been looked on as a useful method for the determination of hydrolytic
dissociation. Its capabilities in this direction have, in my opinion, been
considerably overestimated. The method used for the determination is as
follows :—It is well known that almost all salts are fairly completely
ionised when dissolved in water at a moderate dilution. Their electric
conductivities, which form a measure of their ionisations, do not differ
from one another by a great deal in solutions of equivalent concentration.

The free acids and bases, on the other hand, have all possible conduc-
tivities, ranging from almost nothing in the case of the very weak acids
and bases to values very much greater than those of the salts in the case
of the strong acids.

If, then, we take the solution of a salt such as aniline hydrochloride,
which is considerably split up into free aniline and hydrochloric acid in
aqueous solution, the observed conductivity will be partly due to the salt
C,H;NH.HCl, and partly to the free HCl which is split off by hydro-
lysis. The free aniline which is present in the system will not contribute
appreciably towards the conductivity.

Since the conductivity of hydrochloric acid is very much greater than
that of aniline hydrochloride, we shall be able to draw some conclusion
from the conductivity as to the amount of free hydrochloric acid which is
present in the system. If «, be the molecular conductivity which aniline
hydrochloride would have if it were not hydrolysed, piyo, be that of hydro-
chloric acid, and the fraction of the salt which is hydrolysed, the
observed molecular conductivity (M) will be

M=(1—z«),, due to unsplit salt,
+ yc, due to free HCl.

1 Amer. Chem. Journ,, 16, 313.

248 REPORT—1901.

From this we get
M—1
Sean ot |

~ Pei fA

From this the degree of hydrolysis can be calculated.

The conductivity of the hydrolysed salt M can be directly measured
with a certain amount of‘accurdcy. The experimental error will amount
to perhaps 0°5 per cent. under favourable circumstances, rising to 1 per
cent. or more at the highest dilutions (about ,,),, normal).

Similarly «yc, can be ascertained by direct measurement.

The problem is, therefore, to ascertain what the molecular conductivity
would be if the salt were not hydrolysed; that is, »,. There are several
ways of arriving at this, but none permitting of any great accuracy.
Walker was the first to attempt to measure hydrolytic dissociation in this
way.' He determined the electric conductivities of the chlorides and
sulphates of a number of very weak organic bases, including salts which
were hydrolysed to the extent of nearly 100 per cent.

He arrived at the approximate conductivity which the salts would
have in the unhydrolysed state by analogy with similar salts which were
known not to be much hydrolysed, and assumed ‘that the molecular
conductivities would be equal at the same dilution. As the degrees of
hydrolysis were in all cases very large, this served his purpose tolerably
well. For instance, for thiazolhydrochloride in ;}; normal solution he
found M=189-8. He assumed the real value p, to be 90. sro) Was known
to be 375.

189*8—90

Hence €=375 99 = 0°39;

i.e. the salt is hydrolysed to the cxtent of 35 per cent. From the
catalysis of methylacetate he found 34:6 per cent. The values that he
found in this way corresponded pretty closeiy with those obtained by
catalytic methods.

This method of analogy gives, however, only a very rough approxi-
mation of the conductivity of the unsplit salt. It was probably several
units out in most cases, and for this reason the method is not adapted to
the determination of small degrees of hydrolysis. Errors of several per
cent. are unavoidable. In the case of the less hydrolysed salts no results
could be obtained at all. Indeed, in the case of aniline hydrochloride he
found the conductivity to be considerably smaller than that calculated
from the velocities of migration of the ions which it contains. It is there-
fore evident that some more satisfactory method is necessary for the
determination of the true conductivity (,) of the salt in absence of
hydrolysis, if small percentages of hydrolysis are to be measured.

Bredig* extended Walker’s work in this direction. He determined
the true conductivities of such salts as aniline hydrochloride by a very
simple device. He added aniline to the solution, and in this way drove
back the hydrolysis to such an extent that he could arrive at the true
conductivity of the salt. In this way he determined the hydrolysis of
aniline hydrochloride and a number of its derivatives.

The converse method of reducing the hydrolysis to a minimum by

1 Zeitschr. fiir phys. Chem., 4, 333 (1889).
2 Ibid, 18,321 (1894).

DETERMINATION OF HYDROLYTIC DISSOCIATION OF SALT-SOLUTIONS. 249

excess of acid has deen tried, but, so far, without much success, The
method is probably capable of much better development.

The commonest method for the determination of this value p, is a
somewhat indirect one. It is a well-known fact that almost all salts
are fairly completely ionised in aqueous solution. Thus the molecular
conductivity is not very far removed from its limiting value, even at
moderately high concentrations, and hence does not rise very much when
we increase the dilution. It has been found empirically that the amount
by which the molecular conductivity of binary electrolytes increases
between any two given dilutions is nearly constant. The conductivity is
generally measured at dilutions ranging from 32 litres to 1024 litres. It
has been found that in the case of binary electrolytes which are not
hydrolysed the molecular ‘conductivity at these two dilutions differs by
approximately 10 units at .25°.

Hio2sH32= LO.

Thus the sodium salts of the fatty acids, being scarcely at all
hydrolysed, give differences which all approximate to 10 units. The
sodium salts of dibasic acids give a difference of about 20 units and so on.
In general, the difference, A, is given by

A= py 024— Hg2= 100 2.

where », and m, are the valencies of the two ions. With hydrolysed
salts we get a very different state of affairs. Here we find the differences
to be abnormally large, for the following reason. At the highest con-
centrations the hydrolysis will not come into play very much, and the
values found will approximate more or less to the true values. As we
increase the dilution, however, the hydrolysis increases more and more,
and at the highest dilution a considerable part of the conductivity found
will be due to free acid or base, and this will, therefore, as we have seen,
be greater than the true conductivity of the salt. Hence the difference A
will be greater than 10 units.

If, therefore, we find that the difference A is abnormally great, the
excess may be attributed to hydrolysis, and the extent of the hydrolysis
may be calculated by making use of the equation mentioned above :

M=(1—«)) +2pH01.

The method cannot be said to be very satisfactory unless the extent of
the hydrolysis is very large. Tirst, the measurement of the electric
conductivity at a dilution of 1024 litres does not permit of an accuracy
of within about 1 per cent.; and secondly, this value A is by no means so
constant even for salts which are not hydrolysed as might be desired. It
frequently shows deviations of 2 or 3 units, and so a hydrolysis of even
1 per cent. or so might pass unnoticed. We saw that the hydrolysis of
sodium acetate could be fairly accurately measured by the velocity of
saponification of ethyl acetate. In ,'; normal solution it amounts to 0:008
per cent. If we calculate what difference this would make to the conduc-
tivity, we find that the abnormality of the A value should be about 0:15
unit. It will be at once seen that anything approaching this accuracy is
out of the question by the electric method. Indeed, if we compare the
vaines actually found for sodium acetate by two such eminent

250 REPORT—1901.

investigators as Ostwald and Bredig, we find that Ostwald gives
1024—H39=10'1, whereas Bredig gives prj994—p32=12'9.

When the hydrolysis is greater, however, an approximate idea of it
can be gained in this way from the conductivity.

V.— Hydrolysis of the hydrochlorides of organic bases as determined from
their electric conductivity.

Temperature=25°,
Hydrolysis of Hydrochloride

Name of base. in =. solution.

10
Aniline . 6 c A ¢ - - - - 7 1h
o-Toluidine , . f ° 5 5 AD ie 15)
m-Toluidine . : : F . F 2 a3
p-Toluidine . . : . 0-9
Betain . 4 5 . . 5 = A 32'5

V1I.—Hydrolysis of inorganic salts (conductivity method).

Temperature=25°,

Hydrolysis
| N
Salt. in 10 solution.

AICI, é A : c ; A ' : F - os (Os
BeSO, . F 5 : - : 3 4 Fi en O03
PRCT : 4 * < 4 “ : “ oO
U0,(NO,). 4 : fs A 5 : 5 : - ORB
Hg(Cl0,), A F > 3 5 3 : : = #163

Much more might be added on the subject of electric conductivity as
applied to the determination of hydrolysis. Salts in which both the acid
and base are weak present quite a different aspect, but a discussion as to
their behaviour would lead us too far.

To return to the other methods of estimation, a recent method should
be mentioned which differs from those depending on catalysis. We
have seen that when a salt such as aniline hydrochloride undergoes
hydrolysis two products result, the hydrochloric acid, strongly ionised and
active, and the aniline, practically unionised and inactive. All the methods
that have been mentioned so far have depended on the measurement of
the strongly ionised component, either by its conductivity or by some
catalytic action which it brings about.

Under some conditions these determinations become difficult to
carry out owing to the decomposition or precipitation of one of the
reaction products or from other causes. In these cases it is better to
measure the indifferent component. The method that suggests itself most
readily is that of extraction with some solvent which is insoluble in
water. The laws of distribution of a substance between two solvents are
well known, and by making use of these the hydrolysis can be easily
calculated from the amount of substance which is extracted. The
method was tested recently by Farmer! in the following way. The salt is
dissolved in a known quantity of water and a known quantity of benzene
added. The whole is brought to constant temperature and shaken. The
amount of substance extracted by the benzene is then estimated, preferably

1 J.08., 79, 86 3(1901).

DETERMINATION OF HYDROLYTIC DISSOCIATION OF SALT-SOLUTIONS. 251

volumetrically, and from this the hydrolysis can be easily calculated if
the distribution coefficient for the substance in question has been
previously determined.

The values found at different dilutions agreed very closely with those
required by Arrhenius’ ‘dilution formula.’ So far the method has not
been applied much, but it seems to offer advantages over previous methods
in several respects. Particularly for solutions which decompose on stand-
ing, it seems almost the only available method. I[t remains to be seen
whether this method is capable of the same sensitiveness as that of Shields.
If so, it would have the advantage of greater simplicity and rapidity.

The foregoing are, then, the chief methods which have been used up to
the present for the determination of hydrolysis.

It will be evident from the abovementioned theory of hydrolytic
dissociation that the extent of the hydrolysis depends on the strength of
the weak acid or base present in the salts. The relation between the
strength of the acid or base and the hydrolysis of its salts can be
expressed by a simple mathematical formula.

The dissociation constant is, of course, determined by the elestric
conductivity. It is only recently, however, that the electric conductivity
of such weak acids has been determined with sufficient accuracy to confirm
the validity of this formula This was the work of Walker and Cormack.'
The hydrolysis of the alkali salts calculated from the dissociation constants
which they found for phenol and other weak acids agreed very closely
with that experimentally found by the saponification method. This forms
perhaps the most convincing proof of the soundness of Arrhenius’ views
as opposed to such theories as the one mentioned earlier, in which the
acidity was attributed to the formation of hydrates.

In this way, therefore, it would be possible to calculate the strengths
of acids and bases whose electric conductivity is immeasurably small by
determining the hydrolysis of their salts.

This, of course, rests on the assumption that no intramolecular
rearrangement takes place when salts are formed, which is not always the
case. In the case of various dye stuffs, for instance, where the salt forma-
tion is accompanied by a change of constitution, we should find that the
relation between the strength of the acid and the hydrolysis of its salts
did not hold. If the measurements are experimentally possible, such
intramolecular rearrangements may be detected in this way. This is a
method which has been applied by Hantzsch to prove differences of consti-
tution between certain acids and the salts that they form.

In several cases he found that although the acids were very weak
indeed, and should therefore give strongly hydrolysed sodium salts, yet
the sodium salts showed only a slight hydrolysis. In the case of
dinitroethane, for instance, he found that both the free dinitroethane and its
sodium salt reacted neutral, and from this he concluded that the salt forma-
tion was accompanied by a change of constitution from CH,.CH(NO,), to

NO, NO,
CH,.c¢é forming the salt CH, . O¢
\\wooH NNOONa

Fields of research like this offer inducements for the more accurate
determination of hydrolysis on the one hand and of the affinity constants
of very weak acids on the other.

1 J.08., 72, 5 (1900).

252 REPORT—1901.

It has been long recognised that the study of hydrolysis affords the
best means of estimating the strengths of very weak acids and bases.
Since the affinity constant of pure water is now known with considerable
certainty, exact measurements can be made in this way, even when the
free acids or bases are difficultly soluble in water. It would, for instance,
be possible to make exact determinations of the effect of substituents on
the strength of phenol and aniline. The influence of constitution on the
affinity constants of these very weak electrolytes would form an interesting
field for research.

The Relative Progress of the Coal-tar Industry in England and Ger-
many during the past Fifteen Years. By ARTHUR G. GREEN,
TH BA i lek OR .

[Ordered by the Council to be printed in extenso.]

Tae coal-tar colour manufacture has well been called the flower of
the chemical industries. Although in absolute money value of its pro-
ducts not equalling some other branches of industrial chemistry, it repre-
sents the highest development of applied chemical research and chemical
engineering, and may well be taken as the pulse of the whole chemical
trade. Indeed a country which allows the most scientific branch of
chemical industry to languish cannot expect to maintain pre-eminence
for long in any simpler branch of chemical manufacture ; since the skill
trained for attacking the difticult problems of organic chemistry is certain
sooner or later to be brought to bear on the simpler questions presented
in the manufacture of so-called ‘heavy’ chemicals (acids, alkalies, bleach,
salts, &c.), and processes hitherto often left to the supervision of foremen
will be taken in hand by educated chemists, with consequent improvement
in methods of manufacture, better yields, purer products, and cheaper
production. The importance of the coal-tar industry cannot therefore
be estimated alone by the value of its products, for it exerts a wide-
spread effect upon all other branches of chemical manufacture, from
many of which it draws its supplies of raw material. As a pregnant
example of this influence, especially noticeable during the last decade,
I may mention the revolution which is taking place in the manufacture
of sulphuric acid, that most important product of the ‘heavy’ chemical
trade. A strong demand had arisen in the colour industry for a large
and cheap supply of sulphuric anhydride, chiefly in connection with the
manufacture of alizarine colours and of artificial indigo. With the object
of satisfying their own requirements in this respect, the Badische Aniline
and Soda Works of Ludwigshafen devoted much time and research to the
problem of improving the catalytic process usually known by the name
of Winckler, a modification of which process had been worked in this
country by Squire Chapman and Messel since 1876. This endeavour was
attended with such success that by means of the process and plant which
they finally evolved they were enabled to produce sulphuric anhydride
so cheaply that not only could it be used as such for a large variety of
purposes, but by combination with water afforded a profitable source of
sulphuric acid. This new method of manufacturing sulphuric acid is, for
concentrated acid at least, cheaper than the chamber process ; and since
the product is absolutely free from arsenic, and can be produced at any
desired concentration, it seems likely to supplant eventually the time-
honoured method of manufacture.

THE COAL-TAR INDUSTRY IN ENGLAND AND GERMANY. 253

Besides exerting this influence upon the inorganic chemical manufac-
tures, the coal-tar industry has given birth during recent years to several
important daughter industries. The manufacture of synthetic medicinal
agents, artificial perfumes, sweetening materials, antitoxines, nutritives,
and photographic developers are all outgrowths of the coal-tar industry,
and in great part still remain attached to the colour works where they
originated. Of these subsidiary industries the most important is the
manufacture of synthetic medicinal preparations, which has already
attained to large proportions, and bids fair to revolutionise medical
science. The requirements of the coal-tar industry have further led to
great advances in the design and production of chemical plant, such as
filter-presses, autoclaves, fractionating columns, vacuum pumps and
stills, suction filters, enamelled iron, aluminium, and stoneware vessels, &c.,
for the supply of which extensive works have become necessary.

It is a frequently quoted remark of the late Lord Beaconsfield that
the chemical trade of a country is a barometer of its prosperity, and the
chemical trade of this country has always been regarded as a most important
branch of our manufactures. Even those who might be inclined to regard
our declining position in the colour industry with more or less indifference
would consider the loss of a material portion of our general chemical trade
as nothing less than a national calamity. As already pointed out, how-
ever, the two are indissolubly connected, the coal-tar industry being an
essential and inseparable part of the chemical industry as a whole. It is
with the object of ascertaining our present and future prospects in the
chemical trade of the world that I propose to compare the relative
development of the colour industry in England and Germany during the
past fifteen years. It was at the commencement of this period, that is
to say in the year 1886, that Professor Meldola, in a paper read before
the Society of Arts, gave such a masterly account of the position of the
industry of this country at that date, and sounded a warning note to our
manufacturers and business men regarding its future progress.

If an excuse is required for my venturing to refer again to a subject
apon which so much has been said and written already, it is supplied by
the fact that the warnings repeatedly given by those who saw the future
clearly (notably by Professor Meldola and Professor Armstrong) have
vemained largely unheeded by our business men. The conclusions which
are forced upon us are unfortunately not of a reassuring nature for our
national trade, but it is well to remember that nothing is gained by
burying our heads in the sand, and that the cure of a disease can only be
effected after an accurate diagnosis of its cause.

The period which we have to consider ha; been one of extraordinary
activity and remarkable development in the coal-tar industry, and before
I pass to the economic aspect of the question I shall ask you to consider
very superficially some of the main points in this advance. In no other
industry than this have such extraordinarily rapid changes and gigantic
developments taken place in so short a period, developments in which the
scientific elucidation of abstract problems has gone hand in hand with
inventive capacity, manufacturing skill, and commercial enterprise. In
no other industry has the close and intimate interrelation of science and
practice been more clearly demonstrated.

Born in 1858 the colour industry had already attained to a consider-
ablestate of development by the year 1886. The period prior to this
might well be called the ‘rosaniline period,’ since it is chiefly marked by

254 REPORT—1901.

the discovery and development of colouring matters of the rosaniline or
triphenylmethane group, such as Magenta, Aniline Blue, Hofmann
Violet, Methyl Violet, Acid Magenta, Acid Violets, Phosphine, Victoria
Blues, Auramine, Malachite Green, and Acid Greens. Individual
members of other groups had already been discovered, but the latter had
not yet attained to the importance which they were destined later to
occupy. This is especially the case with the class of colouring matters
containing the double nitrogen radical known as ‘azo’ colours. This
group of compounds has, during the fifteen years which we have to con-
sider, attained to such enormous dimensions and importance that this
‘interval may fairly be termed the ‘azo period.’ The number of individual
compounds belonging to this class, which have either been prepared or are
at present preparable, runs into many millions and far exceeds the
members of all other groups of colouring matters put together. In com-
mercial importance also they occupy a position at present far in advance
of any other group, the employment of some of them (e.g., the ‘azo’ blacks)
amounting to many thousands of tons annually. A great stimulus to the
investigation of the azo compounds was given by tle discovery by
Bottiger in 1884 of the first colour possessing a direct affinity for cotton
(Congo Red), which was followed within a few years by a rapidly
increasing series of colours of all shades having similar dyeing properties.
The azo colours known prior to this time were either basic colours
(Aniline Yellow, Chrysoidine, Bismarck Brown, &c.) or acid wool colours
(Xylidine Scarlet, Croceine Scarlet, c.). The great simplification of
cotton dyeing brought about by the introduction of the new group of azo
colours—‘ Benzo’ or ‘ Diamine’ colours as they were called—led to a
rapid increase of their number, and compounds containing two, three,
four, or more double-nitrogen groups, linking together the residues of
various paradiamines (benzidine, tolidine, dianisidine, azoxytoluidine,
paraphenylenediamine, naphthylenediamine, &c.) to various naphthol.-,
amidonapbthol-, and naphthylamine sulphonic acids made their appear-
ance in quick succession. Simultaneously therewith proceeded the dis-
covery and investigation of the various isomeric derivatives of naphthalene
required as raw products for the preparation of these colours, an investiga-
tion which was largely aided by the classical research on the isomerism
of naphthalene compounds carried out in this country by Armstrong and
Wynne.

Another method of applying azo colours to cotton, by which much faster
shades are obtained, was introduced by Messrs. Read Holliday, of
Huddersfield, in 1880, and consisted in producing unsulphonated azo
compounds on the fibre by direct combination. Owing to the technical
ditiiculties which were at first encountered in applying this process it has
only reached its full development during the last few years and at other
hands than those of its discoverers. The most important colour produced
by this method is Paranitraniline Red, for which over two hundred tons
ot chemically pure paranitraniline are manufactured annually.

The search for direct cotton colours led the author in 1887 to the
discovery of Primuline. This compound, having a direct affinity for
cotton and containing at the same time a diazotisable amido group, could
be used for the synthesis of various azo colours on the fibre which were
remarkable for great fastness to washing. It has had a large employment
for the production of fast reds, and the new principle of dyeing which it
introduced has been considerably extended in other so-called ‘diazo’

~

THE COAL-TAR INDUSTRY IN ENGLAND AND GERMANY. 255

colours. The closer investigation of the thiazol group, to which primuline
belongs, further led to the discovery of many other cotton colours
belonging to this family, amongst the most impor tant of which are the
brilliant greenish-yellow called ‘Turmerine’ or ‘Clayton Yellow,’ the
light-fast ‘ Chlorophenine ’ or ‘Chloramine Yellow,’ the pure greenish
basic yellow ‘ Thioflavine,’ and the fast cotton pink ‘ Erica.’

Passing over the stilbene azo colours and the basic azo ammonium or
‘Janus’ colours there remains a class of azo compounds to which I must
shortly refer, namely, the mordant azo colours, which with the growing
demand for faster shades have recently come into much prominence. In
these compounds the presence of an ortho hydroxyl or carboxyl group
gives to the colour the property (following Liebermann and v. Kosta-
necki’s rule) of combining with metallic mordants, especially chromium
oxide, and producing therewith insoluble and fast lakes on the wool or
cotton fibre.

We now come to the consideration of three analogously constituted
groups of colouring matters, namely, the azines, oxazines, and thiazines.
The laborious scientific investigations of Fischer and Hepp, Bernthsen,
Kehrmann, and others on the constitution of these groups of compounds,
the first members of which (Methylene Blue, Saffranine, and Meldola’s
Blue) were discovered in a very early stage of the industry when little
or nothing was known of their structure, combined with the theoretical
views on the quinonoid structure of such colouring matters promulgated
by Armstrong and adopted by Nietzki, led to the discovery of many
valuable new members of these classes. Amongst the latter may be
specially mentioned the Rosindulines, Indoine Blue, Induline Scarlet,
Rhodulines, &e.

Passing to the pyrone and acridine groups in which much investiga-
tion has also been conducted, the most notable advances have been the
discovery of the ‘ Rhodamines,’ a class of pure basic reds, and of the basic
yellows and oranges allied to Phosphine, namely Acridine Yellow, Benzo-
flavine, and Acridine Orange.

Tt is in the alizarine group next to the azo group that the greatest
progress must be recorded. The demand for fast colours for calico
printing and for dyeing chrome-mordanted wool to withstand severe
‘milling’ operations has led to a long series of investigations and patents
for producing new derivatives of anthraquinone. These new products,
known in commerce as ‘Alizarine Bordeaux,’ ‘ Alizarine Cyanines,’
‘ Anthracene Blues,’ ‘ Alizarine Viridine,’ ‘ Alizarine Saphirol,’ &c., are
polyoxy- or amidooxy-anthraquinones, for the preparation of which
either alizarine or nitroanthraquinones are the usual starting points.

Passing over some smaller groups, we now come to a very peculiar
class of dyestuffs containing sulphur, which, although discovered by
Croissant and Brettoniére in 1873, remained confined to a single repre-
sentative—‘ Cachou de Laval ’—until Raymond Vidal in 1893 obtained a
very fast black colouring matter, which dyed unmordanted cotton, by
heating paraamidophenol with sulphur and sodium sulphide. The
possibility of replacing Aniline Black in cotton dyeing by a direct
colouring matter, and possibly also of obtaining other shades which, though
dyed in a single bath, would resist subsequent -“cross dyeing’ of the
wool in ‘mixed fabrics, lent an immense impulse to the study of this class
of colouring matters ; and although their molecular structure still remains
wrapped in obsoutrity, many new representatives have followed each

256 REPORT—1901.

other in rapid succession, ranging in shade from blacks of various hues to
browns, olives, greens, and blues. As the most important of these I
may mention Vidal Black, Immedial Black, Katechine Black, Immedial
Blues, Pyrogene Blues, Katechine Brown, Katechine Green, &c.

It may fairly be claimed, however, that the greatest triumph of the
coal-tar industry for the past fifteen years has been the successful
production of artificial indigo on a large manufacturing scale.

Returning from the scientific to the economic aspect of the subject,
I shall ask you now to consider what share we have obtained in the
great expansion of trade resulting from all these new discoveries, many
of which have originated in this country. The development of the
industry in Germany is well illustrated by the following figures :—

Exports from Germany to the World.

| pc eatpasie? ((c!\’ feast Oc. | mieieragort ass!

| | Tons. | Tous. Tons. !

| Aniline Oil and Salt 4 . 5 oat 1,713 7,135 —
Coal-tar Colours (excl. alizarine) . - | 4,646 15,789 | 17,639

| Alizarine Colours . ; : : yal 4,284 8,927

Again, if we take values, we find that total exports of coal-tar
colours from Germany amounted in 1894 to 2,600,000/., and in 1898 to
3,500,000/., an increase of nearly a million in four years. The latter
figure is practically the same as that given hy Perkin as an estimate of
the world’s total production in 1885, showing how great the increase has
been since this date.

The value of Germany’s entire production is somewhat difficult to
arrive at. Witt, in his report on the German chemical exhibit at the
Paris Exhibition, gives as the value of the total chemical industry of
Germany for the year 1897 the enormous sum of 465 million pounds
sterling. Of this sum Lefevre estimates that at least one tenth may be
put down to colouring matters, and another tenth to raw, intermediate,
and synthetic products from coal tar other than colours, and he thus
assigns for the total annual value of the coal-tar industry of Germany the
sum of nine to ten million pounds sterling. With the increase in the
production of synthetic indigo, it may be taken to-day to considerably
exceed this figure.

One may well wonder what becomes of this enormous quantity of
coal-tar products. According to the United States consular reports the
34, million pounds’ worth of coal-tar colours exported by Germany in
1898 were consumed as follows :—

~~

The United States took 50,0002. worth.

The Unired Kingdom took 730,0007.

Austria and Hungary A , 350,0002 :
Italy Shise j F 225.0001.) 5;
China 3 270,0007. ,,

whilst the rest of the world took the remainder.

The great increase in production in Germany is further shown by the
growth in the capital and number of workpeople employed. Thus
according to a report of the Badische Works, recently issued, the capital

THE COAL-TAR INDUSTRY IN ENGLAND AND GERMANY, 257

of this company, which was increased in 1889 from 900,000/. to 1,050,000/.,
will be further augmented this year by the issue of 750,000/. of
debentures. The number of workpeople employed by this company in
1900 was 6,465, as against 4,800 in 1896, an increase of over 33 per cent.
in four years. The firm of Leopold Cassella & Co., of Mainkur, near
Frankfurt, have increased the number of their workpeople from 545 in
1890 to 1,800 in 1900.

Passing now to England we find that the imports of coal-tar colours
into the country are steadily rising, as is shown by the following figures
taken from the Board of Trade returns :—

Imports of Coal-tar Dye-stuffs into England during the last Fifteen Years
(excluding Indigo).

1886. 5 . £509,750 | 1894 . ° . £599,000
1887 . : 642,000 | 1895 . A : 710,000
1888 . ; ‘ 569,000 | 1896 . . 739,300
1889 . . . 609,200 | 1897 . . 695,400
1890 . . : 594,400 | 1898 . : . 739,000
1891 . 5 5 586,300 | 1899 . : . 708,800
1892 . . . 542,200 | 1900 . ° A 720,000
1893 . . . 504,000

Contrasted with this the exports of coal-tar colours manufactured in
England have fallen from 530,000/. in 1890 to 366,500/. in 1899. Comparing
these figures with the rapidly increasing export. trade of Germany, it is
seen that whereas formerly the English export trade in artificial colours
was about one quarter that of Germany, it does not now amount to a
tenth part. It is therefore only too apparent that we have had but little
share in the great increase which this industry has experienced during
the past fifteen years, and that we have not even been able to supply the
expansion in our own requirements. In order to ascertain what propor-
tion of our own needs we at present furnish, I am able to lay before you
the following interesting figures, which have been kindly supplied me by
the Bradford Dyers’ Association and the British Cotton and Wool Dyers’
Association, who together form a very large proportion of the entire
dyeing trade :—

Colouring Matters used by Bradford Dyers’ Association.

English, 10 per cent.; German, 80 per cent. ; Swiss, 6 per cent. ;
French, 4 per cent.

Colouring Matters used by British Cotton and Wool Dyers’ Association.

Aniline Colours,—English, 22 per cent. ; foreign, 78 per cent.
Alizarine Colowrs.—English, 1°65 per cent. ; foreign, 98°35 per cent.

The Lnglish Sewing Cotton Company have also very kindly supplied
me with a detailed analysis of their consumption, from which it appears
that out of a total of sixty tons of colouring matters and other dyeing
materials derived from coal tar only 9 per cent. were of English manufac-
ture.

The table of statistics, on the next page, of the six largest German
firms gives a fair picture of the present dimensions of the industry in
that country.

The joint capital of these six firms amounts to at least 24 millions,

1901. s

958 REPORT—1901.

They employ together about 500 chemists, 350 engineers and other
technologists, 1,360 business managers, clerks, travellers, &c., and over
18,000 workpeople. Compared with such figures as these the English
colour manufacture assumes insignificant proportions. The total capital
invested in the coal-tar colour trade in England probably does not exceed
500,000/., the total number of chemists employed cannot be more than
thirty or forty, and the number of workmen engaged in the manufacture
does not amount to over a thousand.

Position of the Six Largest Colour Works in Germany in Year 1900.

|
|2 a ae an Farben- A“ Farbwerk Total
| Badisthe | Meister, | gpriken | Berlin Cassella | Miihlheim,| of six
ri |, Aniline | neins and) paver eoline and Co. | Leonhardt largest
|| SWorks Bs mag and Co. Oo. , ‘ and Co. firms
Capital . £1,050,000 | £833,000 | £882,000 | £441,000 Private £157,000 About
| ; concern £2,500,000
Number of 148 120 ale ty) 55 ; About
Chemists | 500
Number of | 75 36 175 31 F : . About
engineers, | , 60° 350
dyers, and
other ¢
technol o - 450
gists
Commer- 305 211 500 150 170 About
cial staff 1,360
Work- 6,485 3,555 4,200 1,800 1,800 About
people 18,260
sole |
Dividends | 24 per cent, 26 per cent, | 18 per cent. | 123 per cent.| Not known | 9 per cent. | —
in 1897
Dividen ds ” ” » 9» » 9» 15 ” ” ” 3 ” oz
in 1898
Divide nds ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 5 ” cr
in 1899
Dividends » 29 20 per cent. tae PE ? 55 a nil _
in 1900

A similar relative proportion is maintained in the number of patents
for new colouring matters and other coal-tar products taken by the English
and German firms, as is shown by the following table :—

Comparison of Number of Completed English Patents for Coal-tar Products
taken during 1886-1900 by Six Largest English and Six Largest German
Firms.

German Firms | English Firms
Badische Aniline Works - 179 | Brooke, Simpson, & Spiller . “fi
Meister, Lucius, & Briining . . 231 | Clayton Aniline Co.. - 5 aera!
Farbfabriken Bayer & Co. . - 806 | Levinstein 5 : - " Peale
Berlin Aniline Co. . - 5 - 119 | Read, Holliday,&Co. . 2 ee
L. Cassella & Co. . - : . 75 | Claus & Reé . - ; ; sk ng
Farbwerk Miihlheim, Leonhardt W.G. Thompson . - “ 4.) ee
&Co. . - 4 : : oy BSH]
Total of six German firms - 945 Total of six English firms. . 86

Nor does the potential loss which we have sustained by our inability
to take advantage of a growing industry represent the sum total of our
losses. The new colouring matters, made almost exclusively in Germany,
have in many cases been introduced as substitutes for natural products
which were staple articles of English commerce. Madder and cochineal
have been replaced by alizarine and azo scarlets, the employment of many

a

THE COAL-TAR INDUSTRY IN ENGLAND AND GERMANY. 259

dyewoods has greatly decreased, whilst at the present moment logwood
and indigo are seriously threatened. Regarding the indigo question so
much has been written that I do not propose to occupy space in its further
discussion, but will only point out that the complete capture of the indigo
market by the synthetic product, which would mean a loss to our Indian
dependencies of 3,000,000/. a year, is regarded by the Badische Company as
so absolutely certain that, having already invested nearly a million pounds
in the enterprise, they are at present issuing 750,000/. of new debenture
capital to provide funds to extend their plant for this purpose! In the
last annual report of the company they say: ‘As regards plant indigo,
the directors are prepared and determined to meet this competition in all
its possible variations in value. Much strange matter has been published
in India as to improvements in the cultivation and preparation of natural
indigo, but the illusions of the planters and indigo dealers are destined to
be dispelled before facts, which, although they are not known to them,
will make themselves more felt the larger the production of artificial
indigo becomes.’

Besides the loss of material wealth which the neglect of the coal-tar
trade has involved to the country, there is yet another aspect of the ques-
tion which is even of more importance than the commercial one. There
can be no question that the growth in Germany of a highly scientific
industry of large and far-reaching proportions has had an enormous effect
in encouraging and stimulating scientific culture and scientific research in
all branches of knowledge. It has reacted with beneficial effect upon the
universities, and has tended to promote scientific thought throughout the
land. By its demonstration of the practical importance of purely theo-
retical conceptions it has had a far-reaching effect on the intellectual life of
the nation. How much such a scientific revival is wanted in our country
the social and economic history of the past ten years abundantly testifies.

The position with which we are confronted is in truth a lamentable
one, and the way out is not so easy to find. In 1886 it could perhaps
still be maintained that we held the key to the situation if we chose to
make use of it, inasmuch as the principal raw products of the colour
inanufacture (tar oils, naphthalene, anthracene, soda, ammonia, iron, &c.)
were in great measure imported from England. In a speech to the
Academy of Sciences of Munich in 1878 Professor von Baeyer had said :
‘Germany, which in comparison with England and France possesses such
great disadvantages in reference to natural resources, has succeeded by
means of her intellectual activity in wresting from both countries a source
of national wealth. Germany has no longer to pay any tribute to foreign
nations, but is now receiving such tribute from them, and the primary
source from which this wealth originates has its home, not in Germany,
but in England. It is one of the most singular phenomena in the domain
of industrial chemistry that the chief industrial nation and the most
practical people in the world has been beaten in the endeavour to turn to
profitable account the coal tar which it possesses. We must not, how-
ever, rest upon our oars, for we may be sure that England, which at pre-
sent looks on quietly while we purchase her tar and convert it into colours,
selling them to foreign nations at high prices, will unhesitatingly cut off
the source of supply as soon as all technical difficulties have been sur-
mounted by the exertions of German manufacturers.’! Professor von

1 Quoted by Mr. Levinstein, Jou, Sc. Chem. Ind,. 1886, p, 350.
82

260 REPORT—1901.

Baeyer could not believe that the English manufacturer and capitalist
would stand calmly by and see an important industry which had _ had its
origin and early development in his own country taken from beneath his
nose without an effort to retain it. Yet the initial advantages which our
natural resources afforded us have been neglected, and now in 1901 the
conditions are completely changed. The adaptation of condensing plant to
the Westphalian coke ovens has rendered Germany, though still a large
buyer from England, no longer dependent on English tarand ammonia ; by
the development of the ammonia-soda process she no longer requires English
alkali ; whilst all other raw products of the colour industry can now be
purchased in the commercial centres of Germany at least as cheaply as in
England, and some even at lower prices. Through the shortsightedness,
ignorance, and want of enterprise of those with whom the care of the
colour industry in this country has rested the opportunity has been
allowed to passfor ever. The English capitalist has passed over as not
sufficiently profitable for his consideration an industry which at present
amounts to nine or ten million sterling annually, and from which his
German confrére reaps a dividend of nearly 20 per cent. The English
manufacturer has considered that a knowledge of the benzol market
was of greater importance than a knowledge of the benzol theory, and
after the early but brilliant days in the infancy of the industry
when guided by such eminent workers as Hofmann, Perkin, and
Nicholson, commercial progress and scientific investigation went
hand in hand, but little encouragement has been given here to
chemical investigators and discoverers. The control of the in-
dustry unfortunately soon passed into the hands of men who had no
knowledge and absolutely no appreciation of the science upon which
their business rested, and, concerned only with getting the ultimate
amount of present profit, discouraged all scientific investigations as waste
of time and money. The chemist who devoted himself to the elucidation
of the chemical constitution of a colouring matter was regarded by them
as an unpractical theorist of no value to a manfacturing business. Even
when he discovered new colouring matters of commercial value they were
so blind to their own interests, and so incapable of believing that any
practical good could come out of such theoretical work, that in many cases
they refused to patent or in any way take advantage of the discoveries
made by him. During recent years this attitude has certainly undergone
considerable moditication, and some attempt has been made to call in the
aid of the science so long neglected. Certain firms indeed must be given
the credit of endeavouring to pursue a more enlightened policy, but these
attempts have been of a more or less sporadic nature and always directed
too much in the expectation of realising immediate financial results. The
difficulties which must be encountered in the attempt to regain the lost
ground are of necessity very great, and are quite unappreciated by our
business men. It seems in fact to have been the opinion of the public
and the average financial man that this industry ought to be easily won
back by us by the establishment of a few technical schools, the engage-
ment of a dozen chemists, and the investment of a few thousand pounds
in new plant, forgetting that the supremacy of our German competitors
has been gained by years of patient toil, by the work of hundreds of
trained chemists, and by the outlay of millions of capital. Who can be
surprised therefore if such expectations have not been realised, and if in
spite of some notable successes the general position of the colour trade

THE COAL-TAR INDUSTRY IN ENGLAND AND GERMANY. 261

in England at the present day, at a time when even the German trade is
suffering from the general depression, looks worse than at any previous
period? During years of stagnation in this country the German manu-
facturers have been realising large profits, which they have employed in
consolidating their businesses, writing off the value of their buildings and
plant, and accumulating enormous reserves (the reserve of the Badische
Company is over a million pounds): they have gathered round them
perfectly working organisations, comprising enormous staffs of scientifically
and practically trained research chemists, factory chemists with highly
specialised knowledge, chemical engineers, dyers, and others; their
travellers and agents are in every part of the globe ; by long manufactur-
ing experience and unremitting endeavour to improve their processes and
plant they have brought the yields and quality of their products to such
a state of perfection that even when the manufacture of these products
is no longer covered by patents they are able to produce them at a cost
price which is impossible to anyone commencing their manufacture ;
they have hedged themselves about with a perfect stockade of many
hundreds of patents, have accumulated in their laboratories thousands
of intermediate products ready at any time to be subjected to any new
treatment or combination which research or theory may suggest as
likely to yield new results. By the complete range of colours which
they are able to offer in each group of dyestufis, whether basic colours,
acid colours for wool, fast colours dyeing on metallic mordants, diazotis-
able colours, or direct colours for cotton, and by the invaluable aid and
assistance which they can give the dyer in his daily work, they are
enabled to retain his custom even if it sometimes happens that a better
and a cheaper article is offered him by the home producer.

Where, then, are we to look for an improvement ? Some would find
a remedy in the imposition of heavy protective tariffs ; but such tariffs in
France have not availed to prevent a similar state of things there, and
protection in colouring matters might have a very detrimental effect upon
the textile industries of the country. Others expect salvation from the
extension of technical schools ; but laudable as is the aim of these institu-
tions, I cannot see how they can effect much until their raw material is of
a very different character from what it is at present, and until the public
can be completely disabused of the fallacy that a year or two of technical
training pumped into an ignorant schoolboy will produce a better works
chemist than a university course of scientific study laid upon the founda-
tion of a good general education. Mr. Levinstein again bases his hopes
for the future upon a reform of the patent laws, and seeks to compel all
patented processes to be worked in this country. Although I am inclined
to believe that a portion of our present troubles have been brought about
by a bad patent law, framed mainly from an engineering and not from a
chemical point of view, which seems specially designed to foster foreign
trade at our own expense, yet I cannot attribute to this cause a too
preponderating influence, and am doubtful whether its removal now
would materially improve the position. The remedy for the present state
of affairs must of necessity be a slow one, and in my opinion can only be
found in a better appreciation of the value of science throughout the
length and breadth of the land.. Until our Government and public men
can be brought to realise the importance of fostering the study of science
and of encouraging all scientific industries, until our schools and universi-
ties appreciate the importance of a scientific education, until the rewards

262 REPORT—1901.

for public services in science are made equal to those in other branches
of the public service, so long will science continue to be held in insuf-
ficient esteem in our country, and the best and most promising of our
rising young men will be deterred from adopting chemistry as a profes-
sion. It is not so much the education of our chemists which is at fault
as the scientific education of the public as a whole.

The Application of the Equilibrium Law to the Separation of Crystals
from Complex Solutions and to the Formation of Oceanic Salt
Deposits, By Dr. EK, FRANKLAND ARMSTRONG.

[Ordered by the Council to be printed in extenso. |

Tue celebrated deposits of Stassfurt consist, it is well known, of an
immense thickness of Rock salt, interspersed at fairly regular intervals
with narrow bands of anhydrous Calcium sulphate capped with beds rich
in Magnesium and Potassium salts. That such salt deposits are of marine
origin is obvious ; but as their amount is much greater than could have
been derived from the evaporation of the body of water present on the
area over which they are distributed, even supposing its depth to have
been that of the very deepest oceans yet known, a constant flowing in of
water containing salts during the period of evaporation must be assumed
to have taken place. As will be obvious later on, the presence of alternate
bands of Anhydrite and Rock salt throughout the deposits affords further
proof that such an inflow must regularly have taken place.

Roughly, the deposits may be divided into the following four regions :

1. Anhydrite (CaSO,).

2. Polyhalite (2CaSO,.MgSO,.K,80,.2H,O), about 60 metres thick.
3. Kieserite (MgSO,.H,O), about 30 metres.

4. Carnallite (MgCl,.KCl.6H,O), about 23 metres.

The presence in these deposits of salts such as Anhydrite and Kieserite,
which are not those normally deposited from simple aqueous solutions, is
in itself proof that the character of the separation is affected by the con-
ditions—.e. the presence of other salts. The problem has been to deter-
mine the exact conditions which would give rise to such deposits. But
the consideration of the separation of the salts from sea-water is merely a
special and somewhat complex case of the more general problem involved
in the study of the separation of crystalline deposits from solution,
whether in the ordinary solvents familiar to the chemist or in solvents
such as are fused metals and silicates.

The work hitherto done in this field has been conducted entirely by
van’t Hoff and his pupils, and has already been carried so far that it is
possible almost completely to interpret the geological phenomena afforded
by the Stassfurt deposits.

The results fall under what is commonly termed the Phase rule of
Willard Gibbs. No difficulty can arise in understanding them when
graphic methods are used.

It is before all things essential to bear in mind, in the first place, that
a solution can only be spoken of as satwrated with a given substance when
the substance is present in the solid state in contact with the solution.
Thus, for equilibrium to exist in the case of Sodium sulphate it is necessary
to have the salt in solution together with the undissolved substance. The
phase rule is but an expression of the fact that, in the case of solutions in

APPLICATION OF EQUILIBRIUM LAW TO SEPARATION OF CRYSTALS. 263

volatile solvents, equilibrium—i.c. saturation—is attained at a particular
pressure at a particular temperature, and vice versd, when n substances
are present in +1 states or phases separable as such, each such state
being termed technically a phase.' It is necessary to make this distinc-
tion in order to guard against the application of the term ‘phase’ to the
radicles of salts. The whole investigation may therefore be considered
independently of the modern hypothesis of solution, solely on the basis of
facts.

The real difficulty that occurs in practice is to know what are the
possible phases—in other words, to determine the nature of the double
salts or distinct hydrates that may be formed. In the case of saturated
solutions of non-volatile solids in a volatile solvent, as vapour of the
solvent is always present, the solvent occurs in two phases, and therefore
the condition under which equilibrium—1.c. saturation—is determined is
that n—1 solids exist in contact with the liquid. As the presence of
these solids determines the equilibrium, they may very properly be spoken
of as eyuilibrators, and this term may be used as the equivalent of the
somewhat inexpressive German phrase ‘ Bodenkérper.’

The cases to be considered are the following :-—

Case I.—Solutions saturated with a single salt.

In these two constituents (salt and water) are present in three phases—
the gaseous phase, one liquid phase, and one solid phase—and as a rule
only one solid equilibrator can act ata time ; but as not only the anhydrous
substance, but also its various hydrates, may equally serve as equilibrators
when hydrates are formed, two equilibrators—either the anhydrous sub-
stance and its hydrate, or two of its hydrates if there be more than one
possible—may act simultaneously at some particular pressure and tem-
perature, usually called the transition point. Obviously this complication
arises from a variation in the behaviour of the substance relatively to the
solvent as the external conditions are modified. As hydrates only differ
in the number of solvent molecules they contain, they are to be regarded
as but one substance, the molecules of the solvent attached to them being
left out of account. In any case, the presence in the solid state as equi-
librator of the particular compound or compounds with which the solution
is to be saturated is always the essential factor.

To give an example : in the case of Sodium sulphate, the monohydrate
and decahydrate coexist in equilibrium with the solution at 32°°65 under
the corresponding vapour pressure ; but it follows from the above that at
any other temperature only one at a time of the hydrates can be in
equilibrium with the solution, inasmuch as a single substance cannot, as
a rule, give rise to a solution saturated with reference to two such equili-
brators, the existence of two such compounds, except at the transition
point, being only possible in presence of a second salt : this serving, in fact,
to condition the change in hydration.

Case Il.—Solutions saturated with two salts which possess similar basic
or acid radicles, e.g., NaCl, KCl.

1 1t must, however, be noted that if there be either » or fewer phases present,
equilibrium is possible under every set of conditions compatible with the existence
of the phases considered. For example, in the case of an unsaturated solution of
Sodium chloride in presence of its vapour, no solid phase being present, the vapour
pressure of the solution at each temperature is different at different concentrations :
and therefore a solution and its vapour may be in equilibrium at any pressure within
the possible limits at each particular temperature, are

264. REPORT—1901.

In these three constituents are present in four phases, and two solid
equilibrators are necessary, ¢.g., N aCl and KCl. But it must be carefully
borne in mind that when a double salt can be formed there are two
possible cases of equilibrium—viz., that in which the double salt and one of
the single salts and that in which the double salt and the other single
salt are in contact with the liquid.

Similarly, when one of the salts gives rise to two or more hydrates,
there are several possible cases of equilibrium, though in this case also the
presence of but two equilibrators at a time is possible, as a rule. More-
over, two hydrates of the same substance may act simultaneously as
equilibrators, even under conditions other than those obtaining at the
transition points, as another substance is present. A case of this kind is
afforded by the formation of solutions saturated with the two hydrates of
Magnesium sulphate in presence of Magnesium chloride.

Case IIT.—Solutions saturated with two salts, whose basic and acidic
radicles are different and which therefore can interact.

Magnesium sulphate and Potassium chloride may be quoted in illus-
tration of this case. In solution these interact in the manner expressed
by the equation

K,Cl,+Mg80, 2 K,S0,+MeCl,,

one or other couple being stable, according to the conditions ; such pairs
of salts are therefore conveniently spoken of as reciprocal salt pairs.

A solution of two such salts may be supposed to consist of jfow sub-
stances—the solvent and three of the four possible salts—in five phases
and not of five substances in six phases as the rule would seem to require.
The fourth salt being always obtainable from the other three, from the
standpoint of the phase rule the four salts are derivable from only three
substances: thus the stable pair at a certain temperature being, let us
say, K,Cl,-+MgS0,, these will exist together with either K,SO, or MgCl,
but not with both, as the two cannot be together without interacting to
form the stable pair.

Although in the case of a reciprocal salt pair only three equilibrators
are essential to secure saturation, and this is the maximum number that
can act simultaneously, except at a transition point, the number of com-
binations of three which are possible may be considerable. In the case of
KCl and MgSO,, which can give rise not only to K,SO, and MgCl,, but
also to various double salts and hydrates, experience indicates that (at
temperatures about 25°) in all seven substances may be formed—viz.,
KCl, K,SO,, MgCl,.6H,O, MgS0O,.7H,O, MgSO,.6H,0O, Schénite
(K,S0,. MgSO, 6H, 20). and Carnallite (MgCl. KCl. 6H,0). ‘As each of
these should serve as an equilibrator, and there are mathematically thirty-
five ways of combining three out of seven substances, the problem at first
seems very complicated. In practice, however, it is found that, for example,
K,SO, and MgSO, cannot exist together, but always form the double salt
Schénite ; and that in a similar manner MgCl, and KCl give rise to
Carnallite, so that finally the number of possible sets of three equilibrators
is reduced by experiment to five. In the case of a mixture of KNO,,
NaNO, KCl, and NaCl, as neither double salts nor hydrates are formed,
the conditions are simplified, and only four sets of three equilibrators can
be chosen. In practice the determination of the number of forms stable
under the conditions of experiment often gives rise to considerable diffi-
culty ; and it must not be forgotten that the problem can only be solved

APPLICATION OF EQUILIBRIUM LAW TO SEPARATION OF CRYSTALS, 265

experimentally, the phase rule itself giving no assistance in this part of
the inquiry: in fact, the only purpose it serves is to limit the number
of the equilibrators.

Cass [V.—AIl cases in which other salts are added to a reciprocal
salt pair resolve themselves into the general case of « substances occur-
ring in «+1 phases, and therefore requiring x—1 equilibrators. The
number of substances which can act as equilibrators may be very large,
and of course can only be ascertained by experiment: when their
number is determined the various ways of associating them, taken «—1]
at atime, are readily deduced. Experiment is then again required to
eliminate those which are incompatible. In special cases a simplifica-
tion may be introduced by taking one or more salts as always present
among the equilibrators. Thus, in the case of sea water, Sodium
chloride and Calcium sulphate are always taken as two of the equilibrators.

Experimental Methods.

The data required in drawing diagrams to represent the composition
of saturated solutions and the order in which salts are deposited from
them are arrived at by means of determinations of solubility. As a
knowledge of the character of the substances which can exist separately
is essential, a preliminary investigation must often be carried out to
determine the conditions under which given double salts or hydrates are
stable, or the synthesis of such compounds may have to be effected for
the first time. A variety of methods are made use of in this part of the
inquiry, the determination of volume-change by means of the dilatometer,
and of vapour-pressure by means of the tensimeter, being of special
importance in establishing transition points.

The precautions to be observed in determining solubilities are often
insufficiently appreciated. The exact method followed in van’t Hoff’s
laboratory may therefore be described.

The determinations have hitherto been made at 25°, this temperature
being both easy to reach in the laboratory and to maintain constant,
whilst probably not so very far removed from that which may have
prevailed at the time the Stassfurt deposits were laid down.

A large water-bath is used as thermo-regulator, its temperature being
kept constant by means of a modified Ostwald Calcium chloride regulator,
whilst for smaller baths a regulator on the same principle filled with
toluene is used. It is essential to use weighed quantities of everything,
so that the approximate composition of the solution may be ascertained
by calculation at any moment.

The determinations are made in a large test tube, about 3 cm.
broad and 30 cm. long, immersed as deeply as possible in the bath.
The contents are kept in violent agitation by means of a screw-shaped
glass stirrer passing though a piece of glass tubing inserted in the
tightly fitting stopper of the test tube : this stirrer is actuated by a small
motor. If the tube be selected so that the rod of the stirrer just fits it,
aa 2 little grease be inserted, no loss of water by evaporation is to be
eared.

The solubility determinations are carried out by stirring weighed
quantities of the substances with a known quantity of water, an excess of
solid being always used. When approximately saturated, the solution is
characterisedjin some way, ¢.g., by ascertaining its density. In determining

266 REPORT—1901.

the solubility of mixtures, each of the equilibrators is then added
and the liquid stirred during twenty-four hours, when the density is again
determined. To ascertain whether the necessary equilibrators are all
present some of the solid is microscopically examined ; and to leave no
room for doubt a few c.c. of the solution are left in contact with a clear
erystal of each equilibrator in a test tube at 25° during twenty-four hours
to see if this remain unaltered. The solution having been analysed is
then again stirred during a further period, more of each equilibrator being
added, and the tests and analyses are repeated ; if the results agree, the
solution is regarded as saturated. For minor details, often of consider-
able importance, the original publications must be consulted. The best
test of saturation is to maintain the solution in contact with a sharply
defined crystal of an equilibrator;: should this remain unaltered, the
solution is in equilibrium with it. It may seem that the precautions
described are exaggerated, but experience shows that this is not the case,
a curious lag in the formation of a compound being often met with which
prevents the attainment of equilibrium—indeed, this is one of the chief
difficulties in such inquiries.

The Graphic Expression of the Results.

CasE I.—As a typical simple case, a solution containing the chlorides
of Sodium and Potassium may be taken ; these salts neither give rise to
double salts, nor are they capable of existing in various hydrate forms.
On evaporating at a constant temperature a solution containing, say,
equal molecular quantities of the two chlorides, the solution will first
become saturated with the less soluble-—viz., KCl—and this will separate
as the solution becomes concentrated. Subsequently the solution
becomes saturated with .Sodium chloride as well as with Potassium
chloride ; from this point onwards, two solid equilibrators being present,
further concentration will cause the separation of both salts in constant
proportions and the solution will gradually evaporate without altering in
composition, To construct the diagram, therefore, three determinations
are necessary—viz., the composition of the solutions saturated with
(a) NaCl, (6) KCl, (c) both NaCl and KCI.

It is convenient to express the solubility as the proportion which the
number of molecules of dissolved salt bears to 1000 molecules of water.

If the solubilities of the pure substances are plotted on rectangular
co-ordinates, that of the one as influenced by the other will be represented
by a point inside the rectangle. In the following diagram the line ac
- represents the change in the amount of Sodium chloride in the saturated
solution as the amount of Potassium chloride increases, whilst Bc gives
the change in the amount of Potassium chloride in the saturated solution
as the amount of Sodium chloride increases. This diagram therefore
expresses the composition of all possible solutions containing both Sodium
and Potassium chlorides at 25° ; obviously :

(1) All solutions falling on the line acB are saturated with the one
or the other salt, and with both at the point c, whilst (2) unsaturated
solutions are represented by the region inside the figure oacB and
(3) supersaturated solutions by the region outside acs.

It is important to bear in mind that, as the diagram shows, on pro-
ceeding from the origin 0 towards any point on the line acs, the
solution remains unsaturated until that line is reached. At points

APPLICATION OF EQUILIBRIUM LAW TO SEPARATION OF CRYSTALS. 267

between B and c Potassium chloride alone separates ; at points between
A and c Sodium chloride alone. The point c is that at which alone the
two salts mutually saturate the solution, and at which, on further evapo-
ration, they separate together in constant proportions.

Case IJ.—Whereas in the above case the two salts were considered
to be incapable of acting on each other, in general the formation of a
double salt is possible. It is to be borne in mind, however, that the
double salt is not to be regarded as a distinct substance, and an addi-
tional equilibrator is therefore not required. As an example, KCl and
MgCl,.6H,O may be taken, which give rise to Carnallite, a double salt of
great importance in natural deposits. In such a case a stable system is
formed when only the one or the other of the two simple salts coexists with
the double salt, except at the transition point ; at all other points, when
either is present in excess, it acts on the other, forming a fresh quantity

Fig. 1.

Solution saturated! Number of molecules
yi | per 1000 molecules H.,0

100 = NaCl KCl

RE’ aj) ae 0
.» KCl : | 0 88
. NaCl and KCl 89 39

Qn

80

60

40

Molecules NaC!

20

20 40 60 80
Molecules KC/

of double salt. The four determinations of solubility to be made in the
case in question are (1) that of KCl, (2) that of MgCl,.6H.0, (3) that of
Carnallite and KCl, (4) that of Carnallite and MgCl,.6H,O.

On plotting the values as before, the diagram on page 268 is obtained
(fig. 2). In this the line aB represents the manner in which the
amount of Potassium chloride present in the saturated solution changes
as the amount of Magnesium chloride is increased. At the point B the
solution is saturated with Potassium chloride and Carnallite. In the
region OBC Potassium chloride is no longer present as such, but only as
Carnallite, and the slope Bc represents the gradual depletion of the solu-
tions saturated with Carnallite as the amount of Magnesium chloride
in solution increases. At the point c the solution is saturated with
Carnallite and Magnesium chloride, the line pc showing the decrease in
the amount of Magnesium chloride in the saturated solution as the amount
of Potassium chloride present increases, Only Magnesium chloride and

268 REPORT—1901.

110 Fic. 2.

|
| olution saturated with Bel anes cules LO
9 0 — K,Cl, MgCl,
A. KCl . A - 44 0
|B. KClandCarnallite . 54 724
C, Carnallite and mee .6H,0 105
D. MgCl,.6H,0 : 0 108

80 : : 7 :

Molecules Mg C/2

10 20 30 40
Molecules Kz C/s

APPLICATION OF EQUILIBRIUM LAW TO SEPARATION OF CRYSTALS, 269

Carnallite are present in the region opc. The difference between the
regions OBC and opc consists in the fact that in the former Carnallite,
and in the latter Magnesium chloride, predominates, one or other of these
salts, as the case may be, separating when the solution is concentrated. In
both cases the composition of the solution tends towards that represented
by the point c. When this point is reached Magnesium chloride and
Carnallite are deposited together in constant proportions, the solution
evaporating to dryness without further change of composition. It will
hence be obvious that the point c is one of critical importance, as defining
the conditions under which the final crystallisation takes place. It is
termed by German workers the ‘ Avrystallisations Endpunkt’—the ter-
minus of crystallisation. The determination of such points is the object
in view in discussing a problem such as that afforded by the Stassfurt
deposits.

It is, however, necessary to make one more stipulation in order to
render the previous statements universally true—viz., that the regular
sequence of crystallisation may not be followed unless the product which
separates is periodically removed from contact with the solution. If this
be not done, secondary action may take place, and the product at first
formed may be eaten up again by the solution. For example, if after
reaching the point B the deposited Potassium chloride be not removed,
on further concentration, as two equilibrators are present, the solution will
evaporate without changing its composition ; but as a large excess of
Magnesium chloride is present, and this gradually comes into operation
as water is removed, Potassium chloride will be continually re-dissolved
(42°5 mols. K,Cl, per 100 mols. Carnallite deposited). As soon as all
solid Potassium chloride is removed, the deposition of Carnallite causes
the composition of the solution to change until the ‘end-point’ c is
reached. In interpreting such diagrams, therefore, it is to be assumed
that the products deposited are removed from solution at the proper
moment. It may be supposed that this often takes place in nature through
the deposition of a protecting layer of mud.

Case ITI.—Reciprocal salt pairs. As an example may be taken the
reciprocal salt pair which is of greatest importance in the investigation of
sea water—z.e., that represented by the equation

MgCl, +K,S0, > K,Cl,+MgS0,.

These salts give rise to two double salts, and at least two hydrates of
MgSO, have to be considered ; therefore it is necessary to determine the
composition of the saturated solutions of the stable combinations of seven
substances, taken

(a) Singly,
(6) In pairs,
(c) Three at a time.

_ The table on page 270 shows the composition of the various solu-
tions fulfilling the conditions of equilibrium.
Considering the table in detail, in the case of solutions saturated
with a single salt it is only necessary to point out that the Potassium
chloride is expressed in double molecules, as a system of equivalent nota-
tion must be used. The meaning of the figures appended to the solutions
saturated with two salts is in most cases at once apparent, but the solution
H requires a few words of explanation, as the equilibrators in this case

970 RePoRT—1901.

are not the only necessary constituents. The simultaneous existence of
the two hydrates of Magnesium sulphate, as already pointed out, is only
possible when the solution contains, in addition, a certain proportion of
Magnesium chloride—viz., 73 molecules, the determination of which is the
outcome of tentative trials.

Molecules Total
5 esses ae == ae no. of
At 25° 1000 molecules H,O dissolve KCl, | K.S0,|MgSO,| MgCl, | mols.
1. Solutions saturated with a single salt :
APKC ee 3 ; - 5 ; .| 44 —_ —- — 44
Bs BESO; : F : 3 3 -| — 12 — —_— 12
C. MgSO,.7H,0. 5 ; a — 58 — 58
D. MgCl,.6H,0. : ; ‘ _— — — | 108 108
2. Solutions saturated with two salts :
E. KCl, K,S0, . 3 ; 42 z|/ — — 432
F. K,SO,, K.Mg(SO,).6H,O . : _ 16 22 — 38
G. K,Mg(SO,),.6H,0, MgSO,.7H,0 . — 14 38 _ 52
H. MgSO,.7H,0, MgSO,.6H,0 . — — 15 73 88
J. MgSO,.6H,O, MgCl,.6H,O . F : — — 14 104 118
K. MgCl,.6H,0, MgKCl,.6H,0 . é > 1 — — 105 106
L. MgKCl,.6H,0, KCl. : : . 53] — -— 722 | 78
3. Solutions saturated with three salts:
M. KCl, K,SO,, K,Mg(SO,),6H,O . é 25 — 11 21 57
N. KCl, K,Mg(S80,),.6H,0, MgSO,.7H,0 . 9 — 16 55 80
P. KCl, MgsO,.7H,O, MgSO,.6H,0 . : 8 — 16 62 85
Q. KCl, MgSO,.6H,0, MgKCl,.6H,O 44} — | 13} | 70 88
R. MgsO,.6H,0, MgKCl,.6H,0.
MegCl,.6H,O F : 2 mele cna ie 12 99 113

Turning to solutions saturated in presence of three equilibrators, a
difficulty arises in expressing the composition of the solution, as chemical
analysis only gives a measure of the amount of the various radicles pre-
sent, and affords no information whatever as to the nature of the salts
present and their relative amounts—.e., apart from hypothesis nothing is
known as to the state in which salts exist in solution. As in practice the
solution is saturated in presence of three known salts, its constitution is
most rationally represented by expressing the analytical results as much as
possible in terms of these. However, bearing in mind the equation for a
reciprocal salt pair, and the fact that the constitution of a solution is
expressed in molecular proportions, a little consideration shows that it is
of minor importance how the composition of the solution is expressed,
the important fact being that, when saturated in presence of three known
substances, it has a definite chemical composition. The table printed
above shows the composition of the sixteen saturated solutions which
can be made by using one or more of the equilibrators derivable from the
reciprocal salt pair. Geometrically, there are many possible ways of
graphically representing such a set of results—that chosen by van’t Hoff
practically involves plotting the four salts on axes at right angles to each
other in such a manner that reciprocal salts are measured in opposite direc-
tions on the sameaxis. In such a diagram (fig. 3) the solutions saturated
with a single salt are represented by points on the axes, all other saturated
solutions giving points between the axes. Thus, the points a, B, c, and
D fall on the four axes, whilst a point E representing the solution saturated

APPLICATION OF EQUILIBRIUM LAW 'TO SEPARATION OF CRYSTALS. 271

in presence of KCl and K,SO, is plotted 42 units along the K,Cl,
axis (to the right) and 1°5 unit along the K,SO, axis (downwards).
Turning to the point m (1000H,0+25K,Cl,+11MgSO,+21MgCl),
and similar points representing solutions saturated in presence of three
equilibrators, and bearing in mind the fact that the composition of the

Fia. 3.
3 | Co-ordinates |
_—_——_— eee }
x jOX axis OY axis|Vertical axis
SY — |——__—_ _|-—_ = - |
= | \ |
fo | Al 4a ft cae
D (asa pee ya Seb 12
J Cc | —58 = 58
D a } +108 | 108
E +42 =_ 15 | 43°5
F —22 — 16 | 38
G | —38 — 14 52
H | —15 + 73 88
90 J | —14 +104 118
t Kk 1 105 16
SS gees L 2 55 i 725 78
= KG/M Ch 6% M | +14 | + 21 57
Ss 80+ |N|—7 + 55 80
=> P|-—7 + 62 85
Q|;-9 + 70 88
R | —10 + 99 113

Schonité 29
Kz 50g Mg 50; 640

502 Axis

solution cannot be expressed in terms of less than three salts, it is obvious
that a correct geometric representation can only be obtained by the use of
three co-ordinates. The method chosen has been to plot the reciprocal salt
pairs on axes at right angles in a plane, and the total number of molecules
in solution on a third axis vertically upwards from this plane. The sur-
faces passing through points in space thus obtained represent areas within

272 REPORT—1901,

which the solutions are saturated with a given substaiice. By joining the
points in the horizontal plane, areas are obtained which represent in
plan the surfaces in space just referred to.

To plot the horizontal plan some thought is necessary, as there are
three salts to be represented on two axes and therefore one of the salts
must be eliminated. Inthe case under consideration, in which Magnesium
chloride and Potassium sulphate are the reciprocal salts on the one axis, to
plot Magnesium chloride, Potassium sulphate must be eliminated. This
is already done in the case in question in calculating out the results given in
the table on p. 270; therefore it suffices to measure off twenty-one MgCl,
units upwards from the origin. As Potassium chloride and Magnesium
sulphate are the reciprocal salts represented on the second axis, to plot
Potassium chloride, Magnesium sulphate must be eliminated, or vice versd.
To do this, it is only necessary to bear in mind that

25K,Cl, + 11MgS0,+21MgCl,
= 25K, +(11+21)Mg+1180,+ (25+ 21)Cl,,

which, assuming the SO, to be present wholly as K,SO,, in order to elimi-

nate MgSO,, gives
11K,80,+14K,Cl,+32MgCl.,.

Therefore fourteen units of Potassium chloride are measured off on the
K,Cl, axis from the origin. In practice the straightforward geometric
method needs only to be followed, and the number of molecules of the
one salt, less the number of molecules of its reciprocal, may be measured
off on the one axis, the value deduced from the corresponding pair being
measured off on the other. The five points M, N, P, Q, and R, when so
plotted, fall inside the framework, and to complete the diagram are joined
to one another, or to the appropriate points on the framework—i.e., to those
representing solutions saturated in presence of two of the three equilibra-
tors present at the particular point inside the diagram. Thus the point
M, representing a solution saturated in presence of KCl, K,SO,, and
Schonite, is joined to the points b, representing a solution saturated in
presence of KCl and K,SO,, and Fr, representing a solution saturated in
presence of K,SO, and Schénite, but not to either G or L, as these represent
solutions saturated in presence of only one of the three equilibrators. The
lines divide the diagram into areas or fields, each field representing a
solution saturated with but one salt in presence of varying quantities of
other salts.

To complete the graphic representation, ordinates are erected at each
point of equilibrium representing the total number of molecules in solu-
tion. The surfaces touching the extremities of these ordinates represent
the various saturated fields.

To complete the model it is necessary to join the origin, 6, by triangular
surfaces to each of the marginal points, A—L; the hollow surface so
formed is the true base of the model. Fig. 4 is reproduced from a photo-
graph of a rough cardboard model so constructed. The model is supported
in its true position on the plane diagram by cardboard sheets which
represent the vertical co-ordinates at all points on the outer edges of the
diagram.

In interpreting the model it is to be noted that points within the
solid represent the compositions of all possible solutions. Points within
the fields on the upper surfaces represent solutions saturated with one,

APPLICATION OF EQUILIBRIUM LAW TO SEPARATION OF CRYSTALS. 273

whilst points lying on edges other than those at the margin represent
solutions saturated with two, and the angular points solutions saturated
with three equilibrators. On account, however, of the number of marginal
points to each field—in no case fewer than four—the upper surfaces

Fia. 4.

Model of Solutions derived from the Reciprocal Salt Pair MgCl,+K,S0,.

cannot be represented by single planes, and the information at present
available is not sufficient to determine their character ; they are therefore
not introduced into the model.!

' To construct the model, the lengths of the edges terminating at 0 arecalcu
lated from the co-ordinates of the marginal angular points—each length being
Vz? +y? +27, where x, y, and z are the co-ordinates of the points considered—whilst
the lengths of the other edges are best found by graphical construction. The
triangles forming the hollow base are then drawn and cut out in one piece from
a sheet of stiff cardboard which is then bent round and fastened in position by a
strip of tough paper gummed along the edge. The edges of the upper surfaces are

’ r

274 REPORT—1901.

In working backwards it must be borne in mind that a diagram such
as fig. 3 is not alone sufficient to give complete information about a
reciprocal salt pair. Only two of the three values required can be deduced
from it; to obtain the third, either the model must be used, or a table
showing the composition of the various saturated solutions, such as that
on page 270, must be referred to.

Thus, assuming the composition of a solution to be that represented at
m in diagram, fig. 3, it is obvious that the ‘plane’ co-ordinate values are
21MgCl,+14K,Cl,. On reference to the model or table it is seen, however,
that solution mM contains, when saturated, 57 molecules of dissolved
salt ; therefore the number of other molecules present is 57 —(21+14)=22.
But it is to be remembered that these consist of two reciprocal salts, and
that in constructing the diagram one member of the pair was equated
against the other, so that only half the 22 molecules in solution are to be
regarded as present as sulphate—in this case MgSO,—and the remaining
11 molecules are considered to be molecules of K,Cl,, and are added to
the number of molecules read off from the diagram. The constitution of
the solution at m is therefore :

21MgCl, + (14+11)K,Cl,+11MgS0,.

Before passing to the consideration of the diagram thus constructed, it
is necessary to realise that the points of equilibrium situated on the
margin are not all of the same order of stability. In cases in which
double salts are formed, the deposition of the double salt necessarily
follows, but never attends, that of the less soluble constituent. That this
should be the case is obvious when it is borne in mind that, as water is
removed, the more soluble constituent —the action of which is more or less
impeded by the water—is able to combine with the less soluble to form a
further quantity of double salt. The same argument applies to hydrates :
as water is removed from the solution the other salts present gradually
assert a dehydrating effect.

The points F, H, L on the diagram are cases of this kind, and therefore
they are united by dotted instead of by full lines to the appropriate points
within the diagram. In indicating the direction in which crystallisation
proceeds arrows are therefore drawn through, and not towards, these points.

To illustrate the way in which the diagram is read several cases may
be taken.

At 8 the solution contains only Potassium sulphate. Ata point on
BE alittle to the right of B there is a small amount of chloride present ; on
evaporating such a solution change proceeds along the line B E, Potassium
sulphate alone separating until the point E is reached, when Potassium
chloride will also be deposited. The solution will then dry up without
changing its composition.

Similarly, starting from a point x a little to the right of B, but a little
above B E and within the Potassium sulphate field, the track followed will
be along a line B x produced, until E Mm is reached, which then becomes
the track.

It may not be superfluous to add that the track followed from any
point x within the diagram is always along a line drawn through x from
the point at which the field is saturated with its characteristic salt.
represented by narrow strips of cardboard of the required length; and the vertical

ardinates of the angular points M to R are represented by strips of cardboard fixed
the base of the model

———————————— <<

APPLICATION OF EQUILIBRIUM LAW TO SEPARATION OF CRYSTALS, 275

On the other hand—and the case is somewhat more complicated—at a
point on B P, a little to the left of B, the solution contains a small amount
of Magnesium sulphate, the reciprocal of the Potassium chloride con-
sidered in the previous case. On evaporating such a solution, change
proceeds along the line B r, K,SO, separating as before until the point F
is reached. The character of the subsequent change will be determined
by the presence or absence of Potassium sulphate: if it be removed,
erystallisation proceeds along r G; but if it be left in contact with the
solution Schénite is continually deposited, the composition of the liquid
remaining unchanged until the whole of the Potassium sulphate originally
deposited is redissolved by the excess of the Magnesium sulphate in the
solution. Only then will crystallisation proceed along F G, and when G is
reached the liquid will dry up without further change in composition.

Starting within the diagram, again in the K,SO, field—say from a
point y, a little to the left of B and a little above B r—the track followed
will be along the line B y produced until F Mm is reached at a point fm. If
the Potassium sulphate be then removed, the Schénite field is entered.
To determine the course followed across this, it is to be noted that the
point at which Schonite alone is present in a saturated solution must be
taken as the origin. To deduce this we have to bear in mind that the
line GF represents the manner in which the solubility of Schénite varies
as the proportions of Magnesium and Potassium sulphates vary ; there-
fore the theoretical solubility of Schénite alone—i.e., when there is no
excess of either of the single salts present—-is at a point Fr’ on oF produced
equidistant from the two axes on which the separate salts are plotted—
1.e., on the line bisecting the angle B oc.

The track followed across the Schénite field will therefore be in the
direction ¥’ fm produced. When mN is reached Potassium chloride will
separate. It will be obvious that to reach the MgSO,.7H,0 field it would
be necessary to have but little chloride present.

Beyond wn Schénite gives way to Magnesium sulphate heptahydrate,
which is deposited together with Potassium chloride until p is reached.
From P, after removal of the heptahydrate, change would proceed through
Q to rR. Itis obvious that it would not occur along PH, as continued
concentration would involve the conversion of the heptahydrate into
hexahydrate, and would therefore merely condition a lag in the crystal-
lisation, supposing the heptahydrate were not removed. In like manner
change would not proceed along QL, as concentration would involve a
gradual conversion of unremoved Potassium chloride into Carnallite. At
R the solution would dry up unchanged in composition.

As a proof of the correctness of this method of interpreting the
diagram, the results may be quoted which were obtained by van’t Hoff on
concentrating a solution of equal molecular quantities of Potassium
i and Magnesium chloride, 7.¢., 174°3 gm, K,SO,+223'4 gm MgCl,
6H,O. The use of such a solution is equivalent to starting in the plane
diagram from the origin, as the geometric convention followed involves one
of the salts being represented as a negative quantity of its reciprocal.
As the origin lies within the K,S0, field, the diagram shows that K,SO,
will be the first salt to separate, and that concentration will proceed along
the Magnesium chloride axis until the Schénite boundary is reached ; the
separation of Schonite will then set in. Provided the Potassium sulphate
be not removed, the course of change will now be along Fr M to M; when
this is reached the deposition of Potassium chloride begins,

72

276 REPORT—1901.

In the actual experiment the solution was slowly evaporated at 25°.
The deposit was frequently examined with the microscope. At first only
Potassium sulphate crystallised out, but subsequently this was mixed with
Schénite. As soon as the separation of Potassium chloride was observed
to take place the deposited salts were removed and analysed. The

amounts found were :—
25 gms. K,SO,
120 gms. K, »Mg(S0,)>. 6H,0.

The amount of the two salts that should be deposited from such a solu-
tion may be calculated as follows :—
At the origin the solution has the composition

K,SO,+ MgCl, +aH,0,
from which is deposited
rK,S8O, +y.K,Mg(SO,)..6H,0,
whilst w parts of solution of the composition represented at M remain—.¢.,
w(1000H,0 + 25K,Cl, + 21MgCl, + 11Mg80,).
Thus
+w(1000H,0 + 25K,Cl, + 21MgCl, + 11MgS0,).

Collecting and equating the coefficients of the various radicles, the
values of x, y, and w are determined.

Thus
1
Cl, 1=(254+21 “. ws,
Mg l=y+(21+11)w
i ae 4 e 1
dpe iew 5 pp
K, l=a+y+25w
1— 7 _ 2 te
23. 46 ae" 46
The K,SO, deposited is thus 16 of the molecule, 7.e., = i x174:3

2=26°5 gms. ; whilst the Schénite is & of the molecule, 2.e., - x 422°8
=122°6 gms., which values agree closely with those found by experiment.

In following the course “of change with the aid of the model, it is
noticeable that although, as a rule, concentration proceeds along an
upward slope, this is not invariably the case. Thus, whereas on passing
from B to F, and from F to G, the slope is upwards, from c to G the slope
is downwards ; a slight confusion is thereby introduced. It is to be
expected that as concentration proceeds the proportion of molecules of
dissolved salt to water molecules should steadily increase ; and as the
vertical ordinates represent the number of dissolved molecules, it would
seem that the number of molecules in the saturated solution of Magnesium
sulphate is greater than in the solution saturated with Magnesium
sulphate and Schénite. If, however, it be assumed that at c a larger pro-
portion of the Magnesium sulphate molecules are present in the form

APPLICATION OF EQUILIBRIUM LAW TO SEPARATION OF CRYSTALS. 277

of complexes (MgSO,),, than is the case at G where the solution is
saturated with both Magnesium sulphate and Schénite, the discrepancy
disappears ; and, if the necessary correction could be made and the
vertical ordinate at c lowered accordingly, the model would afford a more
uniform indication of the direction of change.

Obviously the conditions in solution are complex, especially when several
salts are present ; and the only phase in which the alteration is of the
same character throughout is that which has hitherto been left unnoticed—
viz., the vapour phase. As concentration proceeds, and the dissolved salt
more and more asserts a mastery over the water molecules, the vapour
pressure necessarily diminishes—saturation with each salt corresponding
to a particular vapour pressure. From this point of view as the vapour
pressure at B (22°2 mm.) and that at c (20°9 mm.) exceeds that at
G@ (20-4 mm.), there is clear evidence that the proportion of dissolved
molecules at G exceeds that at co, and that the separation takes place
towards a from both B and c. A model may be constructed which
affords a clear representation of the order in which the separations occur
if the differences between the vapour pressures of the various saturated
solutions in presence of their equilibrators and the vapour pressure of
water (23°52 mm.) be taken as vertical ordinates. The model thus con-
structed brings into prominence the fact that the separation of salts from
solution always occurs along slopes tending in one direction, and may be
regarded as a corrected form of the model previously considered.

The character of this correction is shown in fig. 4 by a thick line
drawn round the model at the required height. The highest point in the
corrected model is of course the end-point R, and the new vertical scale
has therefore been fixed by taking the ordinate of R to represent the
maximum vapour pressure difference. The following table gives the
necessary data :—

— Solution saturated with sal ga a Benet
A | KCl . 5 : 5 j ; 4 A : 19-2 4:3

B | K,S80, A . ‘ ‘ : 5 . ; 22'2 1:3

C | MgSO,.7H,O . A : H : , I 20:9 2°6

D | MgCl,.6H,O0 , R 3 : “ ; : UGE 15:8

E | KCl, K, SO, , : A ; 2 19 | 4:5

F | K SO, XK, .Me(So, 3 GH, Or: 5 , 4 21°6 1:9 /
G | K,Mg(SO,)..6H,0, MeSO,. 7H, Or : : 2 | 20-4 Sil
H MgSO, .7H,0, MgSO, .6H,0. , . j : 12 11°5 |
J MgSO,.6H,0, MeCl,.6H,O ‘ é ; é ; 1:5 16:0 |
K | MgCl,.6H,O, MgIXCl,.6H,O : ; : 76 15°9
L | MgKCl, 6H, O, KCl . ‘ F : ‘ 12:7 10'8

M | KCl,K SO, K »Mg(SO,).. 6H, Ov: F 5 18 55

N | KCl, K,Mg(SO,),.6H,0, MgS0O,,. 7H, 0 ‘ ; 13°7 9°8

P | KCl, MgSO,.7H,0, MgSO, .6H,O P : 3 12 11°5

Q | KCl, MgSO, 6H, 200, MgKCl, .6H,O F Eg 116

R Mgso, .6H, 45% MgKCl, .6H,0, MgCl, 68, LO : 73 16°2

‘Cas—E IV.—A reciprocal salt pair + Sodium chloride. It is
desirable to take this case into account as bearing on the problem
of the crystallisation of salts from sea water. In sea water Sodium
chloride is present in large excess in comparison with the other
salts, and therefore is always in solution with the other salts at every

278 REPORT—1901.

stage in the process of concentration so long as its presence is compatible
with that of the other salts ; moreover, it continually separates, and in
the natural deposits always accompanies the other salts.

In representing the behaviour of solutions containing, in addition to
Sodium chloride, Magnesium sulphate and Potassium chloride—the salts
present in the case previously considered—to construct a diagram, as the

190

SS Fra. 5.

yy

Ay
.

50
Number of Molecules Na,Cl,

40
ft

Total number of Molecules in solution per 1000 Molecules I,0

° Base | Line
=

-----+-- - =,

STXY "0S'Y
oO

composition of such a solution cannot be expressed in terms of fewer than
four salts, a fourth dimension would need to be introduced were it not
that, as Sodium chloride is always present, it may be represented in the
form of a sheet of varying thickness spread over the upper surface of the
model representing the composition of the various solutions in terms of
the other salts present ; to construct this sheet the number of molecules

ee

a

—

APPLICATION OF EQUILIBRIUM LAW TO SEPARATION OF CRYSTALS. 279

of Na,Cl, are measured off above this surface on the axis drawn from the
origin at right angles to the plane of the paper. The shaded area in
fig. 5 gives a picture of the thickness of the salt sheet above the various
fields in relation to the number of molecules of other salts present in the
solutions.

The data required for the construction of a diagram and model repre-
senting the behaviour of the solutions under consideration are obtained
by determining the composition of solutions saturated (a) with Sodium
chloride and one other salt ; (6) with Sodium chloride and two other
salts ; and (c) with Sodium chloride and three other salts. To ensure
uniformity, as the results only express the constitution of the solutions in
terms of the salt radicles, the convention followed consists in expressing
the whole of the Sodium as chloride, and if there be not sufficient
Chlorine for this purpose the excess is reckoned as sulphate ; the K,,
Mg, Cl,, SO, are expressed as K.Cl,, MgCl,, and MgSO,. The experi-
mental data which have been accumulated are given in the following table,
which includes the vapour pressures of the various saturated solutions.

1000 Molecules Water dissolve _|No. of|No. of Woe
= Molecules Mole-| Mole-| Va- oar
cules | cules | pour poe
exclu-| inclu-| Pres- Sie
| ding | ding | sure 93-59
Saturated with NaCl] and Na,Cl,| K.Cl, |Mg(Cl,| MgSO,'Na,SO,'Na,Cl.|Na.Cl,| |
i i |
Domerieso .. . shot .| 23| —. | 103 | — | 24/203 | 105g |’ 7-e3// 15-80 |
B. KCl ee es aay ogee = = — | 19%] 64 |1684] 6-68 |
Gi, iS tSO)s, ah ARI) Se un ee a for | Fae ey apse vo cos
D. MgCl,.6H,0 and Carnallite . Jie 4 | 1034 = —\| 104 | 105 752 | 16-00
E. KCl and Carnallite Pe, ee 2 54 | 70% -- — 76 78 | 12°66 | 10°86 |
F. KClandGlaserite. . . .| 44 200 —s |e 4% | 244 | 68% |16°84 | 6-68 |
G. Na,SO, and Glaserite . 3 oy 44h) 5108 | — [= 144 | 244] 69 | 17-0 6°52
H. Na,SO, and Astrakanite atch (a6 — Leal 3 193 | 65% | 1771 6-42 |
J. MgSO,7H,0 and Astrakanite o | 26 — 7 34 -- 41 G7 |151 | 8-42
K. MgS0,.7H,O and MgS0,.6H,O0 . 4 = 674 | 12 — 79% | 834 |12 | 11°52
N. MgCl,.6H,0, Magnesium sulphate 1 — | 102 5 — | 107 | 108 7°55 | 15°97
P. KCl, Glaserite, Schonite B ai e235 14 | 215 14.) — 493 | 724 |15°9 | 762
Q. KCl, Schonite, Leonite . 4 Fal lies ll | 37 ages 624 | 763 [149 | 862
R. Na,SO,, Glaserite, Astrakanit | 40 8 oe} eves ah 8 32 | 72 — —_
S. Glaserite, Astrakanite, Schouite 274 | 108) 165) 184) — 454) 73 _ _
T. Astrakanite, Schénite, Leonite .| 22 103} 23 | 19 — | 524] 744) — --
U. MgS0,.7H,0, Astrakanite,Leonite | 108] 74 42 rele Mee Seed restsets | ly Cl 7 Maa ea
V, Kainite, MgSO,.7H,O, Leonite 9 74 | 45 | 193) — 72 81 — —
vam tee! IOl, Tieonite fy 2°.) writ er 2eal| sede x47 (agra las 3 ales | eaB 0% er ee
a - KCl, Carnallite 5 : 24 6 | 68 Dia Se 79 814) — —-
va A Carnallite, Magnesium | | | |
sulphate. ofl Ans ar eyes 4 1 | 85% Sah =~ | 94d}, 955) = —
V, Kainite, MgS0,.7H,.0, MgS0,. | |
EO) eeks PPC Os. HRT SII FAG cabal) YP ISO ta Bane SBN eas ty Ce
W. Carnallite, Mg(Cl,.6H,0, Magne- | | | | |
sium sulphate. 0 < § 0 3 | 100 5 _ 1054 | 1054 | 74 (1612 |
Saturated with NaCl only — — | — — — | — | 558 | 17:7 5°82 |

In constructing a diagram (fig. 5) and model from these data, as
there is no axis on which Sodium sulphate can be directly represented,
to express the amount of this salt present in the solutions C, F, G, H, R,
a line of argument is adopted similar to that made use of in equating
Magnesium sulphate with Potassium chloride, in the case of the
reciprocal salt pair previously considered. It is obvious that we mey
write

Na,SO,=MgSO,+Na,Cl,—MgOl, ;

in other words, Sodium sulphate can be expressed in terms of three other
salts,

280 REPORT—1901.

Co-ordinates Vertical Axis
= eed 5 No. of Molecules No. of Molecules
OX Axis OW Axts, | | excluding Na, Oly | Gueiuding Nal
Bowe = +103 103 1052
B +193 = 193 64
o Ss = 193 124 634
D Soe +103 104 105
agai + 52 + 701 76 78
F +153 =e | 242 682
G oy = 442 243 69
H —192 ey 192 654
J —34 a BY, 41 67
K 19 + 672 792 832
N 5 +102 107 108
P 0 4+ 212 492 722
Q — 33 + 37 622 762
R —14 =naG 32 72
Pras — 8 + 163 452 73
py — §2 | + 23 522 743
U —112 + 42 683 79
Vv, =12 + 45 72 81
Vv, — 5 + 47 | 71 $02
Vi; +1 + 68 79 812 |
uA — 7 + 852 942 95 |
Vv; ae + 652 | 822 86
WwW — 43 +100 | 1053 1053

\

Thus, supposing a solution C to contain 124 molecules of Sodium
sulphate, to express its composition, a point in space is plotted by
measuring off from the origin 12}, units along the Magnesium sulphate
axis and —124 units along the Magnesium chloride axis ; 7.e., downward
and therefore along the Potassium sulphate axis. The point c on the
diagram is thus obtained. The corresponding point on the model
is deduced by measuring off 125 on the Sodium chloride axis vertically
upwards and adding 51 on account of the 51 molecules of Sodium
chloride supposed to be present in the solution as such.

It will be noticed that Magnesium and Potassium sulphates do not
appear in the table as single salts which can be used as equilibrators in
presence of excess of Sodium chloride, the reason being that new re-
ciprocal salt pairs are constituted by the presence of the Sodium chloride,
and interactions take place which destroy these sulphates ; e¢.7.,

MgSO,-+ Na,Cl,=Na,SO,+ MgCl,.

The remarkable character of the changes brought about by the
presence of Sodium chloride will at once be obvious on contrasting figs. 3
and 5. The double salts formed by Magnesium and Potassium sulphates
with Sodium sulphate occupy the lower portions of the diagram,
Potassium sulphate disappearing altogether, and the area of the Mag-
nesium sulphate field being much restricted. Moreover, the greater pull
on the water molecules exerted by the soluble Sodium chloride molecules
brings about the partial dehydration of several of the compounds
appearing in diagram 3: causing, for example, the displacement of the
greater part of the Schénite field by Leonite, MgK,(SO,)).4H,O, and of
the MgSO,.6H,O field by Kieserite. In addition, a new double salt,
Kainite, MgSO,.KCl,3H,0, appears,

c=

—_-

=

APPLICATION OF EQUILIBRIUM LAW TO SEPARATION OF GRYSTALS. 281

The order in which separation occurs is at once given by reference to
a vapour-pressure diagram constructed, e.g., by inserting the ‘ vapour-
pressure difference ’ at each of the various transition points.

The Evaporation of Sea Water.

On concentrating sea water—disregarding Calcium sulphate on account
of the small quantity present—the first salt to crystallise out is Sodium
chloride. When deposition of this salt sets in, the solution has the com-
position :

1,000H,O 47Na,Cl, 1:03K,Cl, 7-36MgCl, 3°57MgSO,.

Following the rules previously given, it is obvious that the position in
space of the point «, which represents a solution of this composition, will
be 3°57—1-:03=2-54 units ou the ox axis to the left of the origin, 7:36
units above the origin on the oy axis, and 1:03+7°364+3:57=11:96
units above the plane.

As long as only Sodium chloride is deposited, the relative proportions
of the Potassium and Magnesium salts remain unchanged, and only the
amount of these salts present relatively to the water increases. Such a
change is expressed in a model constructed in the manner previously
described by motion along a line joining the origin to a, away from 0. To
ascertain what salt will separate next, the point at which this line ulti-
mately cuts the upper surface of the model must be determined. When
this is established with the aid of the model, it is found to lie in the
Magnesium sulphate (MgSO,.7H.0) field. Hence it follows that further
concentration ultimately causes the separation of Magnesium sulphate
together with Sodium chloride, and the course followed on evaporation
will be across the Magnesium sulphate field, away from the hypothetical
point representing the solution saturated only with Magnesium sulphate
and Sodium chloride. This point must be on the Magnesium sulphate
axis as well as on the line Ks (representing the change in composition of
a solution saturated with Magnesium sulphate and Sodium chloride as the
amount of Magnesium chloride varies), and will obviously fall at their
point of intersection, 3’. Supposing the Magnesium sulphate field to
have been cut at a point £, the path followed on concentrating the solu-
tion will be along 3/3 produced, until the next field is entered. In a
similar manner, the subsequent course is traceable until the point w is
reached. As a matter of fact, some uncertainty exists as to the exact
course of crystallisation, as the investigation of Leonite, Kainite, and
Kieserite is not yet complete.

The order in which the salts are deposited is probably as follows :—

(1) NaCl; (2) NaCl and MgSO,.7H,O; (3) NaCl and Leonite ;
(4) NaCl, Leonite, and KCl, or NaCl and Kainite ; (5) NaCl, Kieserite,
and Carnallite ; (6) NaCl, Kieserite, Carnallite, MgCl,.6H,O, the solution
then drying up without further change.

Not only does the succession thus indicated agree with that actually
found experimentally on evaporating sea water at 25°, but also very fairly
with the geological succession as observed at Stassfurt. Thus the lowest
deposits of rock salt represent stage 1, the overlying Kieserite and
Kainite beds stages 2, 3, and 4, and the uppermost Carnallite region
stages 5 and 6.

But although jt is clear from the general agreement of the results

282 REPORT—1901.

obtained in the iaboratory with the observation made at Stassfurt that
the temperature at which the beds were deposited was not far removed
from 25°, it was possibly somewhat higher, as the proportion of Kainite,
and especially of Kieserite, obtained in the laboratory is somewhat lower
than that met with in nature. Moreover, whereas at Stassfurt Calcium
sulphate occurs in the anhydrous form, in the laboratory it has not been
obtained in this form below 32°.

The foregoing account has been compiled from a series of twenty-three
papers by van’t Hoff and his pupils, published since the year 1897 in the
‘ Proceedings of the Berlin Academy of Sciences.’ Apart from these and
the information given by van’t Hoff in his text-books, there are only two
other papers bearing on the subject—one by van der Heide (‘ Zeit, Phys.
Chem.’ 12, 416), the other by Lowenherz (zbid., 18, 459),

Keish Caves, co. Sligo.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of
Dr. R. F. Scuarrr (Chairman), Mr. R. Li. PRAEGER (Secretary),
Mr. G. Correy, Professor A. G. CoLE, Professor D. J. CuNNING-
HAM, Mr. A. McHEnry, and Mr. R. J. UssHER, appointed to Explore
Trish Caves.

TuE Committee selected for the first operations a series of caves on the
slopes of Keishcorran Mountain in the county of Sligo. Owing to the
unsettled state of the weather, the excavation of the caves could not be
commenced until the middle of May 1901, though a preliminary survey
was made early in April by Dr. Scharff and Mr. Praeger.

After careful measurements were taken a deep trench was dug across
the mouth of one of the caves, so as to expose a section of the various
deposits, which were as follows from above downwards :—

1. Black earth, containing bones of domestic animals, charcoal, and
human implements (similar to those found in Crannoges), with a depth of
from 6 inches to 1 foot.

2. Breccia, consisting of limestone blocks fallen from the roof in a
tufaceous deposit. This appeared as a natural arch in the section varying
from 1 foot in the centre to 3 feet at the sides, and contained numerous
remains of land shells and bones of small mammals.

3. Brown clay, containing large blocks of limestone and numerous
bones of small and a few of large mammals. At a depth of 6 feet from
the surface a much waterworn block of limestone was found, indicating
proximity to the floor of the cave.

As the excavation in this cave was carried to the interior it became
unpromising and unsatisfactory owing to the difficulty of removing the
large masses of limestone. It was therefore decided to abandon it.
Datum levels having been carefully marked on the sides of the cave, it
will be possible to resume work and complete the excavation should the
results obtained in the other caves render it desirable.

A second cave was then opened in a similar manner, proceeding from
the mouth inward, with very satisfactory results so far. Dr. Scharff,
Mr. Coffey, and Professor Cole having had to return to town, Mr. Ussher
was left in charge of the work, and reports that the upper stratum of this
cave contained much charcoal and bones of domestic animals—hbroken for

ON KEISH CAVES, CO. SLIGO. 283

the marrow—and a red deer’s antler. With these were associated a stone
celt, bronze pins, and portion of an iron saw of ancient pattern. Beneath
the above another stratum, consisting of cave-earth, was found, in which
were various remains of bear and deer, besides human teeth and charcoal.
The Committee therefore feel justified in continuing the excavations,
and ask for reappointment. The collections have been deposited in the
Dublin Museum, and are at present being worked out by the staff.

Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Mr. J. E. Marr (Chairman), Mr. P. F. Kenai (Secre-
tary), Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. E. De Rance, Professor
W. J. Soxtzas, Mr. R. H. Trpeman, Rev. S. N. Harrison,
Mr. J. Horne, Mr. F. M. Burton, Mr. J. Lomas, Mr. A. R.
DwerRyHousE, Mr. J. W. StaTHer, and Mr. W. T. TUCKER,
appointed to investigate the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles, and
to take measures for their preservation. (Drawn up by the Secre-
tary.)

THE major proportion of the records for inclusion in this report relates to

Yorkshire, where an active organisation exists with working members in

all parts of the county, but especially in-the East Riding, where the

members of the Hull Geological Society are doing admirable systematic
work. In furtherance of the objects of the Yorkshire Boulder Committee
an excursion to the Lake District was arranged by the Yorkshire Geo-
logical and Polytechnic Society. The area chosen for study was the country
round Keswick, which is so rich in rocks of pronounced petrological
characters which might be expected to have travelled over into Yorkshire.

The influence of this excursion is at once to be seen in the records of

erratics which have already been recognised. The peculiar rocks of

Eycott Hill and Carrock Fell have been found at Dimlington, and a well

characterised volcanic breccia occurring as boulders on Dunmail Raise has

been found at Hornsea, along with a specimen of the well known Arm-
both Dyke.

A striated surface discovered on the southern slope of Skiddaw
has been reported to the Committee as the only convenient method of
recording an isolated but valuable observation.

The reports from the coast tract of Yorkshire continue to yield new
stations for the very characteristic Norwegian Rhomb-porphyries and
Elzolite-syenites. The visit paid by the geologists of Yorkshire to the
Cheviots and some of its results were commented upon in the last report
of this Committee. Two facts stand out in the present series of records,
in the light of a more intimate acquaintance with the Cheviot rocks. While
we find that many observers note the great preponderance of Cheviot por-
phyrites over every other type of far-travelled stones, no example of the
Cheviot granite has ever been identified in Yorkshire. The Secretary
has long been impressed with the singularity of this absence of evi-
dence, and after examining the rock in sitw has made careful search for
it at Filey, Bridlington, Whitby, and other places, where the porphyrites
abound. No clearly identifiable specimen could be found. A collection
was made of granitic pebbles from the shore at Whitby in order to get a
sufficient series to base an opinion upon. Seventy of these stones have
been sliced, and the results of a preliminary examination are not

284, REPORT—1901.

encouraging to the hope that any positive identification of the Cheviot
granite can be made. The results of a fuller examination will be presented
in the next report of the Committee. Meantime it may be remarked
that the striking disproportion which must exist between the boulders of
the Cheviot granite and those of the porphyrites will perhaps find an
explanation in the conditions which prevailed in the Cheviots themselves
during the time when the distribution of the erratics was in progress,

Mr. Stather’s numerous records of greywackes of a similar type in
various parts of Yorkshire and on the lower slopes of the Cheviots sug-
gests the probability of their derivation from the basin of the Tweed.
Two very remarkable discoveries are reported by Mr. Fearnside. The
gravels of the Yorkshire Calder have long been noted for remarkable
uniformity in the character of the included stones ; besides local rocks
there had been found nothing but well defined types of Lake Dis-
trict rocks, andesites, agglomerates, and the granitic rocks of the
Buttermere and Eskdale types, all such as might have come by way of
Lancashire from the western side of the Lake District, and perhaps one
or two examples of the Galloway granites. Mr. Fearnside now adds the
Norwegian Rhomb-porphyry, Brockram, brown flints, and Shap granite,
discordant elemenis difficult to reconcile with the very consistent series
previously known. Mr. H. H. Corbett, of Doncaster, points out a singular
fact : the three boulders of Shap granite found respectively at Royston,
Adwick, and Balby have a vein of felspar running through each of them.

The boulders recorded by Mr. Lomas from New Mills, Derbyshire,
are of the type usual on that side of the Pennine Chain, but the occur-
rence of Triassic pebbles is of great interest, as the altitude, 930 feet, is
several hundreds of feet above that of any Triassic rock 7m s¢tw in the
region.

The boulders of nodular dolerite recorded from the Ayrshire coast
precisely resemble those which are found in considerable numbers in
Western Lancashire and Cheshire, especially in the Wirral. A single
example has been found from the north of Ireland. These rocks have
long been regarded as of Scottish derivation, and their great abundance
on the coast of Ayrshire seems to favour the supposition. It is to be
hoped that some geologist may be found in Glasgow who can identify the
rock and state its source.

The Secretary has provided the Lincolnshire Boulder Committee with
a series of rock specimens from Norway and the Cheviots to serve as
types for the determination of the source of erratics, and he has still
remaining a large number of duplicate specimens of noteworthy Nor-
wegian rock (Rhomb-porphyries, Elmolite-syenites, &c.), rocks from the
Cheviots, the south of Scotland, and from the Lake District, which he
is prepared to distribute to local museums or to individuals willing to aid
in the work of this Committee.

CUMBERLAND.

Reported by Mr. Joun Cariton (Hull Geological Society)
per Yorkshire Boulder Committee.

Skiddaw.—On left of pathway to top of Skiddaw, about 30 yards
above second hut, 1,450 feet above Keswick, glacial strie were observed
on solid slate from which the turf had been recently removed. Diree-
tion W.S.W, ‘

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 285

DERBYSHIRE.

Reported by J. Lomas, Hsq., A.R.CS., F.GS., Broadhurst Edge, near
Jordan Arms, New Mills. 930 feet O.D.

Andesitic ash, 14 inches in diameter.

Many striated fragments of fine micaceous grit.
Rhyolite (from Upper Barrowdale Series).
Buttermere granophyre (common).

Coarse millstone grit, 2 feet diameter.
Porphyritic felsite.

Triassic quartzite pebbles.

LANCASHIRE.

Reported by J. Lomas, Esq., A.R.C.S., F.G.S.

Liverpool. At Sandon Graving Dock. In boulder clay 17 feet
thick.

Diorite, 3 ft. by 2 ft. 6 in. by 1ft. 6 in. Axis nearly N.and S. Well scratched
and exhibiting a well developed sole. lt lies in sitw 5 feet below Old
Dock Sill.

Diorite, 2 ft. 10 in. by 2 ft. by 1 ft. 8in. Axis N. 5° BE.

Andesitic agglomerate, 1 ft. by 1 ft. by 9 in.; 16 feet below O.D.S.

Limestone, 1 ft. in diameter.

Keuper marl. Various small pieces.

Gypsum abundant.

LINCOLNSHIRE.

Reported by Rev. E. Appian Wooprurre Peacock.
Cadeney Manor House.—Boulders found in sinking a well.

Coarse augen- gneiss in dark boulder clay at 18 feet.

Grey limestone with brown ferruginous oolitic grains and shell of a Lima ;
not L. gigantea or L. leviuscula, though belonging to the same group.
? Neocomian or Lias. ;

Dolerite; Limestone probably Z. Lias; grey felspathic sandstone; dark
grey shale; red chalk.

Reporied by Messrs. Paut Davis and J. W. Srarunr, 2.4.8. (Hull
Geological Society), per Yorkshire Boulder Committee,

Cleethorpes.—Three large clay pits near the railway station show
Boulder Clay 30 to 40 feet thick. The boulders, many hundreds of which
are visible, are of the usual East Yorkshire types, but of smaller average
size. Among those noted were rhomb-porphyry ; elwolite-syenite ;
Cheviot porphyrites; greywacke sandstone ; hypersthene-dolerite of
Eycott Hill; grey, black, pink, and green-coated flints.

YORKSHIRE.

Reported by the Yorkshire Boulder Committee (J. H. Howarrtu,
L.GS., Secretary).

By G. A. Aupgy, Esq.
Dringheuses, York.—

Carboniferous sandstone, two large boulders, one weighing 3-4 tons, obscurely
striated.

286 REPORT—1901.

By E. Hawxesworts, Lsq.
Brompton, near Northallerton.—

The turnpike road from Northallerton to Stockton cuts through a ridge of-
drift just before reacking the village. It yielded 1 rhyolite; 1 dolerite;
1 gabbro (?); 2 Carboniferous Limestones (black) and Carbonife:ous
sandstones.

By W. Greeson, Esq., F.G.S.
Kirklington, 6 miles N.E. of Ripon, at Coldstone House Farm.—

1 galliard or ganister, 4 ft. by 2} ft. by 2 ft. subangular ; top smeothed and
grooved ; striz N. and 8.

By W. G. FEARNSIDE.

Horbury, near Wakefield.—In an excavation for the south pier of a
bridge over the river Calder.

3 Shap granite.

1 Brockram.

1 Rhomb-porphyry.
1 Brown flint.

The boulders were taken up in the scoop of a dredger along with a
portion of basal clay when excavating for the concreting of the founda-
tions of the bridge pier.

By P. F. Kenpatt, £.G.8.

Settringion, Vale of Pickering.—In fields about half a mile 8.W. of
railway station a thin scattering of foreign pebbles occurs among the
fragments of the subjacent Oolite. Twenty were collected: they
include :—

1 Vein quartz pebble, (?) Trias.

6 Saccharoid quarzites, one liver-coloured, (?) Trias.
2 Carboniferous sandstone, one felspathic.

1 Red jasper.

4 Flints.

1 Fine-grained gneiss (?).

1 Basalt.

1 Sandstone
1 eree (7 local),

By E. Hawxuswortn, Esq.

Wighill, near Tadcaster.—Taken from material excavated in making
a drain.

2 Dolerites ; 1 chert.
Kettleness, near Whitby.—On beach just south of Kettleness.

1 Cheviot porphyrite ; 1 eleolite syenite.
1 Gneiss,

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 287

Wykeham, Vale of Pickering.—From gravel-pit.

1 Dolerite ; 1 Cheviot porphyrite.
1 Cheviot andesite ; 2 grey flints.
1 Hlezolite-syenite, (?) a small pebble.

Communicated by the Boulder Committee of the Hull Geological Society.

Ayton, near Scarboro’.—
1 Rhomb-porphyry.
Hutton Bushell, Vale of Pickering—In gravel-pit at east end of
village.
1 Rhomb-porphyry.

Wykeham, Vale of Pickering.—In sand-pit behind the Downe Arms
Hotel.

Cheviot porphyrite ; Lias.

Seamer.—In glacial gravel in pit contiguous to railway station.

Rhomb-porphyry ; Cheviot porphyrite; basalt ; red granite, magnesian lime-
stone (Roker type); Carboniferous limestone; black flint Lias; and
much sandstone from local sources.

Etton, near Beverley.—In strong Boulder Clay at east end of the
village.

Cheviot porphyrite (several varieties).
Greywacke sandstone; Lias, &c.

Gardham, near Beverley.—A shallow pit in chalky gravel west of the
village contained a few foreign pebbles, among which Cheviot porphyrites
were predominant. Basalt-Carboniferous limestone was also noted.

By Tuomas SHEpparD, Lsq., L.G.S.
Meaux, near Beverley.— ‘

Rhomb-porphyry ; Cheviot porphyrite; Carboniferous limestone and sand-
stone; Lias.

By J. W. Sraturr, £sq., F.G.S.

Leconfield, near Beveriey.—In old gravel-pit east of Pump Bridge.
Gravel consisting of chalk with a few foreign pebbles, chiefly Cheviot
porphyrites and greywacke sandstone.

Cherry Burton, near Beverley.—Chalk capped with 8 feet of Boulder
Clay half-mile east of station. Among the pebbles of non-local rocks in
the clay Cheviot porphyrites greatly preponderate. Basalts are also
plentiful. Greywacke sandstone and Lias were also noted.

Bartindale Farm, near North Burton.—¥ifty yards east of house.

Basalt, 4 ft. by 3 ft. by 8 ft.
Grindale-on-the- Wolds.—Many boulders occur in this neighbourhood,

and a pavement has been made of them at Field Spring. LBasalts are the
most common,

288 REPORT—1901.

Dimlington.—

1 Dolerite, Eycott Hill.
1 Gabbro, Carrock Fell.

Ferriby Common, near Hull.—Chalky gravel in a small pit on the
Humber side contains a small percentage of foreign rocks, including
rhomb-porphyry ; basalt ; Carboniferous limestone.

Thornton Dale, Vale of Pickering.—In the cutting east of the station,
through beds mapped as glacial, no trace of foreign rocks seen ; all local
Oolite.

By F. F. Watton, £.G.8.
Hornsea.—
1 Volcanic breccia, 4 in. by 3 in. by 8 in., identical with boulders found in

stream at Dunmail Raise, Cumberland.
1 Quartz porphyry (Armboth Dyke), 4 in. by 3 in. by 3 in.

SCOTLAND.

AYRSHIRE.

Reported by P. F. Kennau, F.G.S.

A nodular dolerite closely resembling boulders found in Western
Lancashire and Cheshire forms many boulders on the shore at Shalloch,
one mile south of Girvan. The boulders appear rather less numerous
at Girvan, and at West Kilbride only one has been found.

Boulders of the Ailsa Craig Riebeckite-eurite are very abundant
viong the coast from Girvan to Ballantrae, but I have not found it at
West Kilbride.

Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Mr. J. E. Marr (Chairman), Dr. WHEELTON
Hinp (Secretary), Mr. F. A. Batuer, Mr. G. C. Crick, Dr.
A. H. Foorp, Mr. H. Fox, Professor E. J. Garwoop, Dr. G. J.
HInDE, Professor P. F. Kenpauu,- Mr. J. W. Kirksy, Mr. R.
Kipston, Mr. G. W. LampiuGu, Professor G. A. Lesour, Mr.
B. N. Prac, Mr. A. Srranan, and Dr. H. Woopwarp. (Drawz:
up by the Secretary.)

THE suggestions of the Secretary, published in the last report of the Com-
mittee, that the faunas of (a) the beds which occur between the Millstone
Grits and the Massif of Limestone in the South Pennine area, and (bd)
the faunas which occur in the shales between the Millstone Grits and the
upper beds of Limestone in the North Pennine area should be examined,
was carried out by placing a collector in the Pendle district and one also at
Hawes. The Committee have been most fortunate in obtaining the skilled
services of Messrs. Rhodes and Tait, collectors on the Staff of the Geo-
logical Survey, while on vacation, and Mr. Rhodes has collected. in the
beds between the Underset Limestone and the Millstone Grits around
Hawes, and Mr. Tait has collected in the beds between the Clitheroe and
Chipping, inliers of Massif Limestone and the Millstone Grits.

LIFE-ZONES IN THE CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS. 289

Mr. Rhodes has sent several sections shown by the streams examined by
him, which are appended, and the fossils he has collected are shown in
tabular form. The results of Mr. Tait’s collecting are also shown in tabular
form, and a comparison of the two sets of fossils is most instructive ; for
while Mr. Rhodes’ specimens are all members of the fauna of the
Carboniferous Limestone, in the Pendleside fauna only a few Brachio-
pods are common to it and the Carboniferous Limestone.

The work done by these collectors largely confirms the results ex-
pressed in the paper read before the Geological Society last February by
the Secretary to this Committee and Mr. J. A. Howe, which has just
appeared in the ‘Quarterly Journal’ of the Society. Mr. Tait has traced
the Pendleside fauna over a wider extent of country locally. Lately the
writer has obtained this fauna, at the same horizon, in North Stafford-
shire and Derbyshire. It is an interesting fact that he has this year
obtained Chenocardiola (Lunulacardium) Footii and Posidonomya mem-
branacea in these beds, hitherto only known from the Upper Limestone
shales of Ireland.

The great point of interest in Mr. Rhodes’ collection is the finding in
Edendale of many species, hitherto only found in the shales of the Car-
boniterous Limestone series of Scotland: Parallelodon semicostatum,
Nucula luciniformis, N. oblonga, Nuculana levistriata, Protoschizodus
impressus, Cypricardella anne, C. rectangularis, Sanguinolites plicatus.
S. variabilis, Sedgwickia scotica, Entolium Sowerbyi, Euomphalus carbon-
arius, Hyalostelia parallela, and Serpulites membranacea.

This fact is important as an aid to correlation of the Limestone series
of Scotland with portions of the Carboniferous series of England.

The Cephalopoda have been submitted to Dr. Foord and Mr. Crick, the
Sponges to Dr. G. J. Hinde, the Crustacea to Dr. H. Woodward. The
Secretary has determined the Lamellibranchiata and Brachiopoda.

Dr. A. H. Foord reports about the Cephalopoda sent from Mr. Rhodes’
series : ‘ They clearly represent an horizon high up in the Carboniferous,
i.e., that of the Upper Limestone group of the Scottish Carboniferous
Limestone series. The species I particularly refer to are Orthoceras
sulcatum (Flem.), Cyrtoceras (Meloceras) rugosum (Flem.).’ The Lamelli-
branchiata and small Gasteropoda strongly confirm this view. Atthe same
time the absence of the Pendleside fauna both in Scotland and the North
of England is important. The typical Cephalopoda and Lamellibranchiata
of this group have not yet been found as a fauna where the Scotch type
of fauna occurs. The Pendleside fauna has been obtained in beds of the
same series at several places in 8.W. Yorkshire, N. Staffordshire, Cheshire,

‘Derbyshire, and Co. Dublin, and the characteristic zone-forms appear to
be: Glyphioceras reticulatum, G'. bilingue, G. spirale, Dimorphoceras
Gilbertson, G. Loonyi, Gastrioceras carbonarius, G. Listeri, Orthoceras
Steimhaurei, Aviculopecten papyraceus, Posidonomya Becheri, P. mem-
branacea, P. corrugata, Posidoniella levis and P. minor, Nuculana stilla,
Schizodus antiguus, Chenocardiola Footii, Leiopteria longirostris, Macro-
cheilina Gibsoni, M. reticulata, M. elegans.

It is interesting to note that Mr. Rhodes found Productus giganteus
and P. latissimus as high as the Main Limestone in the Hawes district,
and that he obtained P. gigantews and Chetetes septosus with Lithostro-
tion plentifully 33 feet over the Hardraw Scar Limestone at Mill Gill,
Asgrigg, and I have lately obtained all three in the Main Limestone of
Weardale.

1901. U

290 REPORT—1901.

List of Sections from which Mr, Ruovus collected.

A

Notes onSection A. Far Cote Gill. 1-in. Survey, Sheet 40. 6-in. Sheet 36.
Westmorland. Beds seen from base of Underset Limestone to Crow

Limestone.
f Ft. In,
Ganister . . . 3 ' see: PRR 0)
: U. Limestone. ) Thickness, say : 2 Sb 0
40-98 . “| . Hard dark calcareous shale on impure Limestone top of
U.L. 4 . : : . 4 0
Blue shale ‘with “Tronstone “nodules y 3 5 5 74 DEO.
Rotted sandy shale, about , ; Men eTuO
Sandstone false-bedded, with sandy shale, about - . 15 0
Main Limestone disturbed. ? Thickness ; é eee O
Top of above not seen < f . 5 A S : go
Fossils from upper
foot (10-fathom ! Impure grey flaggy Limestone - ; 3 5 eee)
Grit), 1-39.
Dark unfossiliferous sandy shales and sandstones . .250 0
LitTLe LIMESTONE, grey Gyeiine Limestone, traces
of encrinites . : Ape al)
Grey chert streaked with black, sponge spicules : ens KO
Thin nodular bed. ? Phosphatic i avcOvis
GO=ns ’ . Blue shale with Ironstone nodules and pyrites 6 0
B

Little Limestone, Smithy Gill. EB. slope of Swarth Fell. 1-in. Sur-
vey, Sheet 40. Westmorland.

Ft. In.
UNDERSET Limu- Blue Grey Limestone, with chert nodules . . spirnGat0
STONE.
Productus gigan- | Coral Limestone (turbinate Corals) . ° 20
teus. } 5 (Lithostrotion ? junceum), varies from 1 to3 0
Grey blue Limestone 5 é 6 0
? Several feet covered . - : 4 : : : —
Top bed seen in Gill bed . E hem2inO
Grey and black chert bed, with sponge spicules . - 20
Rotted shales . ° ee LOO
Covered. ? Feet 3 é : 2 ‘ . cs —_
Sandstone false-bedded . : C : n : . 140

Productus gigan-
teus, very rare ; , £ q ; we ae met
Enh dinette Main LIMESTONE. ? Thickness, but probabJy notmore 20 0
turbinate Corals

Top showing in stream

Rotted. ? Calc. shales 2 0
: Rotted shale 8 0
ate pee LITTLE LIMESTONE, impure grey Limestone . ripe
Rotted shale . =. 226. 90)

Sandy shale and sandstones directly resting on above . ~

Cc
Goodham Gill. LE. slope of Swarth Fell. 1-in. Survey, Sheet 40.
6-in. Sheet 49. Yorkshire. U. Limestone. Base not seen.

Ft. In,
UNDERSET LIME- Coral reef seen and collected from, about : ° a

STONE. Other part of Limestone obscure . ; . ; : =

LIFE-ZONES IN THE CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS,

Fossils from top
foot.

Fossils ;: ‘

Productus gigan-

teus. Very rare.

LITTLE LIME-

STONE scries.

Fossils, e ~

Fossils? , A

Goodham Gill Sections.—From Underset Limestone to probable Base of

UNDERSET LIME-
STONE,

MAIN LIMESTONE

Ft.
Hard grey silicious shale on Limestone . “ A eee |
Soft shale covered in little waterfall ‘ ri!
\ Hard silicious flaggy shale ° ° : 3
Grey crystalline Limestone . 1
Grey and darker chert bed, with sponge spicules 3
Limestone bluish grey . : : ; A (0)
Dark chert spicules . ‘ 5 = : : 0
Black chert spicules . ; : * 1
Hard blue silicious Limestone . 1
About 10 feet of beds covered . : Te kO
Calcareous shales at base of second waterfall at gorge shoe
Dark sandy shale (micaceous) with lenticles of sandstone 25
False-bedded sandstone 5 . 5 5 A eae
\ MAIN LIMESTONE . a - - 5 . . . 230
Calcareous shales, thin band rotted P : : w 0
Marked shale, probably . c . ‘ : oe 4
Dark calcareous shale (flaggy). 6
Impure Limestone, with silicious bands and encrinite
ossicles . F 5 u!
Hard grey Limestone, with encrinite ossicles : 2
Shale black and micaceous - ? 5 ; . :
False-bedded sandstone . - c : : : ee
Dark sandy shale, with pyrites . : 4
Sandy shale, false-bedded sandstone ripple- -marked at
top : ‘ : . . 40
Calcareous sandstone, marine band . - 1
Rotted sandy shale . 2
Crow Limestone, grey crystalline Ei, traces of encrinite
ossicles . di : a
Hard silicious flaccy shale with Cauda Galli . 3
Blue shale, over above not seen in junction, but higher
up stream 4 feet seen, and yielding Ironstone nodules 4
Above this sandy micaceous shales, probably with occa-
sional Ironstone nodules : 2 “ “| : . 60

Millstone Grit.

U. Limestone . . . : 325
Hard grey silicious shale top of U. Te

Soft shale shown under bed of stream !
Hard silicious flaggy shale (fossils) . : 5
Grey crystalline Limestone

Grey and dark chert bed, with Feo ge spicules
Limestone bluish grey . -
Dark chert (sponge spicules) . :

Black chert a s .

Blue hard silicious Limestone . : é

About 10 feet of beds covered .

Calcareous shales base of waterfall (fossils) “1
Dark sandy shales, with some flaggy sandstone near top 25

—
WORHOOWHwWHE

False bedded sandstones to base of Main Limestone . 20
MAIN L. (with occasional Productus giganteus and Corals) ? 30
Calcareous shale i i ‘ c : Fyfe rth)

? About 4 feet of shales. ? Covered :
Hard dark silicious shales : ‘ ‘
Limestone with silicious bands 5

Hard grey Limestone with encrinite ossicles

eH

o oO OO cO90O SF2ORASCS Coa CG oceoceocoancorm CcooF

291

eccoooanocoooocoeoanacorocococ:

292 REPORT—1901.

Ft. In.
Shale black and micaceous , 0 c c a. SL 6
Sandstone false-bedded . Z 2 : : c & 27
Dark sandy shales with pyrites ‘ é fs oe 46
Hard grit on sandstone bed 2 6
Sandy micaceous shales with lenticles of sandstone in
upper part . 8 0
Sandstone more or less false- bedded and ripple- marked
in upper part = C é .2?30 0
Calcareous grit (?) fossiliferous ‘ : 5 et
Rotted shale. : Z . : 4 pete 0)
Blue-grey silicious Limestone . ° ° . =) Smee
LITTLE LimE-< Hard silicions flaggy Limestone . S ; 3 Agierbae
STONE. Hard silicious shale with Cauda Galli. é Arey a oC)
Shales with Ironstone nodules rotted. ? About om, LOO
About 14 feet of shales covered. ? Same as above . 14 0
Dark micaceous sandy shales (iron nodules) 60 ©
Dark and more sandy shales with one or two flagey
bands in upper part and irregular calcareous sandstone
masses . 40 0
Irregular flacoy sandstone ripple- -marked, ‘and with
annelid tracks 2 2d tO
Massive grit with ganister- like top, rootlets in n top beds ? eS 0
Shale-rotted 24 0
Impure nodular Limestone band with cyprids 0 6
Blue rotted shales with some Ironstone nodules 2720 0
Grey ganister (rootlets), about 3 0 4
Coal seam, silicified (?), 6 in. to 1 ft. ne St = Gi
Hard silicious flaggy beds with fossils Fe ed)
? Base of Millstone Grit . : ‘ : ae ny
D A “
Luna's Gill Sections,
: Ft. In,
UNDERSET IIME- U. Limestone . 2 70

STONE. Dark blue flaggy silicious Limestone (fossils) . : 2 he
Grey and black chert ; ? ; :
Grey silicious Limestone .
Blue chert :
Grey silicious Limestone .
Blue Limestone . : : :
Caleareous shales. ? Spirifera glabra common
Blue shale with Ironstone nodules :
Dark sandy shale with Ironstone nodules <
Dark sandy shale passing up into sandstones .
Fa}se-bedded sandstones .
MAIN LIMESTONE MAIN LIMESTONE grey and compact lower part
* middle part coarsely encrinital .
upper part compact encrinital ;
Sandy shales and flagstones, flags ripple-marked . 20 to
Ganister-like grit
LITTLE LIMESTONE blue (small encrinite ossicles) .
Dark silicious flaggy beds with Cauda Galli
LITTLE Lims- 4 Rusty layer glauconitic, and containing ? calcareous

toh hewn e
Rice OKO OoONnDRWe HOF Ab

STONE. sponge spicules . 2 : : : : : a OQ
Silicious shales : ; : : ‘ Ppa

Blue shale with Ironstone nodules 3 ; e . sO

Sandy shales with Ironstone nodules 5 : . « ad

Sandy shales with some thin flags in upper part. 30

SCooon “aos oocoscocopooaonasooSe

Dark sandy shales and flags interbedded, @) Probably . . 100

LIFE-ZONES IN’ THE CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS. 293

E

Cartmere Gill, E. Baugh Fell, Grisedale. 1 in. Sheet 40, 6-in. Sheet 49.

LITTLE

STONE,

Yorkshire.
Ft. In;

LIME- JL. Limestone. Blue Limestone a « A ‘ r

Dark shales

2 6
| Black and grey silicious beds . . ; : 4 on O
Crow Limestone (encrinital Limestone) . : * =| oO

F

Round Ing Gill, Grisedale. Sheet 40, 1-in. Sheet 498 6-inch

Map. Yorkshire.

Ft. In
MAIN LIMESTONE . : . . ‘ . A
Calcareous shale 3 0
Blue shale : : see. O
Hard flagey silicious Limestone beds. - + nO
Dark sandy shale. 5 4 : : 4 - meas O
Sandstone. : : eet - ee
Litre LIMESTONE not seen, ;
The thick sandy shale banks not in good position for
working.
G
Fluot Gill, Grisedale. 1-in. Sheet 40. 6-in. Sheet 498. Yorkshire.
Ft. In.
MAIN LIMESTONE . o?25 0
Sandy shales and sandstones. "Sandstone ripple- -marked 25.) O
LITTLE Limestonr. Blue compact Limestones (on
sandstone) - : - 2 : . pre GO
Hard cherty Limestone : "i A dee : 5 he O
Cherty shale not clear. es : : ar von O
Rotted shales, mostly covered . a2: 0
Sandy shales with fossils (and Ironstone nodules) . 270), 0
Calcareous sandstone masses and thin flags and Shales . 25 0
Sandy micaceous shales . : < .210 0
Impure Limestone not in place—slipped Qa "represents
Crow LIMESTONE) . fa : 5 ‘ : 0
Section over H.S. Limestone.—Mill Gill above Mill Gill Loree,
Askrigg. 6 in 66, N.E." Yorkshire Section above Hardra Scar
Limestone.
Ft. In.
HARDRA SCAR LIMESTONE, probably . : . 60 0
Calcareous shale (encrinite ossicles) ° OL 6
Thin calcareous band weathering brownish red : 0 2
Blue shale 3 ° Te
Irregular sandstone and sandy ‘shale partings . 5 Suto)
Carbonaceous shale with coaly streaksand plantremains 1 0
Grit band with plant impressions . A . . 0 6
Carbonaceous shale, plant remains . . : . tn ALLS,
Blue shale ; . eG
Fossils, . . Calcareous band, with parts Limestone Corals, &e. . LO
Hard compact hydraulic Limestone . 2 0
Hard shale band (? with Posidonomya not well preserv ed) 0 2
Hard compact hydraulic Limestone* , . . 2 0

994, REPORT—1901.

Mr. Rhodes’ collecting in the Hawes Area.—-Table A.

A—Farcote Gill. | E—Cartmere Gill

B—Smith’s Gill. ¥—Round Ing Gill $ Grisedale.
C—Goodham Gill. | G—Fluot Gill 2

D—Lund’s Gill. H—Nine Standards Fell, Faraday Gill.

The Cephalopoda have been determined by Dr. A. H. Foord; Sponges by Dr. G. J.
Hinde; the other specimens by Dr. W. Hind,

| Be)
: 2 =| oe
ae i) 8 KS } =
ec es ce ee lee ec eo
a ee a | m 4 3 | 85
5 2 ® q 1s oD e = =|
& a "2 a = A BS
) = 4 & 3
Q
Porifera
Hyalostelia parallela GHIgoR) — == — = == — E
Hexactinellid spicules . — A a pp DT a ee
Monactinellid spicules. .| — FN eal am telco Re || 19) (0,
Tetractinellid spicules . ; |
Echinodermata | |
Crinoid joints Selle ene ere D == So = = E
Annelida
Serpulites membranacea |
(QIL@oy) ey eee |e A — | A = | ee
Arthropoda
Entomoconchus Scouleri .| C
Polyzoa |
Glauconome grandis . =
Fenestella . C A
Polypora dendroides CM: Coy) =
Brachiopoda
Athyris ambigua C — |— = = = H
» planosuleata C AC
» eXpansa = D
Camarophoria elobulina C Fit = iy
Chonetes laguessiana . C — — | AF) B
Dielasma gillengensis Cc
» hastata C
Discina nitida —— —_ — A = H
Lingula squamiformis . =| Ae DD eee cee ee
” mytiloides D — AF -— — C
Orthis resupinata . i D
Productus aculeatus Craw
5 ciganteus AB CW — Si Abe
0 longispinus . C CoD | = F
: scabriculus . ao — — = a= = C
5 semireticulatus Cc NOD) — r BC — CH
a punctatus C AC | — — _— — H
undatus ma) eee = — A
Retzia radialis — = Sam oe)
Rhynchonella acuminata C
e pleurodon = | AOC) — 7A Po B Cc
Spirifer crassus 6 De C C uh
» glaber C D = = = Cc
a lineatus . Cc ACS = C |
» ovalis _— C — = |= — |CH
ae trigonalis. Sy) {G10} — |A(F?)) BC
a striatus — _ = A |

LIFE-ZONES IN THE CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS.

295

Mr. Rhodes’ collecting in the Hawes Area.—Table A (continued).

Streptorhynchus crenistria

Lamellibranchiata
Aviculopecten :
9 segregatus
Sp.
Entolium Sowerbyi
Leiopteria lunulata
Pinna mutica
Pleronites angustatus
Cypricardella anne ;
5 rectangularis .
Ctenodonta levirostri is.
Edmondia Maccoyi

Pa sulcata.
” Tose
ay unioniformis ?
oF Lyelli .
Lithodomus annie
Myalina
Nucula gibbosa
7 luciniformis
45 oblonga
Nuculana attenuata
3 levistriata
Parallelodon reticulatum
aS semicostatum
Protoschizodus axiniformis
an impressus
Sanguinolites angustatus
5 plicatus .
me tricostatus
variabilis

”
Scaldia Benedeniaria
Sedgwickia scotica
Solenomya primeva
Gasteropoda
Euomphalus carbonarius
Natica plicistria -
Bellerophon decussatus var.
striatus
a Urei .
Cephalopoda
Cyrtoceras (Meloceras) rugo-
sum .
Orthoceras cf. Morrisianum
-F) sulcatum
Pleuronautilus nodosocari-
natus : .
Vestinautilus sp. .
Incerte sedis
Conodonts (fragmentary) .

| ; : ey:

eealb cel der. eo lle |. 2.) 28

He} 2] $/ 8] ¢g/ 2 |e

22 2 | n J a le

g 2 3 a 3 By laces

E Q 3 -Q = Q BS
| 52

isa)

= — — F BE — CH

— — — A — GD

D C A

AC

he Ts | D

= Ge: |

ae |

Ng fay

Se rasan | Ply | ee eee

cone ae ee es:

— -- — Cr

ae Eg |g | em ree a DD Ce

BG,

ae

sth ted! Wie a ne Mg

— — — F

SEN Tie

FE) ANRC ee Sa hee eee ee

DI ey A atc Ne PB hal i a 6 0h

Se Cte) |e he eee ee

REN ES Nike CRE I

— — — — B

et) E

Pg ay ee Ry

| SE LF esd Tye

ecw"

i ee Pe Fa a

ne HG

2S fe eee eh ae See

SAT ess | Rae es

Ears

PA ANT:

Bec ad eee F

Ts hoa Rea

ile eerie gt! BEA ee ee

Sry) Mhse-| + ee on earns

— — — C

Sled A |e > >| 5 ema ae

See A, |, 2-1 ree

Oe a a eo

S35) |S > SE es

296 REPORT—1901.

Pendie Hill Area, Mr. Tait's collecting —Table B.

= = i) 5
Sa | a | a 3 s = ae
2 | Ge) 2) se) 3E | ee! s | ae
a Face) cats a!) Sig lee a Ha
= so |aa| s¢| ge | oe] Sel g | ae
3 | s2| 28/88/38) aa] & | am
ay Arm ar 1S) = ic
Plante
Lepidodendron vett-
heimianum . a lip os
Asterocalamites scro-
biculatus : 5 - |
Crustacea
Ceratiocaris sp. . : i
Corals
Zaphrenties Ennis-
killeni? . 6 . * *
Brachiopoda
Athyris ambigua cs * * *
Chonetes laguessiana % | *
Lingula mytiloides a SI |
Orthis Michelini arn |
Productus cora . Salt Bo | /
; punctatus. | * |
= scabriculus a
3 semireticu- | |
latus. bie y | alee
Rhynchonellatrilatera| * | | |
Spirifer (fragments) . e | Nese
Streptorhynchus cre-
nistria . - : “es ‘ *
Lamellibranchiata
Actinopteria persul-
cata 5 : : re =
Aviculopecten Decheni, * S * *
Pterinopecten
(Aviculopecten) pa-
pyraceus . é ms *
Ctenodonta levirostris ba >
Myalina peralata . th ei seat | |
Pusidonella levis : ~ - | es eo RSE *
F minor . ou fee
Posidonomya Becheri faites [ee hen Me naan | ai * * *
+ corrugata a) scala | |
5 mem- |
branacea nee
Solenomya costellata . |
Cephalopoda |
Glyphioceras bilingue| * *
s reticulatum 3 cr * * *
Orthoceras cf. Morrisia-
num . j ; ; = * *
Prolecanites compressus) * ,
¥y serpentinus a *? *?

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS, 297

The Structure of Crystals.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor N. Story MaskeLtyne (Chairman), Professor H. A.
Miers (Secretary), Mr. L. FLETcHER, Professor W. J. SoLuas,
Mr. W. Bartow, Mr. G. F. Herpert Smit, and the Earl of
BERKELEY, appointed to report on the Present State of our Know-
ledge concerning the Structure of Crystals. (Drawn up by Mr.
Bartow and Professor Mirrs, assisted by Mr. HERBERT SMITH.)

Part I.

Report on the Development of the Geometrical Theories of
Crystal Structure, 1666-1901.

Tue problem of the structure of a crystal presents itself under two aspects ;
it involves the consideration (1) of the material which constitutes the
erystal, and (2) of the manner in which this material is put together. To
the first part of the inquiry belong all speculations and observations which
relate to the nature of the crystal unit: as to whether it be a chemical
molecule or an aggregation of chemical molecules; what may be its
dimensions and regularity or irregularity ; and what forces co-operate to
fix its position and orientation.

It might reasonably be supposed that this part of the inquiry should
precede that which relates to the arrangement of the material. In reality,
however, very little is known about the actual nature of the ultimate
particles of matter in the solid state, and much more is known about the
manner in which it must be arranged. For, as the study of crystals has
progressed, it has been found that their morphological and physical
regularity results from the fact that they are homogeneous ; both the law
of rational indices, which regulates the disposition of the faces of a
erystal, and the eolotropism, which regulates its physical characters, are
in harmony with the geometrical properties of a homogeneous structure.

Now the distribution of the material in a homogeneous structure may
be studied as a geometrical problem quite independently of the nature of
the material, for it may be treated as the problem of the homogeneous
partitioning of space (see below, p. 310).

The present portion of the report, therefore, deals exclusively with
the geometrical theory of the homogeneous partitioning of space, or (what
comes to the same thing) the homogeneous repetition of identical parts in
a uniform structure ; a side of the subject which seems to have reached
something like finality.

A second part will be concerned with the nature of the ultimate par-
ticles and with the possible arrangements corresponding to actual
substances, a side of the subject which presents considerable difficulty and
may be said to be still in its infancy.

In order to put before the reader a clearer and more satisfactory idea
of the present state of our knowledge, the historical development of the
subject is sketched below, and the more important contributions to this
development are discussed in detail. It will thus be perceived that con-
tinual progress has been made towards aclearer comprehension of the possible
ways in which the homogeneous repetition of parts may take place, each

598 REPORT—1901.

advance being suggested or confirmed by the knowledge obtained from the
investigation of the morphological and physical characters of crystals.
Since the means at our disposal do not admit of the proof of the existence
of similarly repeated parts in crystals by direct observation, any such
proof must necessarily be indirect, and, to be conclusive, the properties of
homogeneous structures mathematically deducible must be shown to be
in complete harmony with those actually observed in crystals.

Early Views.

Many of the physical properties of matter may be explained without
any idea of structure or grain, and some physicists have so defined homo-
geneity ;1 but such definitions merely ignore and do not preclude the
conception of a homogeneous repetition of definite parts.? Indeed,
the call for such a conception seems imperative. Without structure it
would be difficult, for example, to explain the striking polarity displayed
by such a mineral as tourmaline. From considerations based upon known
facts in physics and chemistry, it has been shown that the dimensions
of the atoms, or, perhaps, the distances between their centres, though
extremely small, must lie within definite limits.?

That by the packing together of similar bodies artificial systems may
be obtained whose symmetry of form closely resembles that of certain
crystals was perceived nearly two-and-a-half centuries ago by Robert
Hooke from a study of the forms presented by alum. Thus he says:
‘I think, had I time and opportunity, I would make probable, that all
these regular Figures, that are so conspicuously various and curious .. .
arise only from two or three positions or postures of Globular particles,
and those the most plain, obvious and necessary conjunctions of such
figur’d particles that are possible. . . . And this I have ad ocuwlum demon-
strated with a company of bullets and some few other very simple bodies ;
so that there was not any regular Figure, which I have hitherto met
withal, of any of those bodies that I have above named, that I could not
with the composition of bullets or globules and one or two other bodies,
imitate, even almost by shaking them together.’ 4

Just after Hooke had put forward his idea, evidence of the regularity
of crystal structure was supplied by the observation of Nicolaus Steno,°

1 Cf. the definitions given by Biot in ‘Mémoire sur la Polarisation lamellaire,’
Mém. Acad. Sci., 1842, xviii. p. 633, and by Thomson and Tait in Watural Philo-
sophy, § 675.

2 The following definition of a crystal, based exclusively on physical behaviour,
was first enunciated by Groth: ‘ A crystal is a homogeneous solid body whose elasti-
city differs in different directions within it’ (Ber. d. Berliner Ak., 1875, p. 549). As
Schénflies remarks, it is now generally admitted that the constancy of the crystal
substance is revealed by its physical properties rather than by its external form, the
latter being indeed more or less fortuitous and dependent on the conditions of growth
(see Schéntlies Krystallsysteme und Krystallstructur, p. 5).

3 Lord Kelvin (Sir W. Thomson), Watwre, 1870, vol. i. pp. 551-553, reprinted
Appendix F, ‘ Natural Philosophy,’ by Thomson and Tait. It is interesting to note
that certain of Jordan’s groups of movements, in which some of the minimum dis-
tances separating similarly repeated ultimate parts are infinitesimally small as
compared with the others, are incompatible with the symmetry of actual crystal
forms, 7.c., forms obeying the law of rational indices (see below, p. 312).

* Micrographia, London, 1665, p. 85.

5 De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis prodromus, Florentiz,
1669 (English translation, London, 1671).

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. 299

that the mutual inclinations of corresponding faces of rock-crystal are
the same in different specimens.

It was seen that the property of cleavage also points to the uniform
repetition throughout a crystal of a definite structure of some kind, and
various suggestions as to the forms of ultimate particles were based upon
the cleavage. Thus Guglielmini,! who also studied the forms of alum,
‘argued the existence of plane faces for these particles, and attributed
crystal forms to them. ‘This observer, relying on the uniformity of
internal structure, was the first to affirm that crystals of the same sub-
stance must always cleave in the same directions. Westfeld ? suggested
that cale-spar is composed of rhombohedral particles. The latter idea
was adopted and extended by Gahn and Bergmann,’ who thus anticipated
the general theory of crystal structure put forth by the Abbé Haiiy,
to which reference will be made immediately.

Shortly prior to Haiiy we have the important discovery made by
Romé de I’Isle ‘ that the various shapes of crystals of the same natural or
artificial product are all intimately related to each other, and can be
derived from a certain fundamental figure called the primitive form, the
shape and angles of which are proper to the substance. The variety of
form is due to the variety of the secondary faces. De l’Isle himself
seems to have supposed that the secondary faces have absolutely arbitrary
positions, except so faras they are fixed by symmetry of mere external
form. His work, by directing attention to the invariable nature of the
erystal substance, and to the striking contrast between this invariability
and the variety of external form which may be exhibited by the same
body, supplemented the evidence in the same direction afforded by
optical and physical properties.°

Haiiy.

It is now rather more than a century since René Just Haiiy sug-
gested an intimate relation between the forms of crystals and the arrange-
ment of their ultimate parts, and thus placed the study of crystal structure
on a sure foundation. The stimulus given to research by his labours has
been enormous ; multitudes of facts supporting his principal conclusions
have been accumulating ever since his day ; and it is not too much to say
that nearly all the subsequent work on the subject has been but an expan-
sion or modification of the work done by him.

Haiiy bases his conclusions as to the nature of the crystal unit, or
molecule, entirely on the phenomena of cleavage. In any given crystal
which displays this property he determines the shape of the similar poly-
hedra which would be obtained by separating the mass along cleavage
planes into a number of similar fragments, each set of parallel planes of
cleavage being equally spaced throughout. For example, cleavage
parallel to the faces of a cube leads to cubic fragments ; that parallel to
the faces of a hexagonal prism to fragments which are triangular prisms

1 Riflessioni filosofiche dedotte dalle figure de sali, Bonon. 1688, and De salibus
dissertatio epistolaris, Venet. 1705.

2 Mineralogische Abhandlungen, Stiick I. Gottingen u. Gotha, 1767.

% «Variew crystallorum forma Spato orte’in Mov. Acta Reg. Soc. Sc. Upsal.,
1773, i., and ‘ De formis crystallorum ’ in Opusc. Upsala, 1780, ii. F

* Essai de Cristallographie, Paris, 1772. Cristallographie, ou description des
_ formes propres & tous les corps du regne minéral, Paris, 1783.
5 Schonflies, Krystallsysteme u. Krystallstructur, p. 5.

300 REPORT—1901,

(fig. 1). The units thus obtained, which he calls molécules intégrantes,!
belong, he finds, to one of three simple kinds: they are in some cases
tetrahedra, in others triangular prisms, in the remaining cases parallele-
pipeda,”? and their form is found by observation to be invariable for a
given kind of mineral. He considers that if the process in question does
not furnish the precise shapes of the actual crystal molecules, it at least
pictures to us a representative analysis of crystal structure which is
worthy to stand for the actual facts, and enables us to correlate them.‘
A further partitioning of the molécules intégrantes is, indeed, suggested,
which would assign a definite relative position in space to the elements
forming a chemical compound,’ but the chemical atoms (molécules élémen-
taires) of various kinds thus supposed to have distinct places in the crystal
substance, and to be of definite and constant form, are not made the
subject of investigation. The molécules intégrantes are supposed to result
from the regular combination of the latter to form a single kind of unit
or molecule, and these alone form the basis of Haiiy’s theory of crystal
structure.

Adopting the idea put forward by Romé de l’Isle of the existence in
every crystal of a primitive form,® or nucleus, Haiiy supposes that this
nucleus consists of a considerable number of molécules intégrantes,’ and
that the primary faces of a crystal are the outcome of regular accretion
upon the faces of the nucleus. Secondary crystal faces are those not
parallel to the cleavages, and these are explained by supposing that the
successive layers deposited on each face of the primary nucleus do not
overlap preceding layers sufficiently to yield merely an enlarged figure of
the same shape as the nucleus, but, failing short of this in a regular
manner, form by their boundaries planes which truncate the edges or
corners of the enlarged figure referred to.* He points out, however, that
since microscopic crystals have as complete a complement of faces as those
of larger growth, the modification by which the structure acquires new faces
must be an initial one, which takes place once for all, subsequent growth
being the result of accretion upon secondary and primary faces alike.?

In cases where the molécules intégrantes are parallelepipeda this
mapping out of secondary face directions by the edges bordering suc-
cessive layers where the boundaries of added layers fall short at edges or
corners in a regular manner, is easy to follow. In order to explain in a
similar manner the production of new faces, where the molécules in-
tégrantes are tetrahedra or triangular prisms, Haiiy regards these mole-
cules as aggregated to form parallelepipedal groups, which he calls
molécules soustractives.‘° This is, of course, merely a geometrical con-
ception, intended to elucidate the growth of secondary faces by regular
decrease in extent of succeeding layers, and does not refer to any physical
association of the molécules intégrantes to form molécules soustractives ;

1 Traité de Minéralogie, Paris, 1801, i. pp. xiv and 6. 2 Thid., p. 30.
3 Thid., pp. xiv and 20, 29, and 32. 4 Thid., pp. 7 and 31. 5 Tbid., p. 6.
5 Traité de Minéralogie, i. pp. 20 and 28, also p. 481. Haiiy says in another place:
‘ La forme primitive paroit étre le résultat de la crystallisation la plus parfaite dont
un minéral soit susceptible ; mais ce n’est pas toujours celle qui se rencontre le plus
ordinairement’ (Hssai d'une Théorie sur la Structure des Crystaux, Paris, 1784,
. 50).
ae Traité de Minéralogie, i. p. 29. Thus he considers that the primitive form of
tourmaline is a rhombohedron, but that the molécule intégrante is a tetrahedron,
which is the sixth part of such a rhombohedron (see ibid., p. 30).
8 Tbid., p. 34 et seg., also p, 285. ® Ibid., p. 98, W Tha. Pp. ote

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. 801

for the purpose of explaining the production of secondary faces, it enables
all the structures formed by the molécules intégrantes to be regarded as
composed of parallelepipedal units,’ although these may be only geome-
trical fictions.

The hexagonal structure of figs. 1 and 2 may be regarded either as
built up of the molécules intégrantes ABC, which are triangular prisms,
or of the molécules soustractives ABDC, which are rhombic prisms of
120° and 60°.

The crystal may then be regarded as consisting of molécules sous-
tractives, which are parallelepipeda packed together in parallel positions
so as to fill space (fig. 4, p. 305).

The growth of the secondary faces by decrements consisting of whole
numbers of the molécules soustractives leads directly to the great and
fundamental Law of the Rationality of Intercepts. (This Law will be
referred to below under its more familiar name, the Law of Rational
Indices.) The truth of this law Haitiy himself established by the
measurement of a vast number of crystals, and it seemed to carry with
it the justification of his apparently arbitrary theory of their structure.

re: 1 Fi4@.. 2.

It will, however, be found later that an hypothesis of a more general
character leads to the same results.

Put concisely, the objections to Haiiy’s conclusions as to the nature of
the ultimate particles of crystals are the following :—

1. Haiiy has to suppose that crystal surfaces, apparently plane, are
actually corrugated,’ and, if the same be admitted with regard to cleavage
planes, other forms for the molécules intégrantes than those which he
deduces are possible. It is easy to picture a simple case in which the
directions of cleavage would prove a fallacious guide to the determina-
tion of the shape of the ultimate units of a body.

Thus suppose that a number of equal regular hexagonal prisms of
some uniform material are fastened together in a close and regular manner
by a uniform but weak cement, so that the adhesion between the prisms
is much weaker than the cohesion of their substance. It is, then, evident

1 Traité dé Minéralogie, pp. 97 and 284. Comp. Bravais’ conceptions (see below,
p- 306).

2 This law carries with it the exclusion of two of the five regular polyhedra from
the forms possible for crystals, é.¢.,, of the regular pentagonal dodecahedron and the
icosahedron (idid., p. 80). ,

% See his explanation of the occurrence of secondary faces just referred to above,

802 REPORT—1901.

that they will most readily separate along zigzag surfaces whose mean
transverse direction is that of normals to prism faces, e.g., AA’ in fig. 3 ;
and, neglecting the corrugation of these cleavage surfaces, we have three
cleavage directions AA’, BB’, CC’, making angles of 60° with each other.
Thus the hexagonal cleavage would result from a structure consisting of
hexagonal prisms just as well as from one consisting of triangular prisms.
The fact that most of the units which Haiiy obtains, whether molécules
intégrantes or molécules soustractives, display holohedral symmetry
shows that there is room for some wider conception as to the ultimate
nature of the cleavage surfaces.

2. Some of the figures to which cleavage leads are neither parallele-
pipeda which can be packed together as molécwles soustractives, nor other
figures which can be packed together as molécules intéyrantes. The
octahedral cleavage of fluor spar, for example, leads either to octahedra
or tetrahedra not fitting closely together, but with spaces between them.
This incompatibility of the results of the partitioning with the conception
of uniform divisibility into identical plane-faced molecules indicates that

Fic. 3.

&-

the molécules intégrantes as well as the molécules soustractives are mere
geometrical abstractions ; indeed, such probably was the view of Haiiy
himself.

3. Haiiy’s method is not of universal application, since in some crystals
no cleavage planes are discoverable. In such cases supplementary hypo-
theses become requisite.!

Cleavage is, then, an uncertain guide to the determination of the form
of the ultimate particles of crystals. Nevertheless, cleavage led to the
discovery of the law of rational indices, and the conception of parallele-
pipedal units built up into a crystalline structure furnishes at any rate
an explanation of this law, and is in accordance with most of the properties
of crystals, whether it be derived from cleavage or not. Haiiy’s molécules
intégrantes are even more suggestive, in the light of subsequent research,
than his moldcules soustractives, since they reduce the problem of crystal
structure to a problem of partitioning space into similar polyhedra which
are not necessarily parallel. For example, the arrangement of triangular
prisms of fig. 1, which is suggested by cleavage parallel to the faces of an

1 Hatiy, Zraité de Minéralogie, i. p. 27.

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. 303

hexagonal prism, contains two sets of prisms differently orientated. This
case will be alluded to again (see p. 327).

The Space-lattice.

We next come upon investigations based on Haiiy’s conclusions de-
rived from cleavage, but widely differing in essential character from them,
in which this property is found to take quite a subordinate place, and
is treated merely as evidence of internal symmetry, the question of the shape
of the ultimate units having sunk into insignificance. We find, indeed,
that while Haiiy’s discovery of the law of rational indices proved to be
an epoch-making one, his suggestions as to the nature of the ultimate
particles, based on cleavage, came very soon to be treated as merely
diagrammatic, and as expressing more than is justified by the experimental
facts.

Without following Haity in his speculations and arguments, or striking
out any new path of deduction for themselves, Weiss! and Mohs? by
their well known method placed in a far clearer light the ascertained
facts, not only those respecting outward form, but also the optical facts
relating to double refraction. By this time the occurrence of many new
varieties of symmetry had been recognised both on morphological and on
physical evidence ; in particular the existence of the monosymmetric
system had been established, and attempts were being made to classify the
varieties of crystal forms according to their symmetry.

To this period belongs the remarkable work of Hessel,* an investigation
which, though published in 1830, remained overlooked until the year
1891, when it was unearthed by Sohncke.*

Hessel considered the general question of the possible symmetry of
solid plane-faced figures, and then, by imposing the limitation that these
figures should obey Haiiy’s law of rational indices, deduced the result
that only thirty-two types of symmetry are possible for crystals. This
achievement is all the more surprising since, at the time when Hessel
wrote, comparatively few of these thirty-two types had been discovered
in nature. The same important result was independently rediscovered by
Gadolin (1867), to whose methods reference will presently be made.?

In the previous year (1866) Viktor von Lang, in his treatise on
crystallography," had very clearly laid down the principles of crystal

1 <De indagando formarum erystallinarum charactere geometrico principali
dissertatio.’ Lipsix, 1809. ‘Uebersichtliche Darstellung der verschiedenen natiir-
lichen Abtheilungen der Krystallisationssysteme’ (Abhandl. d. Berl. Ak. d. Wissen-
schaft, Phys. Klasse, 1814-15, pp. 289-336).

2 «The characters of the classes, orders, genera, and species; or, the character-
istics of the Natural History System of Mineralogy,’ Edinburgh, 1820. Treatise on
Mineralogy; or the Natural History of the Mineral Kingdom (translated from the
German), Edinburgh, 1825.

. 8 Article ‘Krystall’ in Gehler’s Physikal. Worterbuch, 1830, v. 1023-1340. Also
‘Krystallometrie oder Krystallonomie und Krystallographie.’ Leipzig, 1831, and
reprinted in 2 vols. in Ostwald’s Klass. d. evakt. Wiss., 1897, Nos. 88 and 89.

4 ¢Die Entdeckung des Eintheilungsprincips der Krystalle durch J. ¥’. C. Hessel,’
Zeits. fiir Kryst. Min., 1890, xviii. 486. Comp Groth’s translation of Gadolin’s work
on the same subject, Ostwald’s Alass. d. exakten Wiss., No. 75, p. 86.

5 See below, p. 309.

® Lehrbuch der Krystallographie, Wien, 1866. Thirty years later he shows that
these classes may be obtained on the principles established in this work. Sitztngsb.
Ak. Wien, 1896, cv., IL a, p. 362, and Ann. Phys. Chem., 1896, lyiii.’ pp. 716-724.

804 REPORT—1901.

symmetry, and supplied a method by which the thirty-two classes might
have been deduced.

About the time of Hessel’s discovery an important change of method
was introduced by Seeber,! who did not, like Haiiy, consider the form of
the constituent particles, but confined his attention to the relative situa-
tions of the centres of these particles. According to him the molecules,
which he supposes always to be arranged to form a parallelepipedal net-
work, are separated from each other by intervening spaces. Much the
same ideas were shortly afterwards put forward by Delafosse,? who, like
Seeber, regarded crystals as consisting of molecules regularly arranged in
this manner, but not in contact. The following quotation shows that
the latter uses the property of cleavage merely as an evidence of the
existence of uniform internal symmetry :—

‘Indeed, from the possibility of a cleavage in one particular plane
direction, we can only conclude that the molecules of the crystal, con-
sidered as material points, are distributed on a series of parallel planes ;
if there are two more cleavages in two new directions we deduce, as a
probable consequence, that the molecules must be situated in a uniform
and symmetrical manner, having their centres of gravity at the points of
intersection of these series of parallel planes, and thus present . . . the
picture of a lattice with parallel figured meshes. The molecules make up,
in different directions, rectilinearand parallel threads, in each of which their
centres of gravity are equidistant. Those threads on the same plane are
at equal distances from one another. . . . What Haiiy considers as the
dimensions of this hypothetical molecule are nothing more than the inter-
vals which separate the real molecules in the directions of the edges or
axes of the primitive form.’ ?

Wollaston‘ while, like Hooke, suggesting the presence of spherical
molecules, had already remarked that, in place of the spheres, mathe-
matical points endowed with forces of attraction and repulsion can be
postulated ; Brewster,? Dana,° and Forster? employed very similar
conceptions.

We see, then, that while speculations as to the forms of the ultimate
particles are soon lost sight of, the geometrical idea which survives and is
held in common by various investigators is that crystal structwre consists
in the similar repetition throughout space of identical units without regard
to their shape or constitution. The question of the form of the ultimate
units of crystals, however interesting, has no essential place in a general
investigation which seeks to discover the various ways in which ultimate
parts may be uniformly repeated, 2.e., an inquiry into the various types of
homogeneous structure. The purely geometrical investigation is one
which takes no account of the nature of the physical and chemical
characters of crystals, but nevertheless it is one of the greatest import-
ance even from the physical and chemical point of view, as will be seen
subsequently.

1 ‘Versuch einer Erklarung des innern Baues der festen Koérper’ in Gilbert's
Anndlen der Physik, 1824, Ixxvi. pp. 229-248.

2 «Recherches sur la cristallisation considérée sous les rapports physiques et
mathématiques, MWém. présentées par divers savants a ?Académ. Koy. de Scienc. de
U last. de France, 1843, viii. pp. 621-690.

3 Thid., p 649.

4 Phil. Lrans., 1813, pp. 51-63. 5 Tbid., 1830, pp. 87-95.

6 Silliman’s Amevican Journal, 1836, Series 1, xxx. pp. 275, 296,

7 Phil. Mag., 1855, Series 4, x. pp. 108-115,

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. 305

The general problem of the symmetrical space arrangements available
for crystals was at first supposed to be a comparatively simple one.
Sohncke remarks! that all the various extensions of Haiiy’s theory put
forward by the writers above referred to led to the same conclusion, viz.,
that the arrangement of the middle points of the crystal elements is that
of a parallellepipedal network or ‘ space-lattice’ (Raumgitter),? such as
that shown in fig. 4.

In this simple guise the problem was dealt with exhaustively by
M. L. Frankenheim, who investigated the different kinds of parallelepi-
pedal networks of points (Raumgitter) possible in order to ascertain
whether these correspond to the various types of symmetry presented by
erystals.* He did not, however, at first furnish any rigid proof, and his
classification of the various kinds of symmetry presented is not perfectly
satisfactory : he described fifteen forms as distinct from each other, whereas
in fact there are but fourteen, as was afterwards shown by Bravais. He
states explicitly that the inquiry is founded solely on the symmetrical
arrangement in space of the ultimate particles, and is not based on con-
siderations of the magnitude or the shape of these particles, be they

Fic. 4.

plane-faced like small crystals or rounded ; solid spheres or hollow com-
pressible shells ; or, indeed, mere centres of force. For the purpose of
comparison with the fifteen geometrical systems of points which he has
discriminated he classifies crystals into fifteen systems by taking note of
differences in cleavage direction as well as of differences of crystal form.

The obvious objection to Frankenheim’s treatment of the subject is
that unless some appropriate configuration be attributed to the particles—
and this he expressly disclaims—no hemihedral or hemimorphous forms
are accounted for ; and yet, as pointed out by Delafosse, there is no more
justification for regarding these forms as subsidiary than for so regarding
the holohedral forms.

But none the less the solution of the problem of the possible varieties
of space lattices, and the establishment of the fact that in their symmetry
they correspond to the systems of crystals, marks a very important advance
in the theory of crystal structure.

Sohncke, Lntwichkelung einer Theorie der Krystalistruktur, p. 17.
? See above, p. 304.
* Die Lehre ron der Cohision, Breslau, 1835; also ‘System der Crystalle’ in
“hse f a Acad. Cas. Leopoldino- Caroline Nat, Cur., 1842, xix, (2), pp. 471-660.
x

306 REPORT—1901.

Bravais.

A few years later, Frankenheim’s geometrical investigation was sup-
plied with rigid proofs the elegance and clearness of which have excited
much admiration. These proofs were the work of Auguste Bravais,! who,
moreover, enlarged the scope of the inquiry, and, not confining himself to
ascertaining the possible varieties of parallelepipedal arrangement of the
centres of the ultimate units, proceeded to determine the further varieties
of symmetry which can be discriminated by taking into account the
individual symmetry of these units, 7.c., of the hypothetical atomic group-
ings to which attention had previously been directed by Delafosse. His
work constitutes the first attempt to make a rigid exhaustive investigation
of all the different types or varieties of symmetry obtainabie by arranging
similar bodies or units in space, in a perfectly uniform manner in every
possible way.

Basing his arguments on the homologous nature of parallel lines in a
crystal, and the consequent possibility of distinguishing in it space-units
which are all alike and all similarly situated, and similarly orientated,?
Bravais, like Haiiy, regards every crystal as made up of similar poly-
hedral units or molecules * thus placed, and puts forward what purports
to bea perfectly general treatment of the subject, independent of any hypo-
thesis as to the actual nature of the polyhedral units. He makes, however,
the necessary assumption that these units have a sufficiently symmetrical
shape or configuration to be compatible with the general symmetry of the
system which they constitute. For example, tetrahedral particles placed
to form a cubical space-lattice and appropriately orientated will present
a type of symmetry belonging to the regular system, but particles whose
figure is a hexagonal prism cannot be thus arranged to belong to this
system. Asa secondary matter, adopting the suggestion of Delafosse, he
regards each polyhedron as an actual crystal molecule made up of con-
stituent atoms. It may be noted that this supposition implies a more
intimate relation between the homologous parts of the same unit (poly-
édre) than subsists between the homologous parts of contiguous units,
whereas Haiiy’s theory only really requires that the mass shall be
geometrically divisible into similar and similarly orientated units (molé-
cules soustractives) which may or may not be physical molecules. In
fig. 2, for example, the cell ABCD may represent a molecule, or the
molecules may be supposed to be situated at the points A, B, C, D.

Bravais then discriminates between the symmetry due to the arrange-
ment of the centres in a set of similar bodies, or crystal molecules, having
a uniform disposition and orientation, and the individual symmetry of the
bodies or molecules, and traces the influence of the latter on the symmetry
of the assemblage. Thus he discusses separately :—

1. The variety of types of homogeneous ‘assemblages’ possible, an
assemblage consisting of mathematical points each of which is surrounded
identically by the assemblage as a whole supposed infinitely extended,
and this identity extending to the relative orientation.‘

’ Bravais’ first step was to consider the regular disposition of similar points on a
plane, an inquiry to which he was led by observing the regular arrangement of
similar parts in plants (Compt. Rend., 1848, xxvii. pp. 601-604).

? ‘Mémoire sur les systémes formés par des points distribués régutiérement sur
un plan ou dans Vespace,’ Jowrn. de UEcole Polytech., Paris, 1850, xix. p. 127; also
« ftudes Cristallographiques,’ Journ. de ? Ecole Polytech., Paris, 1851, xx. pp. 102 and

of. * Corresponding to the molécules soustractives of Haiiy. 4 Cf. p. 810,

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. 307

The assemblage of Bravais is therefore clearly identical with the
parallelepipedal network of points already referred to, which had been
investigated by Frankenheim, -

2. The modifications of these types of symmetry which are introduced
by employing, in place of the points, symmetrical figures (polyédres)
possessing a symmetry less than that of the parallelepipedal network,”
though compatible with it—e.g., by forming a cubic network of tetrahedral
particles similarly and appropriately orientated.

Thus in following Bravais’ arguments with regard to assemblages we
note that, as a rule, he ignores for the moment any modifying or destruc-
tive effect exerted by the shape of the units (polyédres) on the elements
of symmetry.’ He first treats a system as consisting only of the centres
of the units, and after the elements of symmetry of the system thus re-
garded have been established, he considers the effect of the shape of the
units ;* this comes out in his definition of ‘faces de méme espéce.’? He
says: ‘ We will distinguish by the term, faces of the same kind, as we
have done in the theory of assemblages, those which can be brought into
coincidence, row on row, by a suitable rotation or translation, the coin-
cidence of the faces including with it that of the assemblages. If, more-
over, the coincidence includes also that of the molecular polyhedra
which may be supposed to lie on the planes of those faces and to par-
ticipate in their movements, we may say that the faces are of the same
kind, and, moreover, identical.’° The bodies employed as units have
in every case uniform orientation and one which is as symmetrical as
possible.

As to the number of kinds of symmetrical arrangement possible
included under the first head, he says: ‘The degree of symmetry of
an assemblage is characterised by the number of the axes of symmetry
which it possesses, the order of the symmetry of these axes and their
relative situation.’® As stated above, he distinguishes fourteen forms,
and assigns these to seven classes or systems, according to the number
and nature of the axes of symmetry which pass through a given node
(neud) or point of the space-lattice.’ The anorthic space-lattice of
fig. 4 possesses only centro-symmetry; if its angles were all right
angles it would possess the symmetry of the ortho-rhombic system ;
if, in addition, its edges were equal it would be a cubic lattice. The
similar bodies are called by Bravais in his later work polyhedra
(polyédres) ; in his earlier work on point-systems he speaks of them as
summits (sommets), and suggests that for convenience of thought they be
regarded as having some small dimensions. Their size and shape are,
however, in this work generally kept in abeyance, although, before
concluding, he refers to the important effects of their shape or composite
structure in producing hemihedral and other partial forms.’ Indeed,
according to Bravais’ view, the symmetry of the assemblage is actually
determined by that of the molecule or unit.®

1 Btudes Cristallographiques, p. 103. 2 Thid., p. 194. 3 Thid., p. 103.

4 This method has been pushed to its extreme by Wulff and Blasius. Comp.
Schonflies, Krystallsysteme u. Krystallstructur, p. 320.

5 Htudes Cristallugraphiques, p. 106. & Tbid., p. 104.

7 Compt. Rend., 1849, xxix. p. 135. 4

* Lbid., 1848, xxvii. p. 603, Comp. Journ. de 1 Heole Polytechnique, 1850, xix. p.
127 ; and Etudes Cristallographiques, p. 103.

* Etudes Cristallographiques, p. 202,

x2

808 ; REPORT—1901.

The definite character of the arrangement of the parts in the individual
unit he expresses thus: ‘The geometrical arrangement of the constituent
atoms is the same round the centre of gravity of each molecule.’ He
adds: ‘This last hypothesis is necessary for the explanation of the
phenomena of isomerism.’! As a result of the rigidity, or fixed relation-
ship, which Bravais attributes to the parts of his molecule, the arranging
process of crystallisation is regarded by him as partly consisting in the
rotation of the molecules in such a way as to bring about their uniform
orientation.”

In his study of homogeneous assemblages of points Bravais used the
mathematical conception of a coincidence movement (the Deckbewegung
of German authors), which is now so universally employed in studying
the symmetry of a system of points. He supposes each point of a
plane of points to consist of two which coincide, and then regards one
set of points as movable, the other set as fixed. A movement of the
former set which brings it to coincidence with the latter, point by point,
but which shifts the position of some or all of the movable points, is a
coincidence movement.” His method practically consists of a study of the
possible varieties of axes of symmetry and the possible ways in which they
can exist in a system whose various parts can be derived from each other
by movements of translation.

The parallelepipedal nature of the assemblage results from the fact
that it possesses movements of translation as one sort of coincidence
movements ; the classification of assemblages according to their symmetry
is effected by considering the various ways in which their parts may be
derived from each other by a second sort of coincidence movement—
rotation about axes of two-, three-, four-, or six-fold symmetry, which
alone are possible in such an assemblage.

The most general form of coincidence movement is a screw spiral,‘
but such a movement is not employed by Bravais, and, indeed, had not
been introduced at this period.

Bravais,’ like Hatiy, Delafosse, and Frankenheim, attempts to make
cleavage throw light on the nature of the internal symmetry prevailing
in certain crystals,° and thus to assign particular crystals to a precise type
of internal symmetry. Having proved that in the space-lattice some
planes of points are more densely packed with points than others, and are
at the same time more widely separated from the adjacent parallel planes,
Bravais shows how the relative density of the planes may be calculated.
He then suggests that there is a connection between the relative density
of aggregation of the centres in the different planes drawn in various
directions, and the predisposition manifested in crystals to select certain
plane directions for their boundaries.

A purely mathematical investigation in taking accouxt of all possible
types of internal symmetry naturally does not indicate why one type
should be more prevalent than another. To determine this point is
dithcult ; indeed, it will probably be impossible till the types of internal

1 Etudes Cristallographiques, p. 101. For a suggestion that the poles of force to
which polarity is due are the constituent atoms detinitely placed with respect to one
another see ibid., p. 194. * Tbid., p. 197.

* Journ. de UKcole Polytechnique, 1850, xix. pp. 8, 26, 32,57, 98. Cf. Sohncke’s
definition of * Deckung’ in Lntwichelung einer Theorie der Krystallstructur, p. 28.

4 See below, p. 311.

> Etudes Cristallographiques, p. 202. § Ibid., p. 167

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. 309

symmetry to which particular crystals belong can be ascertained with
more certainty than at present. Some generalisations on the subject were,
however, put forward by Bravais,! which, though evidently not intended
to form part of his rigid argument, being indeed little more than specula-
tion, are interesting and suggestive. Thus he says: ‘We can imagine
from what precedes how the structure of the molecular polyhedron reacts
on that of the crystal and determines the choice of the system ... we
_ may conclude that the molecular polyhedron is symmetrical, and that its
elements of symmetry, tending to pass to the corresponding assemblage,
determine the structure of it.’ “
With Bravais’ exhaustive study of the properties of the space-lattice
a very important chapter in the history of the theories of crystal structure
is closed. Those who hold that the eolotropic homogeneity and symmetry
of a crystal are only to be accounted for by a uniform distribution of
sameway-orientated moiecules or molecular groups must always take
their stand upon the work of Bravais. Further, the knowledge of the
properties of the space-lattice first provides a single principle capable of
explaining at the same time the law of rational indices, the homogeneity
_ of a crystal and the main features of crystalline symmetry ; for not only
are the fourteen lattices all homogeneous, and their planes a system of
crystalline planes, but each of them presents the symmetry characteristic
of one of the crystal systems.

It must, however, be remarked that systems of symmetrical repetition
exist which obey the law of rational indices, and are therefore possible
for crystals, but to whose elucidation the method of Bravais does not
apply. One of these systems is described later (p. 314, fig. 5), and, as
will be seen, some of his conclusions are inapplicable to types of this
nature.

The name of Axel Gadolin®? is pre-eminently associated with the very
important work of deducing the existence of thirty-two types of crystal
symmetry from the law of rational indices alone, although, as already
remarked, the discovery of these types had been achieved by Hessel many
years before.‘ The arguments used by Gadolin, and, indeed, those of
Hessel also, purport to deal only with the external form, and thus their
bearing on crystal structure is not direct. Nevertheless the great import-
ance of the work in question as corroborative evidence of the existence of
a molecular structure will be perceived when it is seen, as will be shown
presently, that, whatever view be held with regard to the structure of a
crystal, the space-lattice, and therefore also the rationality of indices,
must form the basis of the structure ; indeed, the discovery of the latter
was the immediate outcome of Haiiy’s concept of a uniformly repeated
molecular structure in crystals. Gadolin himself points out that his proof
fails to be quite general on account of a certain peculiar case of pseudo-
trigonal symmetry,’ which has subsequently been the subject of much dis-
cussion.° It has been held that for this reason we are driven to base the

’ Btudes Cristallographiques, p. 203. . ? Thid., pp. 203, 204.

* * Mémoire sur la déduction d'un seul principe de tous les systémes cristallo-
graphiques avec leur subdivisions,’ Acta Svc. Scient. Fennice, 1867, vol. ix. pp. 1-71,
and separately, Helsingfors, 1871, translated by Groth in Ostwald’s Kiassiker dev
exakten Wissenschaften, No. 75.

* See above, p. 303. 5 «Mémoire sur la déduction,’ &e., p. 50.

° Hecht, Nachr. d. K. Ges. d. Wiss. Géttingen, 1892, pp. 239-247; Neues Jahrh.,
1895 (2), pp. 248-252 ; Fedorow, Zits. Kryst. Min., 1895, vol, xxiv, pp. 244 and 607

310 REPORT—1901.

deduction of the thirty-two classes directly on the existence of ahomogeneous
molecular structure and not upon morphological considerations alone.
Yet it must be confessed that the various possible types of crystal sym-
metry were clearly and completely laid down by the morphologists without
any further speculation regarding structure than is necessitated by Haiiy’s
law, and that every successive advance in the structure theories has been
guided or corrected by the knowledge so obtained,

The Principle of Symmetrical Repetition in Space.

Shortly after the publication by Bravais of his elaborate and elegant
work, a new departure was made in the elucidation of homogeneity of
structure, the importance of which can scarcely be overrated.

The first step was taken by Chr. Wiener,! who laid down the principle
that regularity in the arrangement of identical atoms is presented when
every atom has the remaining atoms arranged about it in the same
manner ;” thus making homogeneity depend primarily on the continual
repetition throughout space of the same relation between an element and
the entire structure, regarded as unlimited, instead of laying stress on
sameway orientation.* The principle adopted by Wiener, when employed
in all its generality, leads to an adequate classification, according to their
symmetry, of all cases of identical repetition throughout space whatever.

The possibility of partitioning a homogeneous structure into similar
sameway-orientated parts whose centres form a parallelepipedal lattice ®
must always be the important property which enables us to trace to its
source Haiiy’s great law of the rationality of indices ; but this possibility
is only a collateral fact when Wiener’s principle is discussed ; indeed, the
carrying out of such a partitioning, while always possible,® often compli-
cates instead of simplifying matters so far as the symmetry is concerned.’
The problem to be solved, presented in its most general form, is not even
to find under what conditions the separation of the structure into similar
composite units of any sort can take place, but simply the analysis of the
nature of the repetition in space of the similar parts.

Jordan.

Although Wiener made some interesting applications of his principle
and described several kinds of symmetrical repetition in space which are
examples of it, he did not deal with the subject exhaustively ; the solution
of the general problem was effected by Camille Jordan in a memoir the
title of which contains no reference to homogeneity or to crystals.’ This
mathematician has furnished a perfectly general method of defining the
regular repetition in space of identical parts, and has shown that the typical
cases of such repetition are limited in number. He points out that, when

Viola, ibid., 1896, vol. xxvi. p. 128, and 1897, xxvii. pp. 399.405 ; De Souza-Rrandao,
Zeits. Kryst. Min., 1894, vol. xxiii. pp. 249-258, and 1897, vol. xxvii. pp. 545-555 ;
Barlow, Phil. Mag., 1901, series 6, vol. i. p. 3.

' Die Grundziige der Weltordnung, Leipzig and Heidelberg, 1869.

° ‘Die Regelmiissigkeit findet dann statt, wenn jedes Atom die anderen Atome in
tibereinstimmender Weise um sich gestellt hat,’ idid., p. 82.

8 Cf. Min. Maq., 1896, vol. xi. p. 119 4 See below, p. 321.

° Sohncke’s Entnrichelung einer Theorie der Krystallstruktur, p. 207.

° Krystalisysteme und Krystallstructur, p. 360. Comp. Phil. Maq., 1901, series 6,
vol. i. p. 19. 7 Comp. Min. Mag., 1896, vol. xi. p. 125.

* ‘Mémoire sur les Groupes de Mouvements.’ Annali di matematica pura ed
applicata, Milano, 1869, series 2, vol. ii. pp. 167 215, 322-345, ;

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. oli

identical repetition of its parts is exhibited by any mechanical or geo-
metrical rigid system, this system being, in some of the cases, supposed
infinitely extended in every direction, a certain definite series or group of
correlated movements may be employed, each term of which is a movement
of such a nature that, while the system is actually shifted by it, the appear-
ance after the movement has taken place is absolutely unchanged, every
point moved being caused to travel to the place previously occupied by
some homologous point." The fundamental condition that such a group
of movements may exist is that homologous parts everywhere bear an
identical relation to the system as a whole ; the members of the group
are so related that every individual movement may be regarded as the
resultant of some two or more movements also belonging to the group.’

While it is always found possible to partition any system of this kind,
in which the repetitions are continually repeated in every direction, in
such a way that the units obtained are all alike and sameway-orientated,
as in Bravais’ systems,’ the latter property is, as has been said, but a
secondary one, and not of the nature of a definition, the condition stated
above constituting a definition complete in itself. A homogeneous struc-
ture can thus be classed according to the type of the infinite group of
coincidence movements which connect all its homologous parts.

The obvious advantage of this method of dealing with homogeneity is
its complete generality—that it requires no further limitation of the
nature of the homogeneous structure than that which prescribes the kind
of repetition presented by its homologous parts. Thus if molecules of a
certain individual symmetry with a relative space-lattice arrangement of
some kind are postulated, after the manner of Bravais and others, Jordan’s
method, unlike Bravais’, deals in one process both with the symmetry of
the individual, so far as this affects the general symmetry, and also with
the symmetry of arrangement. All possible molecular theories of crystals
can alike be subjected to Jordan’s method, and it is independent of
them all.

The following is the course of Jordan’s argument :—After reminding
his readers that every movement of a solid body in space can be regarded
as a screw-spiral movement, he remarks that such a movement is fully
known when we are given—

1. The situation in space of the axis of rotation A, which has also the
direction of translation.

2. The angle T, through which the solid is turned about the axis.

3. The longitudinal displacement ¢, to which the body is subjected in
the direction of the axis.

He then observes that the displacement produced by two or more
such movements made successively can also be produced by a single screw-
spiral movement of some kind ; and the resultant of a number of move-
ments successively made can be definitely expressed in the terms just laid
down if the expressions for the component movements are known.

Jordan next proceeds to point out that, a few movements being given,
it is possible to arrive at all the various movements or displacements

‘ For a definition of a coincidence movement see Sohncke’s Entnichkelung einer
Theorie der Krystalistruktur, p. 28, or Min. Mag., 1896, vol. xi. p. 125, note 3, Comp.
Schorflies, Krystallsysteme und Krystallstructur, p. 54.

? Schonflies, Arystallsysteme und Krystallstructur, pp. 256 and 359.

3 See above, p. 306.

* Cf. Schonflies, Krystallsysteme und Krystallstructur, p. 44, par. 2.

312 REPORT—1901,

obtainable by combining these given movements executed successively any
number of times in any order whatever. Of groups of movements arrived
at inthis way, some are of a finite character, and some contain movements
infinitely small ; the remaining kind—those which consist of movements
whose loci extend infinitely throughout space in every direction, and
which are none of them infinitely small as compared with the others—
comprise, as was subsequently perceived,' all those that are available for
the production or definition of homogeneous structures which display the
symmetry of crystals.”

The movements belonging to an infinite group of movements, like any
individual movement, can be completely detined by reference to certain
axes of rotation and directions of translation ; but for the sake of per-
spicuity it is desirable to place a number of similar particles or bodies in
all the positions, throughout some considerable space, to which one of
them would be moved by the various movements constituting the group.
When this is done the kind of symmetry presented by the system formed
of the group of movements can be readily perceived,’ and at the same
time the nature of the parts repeated can be left an open question.

If it be desired by the crystallographer to find in a given homogeneous
system a complete set of identical planes by means of the group of move-
ments proper to the system, the following course may be adopted.

Take three points—A, B, C—whose identical relation to the system
is such that the aspect of the unlimited structure is the same and presents
the same orientation viewed from each of them, and let their distances
apart be not great as compared with the minimum distances separating
homologous parts of the structure. The repeated carrying out of the
three translations—AB, BC, CA in both directions—will locate an infini-
tude of points lying in the plane of the three points, and all having
precisely the same relation to the structure as that presented for the latter.
This plane may therefore be designated a homogeneous plane,‘ and since
the translations of the structure are not infinitesimal, it is easy to prove
that a plane so situated will obey the law of the rationality of indices
when referred to axes which pass through strings of identical points.°
When such a plane is subjected to the various coincidence-movements
constituting the group characteristic of the structure, an infinite set of
planes is found, which all have an identical relation to the structure.
The number of different orientations presented by the planes is limited.

Sohneke.

The treatment of homogeneity of structure by Jordan’s method leads
to a classification which discriminates the various types of identical

1 See below, p. 315. Cf. Arystallsysteme u. Krystalistructw', pp. 360 and 636 ;
also see above, note 3, p. 298.

2 It is interesting to notice that Jordan does not appear to have regarded his
work as throwing any fresh light on crystal structure, but treats Bravais’ work as
complete in this direction. He says: ‘M,. Bravais has studied this question; the
particular cases which he has discussed, and of which he has made a remarkable
application to crystallography, are the most important. Nevertheless [ believe
there is at the present time some interest in treating the problem quite generally.’
(Mémoire sur les Groupes de Mouvements, p. 168.)

3 See Mn. Mag., 1896, xi. p. 119, and see below, p. 333.

4 See Phil. Mag., 1901, series 6, i. p. 19.

5 The hypothesis with regard to crystals is that their faces lie in homogeneous
planes, See Bravais, Utudes Crystallographiques, p. 103.

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. ole

repetition of possible parts, each type having its own characteristic group
of coincidence-movements. Jordan, however, left his work incomplete
and omitted many of the types, which were subsequently discovered by
Sohncke, to whom reference must next be made.

The important bearing of Jordan’s work on crystal structure seems to
have been entirely overlooked until the publication of the widely influential
works of Leonhard Sohncke.! This writer, employing Wiener’s principle ”
and using Jordan’s method to discover what variety of types of symmetry
can exist in systems produced by the identical repetition of finite parts or
atoms * throughout space, obtains what he calls a ‘regular point-system,’
which he thus defines: ‘A regular point-system is one in which the
pencils of lines drawn from each point of the system to all the remainder
are congruent with each other.’4 These systems, if classified according
to the position and nature of their axes of symmetry (whether screw-axes
or axes of rotation), are sixty-five? innumber. They may conveniently be
designated ‘Sohncke systems.’

A Sohncke system then consists of a homogeneous assemblage of
points symmetrically and identically arranged about axes of symmetry,
and these may be screw-axes such that the points surround them in a
spiral arrangement. It might at first sight appear that the latter are
inconsistent with the law of rational indices. Since, however, among
the coincidence-movements of the system the translations and rotations
proper to some space-lattice are always present, it may be proved that
a Sohncke-system consists in general of two or more congruent space-
lattices which interpenetrate. The translation movements of the Sohncke-
system are those which are common to the constituent space-lattices.

1 ¢Gruppirung der Molekiile in den Krystallen: eine theoretische Ableitung der
Krystallsysteme,’ Pogg. Ann., 1867, cxxxii. 75; ‘Die unbegr. regelm. Punktsysteme
als Grundl. e. Theorie der Krystallstructur,’ Verh. naturw. Ver. Karlsruhe, 1876 (7);
‘ Zuriickweis. e. Einwurfs geg. d. neue Theor. d. Krystallstruct.,’ Wied. Ann., 1879,
vi. 545; ‘ Ableitung d. Grundges. d. Krystallsys. a. d. Theor. d. Krystallstructur,’
th.,, 1882, xvi. 489, and Verh. naturn. Ver. Karlsruhe, 1882 (9); ‘ Hlementares
Nachweis einer Eigensch. parallelep. Punktsysteme,’ Zeits. Kryst. Min., 1888, xiii.
209; ‘Entwickelung einer Theorie der Krystallstruktur,’ Leipzig, 1879; ‘ Ube-
Spaltungsflichen und natiirliche Kvystallfliichen,’ Zeits. Kryst. Min., 1888, xiii.
214-235; ‘Erweiterung der Theorie der Krystalle,’ ib., 1888, xiv. 426-446; ‘ Di-
Entdeckung des Hintheilungsprincips der Krystalle durch J. I’, C. Hessel,’ 7d., 1890,
xviii. 486-498; ‘Die Structur der optisch drehenden Krystalle,’ 7b., 1891, xix.
529-559; ‘Die Structur der hemimorph-hemiédrischen, bezw. tetartoédrischen
drehenden Krystalle,’ id., 1896, xxv. 529-530.

* Sohncke, speaking of his own principal treatise, says: ‘Man findet hier die
ganze Mannigfaltigkeit der tiberhaupt modglichen Krystalistrukturformen aus einem
einzigen Princip, niimlich aus dem selbstverstiindlichen Grundsatze von der regel-
miissigen Anordnung, auf streng mathematischem Wege abgeleitet’ (Zntwickelung
einer Theorie der Krystallstruktur, Vorwort, p. ili).

8 Tb. p. iii; also p. 26: ‘Mit. Benutzung des Grundgedankens der Jordan’schen
Methode, aber mit Weglasssung alles dessen, was nicht direkten Bezug zur Krystall-
struktur hat, sind nun im Folgenden alle tiberhaupt médglichen regelmissigen
Punktsysteme von unbegrenzter Ausdehnung abgeleitet und somit alle denkbaren
Strukturformen krystallisirter Kérper ermittelt.’ And later, p. 29: *. .. die
verschiedenen Arten von Deckbewegungen als Eintheilungsgrund fiir die regel-
miissigen Punktsysteme dienen.’ He employs some well known kinematic proposi-
tions relating to rigid systems to aid him in arriving at his results.

4 Tb. p. 28.

5 In his principal work, Die Entwichkelung, &c., Sohncke describes sixty-six
types, but subsequently concludes that there are but sixty-five, Nos. 9 and 13 of his
systems being the same type. Zits, Kryst. Min., 1888, vol, xiy. p. 423.

314 REPORT—1901.

Hence the points of the Sohncke-system may always be grouped together
in sets such that the centres of gravity of the sets constitute some space-
lattice, The law of rational indices is, therefore, applicable to a Sohncke-
system as well as to the space-lattice.

Fig. 5, for example, represents a Sohncke-system of points possessing
screw-axes of hexagonal symmetry at B, C, D (No. 46 of Sohncke’s
treatise). A point is brought into coincidence with a neighbouring
point by giving the system a rotation of 60° about one of these axes,
accompanied by a translation along the axis.

If every set of six points, such as cj, Co, C3, Cy’, Cy’, C3’, be regarded as
grouped about a single point at their centre of gravity, y, the Sohncke-
system of fig. 5 can be treated as composed of groups of six points whose
centres form the space-lattice of fig. 6, in which the points all lie at equal
intervals on straight lines.! (The lattice of fig. 6, like that of fig. 2,
possesses trigonal axes.) The Sohncke-system may therefore be regarded

FIG. &

as consisting of six similar lattices constructed from ¢), Cy, ¢3, ¢;', Cy’, ¢3/ 3
the planes whose directions are given by any such points as /3, y, ¢ form
a crystalline system of planes which obey the law of rational indices.
They may, therefore, be taken to represent the faces of the crystal.

In such systems, and in others to be described below, it must be
remembered that the points of the figure may represent merely homologous
points in the material of which the crystal consists, whatever may be
the nature of that material ; it is not necessary to regard them as repre-
senting atoms or molecules, or as presupposing anything relating to
atoms or molecules.

1 A lattice formed of points vertically midway between the points of the one
figure applies equally well, since the points of the Sohncke-system can just as
symmetrically be allotted to form groups having these other points as centres.

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. 315

Further, it must be noted that the system of coincidence-movements
of fig. 5 does not necessarily possess any planes of symmetry. The mere
Sohncke-system of points or a system of spheres placed at the points of
fig. 5 would possess planes of symmetry, but a parallel system of un-
symmetrical pear-shaped bodies would not.

The application of Bravais’ method to a system of this kind is incon-
venient because it is impossible to partition it into identical same-way
orientated units of any kind without lowering the synmetry by the act of
partitioning. Thus in the case in question an hexagonal axis is impos-
sible for the unit because the hexagonal axes present in the system are
none of them mere axes of rotation, and, therefore, the movements about
them are incapable of bringing any conceivable unit to coincidence with
itself. This renders some important conclusions of Bravais inapplicable
to such a system. Thus he argues that in all holohedral crystals the
molecular polyhedra possess the same axes and planes of symmetry as
the assemblage. Now the system of hexagonal symmetry just described
becomes holohedral if it consists of points or spheres lying on planes

drawn through the nearest hexagonal axes, and yet, as just remarked, no
kind of partitioning can produce in it units having hexagonal axes.
Regarded as an investigation of the total number of ways in which
identical repetition can take place, and, therefore, as an investigation of
the number of types of homogeneous structure so obtainable, Schncke’s
work is exhaustive and complete. He begins without any assumption
involving knowledge of previous views or methods, and rigidly deduces
the total number of types just mentioned.1 His method, however, is not
free from objection, since, in order to account for the thirty-two different
classes, he is, like Bravais, driven to make the symmetry of a system
depend partly on the arrangement of the ultimate parts or atoms and
partly on the configuration of these atoms. He treats the parts repeated

’ See id., p. iv.: *...ich die ganze Untersuchung, soweit sie auf Krystallographie
Bezug hat, selbststiindig von vorn anfing, natiirlich mit Benutzung des bewihrten
Grundgedankens cler Jordan’schen Methode,’

316 REPORT—1901.

as points or particles of perfectly regular (spherical) form, or at least
ignores their polarity if they have any, and, as a consequence of this
supposed regularity of the atoms, he attributes to some of Jordan’s
systems an additional element of symmetry not necessarily involved by
their coincidence movements. Thus he regards some of the sixty-five
types as necessarily possessing planes of symmetry.!| When, however, he
comes to speak of hemimorphous crystals, 7.e., those which are differently
terminated at opposite ends of an axis of symmetry, he follows the
example of Bravais—at least in his earlier writings—and resorts to the
supplementary hypothesis that the molecules possess polarity.”

The problem which Sohncke sets himself to solve is, then, the con-
struction of all kinds of regular—z.e , homogeneously arranged >—assem-
blages composed of sets of identical particles, the shape of the particles
being ignored, or, in other words, treated as quite regular, 7.e., spherical.4
If he had succeeded in forming on these lines simple assemblages among
which were represented all the thirty-two classes of crystal symmetry, his
work would have been consistent with the supposition that crystals
consist in every case of a single kind of molecule whose shape and
constitution are destitute of polarity, the symmetry of the structure being
entirely determined by the relative situations of the molecules. He did
not, apparently, at any time hope to completely achieve this, for he
admitted the necessity of a supplementary hypothesis to account for
hemimorphism ; but, save for the few cases of this property, he appears, in
the first instance, to have hoped to reach an adequate theory based solely
on the relative position of the molecules, without taking account of their
shape.

The insufficiency of Sohncke’s earlier theory that the molecules
are perfectly regular and ai/ of one kind, and identically related to the
structure as a whole, was presently pointed out by several writers, among
whom may be mentioned Wulff? and Haag,® the former in particular
having called attention to the existence of certain known crystal forms,
namely, those possessing the symmetry of the mineral dioptase, which
are not found represented among the sixty-five systems.

Sohncke himself subsequently confessed the inadequacy of the theory
in question,’ and was led to enlarge his method. Thus, after reviewing
some examples of more generalised point-systems devised by Wollaston,
Barlow, and Haag, he suggested the following modified theory :—

Instead of regarding the spherical particles or points composing a
homogeneous assemblage as all of one kind, let a limited number of kinds

1 Zeits. Kryst. Min., 1892, vol. xx. p. 448.

2 Entwichkelung einer Theorie, etc., p. 200.

8 See Wiener’s definition of homogeneity in Grwndziige der Weltordnung, p. 82
et seq. Cf. Min. Maq., 1896, vol. xi. p. 120.

‘ Comp. Arystalisysteme und Krystalistructur, pp. 595, 596, and p. 612. Sobncke
says (Zecits. Kryst. Min., 1892, vol. xx. p. 452): ‘I have always considered the elemen-
tary particles to possess only so much symmetry that they do not disturb the symmetry
of the point-system.’ The effect of this is that, so far as the general symmetry is
concerned, they behave as though they were spherical.

5 ‘Ueber die regelmiissigen Punktsysteme,’ Zits. Avyst. Min., 1888, vol. xiii.
pp. 503-566.

® Die requldren Krystalihkirper, Rothweil, 1887 (see reference in Zeits. Kryst.
Min., 1888, vol. xvi. p. 501).

7 *Bemerkungen zu Herrn Wulff's Theorie der Krystallstructur,’ Zeits. Kryst. Min.,
vol. xiv. 417. See also ‘ Erweiterung der Theorie der Krystallstructur,’ 7., p. 426,

=~25

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. 31

(1, 2, 3, o# ) be present, the component assemblage formed by each
kind, taken by itself, being homogeneously arranged, and all the different
kinds possessing identical systems of axes and having the same set of
translations common to them.!

Sohncke’s aim is, as has been said, to produce the requisite varieties
of symmetry by arranging regular or spherical particles homogeneously.
This he succeeds in doing by his enlarged method, and is now able to
cover the cases of hemimorphism.? Instead, however, of merely stipulating
that the component point-systems shall have the same ¢ranslations common
to them, and possess identical systems of axes, he ought to have stipulated
that they shall have al/ their coincidence-movements in common.*

For all the coincidence-movements which characterise the combined
system as a whole must obviously be obeyed by every particle within it,
and it is only these movements which really belong to the component-
systems as found in the structwre. In other words, if there are other
coincidence-movements in addition to these, which a set of points would
have if taken alone, such movements must for the combined system be
regarded as non-existent, and only those points of such a set will have
identical positions in the entire system which can be brought to coincidence
by the surviving movements, i.e., by those which characterise the structure
asa whole. After making this distinction it will usually be possible to
detect two or more different kinds of points forming two or more different
subsidiary point-systems, which must be counted separately, as many
systems being discriminated as there are varieties of position of the
points. When this is done the various different point-systems present
will have all their coincidence-movements in common, these movements
being those characteristic of the combined system as a whole.

Reference to an example may make this clearer to those who are
familiar with Sohncke’s treatise. Let two point-systems (a and b) be
taken, each of which, when regarded apart from the other, presents the
same instance of type No. 2 of Sohncke, and which have their systems of
axes and their translations identical ; let them be combined in such a
way that they are sameway-orientated and have the two sets of points
lying in the same planes, but with the axes distinct. See fig. 7, in which,
to distinguish the two systems, one (b) is represented in dotted lines,
Hither system consists of a series of equidistant parallel planes, each
beset with particles in the same way ; and the diagram is one such plane ;
the points in the succeeding planes lie vertically below those in the
diagram. Then the combination thus formed must be regarded as con-
sisting of four separate point-systems, not of two only, for the positions in
the composite structure occupied by the points are ot four different kinds.
Each of the four sets is destitute of axes; the composite system has
merely the symmetry which it would have had if constructed of four
distinct point-systems, each possessing the translations common to the
two initial systems, and consisting of points lying in the same planes.

In Sohncke’s work rigid geometrical results are closely interwoven

1 Zeits. Kryst. Min., 1888, vol. xiv. p. 433. Comp. 7b., 1892, vol. xx. p. 456.

* For further applications of his method see ‘Zwei Theorien der Krystallstructur,’
Zeits. Kryst. Min., 1892, vol. xx. p. 455.

* Sohncke was disposed at first to make this stipulation, but did not perceive its
necessity ; he afterwards definitely adopted the less precise one to which objection
is here taken. Comp. Zits. Aryst. Min., 1888, vol. xiv. p. 441, and 1892, vol. xx.
p. 456.

318 ReEPoRT—1901.

with theoretical considerations relating to systems of regular particles,
and the very title of his principal treatise, ‘Entwickelung einer Theorie
der Krystallstruktur,’ shows that he addresses himself rather to establish-
ing a physical theory than to the demonstration of a set of purely
geometrical propositions. From the geometrical point of view, his
investigation constitutes, as has been said, a completion of Camille
Jordan’s work, already referred to : he has traced the symmetrical features
of the various infinite groups of movements described by the latter, and
has discovered a number of additional groups which Jordan had over-
looked ;! so far his work is indisputably a mathematical demonstration,
not a plausible theory. Jordan’s groups of movements constitute purely
geometrical configurations, and their symmetrical features are perfectly
definite and traceable without postulating the nature of the structure which
repeats itself throughout space ; it is not essential to the geometrical
reasoning that this structure shall consist of a Sohnckian assemblage of

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discrete particles separated by void spaces ;° its constitution may indeed
remain quite undefined, so long as it is capable of the requisite coinci-
dence-movements.

With Sohncke, however, the crystal element is not devoid of a certain
hypothetical character, as is shown by his employment of an arbitrary
fundamental proposition (Grwndsatz).* This asserts that the symmetry
displayed by a crystal cannot be lower than that of the point-system,
according to which the centres of its elementary particles (Krystallbau-
steine) are arranged. Evidently the effect of such a provision is to insist
on the regularity of form of these elementary particles or to treat their
shape as a negligible factor. As Sohncke contends that this provision is
a physical, not a geometrical, necessity it is obvious that his particles are
not mere geometrical space units; indeed it is always possible so to

1 Entwichelung einer Theorie der Krystallstruktur, p, 26.

2 The plausibility of the conception of discrete particles or centres of force is
generally admitted ; the point here insisted on is that this conception is not essential
to the geometrical reasoning under review. See Min. Mag., 1896, vol. xi. p. 120.
Com p. Arystallsysteme und Krystalistructur, p. 237,

3 Zeits. Kryst. Min., 1892, yol. xx. p. 447,

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. 319

partition a homogeneous structure geometrically into identical units that
the symmetry of the system shall be determined solely by the arrangement
of the units, and not at all by their shape,’ and therefore, as applied to
such units, Sohncke’s fundamental proposition would be universally true,
not, as he puts it, a limitation (Deschrdnkwng).?

Sohncke states the aim of his investigation in these words: ‘I
might rather regard this aim to be the evolution from the simplest and
most evident axioms by logical methods such conceptions as to the build-
ing up of crystals from their molecules as are in strict agreement with
observed facts, and may, therefore, be regarded as natural.’ #

He adds the remark that the non-acceptance of his fundamental
proposition and his conclusions is justifiable if they are held to be
improbable. This is not language which would be appropriate to pure
geometry.

Mirror-Image Repetition.

We now come to a very important departure in the investigation of
crystal structure. Jordan’s conception of infinite groups of movements
leads, as we have seen, to identical repetition of parts extending through-
out space. It has been pointed out that it is possible to draw in each of
these groups, or in the systems formed by their means, sets of planes
identically related to the group or system regarded as an infinite whole ;
hereby is provided a purely geometrical method of defining homogeneity
of structure in a perfectly general manner, which would he of interest to
mathematicians if no such body as a crystal existed ; but, further, the laws
of symmetry which govern the relative arrangement of the identically
corresponding plane-directions present in a homogeneous structure are
also established. Crystals, however, display not only identity of parts,

1 See Phil. Maq., series 6, 1901, vol. i. p. 7.

* Zeits. Kryst. Min., 1892, vol. xx. p. 448; cf. Win. Mag., 1896, vol. xi. p. 125;
also Schonflies, Arystallsysteme und Krystallstructur, p. 616.

That Sohncke regards the crystal elements whose centres furnish the points of
his point-systems, as either chemical molecules or aggregations of such molecules,
and not as mere geometrical units, which may be but fractions cf molecules, is
proved by the words he employs in introducing his hypothesis as to the nature of a
crystal. Thus he says (p. 27 of his Hntwickelung einer Theorie, &c.): ‘Es ist
naturgemiiss, einen Krystall in regelmiissiger Weise aus lauter kongruenten Grundge-
bilden oder Krystallelmenten aufgebaut zu denken, von denen es allerdings unent-
schieden bleiben muss, ob sie die aus Atomen zusammengesetzten chemischen
Molekeln selbst oder Aggregate von solchen sind ... von jedem Krystallelemente
wird nur der Schwerpunkt in Betracht gezogen. . . . Fiir die folgende geometrische
Untersuchung ist also der Krystall durch ein System diskreter Massenpunkte ersetzt,
in welchem es somit stets einen kleinsten Punktabstand giebt.’

If Sohncke had meant to allow the employment of merely geometrical units as
crystal elements, he would doubtless have used some such description of them as
that which he has given of Haity’s ‘ molécule soustractive,’ of which he says (p. 12):
‘Dieselbe hat nimlich zwar eine bestimmte geometrische, aber keine konsequent
festgehaltene physische Bedeutung; bald ist sie die wirkliche physische, bald nur
eine zu Konstruktionen bequeme geometrische Hinheit.’

That he perceived the possibility of employing merely geometrical units is,
however, in evidence, for he says (p. 14): ‘Bedenkt man ... dass Delafosse und
Seeber nichts anderes gethan haben, als die parallelepipedisch gestaltete substraktive
Molekel Haiiys durch ihren Mittelpunkt, resp. durch eine kleine ihn umgebende
Kugel zu ersetzen, so muss man anerkennen, dass die Haiiys’che Theorie hierdurch
ganz im Geiste ihres Begriinders fortgebildet worden ist und dabei wesentlich an
Konsequenz und Einfachheit gewonnen hat.’

3 Zeits. Kryst. Min., 1892, vol. xx. p. 455,

320 REPORT—1901.

but also, in the majority of cases, enantiomorphous similarity ; for, while
in some few crystals the similar faces always bear an identical relation
to the whole, in most there are faces that occur in pairs (like a
right and left hand), the two individuals of which are enantiomorphously
not identically related to the crystal form. Unless this additional factor
of enantiomorphous similarity of parts be in some way introduced,!
Jordan’s method gives only the systems of repetition which belong to
one or other of the classes of crystal symmetry in which the similarity
is all identity, 7.e., only such as are enantiomorphs. This significant
fact is revealed in the work of the two inquirers, von Fedorow and
Schénflies, who established independently and simultaneously that a
definition of the symmetrical repetition of parts which includes enantio-
morphous similarity as well as identity of parts leads to types belonging
to all of the thirty-two classes of crystal symmetry.”

Pierre Curie * shares with the two writers mentioned above the credit
of having established the general principles of repetition by which the
symmetry, whether of finite figures, or of systems of figures, or of struc-
tures, may be completely investigated. He set himself to consider more
general arrangements of points than those dealt with by Bravais. These
points may be endowed with qualities independent of direction, such as
density, temperature, or with qualities requiring the most varied ideas of
direction and orientation, such as velocity, force, intensity of an electric
or magnetic field, intensity of power of rotation.‘ (The homogeneous
arrangements thus obtained are not all crystallographically possible, e..,
a sphere filled with a rotating liquid.®) There are two kinds of repe-
tition—-one which leaves everything identically the same -as_ before
(déplacements indifférents) and another in which the units of one part of
the system are the mirror-images of those of the other (systemes symé-
triques Vun de Vautre®). Curie was the first to emphasise the necessity of
considering, in addition to ordinary axes and planes of symmetry, axes
and planes of alternating symmetry (plans de symétrie alterne, plans de
symétrie translatoire alterne’). Although the 230 classes of crystal strue-
ture obtained by Schénflies and Fedorow may be deduced from the prin-
ciples established in his papers, Curie limits himself to deriving the
thirty-two varieties of external form which are crystallographically pos-
sible.*

Another writer of this date of whom mention should be here made is
B. Minnigerode, who arrived at the thirty-two classes of crystal systems
by means of the theory of groups and substitutions.® 4

1 This is very clearly brought out by Story-Maskeiyne in his Morpholegy of
Crystals, Oxford, 1895, p. 99, where the terms ‘metastrophic’ and ‘ antistrophic’ are
employed to distinguish the two sorts of relations,

2 The discovery of these thirty-two classes by the morphological crystailo+
graphers had in fact been due to the use of planes of symmetry and centre of
symmetry as the basis of their reasoning; and these eiements, of course, contain the
conception of enantiomorphous relationship

3 «Sur les questions d’ordre: Répétitions,’ Bull. Soc. Min., 1884, vii. pp. 88-111;
‘Sur la Symétrie,’ 7b., pp. 418-457.

‘Lia Ones) 5 7b., p. 443.

Eo sap: G0: 7 Ib., p. 452. 8 Tb., p. 454.

® «Untersuchungen iiber die Symmetzieverhiiltnisse und die Elasticitiit der Krys-
talle,’ Nachr. d. hk. Ges. d. Wiss., Gottingen, 1884, pp. 195-226, 374-884, 488-492;
‘ Untersuchungen iiber die Symmetrieverhiltnisse der Krystalle,’ Neues Jahrd., 1887 ;
Beilage, Bd. v. pp. 145-166.

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. §21

Schinflies.

Though Arthur Schénflies was not actually the first to establish the
existence of the 230 classes of crystal structure, his writings have been
the means of making this final development of the subject generally
known to the scientific world.!. His work, which was but little later than
that of Fedorow, and is quite independent, culminates in the book ‘ Krys-
tallsysteme und Krystallstructur,’ in which he establishes with the lucidity
and rigidity of the skilled mathematician the thirty-two classes of crystal
symmetry and the 230 classes of crystal structure, and discusses at length
the question of the partitioning of space. It will be convenient to con-
sider the work of Schénflies in some detail in order to treat that of the
remaining authors briefly, since many of their results are the same
as his.

He adopts Wiener’s definition of regularity of structure with this
difference : instead of saying that every molecule of an assemblage has
the remaining molecules arranged about it in the same manner, he says
that every molecule is surrounded by the rest collectively in /ike manner,
where ‘likeness’ of the grouping can either amount to identity or be
mirror-image resemblance.” The following is an example of the distince-
tion between these two kinds of resemblance : the two points p, 9, occupy
situations with respect to the cube (fig. 8), which are merely alike, whereas

Fig. 8.

p and p' are identically placed ; the cube presents exactly the same
appearance when viewed trom either of the latter, whereas in the case
of p and gq the two aspects bear the kind of relation that a right hand
bears to a left, or an object to its image as viewed in a mirror. The
aspects of the figure from the points p and q may be called enantiomor-
phous with respect to each other, and any operation which involves such
a relationship may be called a mirror-image operation. Schénflies’
method is to add to the movements employed by Jordan such processes
of inversion and reflection as can be applied to his groups of movements
without increasing the number or modifying the character of the actual

? «Beitrag zur Thecrie der Krystallstructur,’ Wachr. d. k. Ges. d. Wiss., Gottingen,
1888, pp. 483-501 ; ‘ Uber das gegenseitigeVerhiiltniss der Theorien tiber die Structur
der Krystalle,’ id., 1890, pp. 239-250 ; Krystallsysteme und Krystalistructur, Leipzig,
1891; ‘ Bemerkungen tiber die Theorie der Krystallstructur,’ Zeits. phys. chem., 1892,
ix. pp. 156-170; ‘ Antwort auf den Artikel des Herrn Sohncke; Zwei Theorieen der
Krystallstructur,’ id., 1892, x. pp. 517-525: ‘ Bemerkungen zudem Artikel des Herrn
E. von Fedorow, die Zusammenstellung seiner krystallographischen Resultate und der
meinigen betrefiend,’ Zits. Kryst. Min., 1892, xx. pp. 259-262; ‘ Gruppentheorie und
Krystallographie,’ Congress Mathematical Papers, Chicago Exhibition, 1893.

* Schonilies, Krystallsysteme und Krystalistructur, p. 239.

1901. x

322 REPORT—1901.

movements. He thus constructs composite groups of operations which
act throughout space, but comprise, in addition to Jordan’s groups, cer-
tain mirror-image operations with respect to series of parallel planes or to
systems of centres of inversion.! He calls the groups of operations,
whether those of Jordan or those added by himself, ‘ space-groups’ (Rawm-
gruppen).”

As in the case of Jordan’s groups of movements, the symmetry of
any given group is rendered easier to trace if a number of similar par-
ticles or bodies are placed in all the positions, throughout some consider-
able space, in which they would be located by applying all the operations
of the group to some particular body. In order to accomplish this, in
the groups which contain mirror-image operations similar right-handed
and left-handed bodies will have to be employed in equal numbers.

It may be maintained that the likeness of parts thus defined by
Schénflies, involving as it does two distinct sorts of resemblance—
identity and enantiomorphous (or mirror-image) similarity—should
scarcely be called, when taken collectively, homogeneity of structure ;
it would be well, perhaps, if it could be expressed by some new word of
wider significance.

Generation of the Various Groups of Operations (Raumgruppen).

Schonflies employs a symbolic method in order to deduce the various
types of possible groups of operations.

The following propositions indicate briefly the method pursued by
him, without introducing his symbols :—

1. Only such of Jordan’s groups of movements as contain a group of
translations which all bear finite (and not infinitesimal) relations to one
another, and are, therefore, capable of producing a space-lattice (Rawm-
gitter), can obey the law of rational indices ; and are, therefore, available
for the crystallographer.4 It is only to these groups that Schonflies
applies mirror-image operations.?

2. The complete set of translations thus forming part of a Schénflies
group of operations must be brought to coincidence with itself (Deckung)
by every other operation of the group.°

3. In addition to planes of symmetry, simple axes of symmetry, and
the screw-axes of Sohncke, Schoénflies (like Curie) introduces ‘ planes of
gliding symmetry’ (Gleitebenen)’ as another possible mode of repeti-
tion that can be employed in a group of space-operations. A plane of
gliding symmetry is the result of combining reflection over a plane
with a translation parallel to that plane.

4. If a given translation, T, be transposed by the operation of a screw
axis into another translation, T’, T is also thus transposed by the opera-
tion of a simple axis of symmetry having the same situation and angle of
rotation.

1 Schonflies, Avystallsysteme und Krystallstructur, pp. 394 and 556,

2 Tb., p. 359. 3 See Min. Mag., 1896, vol. xi. p. 119, and see below, p. 333.

4 Krystallsysteme und Krystallstructur, pp. 360, 636. 5 Ib, pp. 360, 361.

6 7b., p. 362. Schénflies calls sub-groups of operations which have this property
ausgezeichnete Untergruppen.

7 Ib., p. 367. Schonflies calls that one of the various possible movements about
a particular axis which has the smallest angle of rotation and the smallest positive
translation the ‘reduced movement’ (reducirte Bewegung).

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. 323

5, Similarly, if T be transposed into T’ by the operation of a plane of
gliding symmetry, T is also so transposed by the operation of a simple
plane of reflection having the same situation.

6. Hence, corresponding to any given group of operations containing
screw axes or planes of gliding symmetry, there exists another group of
operations which effect the same changes of direction, but whose elements
of symmetry are axes of rotation or planes of reflection, and these are
such as belong to a space-lattice.

7. From this it follows that in the groups of space-operations the
only axes found are those of the orders characteristic of space-lattices,
2.é., digonal, trigonal, tetragonal, and hexagonal axes,

The relations between groups of space-operations (Rawmgruppen) of
different types can be traced by means of the similar relations subsisting
between allied (‘isomorphous’) types of symmetrical operations effected
solely about a single point or ‘centre’ (Punktgruppen) ;! the latter,
since the kinds of axes admissible are limited as above, are those which
characterise the centred forms of the thirty-two types of crystal sym-
metry.

Two operations are termed by Schénflies ‘isomorphous’ when their
planes and axes of repetition have the same directions and the angles of
rotation of the latter are the same.

A group of space-operations and a group of centred operations are
termed isomorphous when every operation of the former is isomorphous
with an operation of the latter.

By this method of comparison it is shown that every one of the groups
of ‘space-operations’ involves the general symmetry which governs the
symmetry of repetition of like directions in one or other of the thirty-two
classes of crystal symmetry.

The mirror-image of a screw movement is a similar movement of the
opposite hand. Among the groups of operations corresponding to
Sohnecke’s sixty-five systems which contain screw movements, only
such as possess screw-axes of two opposite hands can be utilised for
the purpose of deriving groups of space-operations containing mirror-
image repetition: such are (1) those which contain screw-axes whose
translation component is equal to a half-translation ;? (2) those which
contain for each screw-motion in one direction an equal screw-motion in
the opposite direction.

By applying the above principles Schénflies is able to show that the
sixty-five systems of Sohncke are increased to 230 groups of operations,
all of which, from what has been said, must belong to one or other of the
thirty-two types of crystal symmetry.

A complete set of similar plane-directions may be drawn in a
Schénflies group of operations, in a way similar to that already indicated
for finding identical planes in one of Jordan’s infinite groups of move-
ments.? Thus :—

' Krystallsysteme und Krystallstructus, pp: 359, 364, 874, 878, 883.

_” This case is illustrated by fig. 5, in which the translation component of the
axis C (necessary to derive ¢,’ from ¢,) is one half of the translation e, 0,'' belonging
to the system. Successive points may be regarded as lying either on a right-handed
spiral (as ¢, ¢,' ¢,'') or on a left-handed spiral](as ¢, ¢,' c2'’).

® See above, p. 312.
v2

824 REPORT—1901,

In the given group of operations draw a homogeneous plane in the
manner defined above ;! this plane will, since the translations of the
group are not infinitesimal,? and develop space-networks, obey the law of
rational indices.

Apply to the plane thus drawn the operations of the group ; the

result is the generation of a system of planes symmetrically distributed,

through space, all of which are similarly related to the structure regarded
as without limits. If mirror-image repetition be not found among the
operations of the group, this similarity will amount to identity ; if, on the
other hand, enantiomorphous operations are present, the planes will form
two equally numerous sets, the relation of the one set to the whole being
enantiomorphously similar to that of the other set.*

Since all the components of the operations of the group which are
mere translations are without effect on orientation, the number of
different orientations presented by the planes will be strictly determined
by the remaining components, and therefore limited.4 As the component
operations of the given group which affect orientation are those charac-
teristic of some one of the thirty-two classes of crystal symmetry,’ the
nuinber of orientations presented in the given case will be the same as in
such class ;° 7.e., there will be as many infinite sets of parallel planes as
there are different orientations. The planes of each set, since they have
to obey the translations found in the group, will be equidistant. Among
the 230 different types, there are many in which it is possible to select
from the set of planes one of each orientation in such a way that the
planes selected enclose a space, but in some only of the types thus charac-
terised can the planes be so chosen as to outline a symmetrical polyhedron
whose axes are axes of the system ; for the remainder centred enclosures
of this symmetrical character are impossible.’

With the aid of the above conception of a system of similar planes it
is not difficult to verify the following propositions :—

1. The application of an additional movement or enantiomorphous
operation to a group, provided the system of axes, planes of symmetry,
and other features essential to the group are brought to coincidence
(Deckung) by this new operation, will lead, when the latter is completely
combined in every possible way with those previously present, to the
evolution of a derived Schénflies group of operations.’ This derived

1 See above, p. 312. The direction of the plane is not to be a specialised one,

except so far as premised by the definition: this will ensure that every operation of-

the group shall effect a change of position of the plane.

2 See Arystallsysteme und Krystalistructur, pp. 360 and 636, and Proposition (1)
above.

3 Cf. Krystallsysteme wnd Krystalistructur, pp. 361, 362.

4 Ib., p. 363. Cf. Prop. (6) above.

5 Of. Zb., pp. 363-364, 599, and 637.

° Of. Prop. (7) above and Phil. Magq., 1901, series 6, i. p. 21. As is the case in
some of the latter, planes inclined at 180° will be distinguished from one another,
the two sides of a plane being discriminated

7 Gf. p. 31. As all the existing evidence as to the ultimate relative situa-
tion of crystal faces concerns their direction only, the question whether in a given
system of similar planes regular polyhedral cells are present or not does not
as yet affect the crystallographer.

® Krystallsysteme und Krystallstructur, p. 383. Schénflies sums up his method
in the following fundamental proposition: ‘ Lisst sich die Punkter:ppe G durch
Multiplication einer Gruppe G, mit einer Operation ¢! erzeugen welche das Axen-

_—" > on

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS, 325

group, as compared with the group from which it was obtained, will in
different cases present—

a. A greater number of orientations of the planes belonging to the
derived system.

6. Thesame number. In this case the change will consist solely in the
increased closeness of the planes of a set, and the type among the 230,
which is exhibited, will sometimes be different, sometimes the same.

The converse proposition is—

2. The withdrawal of some operations from a group, entailing the
symmetrical omission of some of the sets of parallel planes, or of some of
the planes in each set, leads to the derivation of a distinct group of
operations. There will in different cases be—

a. Fewer directions of orientation for the planes in the derived group.

8. The same number of directions, associated in some cases with the
preservation of the same type, in some cases with the development of a
different type among the 230.

Asa simple example of the application of the principles established
above consider the hemimorphous class of the monoclinic system.) It
possesses an axis of two-fold symmetry, which in the space-group may
appear as an axis of rotation or as a screw-axis. Now, in the monoclinic
system there are two lattices : one rhomboidal and the other composed of
rhomboidal prisms with centred faces. We obtain two groups from the
former by combining it with an axis of rotation, and with a screw axis ;
from the latter we obtain only one group, since in this case the same
group is derived by the addition of either set of axes.

Like Jordan’s groups, those traced by Schénflies are really mere
groups of geometrical processes, independent of the nature of the material
system concerned ; but it is convenient to regard the processes as applied
to something more tangible. Schonflies himself supplies this want by
introducing the conception of atomic structure, and of its definite par-
titioning. Here the reader must beware lest the nature or configuration
of the atoms or particles themselves be confounded wit the nature and
distribution of the structure considered with respect to them, and lest the
possibilities of mere geometrical partitioning be confounded with those of
a partitioning into conceivable physical units.”

Schénflies treats his work of discriminating 230 types of groups of
operations (Raumgruppen) as preliminary to a direct application of his
results to a molecular theory of matter, which he sets before himself from
the outset ; the reader might, therefore, suppose that the existence of
molecules with void spaces between them is essential in order that the
geometrical derivation of the 230 types may be applicable to crystals.*
Thus Schénflies says : ‘ By a regular assemblage of molecules of unlimited
extent is understood a molecular assemblage infinitely extended in all
directions, which consists entirely of similar molecules, and possesses the
property that around every molecule the disposition of the infinite system
formed by the other molecules is similar.’ And a little later he lays

system von G, in sich iiberfiihrt, so kann jede zu G isomorphe Raumgruppe durch
Multiplication einer zu G, isomorphen Gruppe I, mit einer zu Q isomorphen Opera-
tion { erzeugt werden, vorausgesetzt, dass 2 eine Deckoperation fiir die Axen von I, ist.’

' Krystallsysteme und Krystalistructur, p. 406.

* Cf, Min. Mag., 1896, vol. xi. p. 129.

3 Krystallsysteme und Krystallstructur, p. 237, * Tdid., p. 239,

326 REPORT—1901.

down the fundamental hypothesis that ‘a homogeneous crystal displays
the property that around every point in its interior the structure is that
of a regular assemblage of molecules of unlimited extent.’ !

This way of stating his case imparts to Schénflies’ extension of the
methods of Jordan and Sohncke a somewhat hypothetical aspect, and,
perhaps, obscures the fact that the characteristic symmetry presented by
erystals is traceable in the groups of movements and mirror-image
' operations without specifying the kind of structure employed, and merely
postulating the nature of its homogeneity—z.e., the type which it presents.

In reality his work is not based on an assumption as to the
nature of the regular repetition in space of hypothetical elements in a
erystal,” but its application to crystals rests on the assumption that the
parallelism between the properties of his regular configurations and the
crystal properties is due to a common cause; in other words, that the
arrangement or symmetrical repetition of the ultimate parts in crystals is
that characteristic of these configurations. Schénflies endeavours, in
fact, to ascertain what special suppositions as to the form and quality of
the molecule lie at the root of all theories of the constitution of crystals,
and to determine what further consequences are implicitly bound up
with these suppositions.*

The atoms and molecules of Schénflies are, properly speaking, mere
cells or geometrical space-elements, into which a homogeneous structure
is divided by some sort of symmetrical partitioning, the symmetry or
want of symmetry attributed to the former being in reality a feature of
these cells. Schonflies speaks of placing molecules in cells previously
obtained by some symmetrical partitioning of space, but it will be found
that their individual properties are those of the cells, and are not neces-
sarily adequately descriptive of the symmetry of bodies contained in the
cells considered irrespective of the latter. The statement that the
characteristic symmetry of the molecule is identical with the symmetry of
the cell allotted to it by the symmetrical partitioning would not be true
of a highly symmetrical physical molecule put into a cell having little or
no symmetry.

Schénflies attaches considerable importance to the idea of an
elementary cell (Fundamentalbereich),4 which he introduces in chapter xiii.
of the second part of his work, and it will not be out of place to give a
word or two of explanation.? He shows that any system possessing a group
of operations as above defined may be divided into an infinite number of
contiguous polyhedra, which are all similar to one another, and, in
general, of two kinds, the polyhedra of one kind being identical with
those of the same kind, and the mirror-images of those of the other kind.
Each of these polyhedra encloses one and only one point of a given kind
in the partitional system, round which point matter is distributed in a
given manner.® The form of the cell is, in general, indeterminate, but it
is subject to certain conditions; it cannot be cut by an element of
symmetry of the crystallised body ; if it possesses a plane of symmetry,
this plane must coincide with a face of the cell, and, further, centres and
axes of symmetry must lie on the surface of the cell.?7 From any one of

' Krystallsysteme und Krystallstructur, p. 239. 2 Tbid., p. 247.

* Dbid., pp. 248, 614. * Tbid., p. 559.

° The following discussion of the subject is borrowed from an interesting paper
on ‘Théorie des anomalies optiques, de l'isomorphisme et du polymorphisme,’ by
Fréd, Wallerant, Bull. Soc. Min., 1898, vol. xxi. p. 197 e¢ seq.

° Krystallsysteme und Krystallstructur, p. 572. 7 [bid., p. 573.

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. 827

these cells the remainder can be found by means of the group of opera-
tions. Most of the 230 types can be partitioned into space units which
individually possess the symmetry of the system as a whole. When this
is the case, a finite group of contiguous elementary cells will form such a
unit and can be found by applying to one of them certain of the elements
of symmetry which lie on its surface ; a symmetrical space unit of this
kind may be called a complex cell.!_ Other complex cells possessed of less
symmetry can, of course, be formed. Some of the 230 types, while
capable of being partitioned into such less symmetrical complex cells
cannot be partitioned into complex cells which have as high a symmetry
as that of the type. For example, the type represented by the Sohncke
system described above (fig. 5, p. 314) can be partitioned into cells pos-
sessing trigonal axes with or without centres of symmetry or planes
of symmetry, or with both, but its cells cannot individually possess an
hexagonal axis.

As an example, take the case of the hexagonal space-lattice of

Hig. 9.

fig. 2, where the axes are axes of rotation and the planes of symmetry
are planes of reflexion. The shape of the bodies placed at the points is
ignored, or in other words they are supposed to have a symmetry which
does not modify that of the system of arrangement. The points H in
fig. 9 constitute such a space lattice. In this figure H,H,H,H, corre-
spond respectively to a, y, 6, /3 of fig.6. H,H, isan hexagonal axis of rota-
tion. Take H, as the origin of this Bravais-system, which we know is
@ perpendicular prism with a rhomb of 60° as base, All the rows of
the system parallel to H,H, are also hexagonal axes of rotation. By
combining these rotations with the translations of the system we see at
once that straight lines such as T,T., T,T,, which are parallel to the
hexagonal axes and pass through the centres of gravity of the equi-
lateral triangles forming the bases of the lattice, are trigonal axes of
rotation ; and, again, straight lines such as D,D., D,D,, D;D,, D,Ds,
D,D, 9, which pass through the middle points of the rows of the base, are
digonal axes of rotation.

§ Krystalisysteme und Krystalistructw’, p. 576.

328 ; REPORT—1901.

Six planes of reflexion pass through the hexagonal axis, H,H,, making
angles of 30° with one another (such are the planes H,H,H,, H,H,H,,
and H,H,H.), and, parallel to these planes, there must be throughout
the structure a series of equidistant planes of reflexion.

Further, there is a centre of symmetry on the hexagonal axis ; we may
suppose it to coincide with H,, since this was arbitrarily chosen. All
the nodes of the Bravais-system are such centres of symmetry, and
in addition all the middle points of the rows, 2.¢., all, the points H, D,
and O.

Further, the presence of this centre combined with the hexagonal axis
necessitates the existence of planes of reflexion perpendicular to the axis
and passing through the centres, and, consequently, separated from one
another by O,H,, half the parameter, H,H,, of the axis. Also, perpen-
dicular to each of the planes passing through the hexagonal axis there are
a series of diagonal axes of rotation passing through the centres of
symmetry lying on these planes.

Such, then, are, in the case in question, the elements of crystalline
symmetry which fill space. ;

The elementary cell is easily determined, since the elements of
symmetry must lie on its surface; it is the right prism with triangular
base O,0O,TH,D,T,, which has its bases in two principal planes ; its
edges are a hexagonal axis H,O,, a trigonal axis T,T,, and a digonal axis
D,O, ; its side faces are three planes of symmetry ; the four corners
H,, D,, Oz, O,, are centres of symmetry, but the corners TT,, situated on
the trigonal axes, are not centres.

To obtain the complex cell we must apply to the fundamental cell the
appropriate elements of symmetry—i.e., in this case the hexagonal axis
and two planes of symmetry, O,O,H,D, and H,D,T,—whence we obtain
a right prism with hexagonal base whose edges are the trigonal axes, 2.¢.,
the cell of fig. 3.

(By taking another set of the primary elements of symmetry another
complex cell will be obtained.)

A corresponding crystalline structure will be obtained by furnishing
each elementary cell in a similar manner with contents of any nature,

Fedorow.

As has been said above, the 230 types of crystal structure were inde-
pendently established and investigated by E. von Fedorow.

The researches of this author which relate to the subject of crystal
structure begin in the year 1885 with a general treatise on the ‘Theory
of Figures,’ published (in Russian) with copious illustrations in the ‘ Trans-
actions of the Russian Mineralogical Society,’ xxi. pp. 1-279 : this was
followed in 1888 by a memoir on the ‘Symmetry of Finite Figures,’ pub-
lished (in Russian) in the same journal, xxv. pp. 1-52, and by one on the
‘Symmetry of Regular Systems of Figures,’ published (in Russian) in
1890.

The above are not only among the earliest treatises on these subjects,
but they contain also almost all that is essential in the author’s later
development of it, and some results that have been independently pub-
lished hy other investigators to whom his Russian papers were not known.
An abstract of some of the early papers was given by Wulff! and by
Fedorow himself.’

’ Zeits. Kryst. Min., 1899, vol, xvii. p. 610, ? Tb.; 1893, vol. xxi, p, 679,

ON THE S9TRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. 329

Fedorow first established the principle that in a symmetrical figure
the symmetry must be one or more of the following sorts : axis of sym-
metry, plane of symmetry and a combination of the two, or composite
symmetry (7.¢e., Curie’s alternating symmetry) ; in a regular system of
figures, on the other hand, supposed infinitely extended, two more general
elements of symmetry are also possible—namely, a screw axis and a
glide-plane of symmetry; repetition about a screw axis consists of a
rotation combined with a translation along the axis; repetition about
a glide-plane consists of reflexion combined with a translation parallel to
the plane. The elements of symmetry in a finite figure are simply special
cases of the latter in which the translations are zero.

Like Hessel, Fedorow investigated first the symmetry of finite solid
figures in general and then, by limiting the problem by a condition
equivalent to the law of rational indices, deduced the thirty-two kinds of
symmetry possible for crystals. His method consists practically in com-
bining any two of the possible elements and ascertaining to what other
elements they give rise: e.g., two axes of digonal symmetry inclined at
45° give rise to the axes of a trapezohedral tetragonal crystal ; the total
group constitutes a ‘ Symmetrie art’ or ‘class.’

Two classes are different when in one of them an axis (or, in general,
a symmetry element) is present which is absent from the other, or occu-
pies a position which it does not occupy in the other. Such a class,
therefore, corresponds to a ‘group of operations’ in the language of
Schonflies.

A special feature of Fedorow’s researches is his analytical expression
of the symmetry ; this is described in the second of the above-mentioned
memoirs. In this method a point is denoted by an indefinite number of
coordinates (although three are sufficient)—namely, the intercepts made
upon all the axes, derived by the symmetrical repetition of one coordi-
nate axis, by planes drawn perpendicular to them through the given

oint.

J Thus, if an axis of p-fold symmetry be taken as one coordinate axis y,
and a line perpendicular to it as a second coordinate axis yo, then repeti-
tion of y) about y gives p—1 other coordinate axes, ¥,, 7, &c. A point
whose coordinates are y=b, yy=bo, y,;=0o then gives rise to a sym-
metrical set of points y=b, y)=b, y,=0,,,, where s may have the
different values 0, 1,2... p—l. By means of equations of this nature,
containing also appropriate symbols for repetition about the planes of
symmetry, the various sorts of symmetry of figures or of regular systems
of figures are deduced and expressed. The method by which they are
deduced consists practically in seeking all the possible combinations of
the elements of symmetry which are not incompatible with each other.

In the first memoir, which deals only with the symmetry of finite
figures, after establishing all the possible varieties of regular polyhedra
and classifying them as isogons (which have similar or symmetrical edges),
and isohedra (which have similar or symmetrical faces), and having shown
that there are eighteen sorts of typical isohedra,! Fedorow investigates
their symmetry according to the principle that each class (Symmetrie art)
corresponds to certain typical isohedra, and, conversely, that when all
the typical isohedra are known the various classes of symmetry can be
deduced from them. Crystal polyhedra are treated as special cases.

‘ Atypical isohedron is the figure derived from a polyhedron by moving its faces
parallel to themselves until they all touch one and the same sphere,

330 REPORT—1901,

The second part of the memoir considers the regular partitioning of a
plane, and of space, and the nature of zonohedra, or figures whose faces
intersect in parallel edges, and shows that there are six kinds of zono-
hedra. [Here also the author lays down the principles of simple elonga-
tion (Zug) and Shear (Verschiebung), and shows that any parallelepiped
may be transformed into any other by these two processes. These
principles are chiefly of importance in Fedorow’s development of his own
theory of crystal structure, and of his methods of calculation. |

With regard to the partitioning of space, it is shown that space may
be filled either by equal figures ranged parallel to one another ; these are
called ‘parallelohedra’; or by polyhedra, which, while equal or symmetri-
cally similar, are not necessarily parallel ; these are called ‘ stereohedra.’

The plane-faced parallelohedra are bounded by pairs of parallel faces
(i.e., they possess centro-symmetry), and their arrangement is necessarily
that of a space-lattice. There are four sorts of such parallelohedra,
namely, those with three, four, six, or seven pairs of parallel faces ; and
the filling of space with these corresponds to the close packing of spheres
which are in contact with six, eight, twelve, or eight neighbouring spheres
respectively. Fedorow’s most general sort of parallelohedron, the fourth
of those mentioned above, the ‘heptaparallelohedron,’ is identical with
the ‘ tetrakaidekahedron’ subsequently and independently established by
Lord Kelvin as the most general parallel-faced cell into which space can
be regularly partitioned ;+ its superficial area is, as was shown by both
authors, a minimum for a given volume.

When space is partitioned into differently orientated identically
similar plane-faced stereohedra, these may always be grouped together into
sets, such that each set is a parallelohedron ; further, the analogous points
of the stereohedra constitute a regular point-system, just as the analogous
points of the parallelohedra constitute a space-lattice. Here, then,
we have a statement of the fact that the points of a regular point-
system can always be grouped into clusters whose arrangement is a space-
lattice.

As will be seen hereafter, this conception of parallelohedra, as opposed
to stereohedra, forms the basis of Fedorow’s own theory of crystal
structure.

The last section of the memoir is occupied with the consideration of
polyhedra with concave faces, or ‘ koilohedra.’

In his second treatise, that dealing with regular systems of figures,?
the problem of crystal structure is more directly approached. <A regular
system of figures is defined as consisting of an infinite assemblage of finite
figures, such that when any two of them are made to coincide by one of
the processes of symmetrical repetition (including herein the mirror-image
repetition to be mentioned presently) the whole system coincides with
itself again. This is, of course, practically the same as the definition of
Schénflies, and must lead to the same results.

If any point in one of the figures be chosen, and the homologous
points in all the figures of the system be sought, the whole complex con-
stitutes a regular point-system.

Those point-systems in which only repetition about axes (screw or
other) or simple translation is involved correspond to Sohncke’s systems,

1 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1894, lv. p.1. See also Phil. Maq., 1887, xxiv. p. 503.
* See for a short account Zeits, Aryst. Min., 1892, vol, xx. pp, 39-62,

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. 301

and are called ‘simple’ ; the remainder may be regarded as consisting of
two ‘analogous’ systems, the one the mirror image of the other, and are
called ‘ double systems.’

The systems, as a whole, are divided into three groups: (1) Symmor-
phous, whose elementary figures possess the same class of symmetry as the
system itself; (2) hemisymmorphous, consisting of two analogous
symmorphous simple systems, which together make up a ‘double system,’
the latter itself not being symmorphous ; (3) asymmorphous. In the first
class all the elements of symmetry meet in a point within each figure ; in
the second class only the symmetry axes meet in a point ; in the third class
none of the elements of symmetry meet in a point ; here, consequently,
adjacent figures are differently orientated.

Fedorow first proves that the classes of symmetry of the regular sys-
tems of figures are only special cases of the classes of symmetry of the
finite figures, and that it is possible to have several regular systems
belonging to the same class of symmetry.

The classes of symmetry are, of course, thirty-two in number ; they
are limited by virtue of the fact that the axes, whether symmetry axes,
screw axes, or axes of composite (alternating) symmetry, can only be two-
fold, three-fold, four-fold, or six-fold.

The definition of the regular partitioning of space given by Schénflies !
is practically identical with that given by Fedorow in his ‘Elements of
Figures’ in 1885: ‘A division of space into absolutely similar cells in
which each cell is surrounded in the same way by the remainder.’ If in
a regular system of figures all the figures dilate uniformly until they
come into contact, the system is converted into one of cells regularly
partitioning space. A noteworthy property of the ‘elementary’ or
minimum ceils is that the axes and planes of symmetry of the system
cannot pass through them,? but must lie in their surfaces; in other
respects unless bounded on all sides by planes of symmetry their actual
form is quite arbitrary.

Here, again, Fedorow introduces the classification mentioned above :
(1) Symmorphous systems have the same symmetry as their cells ; here
the cells are parallelohedra,? and therefore arranged in parallel positions ;
é.g., an arrangement of parallel cubes ; (2) hemisymmorphous systems,
which only have the elements of simple translation and rotation in
common with the constituent cells ; ¢.g., the triangular prisms of fig. 1 ;
here the parallelohedron (rhombic prism of 60°) is composed of two
‘analogous’ stereohedra (two triangular prisms); (3) asymmorphous
systems in which the parallelohedra are indeterminate and not neces-
sarily closed polyhedra.

Now a parallelohedron possesses a centre of symmetry (centre of
inversion), and if it is a convex figure this centre lies within it ; if, on
the other hand, it is concave, the centre lies without it. Further, in
every convex parallelohedron the faces are only parallel and equal in
pairs ; and there are only four sorts of parallelohedra, namely, those

1 Nachr. d.h. Ges. d. Wiss., Gottingen, 1888, ix. p. 223. * See above, p. 326.

® Like Haiiy’s moléeules soustractives Fedorow’s parallelohedra are mere geo-
metrical entities, and in many cases the grouping of the stereohedra which produces
them has to be very arbitrary. The same stereohedra can in all cases be grouped
to form parallelohedra in an infinite number of ways. ‘The parallelohedra will often
have re-entrant angles even if the angles of the stereohedra of which they are com-
posed are all salient.

302 REPORT—1901.

mentioned above, which possess respectively three, four, six, and seven such
pairs of faces.

The following example illustrates the principles described above, and
is of special interest as representing a type consistent with the symmetry
of the mineral] dioptase which first led to an extension of Sohncke’s
theory. This mineral possesses an axis of trigonal combined with a
centre of symmetry, its faces always occurring in sets of six, which are
all alike, and consist of three pairs of parallel faces. (The symmetry
may equally well be described as due to the operation of an hexagonal
axis of alternating symmetry.)

Fig. 10 represents a system of stereohedra arranged in accordance
with this symmetry: the stereohedra are of two sorts (R and L), one sort
being the mirror-image of the other; the structure is symmorphous.
A series of points similarly situated, one within each stereohedron
R, would constitute a Sohncke-system : a ‘double system’ of points is
obtained by adding a series similarly situated, one within each_stereo-
hedron L. The figure also shows the manner in which the stereohedra

Ere; 10.

can be grouped in sets of six to form parallelohedra, which in this case
are rhombohedra. Consequently a rhombohedral partitioning of space is
consistent with the given type of symmetry.

From the principles laid down in the memoirs mentioned above,
Fedorow is able to deduce all the possible types of symmetry which
characterise either homogeneous systems of figures, or homogeneous
systems of points, or the homogeneous partitioning of space.

They are 230 in number, and are identical with those established
independently, as stated above, by Schénflies.

Fedorow’s theory of crystal structure, which is based upon his
parallelohedra, will be considered later.

Barlow.

The result attained by Fedorow and Schénflies, that homogeneous struc-
tures, if classified by their symmetry, can be distinguished not only into
thirty-two classes but into 230 kinds which belong to these thirty-two

1 The stereohedra are shown in the figure slightly drawn apart to make the
arrangement clearer, but in fact they fill space without interstices,

—— Ss oe

Ser See eS r—

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. 888

classes, was arrived at by William Barlow! by a someWhat different
reasoning.

The sixty-five point-systems of Sohncke are of two sorts : some of them
are identical with their own mirror-images and some are not. Further, there
are some very simple homogeneous structures which are not /ully repre-
sented among Sohncke’s systems. An example will be given directly.

Barlow designates the identical symmetrical repetition of parts through-
out space, as investigated by Jordan and Sohncke, by the title ‘homo-
geneous structure,’ and his definition of such a structure is very similar to
that given by Fedorow of a regular system of figures. He shows that the
point-systems obtained by taking all the homologous points in such a
structure are Sohncke’s point-systems, and that every such structure is
capable of the coincidence-movements of some one of Sohncke’s sixty-five
systems and of no other.

Suppose, for example, a number of equal cubes to be stacked together
in the most regular manner, and let any geometrical point be taken within
oneofthe cubes. There are within this cube twenty-three other points, at
the same distance from its centre as the first, which have identically * the
same relation to the whole stack, so that the latter presents the same
aspect when viewed from any one of the twenty-four points.

These twenty-four points constitute a Sohnckian 24-punktner, and when
corresponding points are taken in ali the cubes Sohncke’s system 59 is
obtained.

By a method of developing structures of higher symmetry from those
of lower symmetry, Barlow obtains aJl Sohncke’s sixty-five sets of coin-
cidence-movements, and points out that corresponding to each of these
sixty-five systems is a class of homogeneous structure which is not identical
with its own mirror-image. He then remarks that the additional
property of identity with mirror image can be displayed by homogeneous
structures in a definite number of different ways, and that this enables
us to distinguish other types of symmetry besides the sixty-five types
established without this property.

For example, let a line be drawn from each point cf one of the
24-point groups above described through the nearest cube-centre, and
prolonged to an equal distance on the opposite side. The twenty-four
points thus obtained, together with all similar points, constitute a second
Sohncke-system which is the mirror image of the first ; from each of them
the aspect of the structure as a whole is the mirror-image of its aspect
from any one of the first set. The two together represent fully the true
symmetry of the stack of cubes, which is thus shown to possess a higher
symmetry than the simple Sohncke-system derived from it.

If, now, space is to be filled with similar wnsymmetrical cells, instead
of cubic cells, one such cell must enclose each of the first system of points,
and another which is its mirror-image must similarly enclose each of the
second system of points. In the original paper the diagrams of symme-
trical partitioning which are introduced make this conclusion easier to
follow. The cells clearly correspond to the Lundamentalbereiche of

1 Ueber die geometrischen Eigenschaften homogener starrer Structuren und ihre
Anwendung auf Krystalle, Zeits. Aryst. Min., 1894, vol. xxiii. pp. 1-63; and 1895,
Xxv. p. 86.

2 Points having a mirror-image relation to the point selected are not here taken
into consideration.

ood REPORT—1901.

Schénflies, and miust, as stated above, contain on their walls all the
elements of symmetry of the structure.

The double system just obtained might have been constructed in another
way. Thus, draw a line from each point of the 24-punktner perpendi-
cular to a plane of symmetry of the structure, and produce it to an equal
distance on the opposite side ;-the system so obtained is identical with
that previously obtained by the employment of centres of symmetry.

A homogeneous structure consisting of material of any sort or shape
which contains points of two kinds like the above is identical with its
mirror-image.

All the possible types of homogeneous structures are constructed in
the following way. Take a Sohncke point-system and, where possible,
insert into it the mirror-image of itself (7.¢., the enantiomorphous Sohncke-
system) in such a way that the coincidence-movements of the two coincide
(e.g. the Sohncke-system obtained from R of fig. 10, combined with that
obtained from L).

The two constituent systems are then related to each other in one or
more of three modes, either (1) across a centre or centres of symmetry so
that they are oppositely orientated in every direction, or (2) across a plane
or planes of either ordinary or gliding symmetry, or (3) they are opposed
to each other with reference to one direction and are at the same time
orientated at right angles to each other.

His third mode is in reality the method of repetition, used by
Fedorow, Schénflies, and Curie, which has an axis of alternating
symmetry ; Barlow employs it only in the case of the tetartohedral
symmetry of the tetragonal system because the other types which possess
symmetry of this nature possess also the symmetry of one of the other two
modes, and have therefore been already found.

By applying these three modes of duplication to Sohncke’s sixty-five
systems, Barlow deduced the same 230 types of symmetry which were
distinguished by Fedorow and Schonflies.

The table of the 165 additional systems given by Barlow has this advan-
tage, that it distinguishes clearly the enantiomorphous systems from those
which possess mirror-image symmetry, and shows the mutual relations
of the two enantiomorphous systems of which a double system consists,
and further indicates the exact position of some of the centres and
planes of symmetry in the structure.

Points of the structure which lie at these centres or upon axes or
planes of symmetry (‘singular points’ of Barlow) are clearly less numerous:
than any other sets of homologous points in the structure. In the stack
of cubes, for example, the centres of the cubes are less numerous than the
most general sorts of homologous points within the cubes. As explained
above, there are two sets of twenty-four points each surrounding each
centre ; it is evident, therefore, that the least symmetrically situated
points are no less than forty-eight times as numerous as the centres.

Barlow’s theory of crystal structure, which is based upon the principle
of close-packing, will be considered later.

Any account of the geometrical theories of crystal structure which
omitted reference to the important work of Lord Kelvin would be very
incomplete. This author has investigated the problem of the homo-
geneous partitioning of space, and, as was mentioned above, established
independently the tetrakaidekahedron (Fedorow’s heptaparallelohedron)

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. 339

as the most general form of cell belonging to such partitioning. The
fourteen walls of this cell are not necessarily plane.!

Most of his papers cited below relate to the equilibrium of molecular
systems, and will therefore be more properly considered later in con-
nection with that branch of the subject. A discussion of the relation-
ship between the three aspects of the problem of crystal structure—
namely, homogeneous assemblages of points, partitioning of space, and
close packing of similar bodies—forms, however, an important part of
the ‘ Boyle Lecture’ published in 1894.?

The assemblages of points considered by Bravais and Sohncke may be
replaced by solid bodies in contact with each other, or by close-fitting
cells; so also, in the more general case, the Mundamentalbereiche of
Schénflies may be occupied by points, by solid bodies, or by portions of
solid bodies. Lord Kelvin considers these problems on the basis of the
Bravais assemblage, and treats very fully of the partitioning of space
into identical sameway-orientated cells. His definition of homogeneity is
therefore more limited than that of the writers subsequent to Bravais.
Thus he says : ‘The homogeneous division of any volume of space means
the dividing of it into equal and similar parts, or cells, all sameways-
oriented. If we take any point in the interior of one cell and corre-
sponding points of all the other cells, these points form a homogeneous
assemblage of single points, according to Bravais’ admirable and import-
ant definition. The general problem of the homogeneous partition of
space may be stated thus: Given a homogeneous assemblage of single
points, it is required to find every possible form of cell enclosing each of
them subject to the condition that it is of the same shape and sameways-
oriented for all.’ *

The manner in which the physical and morphological properties of a
substance may be represented by a geometrical cell-partitioning is
illustrated by Lord Kelvin’s elegant model of quartz described in the
Boyle Lecture.*

Among the systems studied by Lord Kelvin are those of atoms endued
+ with inertia and held in equilibrium by Boscovichian attractions and
repulsions.? As a possible structure for an ice crystal, for example, com-
posed of Boscovichian atoms, according to this principle, a system is
proposed consisting of two interpenetrating space-lattices of rhombohedral
symmetry.®

William Barlow, again, in a paper entitled ‘A Mechanical Cause of
Homogeneity of Structure and Symmetry geometrically investigated,’ 7
has given numerous examples of the manner in which stacks of close-

1 On Homogeneous Division of Space,’ Proc, Roy. Soc., 1894, lv. pp. 1-16; «On
the Division of Space with Minimum Partitional Area,’ Phil. Mag., 1887, ser. 5, xxiv.
pp. 503-514 ; ‘The Molecular Constitution of Matter, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1889,
XVi. pp. 693-724.

# «The Molecular Tactics of a Crystal,’ The Second Boyle Lecture, 1894, Oxford.

5 Proc, Roy. Soc., 1894, lv. p. 1.

* P. 52. Cf. also ‘ Piezo-electric Property of Quartz,’ Phil. Mag., 1893, ser. 5,
Xxxvi. pp. 331-340.

° *The Elasticity of a Crystal according to Boscovich,’ Phil. DMag., 1893, ser. 5,
Xxxvi. pp. 414-430, and Proc. Roy. Soc., 1894, liv. pp. 59-75.

§ On the Molecular Dynamics of Hydrogen Gas, Oxygen Gas, Ozone, Peroxide of
Hydrogen, Vapour of Water, Liquid Water, Ice, and Quartz Crystal,’ Report Brit.
Assoc., 1896, pp. 721-724,

7 Proc, Roy. Dub, Soc., 1897, viii. pp. 627-690.

836 REPORT—1901.

packed spheres, either equal or of two or three different sizes (repre>
senting the atoms), may be constructed so as to possess the symmetry of
many holohedral, hemihedral, or tetartohedral crystals, and to be in
harmony with their physical properties. !

Among recent writers mention should be made of C. Viola. He has
employed the method of quarternions to derive the thirty-two classes of
crystal symmetry * and has also given an elementary exposition of these
classes based upon the planes of symmeiry.? In a recent paper‘ he
questions the ultimate validity of the law of rational indices.

It is sufficient here to point out that all the systems devised by Kelvin,
Barlow, Turner, Sollas and others, being homogeneous arrangements,
must correspond geometrically to one or other of the 230 types of
Schénflies and Fedorow, and must all, as to their symmetry, be ultimately
reducible to a certain number of interpenetrating space-lattices. As they
go beyond the geometry ot the subject their consideration is postponed
for the present.

Summary.

With the establishment of the 230 types of structure the purely
geometrical study of the problem seems to have attained something like
finality. The history of its development, as sketched above, is the history
of an attempt to express geometrically the physical properties of crystals,
and at each stage of the progress an appeal to their known morphological
properties has driven the geometrician to widen the scope of his inquiry
and to enlarge his definition of homogeneity in order that it may include
types of symmetry which did not fall within the more restricted defini-
tion. The necessity of explaining hemihedrism led to the system of
Sohncke ; the necessity of accounting for the known symmetry of dioptase
led to the further extension of Sohncke’s principles.

The two most satisfactory features of the final geometrical solution of
the problem are the following: (1) A single principle—namely homo-
geneity according to the wider definition—is sutticient to account for the
two leading characteristics of crystals, their eolotropism, and the law of
rational indices. (2) The lines are now laid down within which specula-
tion concerning the actual structure of any crystallised substance can
range.

There are three problems to be solved in explaining the structure of
erystals : (1) What are the parts of which a crystal consists? (2) How
are they arranged? (3) Why are they arranged in this particular
way ?

We have now good reason to believe that a partial answer has been
found to the second question, and that whatever may be the parts of
which a crystal consists they must be arranged according to one or other
of the 230 types of symmetry ; Sohncke systems and Bravais space-
lattices are, of course, special cases of these.

1 Compare also A. Turner, Das Problem der Krystallisation, Leipzig, 1897, and
W. J. Sollas ‘On the Intimate Structure of Crystals,’ Prvc. Roy. Svc., 1898, 1xiii.
pp. 270-300; 1901, Ixvii. pp. 493-496.

? Ueber die Symmetrie der Krystalle und Anwendung der Quaternionrechnung,
Neues Jahrb., 1896, Beilage Bd. x. pp. 495-532.

’ Elementare Dar-tellung der 32 Krystallklasse, Zeits. Avyst. Min., 1897, xxvii,
pp. 1-40.

* Zur Begiiindung der Krystallsymmetrien, 72id., 1901, zxxiv, pp. 253-388,

ON THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. aoe

It is true that by placing suitable bodies (molecules endowed with
certain symmetry) at the nodes of a space-lattice all the properties of a
crystal may be accounted for, but there seems no suflicient reason for
limiting the problem in this manner. The material occupying the
Fundamentalbereiche of Schonflies, or represented by a generalised point-
system, may always be supposed grouped about the nodes of the underlying
space-lattice if required, so that what were at first regarded as so many
units come to be the parts of a single composite unit ; but in some cases
the latter, like some of Haiiy’s molécules soustractives, must be a mere
geometrical fiction. fe

Until we know more about the units of which the crystal really con-
sists, there will necessarily be speculation as to whether the units are
situated at the most general sorts of homologous points in a given type,
or whether they are symmetrical bodies situated at the singular points ;
whether they are all of the same sort or of more than one sort.

It is proposed to consider in a subsequent report some of the mechanical
and physical conceptions which haye been employed in discussing the
possible stracture of crystals, and the definite structures recently ascribed
to certain substances. !

The Movements of Underground Waters of North-west Yorkshire. —
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. W.
Warts (Chairman), Mr. A. R. DwerryHousE (Secretary), Pro
fessor A. SMITHELLS, Rev. E. Jones, Mr. Water Morrison,
Mr. G. Bray, Rev. W. Lower Carter, Mr. W. Farruey, Mr.
P. F. KEnpaLi, and Mr. J. E. Marr.

Tur Committee are carrying out the investigation in conjunction with a
committee of the Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society.

The work of investigating the flow of underground water in Ingle--
boro’, described in the report presented to the Association at the
Bradford meeting, was resumed hy the Committee on November 10,
1900, when it was determined to study the underground course of a small
stream known as Hard Gill. —

This stream rises, on the south side of Ingleboro’, in a spring at
1,600 feet above the sea, and flows for a distance of about half a mile
over boulder clay.

It then reaches the bare limestone and commences to sink near the
eastern corner of the croft at Crina Bottom.

In wet weather the stream is not entirely absorbed at this point, but
flows on past the house at Crina Bottom, and enters the rock at Rowan
Tree Hole (Rantree Hole on 6-in. map).

At the time of the experiments the water of Hard Gill was entirely
absorbed between the point where the 1,200 feet contour crosses the
stream and the eastern corner of the croft, and consequently the investi-
gation of Rowan Tree Hole, the primary object of the excursion, had to
be abandoned.

It was found, however, that the bulk of the water was absorbed at
the point where the 1,200 feet line crosses the stream, and consequently

’ This relates to work published by Mallard, Liveing, Fedorow, Kelvin, Wulff,
Barlow, Muthmann, Tutton, Sollas, Go!dschmidt, Viola, and others,
1901. Z

338 REPORT—1901.

it was determined to introduce one pound of Fluorescein into the open
joint down which the water was flowing.

This was done at 2 p.m. on November 11, and before 7 a.m. on the
12th the water of the large spring at the reservoir in the Greta Valley
was strongly coloured.

After introducing the Fluorescein a general survey was made of the
direction of the joints in the limestone in the neighbourhood of the sink
and on the clints above Crina Bottom, with the following results :—

Joint at ‘sink’. ~ : “ . ° N. 55° W.
On ‘clints’ near sink ; . r P N. 55° W.
On ‘clints’ above and to the west of ; ° (main) N. 50° W.
Crina Bottom . (secondary) 8. 25° W.

The spring at the reservoir is thrown out close to the line of
junction of the Carboniferous Limestone with the underlying Silurian
rocks, and the line from the sink where the Fluorescein was introduced
to the spring runs N, 55° W.—that is, in the direction of the master
joints in the limestone.

Thus, again, it has been demonstrated that the direction of under-
ground flow is determined by that of the master joints in the limestone.

After a considerable though unavoidable delay the work was resumed
on June 21, 1901, when Alum Pot, on the Ribblesdale side of Inglehboro’,
was the scene of operations.

The joints in the neighbourhood of Alum Pot are more complicated
than in the parts of the district previously investigated, there being three
sets of joints, all more or less irregular in places.

Close to Alum Pot there are two sets running 8. 5° W. and N. 80° E,
respectively.

Thirty yards higher up Alum Pot Beck they run due N. and 8. and
N. 80° E., the north and south joints being the stronger and more con-.
tinuous.

On the ‘clints’ 100 yards above the Pot there are three sets of joints,
as follows, viz.—

Masters) Gig + oeNqi0eR,

Secondary," (9s) ee {x fe 7

One pound of Fluorescein was put into the stream flowing into Alum
Pot on Friday, June 21, at 7 p.m.

There was not much water flowing at the time, and a few days after-
wards several important springs in the neighbourhood ran dry, including
that at Turn Dub, on the opposite bank of the Ribble, which is the
reputed outlet of the Alum Pot stream.

The springs commenced to flow again a few days later ; but although
they were carefully watched, as was also the river itself, no trace of colour
was seen.

It was therefore concluded that either the Fluorescein had passed
into one of the other river basins or had become so diluted as to be
invisible.

This experiment having proved inconclusive, a further one was com-
menced ou Thursday, September 5, the results of which are not yet
known.

Owing to the long delay caused by the drought and other circum-
stances beyond their control, the Committee have been unable to

es eee

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 339

complete the work during the present year, and therefore ask to be
reappointed and to be allowed to retain the unexpended balance of the
grant made at the Bradford meeting.

Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—Twelfth
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor JAMES GEIKIE
(Chairman), Dr. T. G. Bonney, Professor E. J. Garwoon,
Dr. Tempest ANDERSON, Mr. GoprREY BinGuey, Mr. H. Coates,
Mr. C. V. Crook, Mr. J. G. Goopcuitp, Mr. W1LLIaM Gray, Mr.
Rogert Kinston, Mr. A. S. Rem, Mr..J. J. H.. Tea,
Mr. R. Wetcu, Mr. H. B. Woopwarp, Mr. F. Woo.nouas,
and Professor W. W. Warts (Secretary). (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)

Tar Committee have the honour to report that during the year 241 new
photographs have been received, bringing up the total number in the col-
lection to 2,896.

In addition to this 3 prints and 3 slides have been given to the
duplicate collection, making a total of 247 photographs received during
the year.

A scheme showing the geographical distribution of the photographs is
appended. There are no new counties on the list, but the following
counties are now much better represented than hitherto :—Cumberland,
Derby, Durham, Lincoln, Norfolk, Northumberland, Wiltshire, and Pem-
broke. Cambridgeshire continues to share with Rutland and Hunting-
don the distinction of being unrepresented in the collection. There are
three Welsh counties unrepresented, eleven in Scotland, and fourteen in
Ireland. As Brecknock, Dumbarton, Ross-shire, Wicklow, Kilkenny,
and Waterford are amongst these counties it is evident that the work of
the Committee cannot yet be considered complete.

To this year’s collection the most noteworthy accession is Dr. G.
Abbott’s set of photographs of sections and specimens illustrating his
study of the remarkable concretionary structures exhibited by the Mag-
nesian Limestone of Durham. :

Another important contribution is a beautiful series of views illus-
trating problems on Physical Geography and Geology in the Cheviots,
taken by Mr. G. Bingley and Mr. Hastings. The former also sends
photographs from Yorkshire.

Mr. Coomara-Swamy has taken photographs in Lakeland and Wilt-
shire, and Mr. Monckton in Dorset, Surrey, and Berkshire,

Mr. A. T. Metcalfe contributes an interesting series of glacial photo-
graphs from the Norfolk coast, and a set illustrating the volcanic vents
of Derbyshire recently described by Sir Archibald Geikie.

The Hull Geological Society and the Croydon Microscopical and
Natural History Club send some local photographs, and the members of
the North Staffordshire Field Club also continue their contributions.

Mz. Jerome Harrison sends some exceptionally beautiful and interest-
ing pictures of drift deposits and of striated boulders, of glacial pheno-
mena about Snowdonia, and of surface creep. He also sends illustrations
of Faleozoic and pre-Palzeozoic rocks in the Midlands, while the Uriconian
rocks of Shropshire have been photograrhed by Mr. Buddicom as well.

Z2

340

REPORT—1901.

ENGLAND—
Berkshire
Cumberland
Derbyshire
Devonshire
Dorset A
Durham . A
Kent E
Lincolnshire .
Norfolk . :
Northumber-

land
Nottingham-

shire
Shropshire .
Staffordshire .
Surrey 5
Sussex . :
Warwickshire .
Westmoreland.
Wiltshire
Worcestershire
Yorkshire 4
Others

Total . ‘

WALES—
Carnarvon
Pembroke
Others

Total .

CHANNEL Is-
LANDS . .

IsLE OF MAN.
ScoTLAND—
Inverness
Others . :

Total . =
IRELAND—
Donegal.
Others

Total . :

Rock STRUC-

FOREIGN

TURES, &c . |

Duplicates
ae ero
ease: tions Total | Previous} Additions (1900)
tion (1900) collec- Total
tion | Prints Slides
3 2 5 =— — — _
| § 10 18 = a= — —
i F380 11 41 i — — 1
126 9 135 13 2 2 Bi,
90 9 99 8 -- — 8
29 82 1k 1 — — 1
70 2 (2) 13 — -— 13
4 2 6 _— — — —
18 5 23 7 = = ff
42 28 70 _ — — —
13 1 14 1 — — 1
33 1L 44 8 1 — 9
42 9 51 10 — — 10
35 8 43 3 — — 3
10 2 12 —- — — —
36 2 38 3 — — 3
61 1 2 6 ttt = 6
il 4 5 — — 1 1
14 5 19 1 —_— -- 1
446 10 456 67 — _- 67
388 — 388 59 — —_ 59
1499 213 1712 201 3 3) 207
74 18 92 24 — — 24
12 3 15 = — == —
87 a $7 19 — —- 19
173 21 194 45 os — 43
15 -- 16 —_— 72= —_ =
60 — 60 4 — — 4
114 il 115 32 z= — 32
196 -- 196 49 == — 49
310 1 B11 81 —_ — 81
| £
44 1 45 3 — — 3
463 — 463 55 — — 3,
507 il 508 58 — — 58
91 5 96 31 — —- 3
antl ete IM

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. O41

Duplicates
Pre- Addi- ==
—_ vious tions Additions (1900

BOE: 4 Asani. pag eimai ME

tion tion Prints Slides
ENGLAND , | 1499 213 1712 201 B 3 207
WALES . : 173 21 194 43 rt s 43
CHANNEL Is:

LANDS - 15 — 15 _ — — —
IsLE OF MAN. 60 — 60 4 = — 4
ScoTLAND i 310 1 311 81 ES 81
IRELAND . 5 507 1 508 58 = — 58
Rock STRUC-

TURES. 91 5 96 31 — — 31
FOREIGN . : = — — 29 — — 29

Total . . | 2655 241 | 2896 447 3 3 453

To these gentlemen and to the contributors mentioned below the
Committee tender their thanks: Professor W. Hillhouse, Professor E. J.
Garwood, Mr. J. H. Baldock, Mr. W.S. Parrish, Mr. J. A. Cossins, the
Rey. C. F. L. Barnwell, Mr. H. J. Steele, Mr. F. W. Robarts, Mr. W. B.
Bannerman, Miss M. 8. Johnston, Mr. J. W. Stather, Mr. Watson,
Miss M. K. Andrews, and Mr. W. W. Midgley.

The Committee notice an increasing tendency on the part of contri-
butors to send in enlarged photographs. If the enlargement shows
details not easily visible on the originals, and if they are sharp and clear,
this is an excellent thing. But unless this is the case enlargements do
not appear to possess any advantage over the smaller photographs ;
indeed, rather the reverse ; while they occupy considerably more storage
rooin. ‘Fuzzitypes’ have no precise functions in illustrating geological
phenomena.

The Committee would again call attention to the insertion of a scale
whenever possible into the photographs—not an ordinary foot-rule the
divisions of which are invariably invisible, but something of average size
which cannot be easily mistaken—the human figure, a walking-stick,
camera-case, hat, pencil, or coin.

The additions to the duplicate collection number only six. Several
others are in hand ; but it is thought advisable to hold them back for a
time in order to get complete sets on certain subjects.

The duplicate collection has been sent to Natural History Societies at
the following places :—Dulwich College, Halifax, Haslemere, Highgate,
Accrington, and Woking.

The little set of photographs which was framed for exhibition at
Paris in 1900 is now displayed in the Museum of Practical Geology at
Jermyn Street. The silver medal awarded to it, or rather the bronze
copy thereof, will doubtless be received at some future time.

The scheme for publishing a selection of typical geological photographs
is progressing, in spite of a series of unforeseen delays. The first batch
of twenty-two prints and slides will shortly be issued, and the preparation
of the second and third batches will be proceeded with.

Applications by local societies for the loan of the duplicate collection
should be made to the Secretary. Either prints or slides, or both, can be

842 REPORT—1901.

lent, with a descriptive account of the slides. The carriage and the
making good of any damage to slides or prints are expenses borne by the
borrowing society,

TWELFTH LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.
(To SePremBER 3, 1901.)

This list contains the geological photographs which have been
received by the Secretary of the Committee since the publication of the
last report. Photographers are asked to affix the registered numbers,
as given below, to their negatives for convenience of future reference.
Their own numbers are added in order to enable them to do so.

Copies of photographs desired can, in most instances, be obtained
from the photographer direct, or from the officers of the Local Society
under whose auspices the views were taken.

The price at which copies may be obtained depends on the size of the
print and on local circumstances over which the Committee have no control.

The Committee do not assume the copyright of any photographs
included in this list. ‘nquiries respecting photographs, and applications
for permission to reproduce them, should be addressed to the photographers
direct.

The very best photographs lose half their utility, and all their value
as documentary evidence, unless accurately described ; and the Secretary
would be grateful if, whenever possible, such explanatory details as can
be given were written on the forms supplied for the purpose, and not on
the back of the photograph or elsewhere. Much labour and error of tran-
scription would thereby be saved. A local number by which the print
and negative can be recognised should be written on the back of the
photograph and on the top right-hand corner of the form.

Copies of photographs should be sent wnmownted to W. W. Watts,
The University, Birmingham, and forms may be obtained from him.

The size of photographs is indicated as follows :—

L=Lantern size. 1/1 = Whole plate.
1/4 = Quarter-plate, 10/8 =10 inches by 8.
1/2 = Half-plate. 12/10 =12 inches by 10, &c.

E signifies Enlargements.

* Indicates that photographs and slides may be purchased from the donors, or
obtained through the address given with the series.

LIST I,
ACCESSIONS IN 1900-1901.

ENGLAND.

BerksHireE.—Photographed by H. W. Moncx ton, F.G.S., 3 Harcourt
Buildings, Temple, E.C. 1/1 E.
Regd.
No.
2728 (929) Gravel Pit,S.W. of Cesar’s Well-stratified, High Plateau Gravel. 1897.
Camp, Easthampstead,
2729 (832)

” ” ” ” ”

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 343

CuMBERLAND.— Photographed by A. K. Coomdra-SwAmy, BSe., 7.GS.,
Worplesdon, Guildford, 1/4.

) North of Rosthwaite - Boulder- clay on glaciated rock, 1900.
) Valley leading to Wast- V-shaped valley, 1900.

water from top of Sty Head

Pass.

2738
2739

Reed
2730 ( ) Near Pooley Bridge, Ulls- Stratified Old Red Sandstone con-
water. glomerate. 1900.
2731 ( ” ” ” ” ” ”
2732 ( ) North side of Dunmail Medial Moraine, transverse to valley. 1900.
Raise.
2733 ( ) ” ” ” ” bB) ”
2734 ( ) Quayfoot, Borrowdale . Soche moutonnée, Borrowdale Series. 1900.
2735 ( ) ” ’ , ” ” ”
2736 (_ ) Grange, Borrowdale ‘ rE Skiddaw Slates. 1900.
2737 ( showing striation, 1900.
(
(

DeErBysHIRE.—Photographed by A. T. Metcaure, £.G.S., Southwell, Notts.
1/2 and 1/4.

2661 (G42) Grange Mill,5m.W. of Two Volcanic Vents in Carboniferous

Matlock Bath. Limestone, 1900.

2662 (G 43) ” ” ” ” hI

2663 (G40) _,, 5 " Valley between two Vents. 1900.

2664 (G 41) ‘ if "4 South or larger Vent. 1900.

2665 (G30) ,, * 3 Carboniferous Limestone dipping from
the South Vent. 1900.

2666 (G27) _ ,, + Nf Ejected block in South Vent. 1900.

2667 (G39) _,, aa i North Vent. 1900.

2668 (G1), i ie ti; 1899.

2669 (G28) _,, + . Carboniferous Limestone within a few
feet of the edge of the North Vent. 1900.

2670 (G3) ‘, 4 5, North end of North Vent. 1899.

2671 (G25) ,, 3 i Spring at junction of Limestone with

Bedded Tuff. 1900.

DrvonsuirE.—Photographed by Professor W. Hittnovse, .4.,
Duchess Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham, 1/4.

2740 ( ) Near Wildersmouth Beach, Anticline. 1895,
Ilfracombe.
2741 ( ») Ilfracombe fs . . Marine Pothole. 1895.

Photographed by Professor E. J. Garwoop, I.4., £.G.S., University
College, London. 1/2.

2742 (_) Ilfracombe ~pnaette - Contorted and faulted ‘pothooks and
hangers’ in quartz vein in Devonian
slate. 1887.

Photographed by A. K. CoomAra-SwAmy, B.Sc., L.GS.,
Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/4.

2743 ( > View from the Hound Tor Scenery of Granite Moorland. 1900.

Ridge.
Photographed by J. Parkinson, 7.G.8., 251 Camden Road, N. 5/4.
2744 ( ) North of Bolt Tail . Devonian Slates, much veined and cleaved.

1901

REPORT—1901.

( ) Thurlestone
Kingsbridge.

Sands, W. of

( ) Thurlestone
Kingsbridge.
( ) Thurlestone
Kingsbridge.
( ) Thurlestone
Kingsbridge.

Sands, W. of
Sands, W, of
Sands, W. of

Outlier of New Red Sandstone resting
unconformably on Slates of the Torcross
Group. 1901.

Outlier of New Red Sandstone. 1901.

” ” ”

» ” ”

Dorset.— Photographed by H. W. Monckton, F.G.S., 3 Harcourt

2672
2673
2674
2675
2676
2677
2678
2679

2680

Buildings, Temple, £.C.

(1896) Durlstone Bay, Swanage

(1897)

(1410) NearGrand "Hotel, Swan-
age Bay.

(1420) Punfield Cove, Swanage

(1421) ” ” ”

(1439) Tilly Whim
Swanage.

(1426) West Hill and St. Alban’s
Head, above Chapman’s Pool.

(1427) Cliff, E. of St. Alban’s
Head.

(1449) The
Studland.

‘ Caves,’

Ageglestone, near

1/1 E.

Middle Purbeck Stone Beds. 1900,

”

” ” »”
Wealden Beds. 1900.
Shell-bed of Pecten asper zone of Upper

Greensand. 1900.
Shell-bed of Pecten asper zone of Upper
Greensand. 1900.

Block of Portland Oyster Bed. 1900.
Portland Stone,
Clay. 1900.
Portland Stone and Sand, over Kimeridge

Clay. 1900.
Concretionary Sand-rock weathered out of
Bagshot Beds. 1900.

Sand, and Kimeridge

See also DURHAM.

Duruam.—Photographed by Dr. G. Axssort, 33 Upper Grosvenor Road,

Tunbridge Wells.

Wells. 1/2 and 1/4.

2749 (14) Fulwell Quarry, near Sun-
derland,

2750 (15) Hendon Shore

2751 (16) Hendon Shore (some in
British Museum),

2752 (17) Fulwell_ . :

2753 (18) Building Hill, Sunderland.

2754 (19) Building Hill, Sunderland.

2755 (1078) (In British Museum)

2756 (1072) "5 i

2757 (1147) és

2758 (1084) 55

2759 (988) Fulwell :

2760 (989) _,,

2761 (990) -

2762 (987)

2763 (20) Hendon Shore

2764 (21) Fulwell Quarry .

2765 (22) Hendon Shore .

2766 (23) Building Hill, Sunderland.

2Q2I67 (24) Fulwell “Quarry .

2768 (25) % Zia

2769 (26) - 8

2770 (27) 5 wines - :

2771 = (28) - Aedes - ’

Three by Messrs. Jounson and Birp, Tunbridge

Section of Magnesian Limestone, showing
concretionary structure. 1900.

Deposition partings in concretions. 1900.

Finger-like rods. 1900.

Rods and some honeycombs. 1900.
Rod structure. 1900.

Large spherical concretion. 1901.
Rods coated with crystals ¥
Rod structure. x
Rods on each side of band. 4s
Rods, short and thick. *
Rods grown:downwards. 1900.

Rods grown upwards.

Rods grown horizontally from cleavage
clefts. 1900.

Nodes on rods.

‘Honeycomb.’ 1900.
os 1899.
ai 1900.

Honeycomb. 1901.
* 1900.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF

(29) Fulwell Quarry .

(11 & 12) Hendon

(2) Fulwell :

(80) (Hancock Museum, ‘New-
castle)

(992) Fulwell (British Museum)

(1003) ,, . .

(991) ” ” ”

qr, :

(1091) Fulwell . : ;

(1128) t -

(1088) A:

(1046) +

ih

(1130)

(1097) Fulwell (British Museum)

(1099) ” ” ”

(1050), ms ‘i

(1051)

(1136)

(993) Fulwell .

(1029) Fulwell (British Museum)

(998) Fulwell .

(999) Fulwell (British Museum)

(1032), ; i

(LOBED), 0080 ‘i

(31) Fulwell.

(1) Fulwell (British wpe at

(32) Fulwell

(3)

(1048) Fulwell ( British Museum)
(1004) » ”
(1083), ” 9
(1082) ” ” ”
(1052) ” ”

(996) Fulwell .
(1098) Fulwell (British Museum)

(1045): ” ” ”
(1149) Fulwell . :
(1101),

(1123),

(1144) _,,

(1100) Fulwell( British Museum)
C077), : :

(1102) Fulwell . :

(1092) Fulwell(British Museum)
(1135) Fulwell .

(1140) :

(1142)
(994) Fulwell (British Museum)

(995) Weymouth, Dorset (Two
in British Mnseum).

(100) Wall of Bamburgh Castle,
Northumberland.

(33) Fulwell

(34)

(35) Parson's Rock, Roker

(36) (British Museum) .

GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

Honeycomb, cut and uncut surface. 1901.

Honeycomb,, showing conical nodes.
Honeycomb and ‘ cauliflower '

1900,

Honeycomb. 1901.

” 7

Coralloid.

REE 2767.

1900.

,, Ripple-marked.

% see 2803.

Coralloid, segregation bands.

Coralioid, see 2799.

”

”

1901.

”

1900,

concretion,

Honeycomb, to show cleavage across rods,

1901.

Primary bands and rods.
Banding of honeycomb and primary banc-

ing. 1900.

Segregation bands in mortar.

” ”

”

Pseudo-organic structure,

Cannon-ball bed.
1899.

1899.
Egg and balls, single and compound.

1900.

1900.

”

1899.

346 J REPORT—1901.

Regd

No.

2827 (37) Fulwell . * F . Botryoidal masses, some with ‘ undercoat
banding.’ 1900.

2828 (38) # 2 e ° . Botryoidal masses, some with ‘ undercoat
banding.’ 1900.

2829 (39) * : : : . Mass of balls. 1900.

2830 (40) Henden Shore . 2 . Balls and bands inalternate layers. 1900

Kent.—Photogruphed by J. H. Batpocx, Overdale, St. Leonard’s Road,
Croydon. Sent through the Croydon Microscopical and Natural
History Club. 1/2.

2681 (3) Gravel pit north of railway, Oldhaven Pebble Beds, 1899,

Shortlands.

2682 (4) Gravel pit north of railway, < ‘ uf ‘a
Shortlands,

LincotnsuineE.—Photographed by W.S. Parrisu, 2 Waltham Street,
Hull, Sent through the Hull Geological Society. 1/1 E.

2877 (18) $ m. from Frodingham Lower Lias, FKrodingham Ironstone, with

Railway Station. overlying beds of peat and gravel. 1898.
2878 (19) # m. from Frodingham Lower Lias, Frodingham Ironstone, with
Railway Station. overlying beds of peat and gravel. 1898,

Norroitx.—Photographed by A. T. Mrercaure, F.G.S., Sowthwell,
Notts, 1/4, —

2683 (G15) Cliff between West Run- Contorted Drift. 1900.
ton & Sherringham.

2684 (G16) Cliff between West Run- Contorted Drift and Glacial Sands. 1900.
ton and Sherringham.

2685 (G17) Cliff between West Run- Contortions in Glacial Sands and Gravels,

ton and Sherringham, 1900.
2686 (G18) Cliff just E. of Sherring- Contorted Drift. 1900.
ham.

2687 (G21) Norwich : c . House occupied by Professor Sedgwick
when Canon of Norwich. 1900.

NorTaUMBERLAND.—Photographed by G. Binciry, Thormiehurst,
Headingley, Leeds. 1/2.

2688 (5275) Shining Pool, Harthope Lateral Moraine. 1900.
Burn, near Wooler.
2689 (5276) Below Shining Pool . Andesite Hills, with Hedghoppe in back-
ground. 14900.
2690 (5277) From Shining Pool . Moraine material, containing blocks from
the Tweed Valley. 1900.
2691 (5280) Cheviot from Langlee- Junction of Granite and Porphyrite. 1909.

ford.

2692 (5282) Housey Crag, Langlee- Fresh Andesite, resting on Porphyrite.
ford. 1900.

2693 (5290) South Bank of Harthope Junction of Granite and metamorphosed
Burn, Langlee. Porphyrites. 1900.

2694 (5291) 2 m. west of Calder Overflow valley of glacial lake of the
Farm. Breamish. 1900.

2695 (5292) NearconfluenceofGreen- Porphyrites. 1900.
side Burn and R. Breamish,
near Ingram.
2696 (5293) Nearconfluence ofGreen- Porphyrites with talus slopes (‘glitters’),
side Burn and R, Breamish, 1900,
near Ingram.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF

cia

2697 (5295) River Till, near Wooler ,

2698 (5297) near Akeld Burn, §. of
White Law.

2699 (5299) Munday Cleugh, near
Wooler.

2700 (5300) Humbleton Hill, near
Wooler,

Photographed by G. Hastinas, 15 Oak Lane, Bradford.

2831 (171) Cheviots from Tom Tol-
ton’s Crag, near Wooler.

2832 (173) View across Wooler Burn.

2833 (168) Wooler Burn, 8. of Black
Law.

2834 (172) Golf Links, near Wooler .

2835 (169) Near Wooler . :

2836 (167) Yeavering Bell, near
Wooler.

2837 (163) Roddam Dene, near
Wooler.

2838 (162) West side of Akeld Burn,
above Gleadscleugh, near
Wooler.

2839 (161) From Humbleton Hill, near
Wooler.

2840 (158) Shining Pool, near Wooler.
2841 (157) ”
2842 (164) Linhope Burn

2843 (156) Harthope Burn, above
Langleeford.
2844 (152) Housey Crag, Langleeford.

2845 (151) Junction of ‘Harthope Burn
and Carey Burn,

GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 347

Foreground of Lower Carboniferous Rocks
and Andesite Hills of Cheviot in dis-

tance. 1900.
Overflow valley into Akeld Burn. 1900.
Overflow valley of a glacial lake. 1900.

Dry gorge, the overflow of a glacial lake,
1900.

1/2.
General View, 1900.

Dry valley behind Humbleton, 1900.
1900.

Two streamless rock-gorges, 1900.

Dry valley. 1900.

Dry watercourse. 1900.

Post-Glacial gorge in Carboniferous con-
glomerate. 1900.

Deep channel. 1900,

System of dry gorges. 1900.

Ridges and dry valleys. 1900.
Dry valley above pool. 1900.
Jointed Augite-granite. 1900.
Granite, veined with tourmaline, 1900,
Fresh Andesite. 1900.

Cheviot Porphyrites. 1900.

Norrincuam.—Photographed by E. A. Busu, Hngineer’s Department,
Guildhall, Nottingham, and contributed by J. Surpman, F.G.S.

2879 ( ) Hemlock Stone

Stack of New Red Sandstone cemented by
Barytes. 1899.

SHropsHirE.—Photographed by R. A. Buppicom, J.A., F.G.S.,

The Museum, Plymouth.

2689 ( ) Caer Caradoc, from east
slope of Helmeth.

2640 ( ) CaerUCaradoc . 5

2641 ( +) Fe ‘

2642 ( ) . i : ‘
2643 ( ) Caer Caradoc and part of
Hope Bowdler Hill.

2644 (+) Caradoc, &c., from the Bur-

way on the Longmynd.
2645 (_ ) View from halfway between
Walls Bank and Hope
Bowdler.
) Near Dorrington Station,
near Shrewsbury,

2646 (

1/2.

General view of folding. 1899.

Synclinal fold in Uriconian Rocks. 1899,
”

” ”
Uriconian Rocks. 1899.

The Uriconian Chain. 1899.

Clee Hills, Wenlock Edge, &c. 1900.

Two Boulders of grey (? Eskdale) Granite,
1900,

348 REPORT—1901,

Photographed by W. Jerome Harrison, 2.G'.S., 52 Claremont Road,
Handsworth, Birmingham, 1 /2,

2658 ( ) Near top of Caer Caradoc . Brecciated Rhyolite. 1897.
2659 ( ) The Lawley, from Comley Uriconian Rocks. 1897.

Quarry.

Photographed by J. A. Cosstns, Forster Road, Moseley,
Birmingham, 5/4.

2846 (_ ) Barrow, near Broseley . Fossil tree in Coal-measures. 1901.

STAFFORDSHIRE.— Photographed by W. JERoME Harrison, F.G.S.,
52 Claremont Road, Handsworth, Birmingham. 1/2.

2647 (_ ) Railway cutting, Aldridge . Coral mass in Wenlock Shale. 1900,
2648 ( ) ~ 38 Fossiliferous Wenlock Shale, 1900,
2649 ( ) ” ” ” ” ”
2650 ( ) ” ” ” ” »

Photographed by Rev. C. F. L. BarnweE.t, Stramshall Vicarage, Uttoxeter,
Sent through the North Staffordshire Field Club. 1/2.

2847 (9) The Common Plot, Stone . Artificial Caves in Keuper Sandstone. 1901,
2848 (10) ” ” ” ” ”
2849 (12) 5 “ Ripple-marking on roof of ‘caves,’ 1901.
2850 (11) ” ” ” ” ”

Photographed by H. J. Stue.e, Barton House, Burslem. Sent through
the North Staffordshire Field Club. 5/4.

2851 (8) Beggar’s Well Quarry, near Faulted Triassic Sandstone, 1899.
Alton.

Surrey.—Photographed by H. W. Moncxton, F.G.S., 5 Harcourt
Buildings, Temple, F.C. 1/1 E.

2701 (985) Tadworth Railway Cutting ae resting irregularly on Thanet Sands,
1898.

2702 (987) 33 Thanet Sand on Chalk. 1898,

2703 (1472) Godstone, W. of main ‘voad Folkestone Beds in Lower Greensand. 1900.
in village.

2704 (1473) Godstone, W. of main road 4 55 é
in village.

Photographed by F. W. Rovarts, 23 Oliver Grove, South Norwood, S.E.
Sent through the Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club.
fy ee

2705 (1) Addiscombe Road, Croydon . Blackheath and Oldhaven Beds overlying
Ostrea Bed. 1898.

Photographed by W. B. Bannermay, £.G.S., Sydenham Road, Croydon.
Sent through the Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club.
1/1 E.

2706 (2) Seneca Road and Bensham Sandstone Boulders at bottom of gravel
Lane, Thornton Heath, pit, resting on London Clay, 1899,

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 349

Photographed by J. H. Barpock, Overdale, St. Leonard’s Road, Croydon.
Sent through the Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club.
1/1 E.

Regd.

No.
2707 (5) Whyteleafe Chalk Pit . . Lower part of Upper Chalk and Middle
Chalk. 1899?

Photographed by Miss Mary 8. Jounston, Hazelwood, Wimbledon Hill,
Surrey. 1/4.

2852 (10) Quarry north of Godstone . Lower bed of sand in Folkestone Beds.
1900.

SussEx.—Photographed jor W. W. Warts, Birmingham University,
1/1 and 1/2.
2853 ( ) East of Seaford . : . Valley in Chalk-Downs, illustrating sub«
aérial topography. 1888.
2854 ( ) Near mouthof R.Cuckmere Chalk Cliffs; destruction of subaérial
topography by the sea. 1898.

WarwicksHirE.—Photographed by W. JERomE Harrison, F.G.S.,
52 Claremont Road, Handsworth, Birmingham. 1/2.
2651 ( ) Blackroot Pool, Sutton Park Fault in Trias. 1900.

2657 ( ) Temple Grafton, N.W. of Scarp of Rheetic Rocks. 1900.
Stratford-on-Avon.

WEsTMORELAND.— Photographed by A. K. Coomsra-Swimy, B.Sc, F.GUS.,
Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/4.

2865 ( ) Southside of Dunmail Raise Moraine mounds. 1900.

WILtsHIRE.—Photographed by A. K. CoomAra-Swamy, B.Sc, £.G.S.,
Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/4.

2856 ( ) Fields, 4 m. N.E. of Place Scenery in the Vale of Wardour. 1900.
Farm, Tisbury.
2857 ( ) Ladydown, near Tisbury . Middle Purbeck Rocks. 1900.
2858 ( ) Chilmark Ravine, west side Upper Portland ‘Lower building Stones.’
1900.
2859 (¢ ) 7 » east side Upper Portland, ‘ Chalky Series.’ 1900.

Worcestrr.— Photographed by W. JuromE Harrison, F.G.S., 52 Clare
mont Road, Handsworth, Birmingham. 1/2.

2652 ( ) Wren’s Nest, Dudley . . General view of Silurianinlier. 1900.

2653 (_) 5 Curved strike of Wenlock Shales. 1900.
2654 ( ) The Lickey Hills, seen from Cambrian Quartzite, flanked by Llandovery
Rubery. Sandstone. 1900.

2655 ( ) Rednall Gap and Bilberry Cambrian Quartzite. 1900.
Hill, The Lickeys. ’
2656 ( ) Bilberry Hill. 5 . Overfolded Cambrian Quartzite. 1900.

YorksHire.—Photographed by Goprrey Binetey, Thorniehurst,
Headingley, Leeds. 1/1 E.

2860 (5346) Garforth . . ; . Lower Magnesian Limestone, 1900,
2861 (5347) + ‘ ae ete

2 2” ”

350 REPORT—- 1901.

Regd.
No.

2862 (5348) Micklefield . : . Magnesian Limestone. 1900.
2863 (5349)

2864 (5350) Piped surface of Magnesian Limestone. 1900.

2865 (5352) Meanwood Valley, Leeds. Folded Gannister beds. 1900.

2866 (5354) Stigmaria in Gannister Sandstone. 1900.

2867 (5338) Draughton Quarry, near Folded, brecciated, and overthrust Car-
Skipton. boniferous Limestone. 1900.

2868 (5340). Draughton Quarry . - Folded, brecciated, and overthrust Car-
boniferous Limestone. 1900.

Photographed by J. W. Statumr, 224 Spring Bank, Hull. Sent through
the Hull Geological Society. 1/1 E.

2876 (20) Cliffs near Skipsea . - Chalk embedded in Boulder-clay, crushed
by glacial action. 1900.

CarNnarvon.—Photographed by W. Jurome Harrison, F.G.S.,
52 Claremont Road, Handsworth, Birmingham. 1/2.

2708~° ( ) Conway Mountain and Pen- Intrusive felsites and diorites. 1900.
maenmawyr, from Diganwy.

2709 ( ) Great Orme’s Head, from Boulder-clay and Carboniferous Limestone.
Digauwy. 1900.

2710 ( ») Diganwy Shore . . Cliff of Black Boulder-clay. 1900.
2711 ( ) ” Cliff of Boulder-clay. 1900.
2712 ( ) ” Cliff of Black Boulder-clay. 1900.
2713 ( ) ” ” ” ” ”
2714 ( ) ” Striated Boulder in sitw in Boulder-clay.
1900.
2715 ( ) y Cliff of Boulder-clay and boulders washed
out of it. 1900.
2716 ( ) 7 Large Scratched Boulder. 1900.
2717 ( ) ” ” ”
2718 ( ) Snowdon, from Bwlch Main Bala volcanic ash. 1900.
2719 ( ) Bwich Main, Snowdon . Bala slaty rocks. 1900.
2720 ( ) Cwm Glas, from the Pass Moraine and Perched Blocks, 1900.
of Llanberis.
2721 ( ) Cwm Glas, from the Pass Moraine. 1900.
of Llanberis.
2722 ( )Cwm Glas, from the Pass " *
of Llanberis. ‘
2723 ( ) Cwm Glas, from the Pass Moraine, near view. 1900.
of Llanberis.
2724 ( ) Pass of Llanberis, looking Zvches moutonnées, ‘ Lee-seite,’ 2900.
up, near Pont-y-Gromlech.
2725 (_) Pass of Llanberis, looking Crags and Screes of Esgair Felen. 1900.

down near Pont-y-Gromlech.

PemBROKESHIRE.—Photographed by W. Jerome Harrison, F.G.S.,
52 Claremont Road, Handsworth, Birmingham. 1/1.

2660 ( ) South of Whitesand Bay . Terminal curvature in Cambrian Slates,
1897.

Photographed by C. J. Watson, Botville Road, Acock’s Green,
Birmingham. 1/2.

$726 (946) Stack Rocks, Tenby. . Marine erosionin Carboniferous Limestone:
1899.

2727 (969) Old Quarry face, Tenby . Productus in Carboniferous Limestone.
1899,

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 351

SCOTLAND,

Inverness.— Photographed by A. K. CoomAra-Swamy, B.Se., F.G.S.,

Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/4.
Regd.

No.
2869 ( ) Near Sgur-a-Marbhaid . Block of contorted Lewisian Gneiss. 1899.

IRELAND.
Dongcau.—Photographed by Miss M. K. AnprREws,
12 College Gardens, Belfast. 12/10 E.
2870 (70) Mullaghderg, Inishfree Bay Spheroidal Granite. 1900.

ROCK STRUCTURES, &c.
Photographed by A. K. Coomdra-Swimy, B.Se., F.G.S., Worplesdon,
Guildford, 1/4.

2874 ( )Glenderaterra,Cumberland; Specimens of Chiastolite-slate. 1900.
and Brittany.

Photographed by W. W. Mivetry, The Museum, Bolton. 1/4.

2872 (56) Arthur’s Seat, Edinburgh . Olivine-basalt. x 20.

2873 (55) Sudbury, Ontario : - Olivine-diabase. x18.

2874 (52) Bertoon, Banff . . Pegmatite. x 20.

2875 (11) Armboth Fell, Cumberland Quartz-porpbyry. x 30.
See also under Durham,

LIST Ii.
THE DUPLICATE (LOAN) COLLECTION.

The numbers placed after the description of the photograph refer to
the list of photographers, whose names and addresses are given at the end.
Full localities and descriptions are given in List I. under the numbers.
This collection is arranged geologically, and from time to time the less
perfect and less typical photographs will be removed and better ones sub-

stituted as they are given. Those laid aside can always be seen, sent, or
returned by request.

* Indicates that prints and slides may be bought from the photographer.
P. indicates prints. §. indicates slices.
Rock Structures.
Fossils in Rocks.
‘2846 Forsil Tree in Coal-measures . Barrow, Breseley, Shropshire. 61 P.

Evidences of Earth-movement.
Lolding.

2740 Anticline . ° : . Near Wildersmouth Beach, Ilfracombe,
Devon. 60 PS,

852 REPORT—1901.

Surface Agencies: Denudation and Deposit.

Marine Action: Denudation.
2741 Marine Pothole. : : . Ilfracombe, Devon. 60 PS.

Characteristic Rocks and Landscapes.

Mesozoic.
2857 Middle Purbeck Rocks . . lLadydown, near Tisbury. 40 S.

Names and Addresses of Donors and Photographers.

40. A. K. Cooméra-Swaimy, Walden, Worplesdon, ‘xuildford.
60. Professor W. Hillhouse, The University, Birmingham.
61. J. A. Cossins, Forster Road, Moseley, Birmingham.

Ossiferous Caves ut Uphill.—Report of the Conmuttee, consisting of
Professor C. Lioyp MorGan (Chairman), Mr. H. Boiron
(Secretary), Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Mr. W. R. Barker,
Mr. 8S. H. Reynotps, and Mr. E. T. Newton, appointed for the
purpose of excavating the Ossiferous Caves at Uphill, near Weston-
super-Mare.

Ture Committee have to report that no further progress has been made
since last September. Quarrymen in the ordinary course of their duties
have continued to cut back the rock face for road material. The fissure
caves first excavated are now in large part destroyed, but little of interest
was found. Visits have been paid by the local members of the Committee
on several occasions in the hope of locating a new deposit, but none cquld
be found to justify working.

The chief find of interest during the year has been that of a badger
skull, in good condition. The badger is native to the country, the last
specimen in the Uphill district having been killed about twelve years ago.
The present skull seems, however, to have been contemporaneous with
the cave animals.

A well developed tooth of Elephas and two portions of a fine tusk
were picked up by the quarrymen.

Professor Reynolds has continued his examination of the cave material,
and will publish his observations later.

The Committee, finding no site was promising enough to work, did not
draw the grant of 5/. made last year. The Committee do not ask for
reappointment.

The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Eleventh Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor NEwTon (Chairman), Dr. W. T. Buan-
rorD, Professor 8. J. Hickson, Mr. F. Du Cane Gopman, Dr.
P. L. Sciater, Mr. E. A. Smita, and Mr. D. Saarp (Secretary).

Since the last report Mr. R. C. L. Perkins has been maintained by the
Committee at his work in the islands, and it is intended that he shall
remain there for a few months longer, after which the funds of the Com-

ON THE ZOOLOGY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 353

mittee available for this purpose will be exhausted. He has been working
almost solely on the island of Oahu, where zoological devastation is taking
place both extensively and rapidly.

Seven parts of the ‘Fauna Hawaiiensis’ have now been published,
and two more are in the press. The part published since the last
report is devoted to Coleoptera, and was prepared by Mr. Perkins while
in this country, and by the Secretary of the Committee.

It is hoped that Mr. Perkins’ services may be secured after his return
to this country with the object of completing the ‘ Fauna Hawaiiensis.’

The Committee asks for reappointment with the same powers as
before and a grant of 50/.

Plank:on and Physical Conditions of the English Channel, 1899-1900.—
Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor E. Ray
LANKESTER (Chairman), Mr. W. GarstanG (Secretary), Professor
W. A. Herpan, and Mr. H. N. Dickson. (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)

THE analysis of the numerous collections of Plankton made during the
periodic cruises in 1899-1900 is now approaching completion.

Owing to the many disadvantages of the counting method introduced
by Hensen an attempt has been made to utilise the method of graded
filtration in the quantitative analysis of the vertical hauls, the mass of
each ‘grade’ being determined volunfétrically. Five grades have been
selected, which correspond in general with the following dominant types
of the plankton :—(1) Medusoids, (2) Calanus, (3) small Copepods,
(4) Larve, (5) Diatoms and Cilioflagellates. The largest grade is that
determined by a square mesh whose side is 1°5 mm. long ; the next by a
mesh 1 mm. square. These dimensions are approximately realised in
bolting silk (‘miller’s gauze’) having sixteen and twenty-six threads to
the inch respectively. The following table gives the complete series of
standard filters adopted :—

Grade | No. of Threads per Inch No. of threads per cm.

A | 16 6-7 (6 meshes) |
B 26 10 |
C 50 20

D | 100 40

E | 150 60

Za fate Peel ee eH)

It is found that the errors which attend the volumetric method when
applied to plankton samples consisting of mixed and varied constituents
are greatly reduced by the preliminary process of separation into definite
grades of size ; and it is hoped that a thorough trial of this method of
analysis may result in its establishment as an efficient method for the
quantitative comparison of plankton of different localities and seasons, in
conjunction with the method of vertical hauls introduced by Hensen.

The Comittee respectfully request their reappointment for one year
longer, without a grant, in order that they may present a summary of the
results to the next Meeting of the Association.

1901. AA

B04 REPORT—1901.

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. HERDMAN (Chairman),
Professor E. Ray LANKESTER, Professor W. F. R. WeE.Lpon,
Professor S. J. Hickson, Mr. A. SEpGwick, Professor W. C.
McInrosu, and Professor G. B. Howes (Secretary).

APPENDIX PAGK
I. a. Report on the Occupation of the Table. By Dr. R. HAMLYN-HARRIS,

F.RMS., F.Z.8.,‘ Onthe Statocysts of Cephalopoda’ 5 : . 355

b. Report on the Occupation of the Tuble. By Dr. A. H. REGINALD

BULLER, B.Sc. For the continuation of his previous investigativn of
* The Fertilisation Process in Echinoidea’ ‘ : : - . 3856

II. A List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station from
the end of June 1900 till the end of June 1901 . : 2 ; . B58

III. A List of Papers which were published inthe Year 1900 by the Naturalists
who have occupied Tables in the Zoological Station . : : . 360

IV. A List of the Publications of the Zoological Station during the Year ending
June 30, 1901 ° 5 : < : - : ; . . 361

Tue work of the year has been of the steadily progressive order which
marks progress. Mr. H. H. Stewart, for whom appeal was made, was at
the last moment prevented by college duties from fulfilling his desire.
Capable investigators were, however, forthcoming in Dr. Reginald Buller,
of Munich, and Dr. Hamlyn-Harris, also at present working on the
continent. These gentlemen, in availing themselves of the opportunity of
study which the Association afforded, have accumulated material sufficient
for long-continued research.

In a letter received by your Committee from Dr. Anton Dohrn special
acknowledgment is given, on behalf of himself and the associated members
of his staff, of the terms in which, in the Association’s Report for 1900,
their work has been described. He desires that the best thanks of all be
conveyed through your Committee to the officers and members of the
Association for their confidence and support, with the assurance that it
has done much to encourage them in their conviction that the requirements
of marine biological study are as great as those of the terrestrial order,
and that both should be equally maintained and equipped.

Under this resolve, efforts are now being made at Naples to develop
the experimental and more strictly physiological side of the work in hand.
Tt is needless to insist on the advantages which must accrue from the
study of the rich fauna of the Neapolitan marine area to the largely open
field of comparative physiology. Work of the experimental type is now
revolutionising certain branches of biological inquiry, and in deciding to
keep pace with this, those in charge of the Naples establishment are to be
commended.

To the resolve of Dr. Dohrn and his associates your Committee
acquiesce, and they, with increased assurance, recommend the claim of the
Naples Station for continued support to your consideration. It has been
in the direction for which encouragement is now sought that both occupants
of the Association’s table have during the past year been engaged—Dr.
Buller’s work having been more especially of a most advanced order—
and it is accordingly with the greater satisfaction that your Committee,
in applying for a renewal of the grant, do $0 to enable Mr. R. Gurney, of

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES, 305

Oxford, a tried investigator, to study the origin of the excretory organs
and other points in the development of the Crustacea, and more particu-
larly the fertilisation process in the Decapods, and also to enable Mr.
W. Wallace, B.Sc., Barry Scholar of the University of St. Andrews, to
study viviparous fishes.

APPENDIX I.

Report on the Occupation of the Table of the British Association in the
Zoological Station at Naples during the months of February, March,
April, and May, 1901.

The Statocysts of Cephalopoda. By R. Hamiyn-Harrtis, RMS. FZ.

Thanks to the kindness of the Committee of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science, I was permitted to occupy their table
from February 22 until June 3.

A great part of this time was occupied in the examination and study
of the fauna of the Gulf of Naples.

My special object, however, in visiting Naples was to institute a
thorough research into the organs for the maintenance of equilibrium
(Gleichgewichtsorgane) in the Cephalopoda.

Of the Cephalopod species occurring in the Gulf of Naples the following
were placed at my disposal and made use of by myself :—

Fam.—OmMastTREPHIDS. | Fam.—LoviceEnil.
Todaropsis Veranyt Loligo vulgaris
Fam.—Oncuau. Loligo marmore
Veranya sicula Fam.—ARGONAUTID&.
Fam.—SEPIoLini. Ocythoé tuberculata
Sepiola rondiletii Fam.—Ocropipz.
Rossia macrosoma Octopus vulgaris
Fam.—Serpiarit. Octopus macropus
Sepia officinalis Octopus difilipir
Sepia Orbignyana Eledone moschata
Sepia elegans LEledone Aldronanti

Young specimens as well as embryos of certain of the above species
were also fixed and preserved.

Two of them, viz., Ocythoé tuberculata and Veranya sicula, are pelagic
and comparatively rare. I was therefore able only to obtain a few
specimens of these.

The only existing work on the so-called auditory organ of the
Cephalopoda is that of Owsjannikow and Kowalevsky, published in 1867
in ‘ Mémoires de l’Académie impériale des Sciences de St-Pétersbourg,’ 7°
série, tom. xi., No. 3. :

This valuable memoir, containing as it does the result of extensive
microscopical research, is, however, thirty-three years old, and science and
microscopical methods have during that period made wonderful strides.
It will therefore be readily seen that after so many years a more detailed
histological examination of the same subject should yield important results.

AAQ

356 REPORT—1901.

In the majority of cases it was my practice to make use only of such
parts of the head as I needed, and it was interesting to note that in every
instance, among the Decapoda, at least, the statoliths were visible through
the cartilage in specimens just killed, but that the transparency, as would
be expected, disappears after fixing.

The cartilage of the Octopide seems to be less transparent, as it was
only with difficulty that I could discern the statolith without opening the
cyst.

: The statolith, which dissolves in acetic acid, giving off a gas, when
tested according to a well-known method proves to consist of carbonate of
lime, and by this treatment a membrane enveloping the whole of the
calcareous concremett is all that is left.

The statocysts of the Cephalopoda. show the highest state of organisa-
tion among the invertebrata, occurring for the first time as stationary
calcareous organs, held in place by an outer membrane, and situated on the
Macula acustica.

The endolymph contained in the vesicle consists of a clear alkaline
fluid, which is shown by the xanthoproteic reaction to contain albumen.

Time must necessarily elapse before my studies in this direction are
completed, when I hope to publish the result of my labours.

J am continuing my studies at the Zoological Institute of Tubingen
University.

I should like to take this opportunity to express my warm appreciation
of the way in which the Zoological Station is managed, and my sincere
thanks to the various members of the staff, especially Professor Eisig,
Professor Paul Mayer, and Dr. Lo Bianco, for the many courtesies which
they showed me, and the valuable advice and assistance which they were
ever ready to give.

To the Committee of the British Association for the use of their table
my especial thanks are due,

b, Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Stazione Zoologica, Naples,
during March and April 101.

The Fertilisation Process in Echinoidea.
By A. H. Ruernarp Burisr, B.Se., Ph.D.

I occupied the table of the British Association from March 20 until
April 25.

The research work undertaken was a completion of a study of the causes
leading to the union of the eggs and spermatozoa of the Lchinoidea,

Further observations and experiments were made, supporting the
conclusion, already reported, that chemotaxis plays no role in bringing the
sex-cells into contact, and that the spermatozoa are prokably incapable of
responding to chemotactic stimuli.

Special attention was paid to the movement of the spermatozoa upon
surfaces, and to ‘he manner in which they penetrate the thick zona
pellucida surrounding the eggs.

The following rule was found to hold good :—Whenever the spermato-
zoa come in contact with a surface bounding the medium in which they
are moving, they cling to it, and they either become fixed to it almost
at once or, more usually, rotate upon it. In the latter case, if the

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 307

surface be regarded from the point of view of the spermatozoa, the rotation,
with rare individual exceptions, is always in the counter-clockwise
direction.

The rotation phenomenon may be well seen when a drop containing not
too many spermatozoa is placed upon an object-glass and examined under
the microscope with a magnification of about 300 diameters. If the upper
surface of the drop bounded by air be then carefully focussed, the
spermatozoa clinging to it appear to the observer to revolve in the clock-
wise direction, but when the lower surface bounded by the glass is
examined they are seen to move in a counter-clockwise direction.

The rotation rule was verified for five species of Lchinoidea, and for
representatives of all the other classes of Echinodermata. The species
examined were the following :—

ECHINODERMATA.
Class 1.—HoLotTuHurRoIpDEA. | Class 3.—ASTEROIDEA.
Holothuria Stellati, D. Ch. Asterias glacialis, O. F. M.

Echinaster sepositus, Mull. Tr.
Class 4.—OPHIUROIDEA.

Ophioderma longicauda, Mill. Tr.
Ophioglypha lacertosa, Lyman.

Class 2.—EcHINOIDEA.

Echinus microtuberculatus, Blv.
Spherechinus granularis, Ag.
Arbacia pustulosa, Gray.
Strongocentrotus lividus, Brdt. | Class 5.-—-Crinomea.

| <Antedon rosacea, Norman.

It is a somewhat remarkable fact that rotation upon surfaces in a
counter-clockwise direction was also observed by Dewitz ! for the sperma-
tozoa of certain insects. He believed that the spermatozoa were thus
specially adapted for the purpose of finding their way into the micropyles
of the eggs. Such an explanation could not, however, apply in the case
of the Echinodermata, for no micropyles are present, and the gelatinous
zona pellucida is everywhere penetrable.

The spermatozoa of the Hchinoidea casily become attached to glass
and other surfaces by the points of their conical heads upon which they
often continue to revolve.

After becoming attached to the zona pellucida the spermatozoa make
their way through it in a more or less radial direction. The penetration
from the outer to the inner surface of the zona pellucida does not depend
upon a chemotactic stimulus, for it was found that the phenomenon was
equally well seen upon (1) ripe eggs, (2) eggs of full size which had not
undergone maturation, and (3) eggs which had been killed with osmic
acid and then washed. Penetration of the spermatozoa into the gelatin-
ising outer wall of the oosporangium of Cystocyra barbata (one of the
Lucacee) took place in a striking manner, the jelly becoming densely
crowded. The spermatozoa likewise collected in great numbers in the
jelly from the cell-walls of seeds of Linwm usatissimum, and also in the
zona pellucida of Lvhinus eggs after long separation by shaking.

The entrance of the spermatozoa into gelatinous substances, and also
their attachment by the head to living eggs, is connected with their power
of clinging and becoming attached to surfaces in general. The more or

‘ Dewitz, Pfliiger’s Archiv, Bd. 38, 1886, p. 358.

308 REPORT—1901.

less radial penetration of the zona pellucida is possibly due to stereotaxts,
but a purely mechanical explanation is not excluded.

Several writers, for instance Wilson,! and especially Verworn,? have
supposed that chemotaxis is a constant factor in the fertilisation of animal
eggs. This generalisation, which has been made by arguing from the
attraction of spermatozoa to the eggs of certain plants, is as yet entirely
without experimental justification as regards animals. From my own
results, which agree with those obtained by Massart * in the case of the
frog, and with the work of Dewitz* upon certain insects, I have been led
to suppose that whereas contact phenomena are of great importance,
chemotaxis, at any rate for a great number of animal species, plays no
role whatever in bringing the spermatozoa and eggs into contact.

Before the close of the year I hope to publish a full account of my
work.

It gives me much pleasure to acknowledge my indebtedness to the
Committee of the British Association for the use of the table, and also to
the staff at the Stazione Zoologica for their kindness and courtesy.

APPENDIX II.

A List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station from
the end of June 1900 to the end of June 1901.

Num- State or University Duration of Occupancy
ber on Naturalist’s Name whose Table Pe
List wasmadeuseof | Arrival Departure
1183 | Dr. F. Bottazzi. .| Italy ' : . | July 1,1900 | Oct. 7,1900
1184 | Dr. F. Capobianco 4, : : . fed FARTS, Dec! aly =;
1185 | Prof. A. Russo . : = 5 . 4 OF Sas Dec. 25; ;
1186 | Dr. V. Ariola . ry 3 ; 7 » less Sept.30, ,,
1187 | Prof. F. Raffaele aN 3 : 5s Liens Noval, nits
1188 | Dr. E. Radl 4 . | Austria, : : ee lt Phas Aug. 43, ,,
1189 | Dr. E. André . Switzerland . 7 eee Ss ee Sept. 2, ,,
1190 | Dr. D. Pedaschenko . Russia . 4 : ap Oy eee Ue ees
1191 | Dr. P. Enriquez . | Italy : 7 SOI ts) F QDS HH Decislhay,}
1192 | Miss M. Pasquale . on : c | AUS sles se Frolgs. evs
1193 | Dr. G. Mazzarelli * F " Sell hase at Sa emee Sept.29,

1194 | Dr. E. Germano . | Zoolog. Station | ae Bee Mar. 1, 1901
1195 | Dr. A. Leontowitsch. | Russia . ; 5 | Wise Cee Augral, “ss
1196 | Dr. F Mazza . . | Italy 2 i : rahe tl cae Sept.15, ,,
1197 | Dr. T. Meisenheimer. | Prussia oc) GM Sept.24, 1900
1198 | Dr. E. Crisafulli . | Italy 4 3 plbas —

1199 | Prof. S Apathy Hungary. 5 é 95. ALSt aes » ,_ 28, 1900
1200 | Prof. F. 8. Monticelli Italy : 2 eae SORTS BH ol —

1201 '\Prof,'GYCzokor—| '. |"Austria 2 2°) S|, “86 | aan S00
1202 | Prof. F. Sanfelice . | Italy 1 P28 PrN Gyeeosiess
1203 | Prof. P. Francotte .| Belgium . ‘: 3 40 3095 Ochs
1204 | Prof. A. Richter . | Hungary. , oft Coa tapes Sept.1l, ,,
1205 | Prof. H. Bachmann . | Switzerland . sail balks ical topless Oct. 26, ,,
1206 | Dr. W. Straub . . | Saxony . : 2» 1 Septs 1655 yi) | NOVste tas

1 E. B. Wilson, The Cell in Development and Inheritance, 2nd edition, 1900,
p- 196.

? Verworn, Physiologie, 1895, p. 425.

3 Massart, Bulletins de l’ Acad. roy. des Sci. de Belgique, 3° sér., tom, xv., No. 5,
1888, and tom. xviii., No. 8, 1889.

4 Loe. cit.

———— ee

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES,

A List oF NATURALISTS—continued.

Num- |
beron| Naturalist’s Name
List

“1207 Dr. F. Marino’ .

1208 | Prof. C. Mensch

1209 | Dr. M. Henze
1210 | Prof. W. T. Porter
1211 | Mr. L. Doncaster |
1212 | Dr. O. Cohnheim yi
1213 | Dr. G. Cecconi .

1214 | Dr.G. Mann .

1215 | Baron T. v. Uexkiill .
1216 | Dr. N. Goronowich
1217 | Dr. A. Nathanschn
1218 | Dr. von Dungern

1219 | Dr. G. Jatta

1220 | Dr. G. Tagliani

1221 | Dr. V. Diamare.

1222 | Dr. F. Capobianco
1223 | Dr. M. Pierantoni

1224 | Prof. T. d’Evant Sel

1225 | Dr. G. Rossi F
1226 | Prof. C. Gioffredi

1227 | Miss Buchanan.
1228 | Dr. E. Bresslan .

1229 | Dr. M. Philippson
1230 | Miss C. Clapp .

1231 | Miss L. Wallace

1232 | Dr. E. Riggenbach
1233 | Dr. H. Harris .

1234 | Dr. H. Winkler.

1235 | Dr. H. Miehe

1236 | Dr. A. Fischel .

1237 | Dr. P. Rothig |
1238 | Dr. O. Maas :
1239 | Dr. C. Giinther.
1240 | Prof. G. Karsten :
1241 | Dr. A. Buller. =|
1242 | Stud. C. Thesing

1243 | Dr. M. Tobler .

1244 | Miss C. Bonnevie |
1245 | Prof. S. Exner .

1246 | Dr. F. Kopsch .
1247 | Dr. F. Stevens .

1248 | Dr. G. Mazzaretti

1249 | Prof, L. Fredericq
1250 | Dr. R. Burton Opitz. |
1251 | Prof. D. Carazzi

1252 | Prof. T. Vosseler
1253 | Dr. H. Kluge .
1254 | Miss Fl. Peebles

State or University
whose Table
was made use of

Duration of Occupancy

Arrival

Departed

. | Italy : :
| Smithsonian Table ‘

Zoolog. Station
University Table . |
Cambridge

Baden

| Italy

Oxford

Hesse

Zoolog. Station
Saxony ‘
Prussia
Zoolog. Station :
Italy A 6 334]

” . . .

Oxford »° . |

Strassburg

Belgium . .

American Women’s
Table

” ”
Switzerland
British Association .
Wiirtemberg
Prussia . :

| Austria

Prussia

Bavaria

Baden

Prussia

British Association .
Hamburg
Switzerland

Zoolog. Station
Austria

Prussia ;
Smithsonian Table ‘

4 Italy

Belgium .
University Table
Italy

Wiirtemberg

Russia

American Women’s

Table

Sept. 8,1900_ hase 19, 1900

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Oetin We Asc. sl

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Ede alis) ake June30, 1901
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Jan. 1, L9OE | —

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Apr. 2, ” ” 26, bP)

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June 3, ,, —

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360

REPORT—1901.

APPENDIX III.

A List of Papers which were published in the year 1900 by the Naturalists
who have occupied Tables in the Zoological Station.

D. Carazzi

H. Herbst

H. M. Vernon

A. Romano

S. Garten

Rh. C. Punnett
H. Winkler
B. Schroder

V. Faussek

G. Duncker

W. Lindemann

3 : ‘
A. Russo ‘ c :

E. Germano

F. Bottazzi and P. Enri-
quez

H. Przibram

C. K, Schneider

Rina Monti

E. 8. Goodrich

L’Embriologia dell’ Aphysia limacina L. Anatomischer
Anzeiger, 17 Bd. 1900.

Ricerche sul Plankton del lago Fusaro in rapporto con la
Ostricoltura. Boll. not. agr. Minist. Agric. Anno 22,
1900.

Uber das Auseinandergehen von Furchungs- und Gewebe-
zellen in kalkfreiem Medium. Archiv f. Entw. Mech.
Roux 9 Bd. 1900.

Cross-fertilisation among Echinoids.
Mech. Roux 9 Bd. 1900.

Certain Laws of Variation. I. The Reaction of Developing
Organisms to Environment. Prec. Royal Society, vol. 67,
1900.

Intorno alla natura ed alle ragioni del colorito giallo dei
centri nervosi elettrici. Anatomischer Anzeiger, 17 Bd.
1900.

Die Veriinderungen in den Ganglienzellen des elektrischen
Lappens der Zitterrochen nach Durchschneidung der
aus ibm entspringenden Nerven. Archiv f. Anat. u.
Physiol. Anat. Abth. 1900.

On the formation of the Pelvic Plexus, with special
reference tu the nervus collector in the genus Mustelus,

_. Phil. Trans. Royal Society, London, vol. 192, 1900.

Uber die Furchung unbefruchteter Hier unter der Einwir-
kung von Pxtrativstoffen aus dem Sperma. Nachr. k.
Ges. Wiss. Gottingen, 1900.

Das Phytoplankton des Golfes von Neapel, nebst ver-
gleichenden Ausblicken auf das des atlantischen Oceans.
Mitth. Z. Station, vol. 14, 1900.

Untersuchungen tiber die Entwickelung der Cephalopoden
Mitth. Z. Station, vol. 14, 1900.

Biologische Beobachtungen an Lophobranchiern. Abh.
aus d. Geb. der Naturw. Verein Hamburg, 16 Bad.
1900.

Uber die Wirkung des Phosphors und des Pulegons auf
die Cephalopoden. Beitrige path. Anat. u. Pathol.
Ziegler, 27 Bd. 1900.

Uriimie bei Cephalopoden. Jdid. 1900.

Sull aggruppamento dei primi elementi sessuali nelle
larve di Antedon rosacea. Rend. Accad. Lincei, vol. 9,
1900.

Sulla funzione renale dell’ organo genitale delle Oloturie
(sunto). Rendic. 1 Assemblea Unione Zoologica Ital.
Bologna, 1900.

La Tuberculosi sperimentale nei Pesci.
Anno II. 1900.

Sulle proprieta osmotiche delle glandole salivari posteriori
dell’ Octopus macropus. Milano, 1900.

Archiv f. Entw.

Arte medica,

Experimentelle Studien tiber Regeneration. Biolog.
Centralblatt, 20 Bd. 1900.
Mittheilungen tiber Siphonophoren Nesselzellen. Arb.

Z. Inst. Wien, 12 Bd. 1900.
La Rigenerazione nelle Planarie marine. Memorie Istituto
Lombardo Scienze e Lettere, vol. 19, III. 1900.
On the Nephridia of the Polychzta. Part III.
Journ. Micr. Sc., vol. 43, 1900.
Observations on Syllis vivipara Krohn,
Society, vol. 28, 1900.

Quart.

Journal Linnean

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 361

O. Carlgren . :

”

D. M. Mottier.

T. H. Morgan and P. A.

Hazen.
Florence Peebles

H. Jordan
F, B. Sumner.

F. Raffaele
R. Hesse

8. Metalnikoff
R. 8. Bergh

E. Cristafulli .

”

O. v. Fiirth . :

”

T. v. Uxkiill

F. S. Monticelli and S.

Lo Bianco

E, Weinland .

A. Borgert

Uber die Hinwirkung des constanten galvanischen Stromes
auf niedere Organismen. Archiv f. Anat. und Phys.,
Phys. Abth., 1900. _

Zur Kenntniss der stichodactylinen Actinarien. Ofy.
Kong. Vetensk. Akad. Férh., 1900.

Nucl2ar and Cell Division in Dictyota dichotoma. Arnals
of Botany, vol. 14, 1900.

The Gastrulation of Amphioxus (partim). Journal of
Morphology, vol. 16, 1900.

Experiments in regeneration and in grafting of Hydrozoa.
Archiv f. Entw. “Mechanik Roux, 10 Bd. 1900 (partim).

Uber die Anwendung v. Celloidin in Mischung mit
Cedernholzil. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikros. 17 Bd. 1900.

Kupfer’s Vesicle and its Relation to Gastrulation and
Concrescence (partim). Mem. N. Y. Acad. of Sc.,
vol. 2, 1900.

Per la Genesi dei Nervi da Catene cellulari (partim).
Anat. Anzeiger, 18 Bd. 1900.

Untersuchungen tiber die Organe der Lichtempfindung
bei niederen Tieren. IV. Die Augen einiger Mollusken,
Zeitschr. w. Zool. 48 Bd. 1900.

Sipunculus nudus. Zeit. wiss. Zool. 48 Bd. 1900.

Beitrige zur vergleichenden Histologie. II. Uber den
Bau der Gefiasse bei den Anneliden, 2. Mittheilung
Anatom. Hefte Merkel, 15 Bd. 1900.

Ricerche sperimentali sulla Fisio-patologia del Cervelletto.
Riforma medica, Anno 16, 1900.

Sulle Alterazioni secondarie del Citoplasma nervoso. Giorn.
Assoc. Napol. Med. Nat. Anno X. 1900.

Uber den Stoffwechsel der Cephalopoden. Zeitschr. f.
phys. Chemie. 31 Bd. 1900.

Uber die Hiweisskérper der Kaltbliitermuskeln und ihre
Beziehung zur Warmestarre. Jbid. 31 Bd. 1900.

Die Wirkung von Licht und Schatten auf die Seeigel.
Zeitschr. f. Biologie, 40 Bd. 1900.

Sullo sviluppo dei Peneidi del Golfo di Napoli (note
riassuntive). Rendic. 1 Assemblea Unione Zool. Ital.
Bologna, 1900.

Uber das Auftreten zweier verschiedenen Verdauungs-
secrete im Magen der Rochen. Sitz. Ber. Ges. Morph.
u. Phys. Miinchen. 16 Ba. 1900.

Untersuchungen tiber die Fortpflanzung der tripyleen
Radiolarien, speciell von Aulacantha scolymantha.
Zool. Jahrb, Abth. Anat. und Ontog. 14 Bd. 1900.

APPENDIX IV.

A List of the Publications of the Zoological Station duriny the year

ending June 30, 1901.

1. ‘Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel.’ P. Falkenberg, Rhodomelaeeen,

776 MPP: with 24 plates

‘ Mittheilungen aus der zoologischen Station zu Neapel.’ Vol. xiv. parts 3 and 4,

with 8 plates.

3. ‘ Zoologischer Jahresbericht’ for 1899.
4. ‘Guide to the Aquarium.’ A new English edition is being prepared.

362 REPORT—1901.

Index Animalium.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. HENRY
WoopwarD (Chairman), Mr. W. E. Hoyir, Mr. R. McLacuan,
Dr. P. L. Scrarer, Rev. T. R. R. STEBBING, and Dr. F. A. BATHER
(Secretary).

Tue Committee has the honour to report that during the last year the
whole of the entries covering the period from 1758-1800 have been
arranged, sorted, the duplicate entries eliminated, and the remainder—
about 62,000—got ready for press. Of these perhaps some 6,000 are
duplicates, but owing to the loose methods of authors the compiler
cannot decide, and it has been thought better to include them, leaving it
to the specialist to reject such duplicates rather than to run the risk of
omitting a possibly important entry. Negotiations entered into with the
Cambridge University Press have ended in a satisfactory manner, and
the work of printing this first part of the Index was begun at the end of
May 1901. The work will take about twenty months to go through the
press, will comprise some 1,000 pages, and will be provided with an index
to the trivial names under genera, the same slips as are used for the main
work being re-sorted under genera as fast as they come off the press. This
method has been adopted for several reasons, ¢.g., the great expenditure
of time if a copy of all the slips were made, and the fact that those who
desire to know what trivial names are included under a genus can as
easily refer to the end as to the body of the book.

A complete list of works consulted has been prepared, and will be
printed : this will be annotated throughout with bibliographic notes as to
dates and contents, and should prove of considerable value to librarians
and others as regards the rarer literature. It is gratifying to be able to
report that very few publications have eluded the search of the compiler,
but these Mr. C. Davies Sherborn does not regard as likely to be of
importance. They may possibly contain a few specific names, but it is
hardly probable.

The indexing of 1801-1900 continues, and will proceed more rapidly
now the early MS. is out of hand. It is hoped that the finished work,
when it appears, will fully justify both the time spent upon it and the
generous support received from the British Association, the Royal Society,
and the Zoological Society, and that the Committee will have placed at
its disposal an even more liberal support in the future. It must be
remembered that up to the present every entry, and every portion of the
purely mechanical part of the work, has been done by Mr. Sherborn, and
that many months of his time could have been saved for the more
important labour of recording had the Committee been able to pay for
the assistance of even a boy to do the sorting, alphabetical arrangement,
and numbering of the slips. However, as it is, we have now the results
of the labours of one man, and the Committee regards this as showing in
a most satisfactory manner the definite plan of the proposer and compiler
of this colossal undertaking.

The Committee earnestly requests its reappointment, with a grant
of 1007,

ON CORAL REEFS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 363

Coral Reefs of the Indian Regions.—Second Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. A. Sep@wicKk (Chairman), Mr. J. GRAHAM KERR
(Secretary), Professor J. W. Jupp, Mr. J. J. Lister, and Dr. §. F.
Harmer, appointed to investigate the Structure, Formation, and
Growth of the Coral Reefs of the Indian Region.

Tur Committee have received the following report from Mr. J. Stanley
Gardiner :—

During the greater part of the year I have been engaged single-
handed in sorting and properly labelling the marine collections from the
Laceadive and Maldive Archipelagoes. This is now completed, and
they are divided into groups, each with our notes as to localities,
depths, &c.

For more than thirty of the groups I have been promised the services
of various zoologists in this country. About half of these have already
received their collections, and I hope to forward the remainder shortly.
I have, up to the present, received reports from Mr. P. Cameron
(Hymenoptera, 25 species, 16 new), Mr. R. C. Punnett (Nemerteans,
12 species, 9 new), Mr. Ed. Meyrick (Lepidoptera, 66 species, 4 new),
Mr. F. F. Laidlaw (Reptilia), and Mr. Oldfield Thomas (Mammalia). In
addition, Mr. Borradaile has sent me a complete memoir on the Land
Crustaceans, and I have prepared a great part of my report on the struc-
ture, formation, and growth of the reefs. The land flora of the group
has now been worked out, and a complete report on it will shortly be
published by Mr. J. C. Willis and myself in the ‘Journal’ of the Pere-
deniya Gardens, Ceylon.

The collections so far seem to justify the conclusions, drawn in my
last report, as to their completeness. Dr. David Sharp, who has taken
charge of the insect collections, has expressed considerable satisfaction
both as to their exhaustiveness and state of preservation, and Professor
Hickson writes as follows: ‘There is quite enough to show the general
character of the shallow water fauna (Alcyonaria, 0-50 fathoms), and it
is not probable that many new species will be found in this region after
the collection has been worked out.’

Publication, in view of the large number of new species, is an extremely
difficult matter, especially as it seems very desirable that the reports
should be kept together. I may draw attention to the general opinion
expressed at the International Congress of Zoology (1898) as to the
desirability of properly illustrating new species wherever possible. The
University Press (Cambridge) have undertaken the publication in a
series of eight quarto parts, each of about 120 pages, on the condition
that they are not called upon to expend more than 200/. on illustrating
the work. It is calculated that at least seventy plates and 150 text-figures
would be required to adequately illustrate the fauna and geography.
These cannot be prepared in a suitable manner for less than 450/., and I
would ask your assistance towards the additional 250/. required.

The Committee seek reappointment.

364 REPORT—1901.

Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.—Fourth Interim Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor Newton (Chairman),
Rey. E. P. Knusiey (Secretary), Mr. Joan A. Harvir-Brown,
Mr. R. M. Barrinaton, and Mr. A. H. Evans, appointed to work
out the details of the Observations of Migration of Birds at Light-
houses and Iightships, 1880-87.

Your Committee has again great pleasure in reporting that Mr. William
Eagle Clarke has been continuing his invaluable services, and the sub-
joined statement received from him, together with a Summary of Observa-
tions in reference to the Migrations of the Skylark (Alawda arvensis) and
the Swallow (Zirundo rustica)—the former being of an extremely com-
plicated nature—shows the results of an enormous amount of labour,
wrought out with proportionate skill, of which your Committee desires
to express its most grateful admiration.

A serious deficiency of data in regard to the migrations of some other
species ou the south coast of England has become apparent, and, at the
suggestion of Mr. Clarke, application was made to the authorities of the
Trinity House to permit a renewal of observations at the Lighthouses and
Lightships along that coast. The consent of the Elder Brethren having
been most courteously given, and the cost defrayed from private sources,
the necessary schedules have been forwarded to the several stations.
Your Committee is aware that in thus acting it may have exceeded its
duties according to the strict terms of its appointment, but trusts that, in
the circumstances, the transgression (if it be so regarded) will be pardoned,
veeing that its object was to supply a void left through inadvertence by
the older Migration of Birds Committee ; that it introduced no new
principle ; and, moreover, that otherwise a whole year would have been
lost.

On two previous occasions your Committee has referred to the private
labours of one of its members (Mr. Barrington) in regard to observations
at the Irish Lights. These have now been published in extenso, forming
a volume! which is perhaps the most monumental contribution to the
literature of Bird Migration ever issued ; while its appendix, giving the
precise wing-measurements of so many specimens, is, apart from the subject
it especially illustrates, a matter of importance for the student of varia-
tion. Thanks, too, to that gentleman’s exertions, the work has the
additional merit of containing the results of ten years more than the
period covered by the inquiry carried on by the Association’s former
Committee ; a fact which enormously enhanzes the value of the Irish
records.

Without pledging itself to a positive assurance in the matter, your
Committee hopes that, if reappointed, as it desires to be, it will, in the
course of two years more, bring to a conclusion the work with which it
has been charged, so far as being able to give asummary of the movements

' The Migration of Birds as observed at Irish Lighthouses and Lightships, includ-
ing the original Reports from 1888-97, now published for the first time, and an
analysis of them and of the previously published Reports from 1881-87, together with
an appendix giving the measurements of about 1,600 wings. By Richard M. Barring-
ton, M.A., LL.B., F.L.8. London and Dublin : [1890] (pp. xxvi+ 285 + 667).

ON BIRD MIGRATION. 365

of the most representative species of migrants. The Song-Thrush,
White Wagtail, Skylark, and Swallow being now done, it is proposed to
invite Mr. Clarke’s attention to a like treatment of the Starling, Rook,
Lapwing, and some others, which will presumably present no little
divergence in the character of their migrations.

Thus your Committee respectfully repeats its request for reappoint-
ment, and, if possible, with an increased grant of money.

Statement made to the Committee.
By Wm. Eacie Crarke.

During the past year I have devoted much time to the study of the
seasonal movements of a number of our birds, and I present herewith, for
the consideration of the Committee, histories of the various migrations
performed annually within the British area by the Skylark and the
Swallow.

The preparation of these complete and particular accounts has proved
to be a laborious and difficult undertaking, since a number of the
movements to be treated of are so intricately interwoven with or so
insensibly merge into each other, or are performed under such obscure
conditions, as to render their discrimination and interpretation matters
demanding most careful consideration.

The following accounts of the migrations of the Skylark and the
Swallow are in the main based upon the data obtained at the Light-
stations and elsewhere during the years 1880-87 ; hut other sources of
information have been consulted, including the Scottish Migration
Reports for 1892-1900 of Messrs. Hinxman and Laidlaw, and the
Irish Reports for 1888-97 of Mr. Barrington.

It is my pleasing duty to acknowledge the assistance I have received
from Professor Collett, of Christiania, who has most obligingly. furnished
me with useful notes relating to the movements of birds in Southern
Norway ; and from Herr Knud Andersen, of Copenhagen, who has given
me much valuable information on the migratory birds observed in the
Feroe Islands.

THe MicRATIONS OF THE SKYLARK (Alauda arvensis).

In the British Islands the Skylark is not only one of the best-known
species, but also one which can be almost always met with, so that com-
paratively few people suspect the extent to which it is migratory, and
fewer still are aware of the complexity of its migrations, which present
problems more difficult to solve than those of any other British bird ;
yet this is undoubtedly the case.

As a migrant, no species makes so great a show in the returns of the
several Light-stations, and the account which follows is based upon
upwards of fowr thousand individual records. Yet within the British
area the Skylark is for the most part Resident as a species, though
shifting its quarters when affected by frost or snow, as is obvious to
almost any observer. The degree to which our native Skylarks are migra-
tory depends on the varying conditions of climate and food. In the
lowlands of Great Britain, especially in the south-west of England and
throughout Ireland generally, the migratory habit is less exercised, pre-
sumably because it is less necessary there than elsewhere. On the other
hand there are considerable tracts which, from their elevated, exposed, or

366 REPORT—1901.

northerly situation, are not suited for winter residence, and to those
the Skylark is merely a Summer Visitor, as it is to nearly the whole of
Northern and a great part of Central Europe, departing after the
breeding season to its accustomed winter quarters. During its journeyings
to the south and west in the fall of the year, and again on its return in
spring, the Skylark appears in vast numbers on our coasts as a Bird of
Passage, while, owing to their intermediate geographical position and
their milder climate, the British Islands are much resorted to by the
Continental Skylark as a Winter Visitant.!

The various migrations of the species may be conveniently separated
and arranged as follows, beginning with the autumnal movements ; and
when it is considered that several of these movements are often simul-
taneously in progress, some idea of their complexity and the extreme
diticulty of their interpretation may be realised :—

1. Autumn Emigration of Summer Visitants, with their offspring,
i.e., home-breeding and home-bred birds.

2, Autumn Immigration of Winter Visitants from Central Europe.

3. Autumn Immigration of Winter Visitants from Northern Europe.

4. Autumn Passage from Central to Southern Europe along the British
coast.

5. Autumn Passage from Northern to Southern Europe along the
British coast.

6. Winter Emigration from, and Partial Migration within, the
British Islands.

7. Spring Immigration of Summer Visitants, and return of Winter
Emigrants.

8. Spring Emigration to Central Europe from the British Isles.

9. Spring Emigration to Northern Europe from the British Isles.

10. Spring Passage from Southern to Central and Northern Europe
along the British coast.

But even this is not all, for the movements which take place between
Great Britain and Ireland, as well as between Great Britain and the
Hebrides and Northern Islands, have also to be considered.

1. Autumn Emigration of Home-bred Birds.—Towards the close of
the nesting season an increased number of Skylarks is observable in the
lowlands, particularly near the coast ; a fact due, no doubt, to migra-
tion from the higher grounds, to which the species is only a summer
visitor. So early as July in some years there are a few records from the
Light-stations showing that departure has already commenced, but these
early flittings must be regarded as exceptional.? During August there
are usually a few signs of emigration, and towards the end of that month
there is evidence that it has fully set in. These late August movements

! No unfailing distinction between British and foreign Skylarks has hitherto been
recognised by ornithologists generally. In attempting to draw one here, the writer
has chiefly relied upon what can, with more or less probability, be presnmed as to
the origin of the particular flocks from connecting the different observations of them
whereby their course may be traced.

2 The most remarkable instance of this kind occurred on the night of July 25,
1881, when a great number of Skylarks appeared at the Leman and Ower Lightship,
off the Norfolk coast, and sitaty were killed by striking the lantern, and at the same
time jifty were killed at the Dudgeon, a neighbouring Lightship. The weather was
wet, changeable, and cold for the time of year.

ON BIRD MIGRATION. 367

include departures from the Hebrides and other western isles, as witnessed
by birds observed at or killed against the lanterns of Skerryvore and
Dhuheartach, but there is no appearance of any emigration from Ireland
in this month, which is a rather remarkable and significant fact.
Throughout September the emigration is much more evident on both
eastern and western coasts, the Hebrides contributing largely to the
latter. In some seasons a marked migration is recorded from Shet-
jand,! where the species is chiefly a summer visitant. In Ireland, too,
there is evidence from the south-eastern stations that the exodus has
begun. Towards the end of the month the movement is more marked,
especially in unsettled weather, when Skylarks are recorded as emigrating
by night in company with Thrushes, Blackbirds, Ring-ousels, Wheatears,
Chiffchaffs, Whitethroats, Wagtails, and other birds. As the season
advances emigration is naturally quickened until the early days of
November, when this movement ceases to be observed. In some years a
foretaste of winter, in others periods of exceptionally unsettled weather
cause pronounced ‘ rushes’ southward.”

During the autumn Skylarks gradually draw towards the coast, on
reaching which they pass southwards in straggling parties. On some
days a succession of bands may be seen following each other throughout
the whole day, and in September and October, if the weather be fine with
light winds, such bands may be observed for days together without a
break. This coasting movement is chiefly, if not entirely, performed by
day ; but it is otherwise when a considerable expanse of sea is to be
crossed, as from Shetland, the Hebrides, or Ireland, and then their
migration asa rule is undertaken by night. The journey is continued
along both coasts of Great Britain until the southern and particularly
the south-western counties are reached, many of the east-coast migrants
passing along the south coast westward. Probably, only a portion of the
Skylarks, which move during the early autumn, quit our shores, many
no doubt tarrying on the south or south-western coast. Others, how-
ever, certainly depart for the Continent, crossing the Channel chiefly
at night together with birds of many other species ; but I myself in passing
between Newhaven and Dieppe in September have observed small parties
of Skylarks in mid-channel making for the French coast during the day-'
time.

2. Autumn Immigration from Central Europe.2—This movement is the
most interesting and remarkable performance of the Skylark, or perhaps
of any other British species, as it affords a striking instance of the phe-
nomenon of birds proceeding westward, and possibly northward, from
their breeding grounds to reach their winter quarters, and this in vast
numbers for several successive weeks, with scarcely a break. In some
seasons this Immigration—which may be called especially the Skylarks’
route, since they not only greatly outnumber the birds of any other

! The date of the first movement from Shetland varies according to the nature
of the season. In 1882 it was observed as early as September 15, and in 1886 on
September 25. The autumn emigration thence does not usually begin until October.

* There can be little doubt that during October and November the emigration of
our home-bred Skylarks merges to some extent with the Passage movement from
Northern to Southern Europe then in progress along our coasts.

8 Evidence accumulated since the presentation of the ‘ Digest of Observations’
(Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1896, p. 456) confirms the reasons therein stated for considering
Western Central Europe one of the aréas whence Skylarks and certain other birds
emigrate to the British Islands,

308 REPORT—1901.

species using it, but probably the whole aggregate—sets in as early as the
middle of September, but more commonly about the fourth week of that
month. On reaching our coast the majority of the immigrants move
along it southward, and then westerly to the Land’s End, some crossing
the Channel at various points to the French coast, while others seem to
continue westward or northward to Ireland, appearing on the coast of
Wexford at dates varying from the middle to the end of the month, but
having relation to those of their arrival on the east coast of England. <A
considerable number of the Immigrants, however, on their arrival in
England proceed inland, and disperse over the eastern, southern, and mid-
land counties. It is in October, however, that this stream of immigra-
tion becomes phenomenal. It then has the coast of Suffolk for its centre,
with its right wing extending to the Humber, or even to or beyond the
Tees ; while the left, to some extent reinforced by birds of British origin,
sweeps along the south coast to Devon and Cornwall, and, as in September,
to Ireland. The winter visitants among these October immigrants pass
inland by several routes; a good many proceed up the Thames and
Humber estuaries. Some idea of the magnitude of this influx may be
gathered from this table, showing the number of days during October
on which it was observed in each of the years :

1880. 22 days | 1883. 9 days 1886. 23 days
SRLS Za USSAuSe 5 1887.1 26 ,,
1882. 14 ,, 1885 21 ,,

After October this Immigration falls off. The November movements vary
according to the weather, but are never of great moment after the first
few days of the month, when in most years they practically cease. In
November 1883 and 1886 no east-to-west movements were recorded.

It is characteristic of this immigration that the passage across the
North Sea is invariably witnessed during the daytime, usually from dawn
to noon, but not unfrequently prolonged till 3 p.m., and the birds con-
cerned in it are actually crossing the line of flight taken by the home-
bred birds which are then emigrating ; a very remarkable but not very
uncommon occurrence in October. Other species crossing the North Sea
at this time in company with the Skylarks are Starlings, Titlarks,
Chaftinches, Linnets, Blackbirds, and Rooks.

3. Autumn Immigration from Northern Europe.—Great numbers of
Skylarks which summer in Scandinavia,’ seek our shores in autumn, their
first arrival during the years 1880-87 being remarkably constant (October
4 to 8), when the birds appear in Shetland, Orkney, on the east coast
of Scotland and north-east coast of England, during the night or early in
the morning, in company with Thrushes, Redwings, Blackbirds, Ring-
ousels, Goldcrests, Chaffinches, Bramblings, and other species breeding in
the north. These arrivals continue, at intervals, during October, and
the Skylark participates iargely in those remarkable movements which
characterise the latter part of the month. These vast outpourings seem
to exhaust the emigration from Northern Europe, for it was only during
owo years (1883 and 1884) of the inquiry that considerable arrivals from

1 Many recorded on October 9, 20, 21, 28, and 27; vast numbers on October 16
to 18, again on 22, 25, and 26.

2 Professor Collett says (Oversigt af Christiania Omegns ornithologiske Fauna,
p. 128) that Alauda arvensis is seldom seen in the Christiania district after the
middle of October.

ON BIRD MIGRATION. 369

the north are recorded for November, carrying the extreme limit of the
period covered by this movement of the Skylark down to the 15th of that
month, Thus the autumnal immigration from the north, vast as it is, is
compressed, as it were, into the period of little more than four weeks.
The majority of these northern skylarks seem to disperse themselves over
our islands, some of them reaching the Hebrides, and replace the home-
bred birds which have already quitted their summer haunts. A great
many seek Ireland, either by direct passage from the south-west of Scot-
land or by way of the Isle of Man, while some may pass from the Welsh
coast to the shores of Dublin and Wicklow.

4 and 5. Autumn Passage from Central and Northern Europe to
Southern Europe along the British Coast._-These movements are much
involved with the immigratory movements from the north and east, and,
to a lesser degree, with the British emigratory movements already treated
of. The transient visitors which effect it arrive on our northern islands
and along our north-eastern coast, together with those which winter with
us, in October, or in some years early in November, and after a short
rest proceed along the coast, chiefly by night, southward and westward,
crossing the Channel at various points. Though they are mainly confined
to our eastern and southern seaboards, yet a considerable number make
an overland journey across Great Britain, travelling down the west coast,
while others possibly cross to Ireland, and continue their southerly journey
along its eastern shores. The Passage movements from the east need no
further notice now, since they have been treated already under Section 2.

General Remarks on Autumn Emigration and Immigration.—Having
treated of the autumn movements, both of emigration and immigration, it
may be desirable before proceeding further to consider their effects on
the Skylark population of Britain, and its position at the end of that
season. Though a considerable number of home-bred birds have at that
time quitted our shores, their departure has not materially affected the
great abundance of the species, partly owing to the fact that the Skylark
is double-brooded,! and hence its annual increase is enormous, while
prodigious numbers have poured into England from Central Europe during
part of September and throughout October, to say nothing of the immense
number of immigrants from North-western Europe which have arrivecl
during the latter month. The result is that from November to the
setting in of cold weather the Skylark population of the British Isles is
at its maximum, and vastly in excess of what it is at any other period of
the year.

6. Winter Emigration from, and Partial Migration within, the British
Islands.—These movements depend wholly on the state of the weather,
and vary in degree according to its severity. The Skylark obtaining the
whole of its food on the ground is at once driven to change its quarters
when that is covered with snow, and only somewhat less quickly when
it is merely frost-bound without snow. Should the late autumn and
winter be uniformly mild, the Skylarks sojourning with us remain practi-
cally stationary. Few, if any, winters are, however, entirely free from
snow or frost, and with the first outbreak of cold the birds must remove
themselves from its untoward influence. Sometimes suitable lodging may
be found not far off, and then the movement is but local or partial in
character. When this occurs, and the stress is but short, the birds soon

: on parts of England most pairs of Skylarks haye three nests in the year,
1901. BB

370 REPORT—1901.

return to their former haunts; but if the adverse conditions continue
and become general, the movement also becomes widespread and more
or less universal. This effect is especially produced by great snowstorms,
when the number of fugitives is so vast that people wonder where such
prodigious multitudes can come from, as they throng towards the coast
and particularly the milder south-west coast of England—Devon, Corn-
wall, and the Scilly Isles—though many undoubtedly cross the Channel,
and others proceed to Ireland. On the other hand, a few—and these are,
perhaps, of our native stock—attempt to brave the unfavourable condi-
tions, partly by resorting to unwonted places of shelter, especially the
sea-shore, but many, if not most, of them succumb to famine. In
Ireland, too, there are many winter movements, due to the pressure
of climatic conditions, and Cork and Kerry are especially resorted to
during hard weather ; but winter emigration must be regarded as ex-
ceptional in Ireland, for one portion or another of its shores generally
affords an asylum in the severest seasons, though many birds perish, even
in its most favourable areas, during an abnormally protracted winter. It
has already been stated that Ireland ordinarily receives numbers of
Skylarks in autumn, and being again sought by multitudes of refugees
from the snows and frosts of Great Britain, it follows that the Skylark
population of Ireland is at its maximum at « period when that of Great
Britain is at its lowest.

During some severe winters in Central Europe there is a renewal of
the immigration of Skylarks (together with Starlings and Lapwings)
across the North Sea to the south-east coast.

During these cold-weather movements many of the emigrants perish
at the lanterns of the Light-stations. Thus, on December 2, 1882, the
Bell Rock Lighthouse was visited by what is described as being the
greatest multitude of Skylarks ever known. It was impossible to estimate
the number, but they were ‘striking hard for a couple of hours like a
shower of hail.’

If the statement that the winter emigration depends wholly on the
state of the weather need any confirmation, it may be furnished by the
fact that in the mild seasons of 1881-82 and 1885-86 very little was
recorded. There are, however, usually spasmodic and partial movements
in November ; but it is not until cold weather sets in that any general
exodus takes place. If there has been much snow in December, as in
1879 and 1882, there is little or no movement later in the season, because
the birds have already departed. On the other hand, after the un-
eventful December of 1880, there were pronounced emigrations in January
1881. In February there are, as a rule, movements more or less local,
and due to snow, and in that month of 1886, which was coid and snowy,
movement followed movement throughout its course. The March migra-
tions are not of much account, but in unusually inclement seasons, like
1883 and 1887, there were ‘rushes’ to the coast as late as the 20th of
that month.’ In other years there is little or nothing recorded for it.

7. Spring Immigration of Summer Visitants and Return of Winter
Emigrants.—The return of the Skylarks which have left us during the
autumn and winter is observed on the southern coasts of both Great
Britain and Ireland early in the year, their arrival taking place as a rule

? At the Nash Lighthouse, on the Glamorgan coast, on March 15, 1887, Skylarks,
Starlings, Snipes, Woodcocks, Lapwings, Golden Plovers, and Wild Ducks were seen
flying before heavy snow from 8 30 A.M, to 3 P.M,

ee

ON BIRD MIGRATION, 371

during the latter half of February, and occasionally as early as the second
week (in 1886 on the 11th), the immigration continuing throughout
March, The precise time seems to be influenced by the condition of
the weather in the birds’ southern retreats. If the early spring there be
mild and genial, they begin their return early, but if the contrary their
departure is delayed. On arrival on the south coast of England many
pass northward along the east and west coasts, the latter being the
route chiefly followed by the earlier immigrants. The return to Ireland
corresponds closely with the arrival in Southern England, the earliest
observation for the period 1882-87 being on February 10, 1886, and from
that time the movements occur at intervals. The other Species of birds
which reappear along with the Skylarks are mostly those which have before
been mentioned in association with them—Thrushes, Blackbirds, Titlarks,
Lapwings, and so forth. During April the movements of the immigrants
become merged into those of the strictly called Birds of Passage. In Ireland,
during the first half of the month and occasionally to the third week,
Skylarks continue to arrive in company with Wheatears and other early
summer birds. The return movement to the Hebrides corresponds with
that to the mainland, but, as in Ireland, the immigration is prolonged into
April. In Shetland the spring arrival of the native birds begins in the
early days of March. The immigrants reach the south coast of England,
sometimes in vast numbers, during the earliest hours of the morning, but
in the south-east of Ireland, the chief point of arrival in that country,
they are usually observed later in the day, but in the Hebrides at
night.

os. Spring Emigration to Central Europe from the British Isles.—The
return (west to east) movement from South-eastern England across the
North Sea comes very little under observation compared with the in-
flowing streams of the preceding autumn, and that this should be so is
easily tobe explained. In the first place, the numbers of travellers, owing
to the waste of winter, have been much thinned ; and secondly, because,
like all other important emigratory movements, this one takes place chiefly
at night, and so for the most part escapes notice, for it is reasonable
to suppose that the first hour of flight takes the birds beyond the limit
of observation at the Light-stations along our eastern coast. Some return
emigration is nevertheless observed by day on the Lightships, the direc-
tion of the birds being eastward from the mouth of the Thames, and south-
eastward from the more northerly stations. There are also enough observa-
tions to show that the movement begins in February (in the mild season
of 1882 on the 6th, but usually not till the middle of the month), and is
continued until the end of March, the 28th being the latest day recorded.
As with the reverse movement in autumn, this is chiefly noticed on the
Lightships between the Thames and the Humber. The other species of

birds accompanying the Skylarks are Starlings, ‘Crows,’ and Lapwings.

9. Spring Migration to Northern Europe from the British Isles.-Ip
mnild seasons during the third week of February there are indications at
our north-eastern stations that the Skylarks which have wintered with

us are beginning to depart for their northern homes, and throughout

March, especially after the middle of the month, there is usually much
evidence to the same effect, the concomitant species being Blackbirds.
Goldcrests, Starlings, Woodcocks, and ‘ Wild Geese’; but here, again, as

-in the last case, much escapes notice, and for the same reasons.

The spring emigration from Ireland deserves separate consideration,
BB2

372 REPORT-—1901.

Beginning about the middle of February, it becomes more pronounced in
March, and ceases with the close of that month. The birds return by
the routes taken in autumn and winter, chief of which is that between
the south-eastern counties, with Wexford as a centre, and the southern
provinces of Wales and shores of the Bristol Channel ; while during March
there are return flights cross the Irish Sea to North Wales and South-
western Scotland. Generally the birds set out after dark, but Skylarks are
occasionally recorded as migrating during the day, those from the southern
portion of Ireland making for the south-east, while those from the
Wicklow coast proceed due east. The night movements are often per-
formed in company with Thrushes, Blackbirds, and Starlings. The winter
visitants to the Hebrides leave for the mainland of Scotland about the
same time, and call for no special remark.

10. Spring Passage from Southern to Northern and Central Europe
along the British Coast.—These movements take place during March and
early April, and are not easily distinguished from some others that are in
progress at the same time. It is probable, however, that the bulk of the
Skylarks arriving at this time on the southern coast of England are en
route for North-western Europe. After reaching this island they move
northward along the coast, and finally quit the country in company with
those which have been wintering in Great Britain and Ireland, as well as
with other emigrants and transient visitors.

Tue Micrations or THE SwaLLow (Hirwndo rustica).

The familiar Swallow may be taken as a typical example of a Summer
Visitant to the British Islands, whose breeding range reaches a high
latitude in Europe, though not extending to the extreme north of the
Continent, nor to Iceland. In our islands it is to be regarded, however,
not merely as a summer visitant, but also as a Bird of Passage, traversing
our shores in spring and autumn on its way to or from its summer quarters
in Western Europe. Its winter quarters are known to be in Africa,
chiefly to the south of the Great Desert. In preparing the following
compendium of its emigrations I have not limited myself to the records
furnished by the various Light-stations, since the majority of observa-
tions there made do not discriminate between the Swallow and the two
species of Martin also visiting our islands ; but I have availed myself as
well of the voluminous records chronicled in serial literature, often by
expert ornithologists.

Spring Immigration of Summer Visitants.—On this subject the
records are so numerous and complete as to enable me to speak with
authority as to the date of the Swallow’s successive arrivals on our shores,
and also to trace with some degree of accuracy its gradual spreading over
the country, which has hitherto been a desideratum. During March a
few solitary birds annually appear, sometimes very early in the month,
and though these may be regarded as somewhat erratic visitors, no year
of the inquiry (1880-87) is wanting in authentic records of their
appearance. In all there are twenty-one records of March Swallows, of
which ten were observed on the south-west coast of England, four in
Ireland, three in the south-east of England, and two each in South-eastern
and South-western Scotland. It is not till April that the vanguard of
the host reaches our shores, and a careful analysis of dates shows that
the average time of its appearance in different parts of our islands is as
follows : For South-western England the beginning of the first week ; for

- ee ae

ON BIRD MIGRATION. 3/0

Treland the end of that week ; for South-eastern England early in the
second week ; for South-western Scotland the end of the same ; for South-
eastern Scotland the middle of the third week ; for Northern Scotland the
fourth week ; and lastly it is not till the second week of May that the few
Swallows which resort to Orkney reach their destination. These early
immigrants are either single birds or pairs. Some ten or twelve days
later than the arrival in each case of this advanced guard takes place the
appearance of Swallows in some numbers, and they become gradually
abundant throughout the kingdom. These initial hosts are followed by
others, and so the influx proceeds during the rest of April and the first
half of May, and beyond that date in the case of birds of passage. In
backward seasons, such as that of 1887, when cold and unsettled weather
with snow and sleet prevailed, the vanguard may be delayed for about a
week, but on that occasion its appearance was immediately followed by a
‘rush,’ and the birds became numerous and general only a little in arrear
of their accustomed time. In the Hebrides and North-western Scotland
the Swallow is uncommon, and mostly observed on passage in small
numbers, while though appearing almost annually in Shetland, chiefly
after the middle of May or early in June, it is little more than a straggler.
In Ireland the immigrants arrive in considerable numbers until about
the middle of May, and in some seasons (1883, 1884, and 1886) so late as
the third week of that month, but it is possible that some of these later
birds are on passage to the Hebrides and north of Scotland.

It is evident from the statistics consulted that the arrival of Swallows
on the western seaboard is well in advance of their appearance further to
the east. Not only is this so in the south of England, but even in Scot-
land the districts of ‘Solway ’ and ‘Clyde’ almost invariably receive their
Swallows several days (some seasons ten or eleven) before the ‘Tweed’ and
‘Forth.’

Swallows are described as arriving on our southern shores during the
daytime, chiefly in pairs, but sometimes as many as six or seven together,
and flying low over the sea, the immigration lasting most of the day ; but
they are also noted as coming in small parties, flock after flock, for several
hours in succession, and unaccompanied by any other kinds of birds. A
remarkable exception to this was, however, observed at the Eddystone in
1887, when from midnight to 3 A.M. on May 3 and 4 hundreds of birds,
Swallows and Wheatears, together with (as testified by the wings of the
victims) Reed-Warblers, Whitethroats, Wood- and Willow-Warblers,
and Redstarts were killed at the-lighthouse. Generally, however, few
Swallows meet with disaster during their spring journeys, a very small
number striking the lanterns, while fewer still seem to suffer from exhaus-
tion.

Spring Passage from the South to Northern Ewrope.—This movement
of Swallows which pass along our coast-line on their way to their homes in
the north of Europe does not set in till the last days of April, reaches its
maximum about the middle of May, and may be prolonged till nearly the
middle of June. Many of the earlier of these transient migrants reach
our south coast in company with the Swallows that come to summer with
us, but those which pour in during the latter part of May or in June are
mostly passengers on their way to Scandinavia.! The stream is almost

1 According to the information of Professor Collett, the Swallow is seldom
observed in Norway in April. In the first week of May examples appear singly,
about the middle of that month more arrive, and between the 20th and 24th all,
perhaps, are come,

374 REPORT—1901.

wholly confined to our eastern coast, and the North Sea is crossed ere
the northern limit of the mainland is reached, for these travellers do not
seem to take Orkney or Shetland on their route. A small number of
Swallows yearly visit the Hebrides during the first three weeks of May,
and it is possibly these birds, or some of them, that find their way to the
Feroes,! and even as stragglers to Iceland, while others may, perhaps,
finally reach Northern Europe by this far western route, which may
originate, so far as the British Isles are concerned, on the east coast of
Ireland and west coast of England. A few are also observed about the
same time on the north-west coast of Scotland.

Autumn Emigration of British Summer Visitors.—During the latter
half of July parties of Swallows are recorded as visiting the island
stations and lightships off the east coast of Great Britain and the south-
east of Ireland, but it may be doubted if such appearances are of much
significance, though it may be otherwise with some recorded in 1880, when
during the spell of cold weather six flocks of from fifty to sixty each
were observed passing to the south on July 27 at the Tees Buoy Light-
ship, and two days later numbers passed the Leman and Ower Lightvessel,
off the Norfolk coast—some alighting, while one struck. But even if
these were cases of real migration, it may have been but partial, and the
birds merely seeking better quarters within our area. It is not until the last
week of August that Swallows ordinarily begin to leave Scotland and the
north of England. Then there is a decided movement southward, and,
along with Redstarts and Willow-warblers, they are observed at various
stations both on the coast and inland. There is no evidence that these
birds actually quit the country, and most, if not all, probably tarry for
some time in the south of England before crossing the Channel. The Irish
movements in August are less pronounced, but the returns show a decided
increase of visitors to the coast stations, and indicate the setting in of the
ebb, In September the southern movement becomes general throughout
the whole country, and reaches its maximum between the middle and
end of the month. During its early days there is the first evidence of
actual departure from our shores, and the cross-channel emigration then
commencing proceeds throughout the autumn. The beginning of October
shows a decided falling off in the numbers departing from the northern
districts, especially in the west ; but the southward movement is well
maintained during the first half of the month from the east and south-
west of England and the south-east of Ireland. By the middle of the
month the emigration from Scotland and the north of England is over,
and Swallows observed after that time on the east coast of Britain seem
to be the later emigrants from Scandinavia, which since September have
been passing along that coast, mingling with our own birds, so that in
many cases the two movements are indistinguishable. After the middle
of October a considerable diminution is observable, except on the coast of
the Channel, where the efflux is maintained throughout the month.
During the first half of November stragglers are still to be seen on the
east coast of Great Britain and the south-east of Ireland, but there are
no records of observations in the west of Scotland, and very few from
the north-west of England. From the south of England many departures
occur annually till the middle of the month, while stragglers are to be

‘ Herr Knud Andersen informs me that the Swallow appears not yee
in the Feeroes in May,

ON BIRD MIGRATION. 375

seen Jater, especially in the south-west. December Swallows are rare
aves, and were only observed in one year of the inquiry. The autumn of
1880 was remarkable for the protracted stay of the Hirwndinide, and
a few belated Swallows were recorded on the south coast of England in
the last week of November, while in December one was observed at
Bournemouth on the 7th, and two at Eastbourne, and one at Woolmer on
the 11th, the weather until that time having been mild.!

Autumn Passage along the British Coast from Northern Ewrope.—The
return of the Swallows which have summered in Scandinavia (accom-
panied by their young), and their passage along our coast, usually takes
place from the middle of September? onwards, the 9th of that month
(in 1884) being the earliest day on which their movement is recorded.
The passage is well maintained during the rest of the month, and is
prolonged by a few birds to the first or even second week of October.
Some of these travellers from the north are perhaps induced by our
milder climate to tarry, and it is possibly such laggards that occur on or
near our east coast in November, and thus account for the lateness of
migration there observable when compared with the west coast. It has
been already remarked that, after their arrival on our shores, Swallows on
autumn passage mix with our native birds then emigrating, and it is no
longer possible to trace the former, though they doubtless form the bulk
of the rear-guard movements of the autumn. In Shetland and Orkney
there is no appearance of these returning Swallows of passage, and but
feeble evidence of their taking the Hebrides on their way, though the
records indicate such a transit during September and the first day of
October. There are passage movements on the part of Irish birds dis-
cernible in the the south-west of England to the third week of October,
with occasional stragglers to the middle of November. In September
of some years Swallows are recorded at the lightships off the mouth of
the Thames and the Kentish coast as coming from the south-east, and
occasionally in considerable numbers.

Lurther Observations on the Autumn Movements. — At the best stations
for observing emigration it usually takes the form of the continuous
passage of small parties, not exceeding a score, and as this may last for
hours vast numbers thus depart. They have, however, been observed on
the south coast to assemble in thousands and fly away en masse, but this
is only occasionally recorded. Swallows are frequently seen to emigrate
in company with House Martins and occasionally with Sand Martins.
The earliest troops to cross the channel are observed to be composed of old
and young birds. It has, however, been noticed that the large congrega-
tions at various points on the south coast, whether preparing to emigrate
or in actual movement, consist in many cases chiefly or entirely of young
birds, but in others wholly of adults. More frequently, however, the
number of old birds is in normal proportion to that of the young. The
time of the day at which emigration takes place seems equally varied.
On the south coast some of the great movements are recorded as in

1 Mr. Joseph Agnew, light-keeper, states that a Swallow was caught on the
Monach Isles (with the exception of St. Kilda, the outermost of the Hebrides) in
January 1887, but he unfortunately furnished no further particulars of the
occurrence,

* Professor Collett states that Swallows begin to leave Southern Norway the first
week of September, and that he has known individuals to remain there so late as the
middle of October,

376 REPORT—1901.

progress from early morning to noon, others as going on until night sets in.*
During the autumn and spring migration (though concerning the latter
we lack definite information) the English Channel is probably crossed by
many routes, but there are certain much-used points of departure to reach
whieh the birds shape their course. Beginning in the west, we find among
them the Land’s End, the Lizard, the Eddystone, and Start-Point. It is
otherwise, however, on the Dorset and Hampshire coasts, along which
Swallows are recorded as proceeding to the eastward, and it is not until
the Nab Lightvessel is reached that the flight becomes southerly towards
the French coast. In Sussex, too, the flight is easterly towards Beechy
Head, just before arriving at which many birds cross the Channel.?
Others still pursue their easterly flight, and finally cross the Straits of
Dover. There may be other routes taken, but the points of departure
just named are those which result from the present inquiry. There are,
however, some records of Swallows occasionally moving westward along
the south coast. If this should be more than accidental, a cross-movement
of departing birds occurs then. The shore line is closely followed by
many of the Swallows moving south, especially by those which are on
passage.

Investigations made at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. C. BouRNE (Chawr-
man), Mr. W. GarstanG (Secretary), Professor EH, Ray LANKESTER,
Professor SypNEY H. Vines, Mr. A. SepGwick, and Professor
W. F. R. Wetpon. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

THE British Association’s table has been occupied during the past year
by the following naturalists, who devoted themselves to investigations or
to the collection and preparation of material for research on the subjects
mentioned :—

Mr. R. C. Punnett, August-September 1900 (two months) : On the
Pelvic Plexus of Elasmobranchs, and on the Anatomy of Nemertines.

Mr. 8. D. Scott, August 1900 (one week): On the Excretory Pro-
cesses of Ascidians.

Dr. F. W. Gamble, April 1901 (one week): On the Histology and
Physiology of Mysis.

Mr. W. B. Randles, July-August 1901 (one month) : On the Anatomy
of Trochus.

Mr. W. M. Aders, August 1901 (two weeks) : On the Spermatogenesis
of Ccelenterata.

Dr. Gamble’s work was unfortunately cut short unexpectedly by private
causes, and another gentleman, to whom the table had been allotted—

' At the Nab Lightship, October 1, 1886, Swallows are recorded as passing south
at intervals, twenty at a time, from dawn to dark. The returns from Hanois Light-
house, on the west coast of Guernsey, show that Swallows pass southward from 6 A.M.
to 8 P.M. At the Casquets, west of Alderney, on October 1, 1880, Swallows, with
other birds, Song-Thrushes, Ring-Ousel, Land- and Water-Rails, and a Woodcock,
occurred from 11 P.M. to 3 A.M.: 200 Swallows struck the lantern. The movements
at this station, however, may possibly have nothing to do with migration on the
British coasts.

* When crossing between Newhaven and Dieppe in September I have seen
Swallows passing in a soyth-easterly direction towards the French coast,

a

ON THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY, PLYMOUTH. 377

Mr. Chubb, of University College, London—was also prevented eventually
from making use of it.

In spite of these circumstances, which prevented the utilisation of the
table to the full extent, researches of a substantia] character have been
carried out. Part of Mr. Punnett’s work, ‘On Two New British Nemer-
tines,’ which has been published recently,! and Mr. Aders’ researches on
Spermatogenesis, on last year’s material, have been submitted and
accepted by the faculty of the University of Marburg as a thesis for
graduation. Mr. Randles’ report is given below.

The Committee respectfully request re-election ; but in view of a
balance of 8/. 5s. remaining unexpended, they apply only for a grant
of 10/., in addition to the balance in hand.

On the Anatomy of Trochus. By W. B. RANDLEs.

I occupied the British Association table from July 17 until August 17,
1901, during which time I was engaged in collecting and preserving
material for a research on the anatomy and histology of Trochus.

‘Several species of Trochus are to be found either at or in the vicinity
of Plymouth, and are representatives of three sub-genera, viz.—

Trochus (Gibbula) cinerarius.

” a umbilicatus.

as = tumidus.

» (Calliostoma) zizyphinus.
+ a striatus.

ie granulatus.

”
e (Trochocochlea) lineatus.

An examination of the internal structure of Trochus shows the close
relationship which evidently exists between this genus and Pleurotomaria,
the anatomy of which has recently been described by Woodward.

Especially is this noticeable in T. (Calliostoma) zizyphinus, where,
save for the presence of only one gill, the internal structure is almost
identical with that of Pleurotomaria. The nervous system is, however,
more highly differentiated, there being a nearer approach to concentra-
tion of nerve cells into ganglionic masses than obtains in Pleurotomaria.

I have compared the various species of Trochus anatomically with a
view to testing the validity of the division into sub-genera.

Though the number of species obtainable here is not very large, yet I
find that, as regards the sub-genera Gibbula and Calliostoma, definite
anatomical differences do occur, which justify the separation of these
forms into sub-genera.

Trochus (Trochocochlea) lineatus, however, presents no apparent
anatomical differences from the various species of Gibbula ; and though
the examination of a single species of this sub-genus is scarcely sufficient
to enable one to judge of its validity or not, yet a very close relationship
evidently exists between Gibbula and T'rochocochlea. I hope shortly to
publish the results of my investigation on this genus.

In conclusion I beg to thank the British Association for the use of
their table and to express my indebtedness to Dr. Allen for his many
suggestions and ever-ready help.

1 Quart. Journ. M. Science, vol. xli. part 4, pp. 547-464, Two plates.
* Y.J.MS,, March 1901, pp. 215-268,

378 REPORT—1901.

Some Notes on the Behaviour of Young Gulls artificially hatched.
By Professor J. ARTHUR THomson, M.A.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso. |

THE biological and psychological interest of the observations made by
Professor C. Lloyd Morgan and others on the behaviour of artificially
hatched young birds (especially chicks) led me this summer to utilise an
opportunity which presented itself of incubating some eggs of Larus
ridibundus and of observing the behaviour of the young. I had also
wished to obtain material for testing the influence of different kinds of
diet on the texture of the stomach, “but this problem was not followed
up. Although my observations are not in any way surprising, they raise
a number of interesting questions ; and it is, of course, well that we should
contrast the ways of a thoroughly wild bird with those of the chick, which
has probably been to some extent changed by domestication.

Some of the gulls which I hatched in my laboratory were given to
Dr. Lewis MacIntyre, lecturer on comparative psychology in the
University of Aberdeen, and I am indebted to him for coufirmation and
extension of certain facts which I noticed. But, as he has not seen this
communication, he is not in any way responsible for errors of inference
which may have crept in. I should also notice that four newly hatched
birds from different nests were used for comparison with those that were
artificially incubated.

Among observations made on repeated occasions at the gullery the
following may be noted, though they may be familiar to many.
Although the thousands of birds are extraordinarily quick to take
alarm—generally, to human perception, quite needlessly —they acquiesce
in two or three minutes to the presence of an intruder in a boat, if he sit
still under a covering of sacking. The birds will then come within
arm’s length and settle down, though the shape of the observer who is
pecring through holes cut in the sacking forms the most conspicuous
object in the immediate environment. By this method it was possible
to make sure of the fact that the same bird comes back to the same nest,
As there may be hundreds of nests within a small radius—at least half-a-
dozen on the area of an ordinary household dining table—and as the very
uniform bank of mud, tussocks, and bog-bean stems presents to our eyes
few distinctive marks, and as there is continuous rising, squabbling, and
resettling, it seemed well to take some pains to fix attention on birds
with some slight peculiarity of plumage, and to prove that they came
back to their proper nest. The extraordinary variability of the colora-
tion of the eggs—from unspotted pale blue to very dark brown with
darker spots—may facilitate the recognition of the nest during the day.
On one occasion I observed that a very young nestling of the first or second
day which had tumbled out of its own nest and crawled to the next one
was accepted without demur. Older youngsters, able to run about, are
pecked at very viciously when they come near a brooding bird.

Iirst Day.—Observations in regard to behaviour immediately after
artificial hatching were greatly hindered by the fact that the young birds
are so imperfectly warm-blooded. Something of the nature of a hothouse
would be useful. When the young creatures were taken from the incubator
or from a warmed box they were in a few minutes oppressed with cold,
and uttered their cry of discomfort almost continuously. As observations
under conditions of discomfort did not seem of value, the birds were at
first studied only for a few minutes at a time,

, =

—

ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF YOUNG GULLS ARTIFICIALLY HATCHED. 379

Hatched with open eyes, which did not wink on the approach of a
finger, the young birds showed no sign of any fear. A notable fact is
their extraordinary self-possession throughout, though suspiciousness
gradually grows on them.! They pecked within a few hours after
hatching both at finger and spoon, with or without food, but with a lack
of precision. They also pecked at the cotton-wool of their beds. Many
of the first day’s peckings missed, but the learning was very rapid. It
was observed that in precision of early pecking the young gulls were far
ahead of young coots. Even on the first day some fed repeatedly and
heartily, but this varied with the individual.

Some preening was observed on the first day, and the general
vertebrate action of raising the hind foot to scratch the head—seen in
frog, lizard, chick, kitten, &c.—was frequently noticed. Almost from
the first, too, there was a slight use of the wings in balancing.

On the first day one turned its head towards the cheep of another in
a separate compartment of the incubator and cheeped as if in response ;
a third, still within the egg (chipped), often uttered a note, twice repeated,
when the others did. Little or no attention was paid to noises, except
to a prolonged low whistle, which was followed by cowering, even on
the first day.

Second Day.—On the second day the pecking was vigorous and precise :
the birds followed bright objects by moving the head and neck, and pecked
at them in motion. They attended to sleeve-links, ring, silver spoon,
&c. ; they looked up or cheeped when I tapped at the window of the
incubator, but they took no heed of snapping fingers, ring of spoon on a
glass beaker, rubbing of cork on glass, and many other striking noises.
They shrank a little from a sharp hand-clap close to them, but did not
cower. A prolonged low whistle again made them crouch in silence, but
after a number cf trials on the same day (second) one of them entirely
ceased to attend to it. It would be interesting to discover if there is in
the normal environment some alarming sound corresponding to the
prolonged low whistle, but I cannot make any plausible suggestion which
would apply to the gullery observed. Later on there was obvious associa-
tion of certain sounds with the advent or discovery of food.

The sensitiveness to cold—which repeatedly led to a reduction in the
number of young birds—was still very marked on the second day. Even
on a rug before the fire one would creep into my hands or crawl up my
sleeve, apparently for warmth. At the pond many young birds seemed in
a state comparable to cold-coma, and it may be suggested that this will
tend to prevent premature excursions, which would in many cases
inevitably land the young birds in the water. A gentle pecking under
shelter, ¢.7., of trouser-leg, suggested pecking at the mother’s coverts.

As is well known, the adults are very combative, and it was interesting
to observe a fight early on the second day of life. Beth pecked at Aleph’s
bill, Aleph responded, and there was a combat so forcible that separation
seemed advisable. It was interesting in connection with these youthful
combats to notice the interlocking of the bills just as may be observed in
adults. As has been pointed out, these bill-wrestlings are of biological

‘I may note here that in early Gays the presence of cat or dog does not seem to
excite any attention; later on there is alert attention, but no apparent fear: a
gull two to three weeks old will run at a fox-terrier and peck its nose; but later
on, before they fly off, when about a month old, the birds utter the alarm cry
and retreat on the sudden appearance of a cat or dog,

380 REPORT——1901.

interest in connection with the regeneration of injured beaks in birds.
I cannot suppose that this second-day combat was other than an early
expression of the combative instinct ; it could hardly be due to hunger,
for I have noted in regard to Aleph and Beth, between their first and second
days, that they were fed at 3.30 a.m, at 6 A.m., at 9.30 a.m., and so on till
6 p.m. They wouid only take a little at a time, but that greedily enough.
I suppose the mother must give them mouthfuls with great rapidity, for I
entirely failed to see a single case of feeding at the gullery, and others
have been equally unsuccessful. Between 7 and 8.30 p.m. on May 24,
between 3.30 and 7.30 a.m. on the 25th, along with a careful observer to
whom I am much indebted, I watched the nests in the hope of detecting
the feeding process, but quite in vain.

Third Day.—On the third day one of them had a bath, and showed
the completeness of the cleaning instinct. The head was ducked sideways,
shaken about, and reducked precisely in adult fashion, and this on first
experience of water, afd of course without any example. After some clean-
ing the bird drank in the usual chick fashion.

Another, Omega, on its third day was put into a deep bath: it
screamed for a few seconds, then settled down to paddling in a thoroughly
efficient fashion, but with a tendency to swim backwards. It washed its
head thoroughly, cleaned its bill with its foot, turning round and round in
the water like a top, and after the bath it preened itself. Repeated ex-
periments with different birds showed perfectness of swimming powers
without experience or imitative stimulus ; also perfect preening after the
bath.

In several cases the bath was followed by extreme weakness, by con-
vulsive fits, by inability to stand upright—also observed in fatigue (the
whole tarso-metatarsus being horizontal}—and by a physiologically inter-
esting tendency to run rapidly backwards and then collapse. After
various treatments—warm milk, a little oil, massage, and drying before
the fire—there was rapid restoration to normal vigour. I should, of
course, like to know what the backward movements really mean. They
are not to be confused with the normal backward run of 6-9 inches before
defecation, which is doubtless in part an instinctive adaptation to avoid
filing the nest, though perhaps also with some internal functional import.

Omega in its third day was fighting with X of two days, cowered
down into a corner when I hissed vigorously : it was far more frightened
than any other I observed. Again, one would like to know what the hiss
corresponds to in the normal environment. The same bird Omega fought
on the same day with Y (a day younger) with the bills gripped in the adult
fashion.

My observations made at odd times in a busy summer session cannot
be taken so seriously as the careful studies by Lloyd Morgan and others,
but they left me with the general impression that the wild bird is in some
respects more endowed at birth than the cleverest chick.

For instance, while we know that Lloyd Morgan’s chicks would gorge
themselves with useless or hurtful things, such as worms made of red
worsted, the young gulls were from the first judicious in their eating.
During the first two days they got some of the cotton-wool of their
bed into their mouths, but this was inevitable ; they often pecked at little
pieces of dry excrement, just as they pecked at any conspicuous spot, such
as a letter on a piece of paper, and so persistently at spots on the saucer
that it seemed advisable to give some of the youngest an unspotted saucer,

ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF YOUNG GULLS ARTIFICIALLY HATCHED. 381

Once or twice I saw one peck at a flame, but as far as I could see they
never swallowed anything injurious or useless. They would test particles
of tobacco, for instance, with an exceedingly rapid touch, but they never
went beyond testing. The same was true of young coots. I tried X re-
peatedly with a little twisted roll of paper : he pecked at it three times
after much provocation, but he threw it away each time, and beside this
we have to place the fact that they ate worms in the garden and small
insects without any hesitation the very first time. A heavy meal of a
particular sort seemed to be followed by repugnance to the same food
next day ; they showed that repentance which is ‘ the weight of undigested
meals ate yesterday.’ Thus I note that ‘Alpha and Beta ate too much
tish yesterday, won’t touch it to-day, but take liver freely,’ and similarly
with many other food-stuffs. Noteworthy achievements were catching
a flying insect and breaking an earthworm into three pieces.

As to quickness of learning, I observed that of two nestlings who
were having their first experience of food in a saucer, the elder after some
food had been given to it pecked of itself, while the younger pecked at
first only at the bill of its senior, but within five minutes pecked also out
of the saucer.

As to sounds, it seemed possible to distinguish (a) the peep-peep
uttered before birth and long afterwards when they were not completely
comfortable. The same is heard at the gullery when the mother has been
off the nest for some time ; sometimes in my specimens it would not be
once heard for fifteen minutes or more. It means cold, hunger, or some
discomfort. (5) Secondly, there is a deeper, more adult-like dissyllabic
quack uttered in excitement before food. (c) Thirdly, a sharp surprise
cry uttered when they were lifted quickly into bright light, or disturbed.
(d) Fourthly, there is a very plaintive, but contented, almost sigh-like
cheep, often when very comfortable.

One thing the young gulls seemed to have to learn in their artificial
environment was to recognise water to drink, but this was probably
because it was presented to them not quite normally—in saucers, glass
vessels, and shallow bath. Although thirsty, they would walk round, or
even at first through, a saucer without using their opportunity. As with
Lloyd Morgan’s chicks they drank if they got their bills wet by pecking
while standing in the water, and they also drank when thrown into
water. Only after ten days’ education did one of them go ai once toa
dish of water placed on the floor and drink. I conclude that an artificial
association was established between a shining surface and drink, for I
have seen my gulls of three weeks or so trying to drink from the glass lid
of a pasteboard specimen box placed on the floor.

Another general impression I got was that the kin-instinct is strong.
There seems to be even from within the egg a responsive piping to those
outside. On the first day Beth tried to make towards Aleph in a separate
compartment of the incubator ; an older bird showed the greatest com-
placence towards its younger companion who followed it about and often
tried to snuggle under its imperfect wing ; when one, before having its
first bath, tumbled from the floating cork raft into the water, and was for a
moment confused and screamed, his companion, who had experience of
two previous baths, jumped after the first, swam to him, and touched him ;
where two strangers were brought together for convenience of warmth,
there was in one case amity after a few bill-peckings ; in another case
they were not seen nestling together till the third day ; in two cases

3882 REPORT—1901.

when the older gull had taken flight into freedom leaving a younget com-
panion in the garden, the first to fly returned repeatedly to visit the
younger until it also flew ; adults of the species flew about overhead
when the young in the garden were approaching their time for flight. On
the other hand, a winged herring gull (shot by some careless person)
which lived in the garden displayed not the remotest interest in its small
congeners. Nor were young coots interested in young gulls.

The widespread following-instinct was very marked between younger
and older ; indeed, to find one in a large room in the summer twilight the
quickest way was to set loose another, and it should also be noticed, in
confirmation of some remarks by Thorndike, that one of the young gulls
used to follow a little boy’s bare feet persistently over the lawn, nestling
beside them when he stood still.

Finally, it may be noticed that while there was for three to four weeks
great tameness and familiarity on the part of the young gulls, the wild shy-
ness and suspicion grew quickly after they were able to rise from the ground.
The species is of course migratory, and there seemed to be a growing
restlessness towards the end of July, but this may have been prompted
by adults who frequently flew round and round overhead. It was note-
worthy, however, that there was a return of tameness on the part of a
younger bird after the flight of the older. It was even seen to thread its
way through a group of children seated on the lawn, and coolly ap-
propriate a strawberry from one of the plates.

Changes of the Land Level of the Phlegrean FVieids.— Report of a
Conumttee consisting of Dr. H. R. Mitu (Chairman), Mr. H. N.
Dickson (Secretary), Dr. Scorr Ke.tis, and Mr. R. T. Go NTHER.
(Drawn up by Mr. R. T. GintHEr.)

Work was commenced soon after my arrival in Naples at the end of
June 1901, and is still in progress.

T am very glad to be able to report that the material for investigation
is even more abundant than I anticipated when the research was pro-
posed as a desirable one a year ago. Many of the so-called rocks and
shoals along the coast of Posilipo have proved to be really artificial con-
structions, Roman breakwaters and foundations, and walls of houses.

So far as I am aware, these constructions, now submerged to varying
depths, have never been mapped ; nor indeed is there a good large scale
map of the coast upon which the submarine antiquities could be plotted.
I have therefore had to devote a good deal of time to the preparation of
a new survey of the coast line before beginning to map the adjacent
portions of the sea bottom.

The sites to which I have devoted most attention are :

1. A triangular area inside the Pietra Salata, south of the Capo di
Posilipo. Here the remains of a large house or houses have been dis-
eovered.

2. The ancient harbour of Marechiano, famed as the traditional site
of Pollio’s fish tanks.

3. The Gaiola region and Trentaremi Bay. To the north-east of the
Gaiola is a Roman harbour, which seems to have altogether escaped the
notice of modern archeologists. It is sheltered on the south by a series
of piers (now entirly submerged) very like those of the Roman harbours
of Nisida, Pozzuoli, and Misenum.

ON THE LAND LEVEL OF THE PHLEGR/ZAN FIELDS, 383

Tt is unfortunate that this material, being submerged, will take a long
time to work out completely ; were it above water a clear idea of its
significance would be sooner obtained.

So far as the work has gone at present, it tends to show that the
land level in Roman times was about 15 feet higher than at present ;
that there was a road all along the coast of Posilipo underneath the cliffs ;
and that this road was lined by numerous houses, most of which have
been washed away. These points and others will be shown on a map
which is in preparation.

The Climatology of Africa.—Tenth and Final Report of a Committee
consisting of Mr. EK. G. RaveNnstEn (Chairman), Dr. H. R. Mun,
and Mr. H. N. Dickson (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Chairman.)

METEOROLOGICAL returns have been received by your Committee in the
course of last year from twenty-one stations in Africa, including Asiut and
Omdurman ; Old Calabar ; Blantyre, Lauderdale, Fort Johnston, and
Nkata Bay in Nyasaland ; Kisimayu, Malindi, Lamu, Takaunga, Mombasa,
and Shimoni on the coast of British East Africa; Machako’s, Kitui,
Nairobi, and Kikuyu in the interior of that Protectorate ; and from the
four lake stations in Buganda. We are, moreover, enabled to give the
results of seven years’ observation on the rainfall at Mengo (Buganda),
taken from the unpublished journal of the late Mr. A. M. Mackay. A
table giving the rainfall since 1890 at a number of stations has been added.

Since the appointment of your Committee in 1891 meteorological
reports from as many as seventy-one African stations have been pub-
lished through its agency, and it may safely be asserted that many of
the more valuable of these observations would never have been made or
become generally available had it not been through our action. Amongst
these stations, however, there are only fifty-six the records of which
embrace a full year, and eleven from which we have received full returns
for at least five years. These latter are Lauderdale, Dunraven (rainfall
only), Kisimayu, Malindi, Lamu, Takaunga (rainfall only), Mombasa,
Chuyu (or Shimoni in Wanga), Machako’s, Fort Smith (in Kikuyu), and
Mengo (Namirembo and Natete). Among stations having a less extended
record, but distinguished for the care with which the observations were
taken and the interest attaching to the results, are Bolobo in the Congo
State (3% years) ; Zomba (4 years) and Fort Johnston (28 months) in
Nyasaland ; Kibwezi(18 months) in British East Africa and Old Calabar.
We should also refer here to the high value attaching to the observations
on the lake level of Victoria Nyanza.

A summary of Dr. Livingstone’s meteorological work during his last
journey (1866-71) will be found in our report for 1894.

In Egypt Major Lyons, Director General of the Survey Department,
is gradually pushing meteorological stations into the Sudan.

In Vyasaland the scientific department has been organised by Sir H.
Johnston and placed in charge of Mr. McClounie, an able and zealous officer,
who during a recent visit to Europe has availed himself of opportunities
offered to gain a competent knowledge of the working of a thoroughly
equipped meteorological observatory. Zomba, the headquarters of the
Protectorate, will soon take its place among stations of the first order, for

B84 REPORT—1901,

it is now furnished with a thermograph, a barograph (specially designed
for a considerable altitude), an anemometer, and a Whipple-Caselle sun-
shine recorder. Fort Johnston ranks as a station of the second order,
and it is proposed to establish similar stations at Chinde and at one of
the lake ports. In addition to Lauderdale, where the representatives of
Mr. J. W. Moir continue his work, Zomba, and Fort Johnston, there are
ten climatological stations, and rain-gauges have been set up in many
places. Quite recently ten hygrometers have been ordered, for, as Mr.
McClounie writes, ‘cacao is to be experimented with, and to think of
growing such a product anywhere we must have some idea of humidity
and saturation.’ The registers are kept in conformity with our ‘ Hints.’
The results are published monthly in full as a supplement to the ‘ British
Central Africa Gazette’ and freely distributed.

In British East Africa instruments were supplied in 1891 by the late
Imperial British East Africa Company, and it does not appear that fresh
grants have been made since or breakages made geod. The earlier
records appear to have been lost, but a summary of all that could be
saved up to 1893 has been published by the Chairman of your Com-
mittee.! All that has been done since will be found in the ‘ Reports’ of
your Committee, the original ‘ Registers’ having been kindly communi-
cated by the Foreign Office.

In July 1895 Dr. A. D. Mackinnon proposed to H.M. Commissioner
for Buganda the establishment of at least three fully equipped meteoro-
logical stations, there existing at that time throughout the Protectorate
only two rain-gauges, in addition to a few instruments in the hands of
the missionaries. These sets, including mercurial barometers and anemo-
meters, were granted by the Foreign Office in May 1896, and supple-
mentary grants have been made since. When Sir H. H. Johnston
arrived at the close of 1899 he found Mr. Alexander Whyte at the head
of a scientific department, and he induced the Foreign Office to appoint
an assistant (Mr. J. Mahon), who should attend more particularly to the
collections and the tabulation of meteorological information. Meteoro-
logical stations have now been established at Naivasha, Baringo, Eldoma
Ravine, Kisumu, Mumias, Jinja, Fort Thruston, Kampala, Ntebe, Fort
Stanley (Sese Islands), Masaka (Buddu), Fort Portal (Toro), Mbarara
(Ankole), Hoima (Unyoro), Wadelai, and Gondokoro.

Such of the instruments originally issued by us which have not
become unserviceable, been lost, or been otherwise disposed of have been
left in the hands of trustworthy observers, with a reversionary claim
upon them by the British authorities within whose territory the stations
are situated.

Your Committee have likewise published ‘ Hints to Meteorological
Observers in Tropical Africa,’ which, they are happy to say, have been
made widely known and freely accepted by observers. Copies may he
obtained on application to the Secretary of the Royal Meteorological
Society.

The registers received by your Committee, and not claimed by the
observers, have been handed over either to the Meteorological Council or

1 «Report on Meteorological Observations in British East, Africa for 1893.’
London: G. Philip & Son, 1891, Persons interested can have copies gratis on
application,

ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA. 385

to the Secretary of the Royal Meteorological Society, and may be freely
consulted by persons interested.

Your Committee are under no illusion as to the merely conditional
value of many observations published by them. The index errors of the
instruments were unknown in many instances ; the hours for making
observations were injudicially chosen ; the observers, owing to illness or
official duties, were frequently unable to fill up the registers, and there
was no one to take their place ; or, worse still, they had absolutely no
knowledge of the manner in which the instruments entrusted to them
should be handled, and placed readings on record which, on the face of
them, are utterly absurd,' and must unhesitatingly be rejected.

Your Committee, on bringing their ten years’ service to a close,
desire to direct the attention of the authorities called upon to organise the
meteorological service in British Protectorates or Crown Colonies to the
following points :—

1. The instruments supplied should not only be verified before they
leave England, but should also be inspected periodically by a: competent
official, who would pay particular attention to their exposure, inquire
into the competency of the persons charged with filling in the registers,
and eventually teach them how to observe.

2. Inasmuch as all officials may occasionally be called upon to fill up
the registers, they should be instructed, before they leave England, in
handling and reading the usual meteorological instruments. An hour
spent at the office of the Meteorological Council, or with the Secretary of
the Royal Meteorological Society, would suffice for that purpose.

3. It is of far greater importance to have a limited number of stations
well equipped, and the registers from which can be thoroughly trusted,
than a multiplicity of stations provided with defective instruments, care-
lessly or intermittingly attended to.

4. Care should be taken that there should be no interruption in the
records kept at the principal stations owing to the illness or temporary
absence of the observer. Duly qualified rative assistants could be
obtained from the Meteorological Department of India.

5. It is most desirable that the hours of observation recommended in
our ‘ Hints’ should be strictly adhered to, not for the sake of uniformity
only, but mainly because they yield a true mean of barometric pressure,
temperature, and humidity without making undue or unreasonable demands
upon the time of the observers.

6. Unless local provision is made for the adequate publication of the
observations, the registers should be forwarded (through the Foreign or
the Colonial Office) to the Meteorological Council, or to the Secretary of
the Royal Meteorological Society, in order that abstracts may be prepared
and made generally accessible to meteorologists and others interested.
Still better would it be if an annual volume containing all these observa-
tiens were to be published separately.

' Not infrequently, as pointed out by us in publishing these observations, the
wet bulb and maximum thermometers give higher readings than the dry bulb and
minimum thermometers. Nay, some of these observers seem to be ignorant of the
decimal notation, for they enter 17°8 or 30°68 when there is no doubt that 17:08 and
30:068 ought to have been entered.

1901. ac

1901.

REPORT

386

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387

:

ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA.

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388 REPORT—19U1.

Old Calabar. Lat. 4° 58' W., Long. 8°17' EZ. Observers: Dr. EB. G. Fenton and Dr, Robert Bennet

|
| e Temperature | Rain m eS,
S oF | .e = S
Monti 2 |22 | 23 a |
Month ee an » » = ba
ee Fe gee is q a
| = | Mean | Mean Mean ee Ze Pe eI zg | gn q 5
| A | Max.} Min --—- 4 E § 26 iss) 5
. i Max. | Min. a =
<>" aa. > ae | |

1960 In. 5 a " 5 p.c In. In, | No In No. | No.
THe rss bs ow A AVSCOS. |. STO mae, 80'S || (92 71 | S44) -836 |32°59 | 22 | 501 | — 6
Silvera. 2. ee fee) +. [300/829] -75:Oul e791) 90 70 | 858 | -801 [13°61 | 25 | 1:95 | — 1
August . eee ee lhe SOO IMST e720) aay 1.) 86 70 | 882] -808 | 639 | 15 | 1:35 | — —
September . . . «- «| “O7'| 84:9] 73:4] 80:8] 92 70 | 85:7 | -820 |11'84 | 25 | 299] — —
October. . «© +. = «| Ol) 884) 73:9 | 823] 91 70 | 836 | -793 | 9°38} 17 | 224) — 5
Wevyember 7 3 3) = =) =f 00)|'"88:3)| 72:6)| 82:8), 91 71 | 83:9 | -863 |11°34 | 12° | 3°32 | — 3
December “aie 29°99 | 87:0 | 736 | 81:9 | 89 70 | 836 | “812 | 1°32 TS eres yyy ike! 1

|
January. . +. + 29:99 | 880 | 71:7 | 83-4} 90 68 ) 788 | *784 | 2°68 1 | 268] 10 il
February a fel © me onl SOOulp Ol -Sa| e743) Go:bal) 04 72 | 781 | :834| 0°69 5 | 023 | — 2
March . | -96 | 90:2 | 742 | 848) 94 | 71 | 816 | -863 | 7-70} 8 | 225) — 7
April 98 | 90:9 | 73:6 | 85:5 | 93 | 71 | 75°8 | -858 1101] 10 | 3:31) — 6
May 30°00 | 90:0 | 75:0 | 81:9 | 94 75 | 776 | °814 10°95 | 19) 2:97) — 5
Year - + + + « «| 3002 | 876 | 735 | 822 | 94 GS | 82-1 | -824|119°50) 150 | 5°01] 24 37

The mean temperature has been deduced from the formula (ae a a i: the mean pressure and humidity from tl

formula i€ asta
The observations in other respects are published as received.
The relative humidity at 7 a.m. was 91-0 p.c., at 1 p.m, it was 68'1 p.c.,at 9 p.m. 872 p.c. The extremes noted wer
33 p.c. on January 27 and 95 p.c. in May.

Laxderdale, Mlanje. Lat. 16° 2' S., Long. 35° 30' B., 2,540 feet. Communicated by John W. Moir

5 Temp. |MeanTemp.| Dew | Vapour | Relative . Cloud
Mean Temperature | pxtremes | Wet Bulb | Point Pressire Humidity Bain (0-10
Month | Aes: [aces 2 2
=| e n
Ca oe tea te ee) 9) 6) £971 Fes 1-95) 6 Hl 9 EF et leita G
/ | = | oO E ‘i ath iS) a | "tos Py
A.M.) P.M.) St | S| bo 5 | AM. | P.M. |A.M.|P.M.| A.M.) P.M.| A.M.) P.M. | QA | aa A.M.
mW | | 4 q |
1900 Sale| oul) cclicos|\.io H| .o.|) vo > | ol o | Ime | In: | pics| pie. ||) Ina eNoN aeiny
January . ‘ 169°7 |72°3 |78°5 |67°3 |72°9 | 87°8 |60°0| 67:5 | 69°3 |66°5 \68"1 |-650 |-685 | 90 86 | 19:23 | 26 | 4°86 | 7:2 | 6
February _ 672 \713 |80°3 |65°4 72'8| 89°5 |61°2| 65:0 | 67°3 |63°2 |65°5 |°5927|627 | 87 87 9°65 | 16 | 2°24 | 6°7 | 5°
March. . (67-4 |72'5 |81°6 |65°7 |73°6 | 87-5 |61-1| 65:2 | 67-6 |64-2 |65-4 |599 |-625| 89 | 79 | 18°89 | 16 | 4:21 | 66 | &
April... 65°2 |70°3 |78°0 |64°9 71-4) 87-9 |58-0| 62-0 | 64-4 |60°3 \61-4/-523 544) 84 | 73 | 674 6 | 2:35 | 31 |e
May * © 163-4 166°5 |74"2 |59°3 |66°7 | 79-9 |55°3) 60-6 | 62-5 |59-0\60°5 |-500 |-525| 85 | 81 | 6°60 | 13 | 215 105 |
June x (59° |62°4 |69°9 |55°0 \62°5 | 76-2 |49°6 | 55°3 | 57°6 |52-9 |60°5 |-397 |426 79 93 2°22 8 | 0:74 | 31 | 4
July 2 . |58°8 1640 |71°8 |55°5 |63°7 | 75:3 [514 | 55-1 | 57-9 [51-9 [54-1 |-386 [418 78 70 0°67 3 | 0°44, | 2:4 | 2
August 2 4 62:0 67:0 |72°5 |56-4 64:5 | 76°9 |50°1| 57-2 | 59-4 [54:2 |47-4 |-420 |°327 | 77 56 2°20 3 | 1°25 | 2:2 | 38
September . |60°6 684 |76*2 |56°6 66°4| 85:1 |52°0| 56°9 | 601 |54°6 [55-1 |+426 |-435 | 81 62 311 2/275 |09 |1s
October . (70°5 77°7 |88°8 |65°1 |76°9 | 95-2 |57-0| 645 | 65-2 [611 |58°7 |-537 |-494 72 52 2°82 2 | 2:37 |2°4 | 1"
November . |70°7 74°5 |83°7 |65°6 \74°7 | 94-3 |60°0| 66-3 | 67-8 |64°3 |64°7 |-601 |-611 80 71 8°94 9 | 5°44 |3°7 | 4
December , |69°7 \72°1 |80°7 |66°3 |73°5 | 88°5 |62°0| 67-4 | 683 |66°4|66-7 |-647 653 89 80 | 12°52 | 15 | 2°62 | 5:3'| 5
Year 1900 . (645 69°9 78:0 |61°9 |69°9 | 95-2 |49°6| 62:0 | 64:0 |59°9 |60-7 |-523 |531| 82 74 93°59 |119 | 5-44 |3°7 | 3
5 LORS . |63°8 67°8 |76°5 |61°6 |69°0 | 99-8 |49°2| 49-2 | 67-3 |58°7|60'3 |*504 |*529 84 77 =|128°14|182 | 8:56 | 42 | 4
» 1898 . |63°8 \68°9 |78:0 |62°8 |70°4 95:0 |51°2| 51:2 | 686 |59°6 |61-2|:518 |-547 | 87 77 +|158°87 |207 | 9°67 | 4°9 | 4
” 4897. | — | — [81662041718] 99:1 Ja7-3} — | — | —|—|—|—]|—] — | 79°01 /157 | 3:98 | 47 | &
> 1896 - 64:5" 68°8"|80°2 |62°7 |71°4|100°4 |51°0| — — |—jJ—}]—J|—-J— — |10815]161 | 5°07 | 31 |3
y 1895 . \63°9 68°7 |78°4 |63°0 |70°2 | 98°8 |51°5| 605 | 64:0 |58°4|61°5 |-494 |552 | 82 7 131°72 |194 }12°41 | — | =
Mean, 1896-1900) — 78°9 \62°2 |70°5 | 97°9 |49°7| — — —}|—|/]—|—|— — |113°55/165 | 6°55 | 41 | =

1 The mean temperature is assumed to be the mean of the max. and min. temperatures, and is about 1° too high.

ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA. 359

Fort Johnston, Nyasaland. Lat. 14° 28' S8., Long. 35° 15! E., Alt. 1,590 feet approx.

Temp. : =~
Mean Temp. Berens = PS) Rain S py
Barometer 3 55 | 2s a a ne
(corrected Share| ies we) me) eo | yeas
isa ape os Mean) Mean oe Low- 2 £ 2 ga a Bb ae EA : E
error only) Max. | Min, | 8D)" cst |- est a Lal es g 4 ae jo | 2
= ss)

1898 In. fa EP | bt é e 6 In. | P.c. | In. | No. | In | Hrs
January. 28469 88:5 | 71:7 | 77°38 | 92:9 | 67°5 | 72°8 | “806 | 83 754 | 23 114 | 6:7 _
February . 489 86:7 | 69:2 | 757 | 91°9| 66-8 | 69-7) “724 | 79 | 868 | 14 | 223) 67 | —
March. . “493 87:9 | 69°5 | 761 | 94°5 | 65°5'| 714] 769) 84 | 689) 18 | Liv | CE | —
April . . “59 «| «84-6 | 65:9 | 73:2 | 94:7 | 600] 67-4 | “678 | 82 615) 13 3:46] 54 | —
Mays’. 4 625 «| 842 | G02 | 712] 90:9] 546 | 62-2] 560) 75 | O11} 1 | OL) 31 | —

jdume . . 723 78-4 | 57-7 | 66:7 | 89-7 | 51-4] 57-0 | -484| 71 | O47] G | O14| G2 | —
July . . “724 79°4 | 56:7 | 663 | 87°5 | 51:8] 56°5 | “456 | 71 0-02 2 OOL | 54 —
August . “707 813 | 56°2 | 67-2 | 90°0 | 49°4 | 55:2 436 69 0°27 3 O14 | 4:9 —
September . 605 89:7 | 61:7 | 74°38 | 96°0 | 53°5 | 62°0 | ‘556 | 65 0°04 1 0:04 | 3:8 —
| October. “BBL 96°9 | 65-4 | 811 |105°9 | 60°0 | 67:2 | "665 | 62 0°42 2 0°24 | 3:0 —
November . “470 99:3 | 71°8 | 829 |105°8 | 66°8 | 65°76 | "708 | 62 2°06 7 O81 | 6:7 _—
; December “485 93°6 | 69°0 | 80°9 |105°0 | 640 | 69°8 | *726 | 69 9°36 | 17 172 | 7:3 =
87°5 | 645 | 744 | — —_ 64:7 | 627 | 73 | 42°01 | 107 2°23 | 5°5 =

93°6 | 67°3 | 79-2 |100°9 | 62:1) 69:5 | °715 | 71 1:80 8 072) 4:7

88°77 | 67°6 | 79:5 | WW0'2 | 643 | 70°7 748 76 |12°17 20 3°33 | §:8

901 | 66:4 | 794 | 97:0 | 63°0 | 70°3 | ‘741 | 79 646 | 13 1:40 | 4:8

865 | 65:1) — 93°9 | 590 | — — = 313 9 Lv —

82°83 | 60°99 | — 85:0 | 49:0 | — = —_ 0°35: 6 010 |; —

775 | 535 | — 80-0 | 49°0 | — 7 = 0-04 1 004) —

818 | 561) — 86:0 | 540) — = _ 0:00 0 — _

91-4 | 68:3 | 80:5 | 98:0 | 66:0 | 74:6 | ‘858 | 81 |11°37 | 20 2°34 | 5:7

91-4 | 67:1] 77-9 | 98:0 | 63:5 | 72:9 | *8u9| 79 3°65 | 10 110 | 5:2

92°5 | 67°3 | 816 | 99°0 | 640] 72°5 | 798 | 75 2°57 | 1L 069 | 4:0

91:3 | €5°1 | 80°77 | 95°0 | 62:0 | 71°38 | -779 | 74 0:07 3 0°04 | 2:3

89°5 | 62°6 | 79°5 | 93:0 | 58:0 | 70°3 | 743) 73 017 2 O15 | 3-0

83-4 | 5671 | 7275 | 90°0 | 52°0 | 640 | 598 | 71 O-0L u O01 | 3:0

1018 | 65:2 | — |105°2 | 591) — —= — 0-00 0 = 24

96°9 | 72°8 | 82°1 | 104°7 | G58 | 70:2 | -741 | 64 2°86 | 10 0°65 | 3°8

939} 68:0 | 80°2 | 99:1] 61°8 | 715 | “783 | 74 bpely( || ee 125 | 42

rite .
Fort Johnsion—The mean temperature is deduced from the formula teases ; the humidity from a

| barometer is corrected for index error but not reduced to 32° F.

SG eae es LO 2 ps Ase
ee, Ebucieeg atta) DoemWoOrnatndaon la, x qaqa 24
1
: HOODAIMOARAORON | oO | oP +2 3 “a5
No aurysung DRA ARANANMAAN | oO!'oO | 5 onet SR
O) I $s $2, eae tpt sie e*
eta). S = 2 Q => nn
Seaarts SCHOHAMDDOMNODM |RON soe 4 gs Si
Ss UIVy 2EPS DSS PsSae |eee | gx H SH & es
sey : Enansowas nal[|ascse Gb, ea
See onl onl nl won ota as Seas
fo} o = =
< re aanqeradmay, treroperperen|aae | Ast] 28 = 90
woo (BA SDHRADRSALRHS | HHA | Ze ag a]
a uvoyy REBReR SOR RE OD | eee LOalar 3 n Aa
“8 =) 5
SD 45 : Fal LA Sefies
Qs ste te et ee eg el ome Qat Sn = LD of
oo by % g5/S22 é no ems es
° a o Ps oe p20 |/S58 Seo oe icthet 3 Bis
3 = a esgea eis OS i Be Ss Bs S|
BAR 8 Ssfon 5, S989 H £3 3 98 Reece
Ba 3 TASER PAE MESS S as al ee ey aia Ssh
S aos eSsaatooce se 5 3 5
ss See456540640 |x Be ES ee
=i & a oF Sa “a
=I MOAaKVH Fe oenrtesonnn =) om 2 Sue ooo
a. 5 GROSAPHE SISSSLSSSSGA | S SlaaenSSSsee | 3
x3 é aS HY Whamns BS 5 mens ao 2
S
Ns | ean be Sir ne ereesse (>
2s i is COUWNON AHGSHnadS | HSAN | NAanehan | as | | |
SG ga b= bABwBSSS SCOSSOSWH 'HSSS Seoonunw ! 5S
— |
ms eo
Pe 8 aq 4 Oa ay eae ie Ae Se RES BEAHHeS AS
= os CoaSamn ADHDSLHS | HSaucd | eRoOLHbA | on | | |
TS S CSRaND Hreraorrnr |Daxn DBannnnaaolaa |
. oh
= = wg gt ge ee se ee gy wats ° aifel ai Slips iar. o
Ss 4 8 83 ob 3.83 |8 me gs 83/38
88, es @ wayezers eaheq (7 | ses. Sesag | 7
ss g BS SESS eSdec. 5 28288 |. | S8esaccseeeee |
ge a menor etasukprebhasss | §$ | “ssRReeePeses | s
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BAROZAR BRATARRANOAA al BRASTaRRANROAA a

390 REPORT—1901.

Mombasa. 4°4' S., 39° 42! #£., 60 feet. Observer: J. W. Tritton.

Temp. © seve C sant
Mean Temperatures Dart 50 Humidity, 9 a... Rain ¥

|Pressure epee 2] a Se

of Atmo- | Gey; are ees fa |b’

Month ‘Vephere | oe | ed |u| ge |e4/8/8| = lea|e8l23! 2 | a E_Bee
9 A.M. B=\¢4 Ss Palesaiale| B a2 a2 | es g 2 leeiga°

o a aq AQ i|wm |) Oo oo = al

1900 In. oC z 6 3 3 lve i 5 In, | B.c..|- Ins Nos Tos No,
January . | 29°831 | 830 | 80:8 | 87:0 | 82:5 | 847 | 88} 80 45 | 798 | 1-015 93 4:09 7 |1:05| 17
February . *846 | 84°9 | 82°8 | 87-5 | 82:7 | 85-1 | 90 | 70 48 | 82:2 | 1°096 94 2°23 5 |1:05| 11
March ., 874 | 84:9 | 83:3 | 87:7 | 681" | 77-9" | 98 | 60'| 8:6? | 82°B | 17120 95 6°62 | 11 |2:22} 13
April ; 879 | 85:3 | 83°6 | 87:7 | 85°3 | 86:5 | 90 | 82 | 24 | 831 11180} 94 | 264] 81:35) 5
May. 5 "928 | 81°38 | 81:0 | 84°5 | 81°5 | 83:0 | 87 | 80 3°0 | 81° |1°074 | 96 | 18-07 | 15 [5°10 6

June. a °946 | 79°7 | 781 | 82°4 | 80°3 | 81:3 | 84] 79 21 | 775 |0°942 95 253 | 10 |0°60| 10 }
July . A "963 | 78:9 | 77:2 | 81-9 | 80:1 | 81:0 | 86 | 79 18 | 766 913 | 95 6°13 | 15 |1:12 9
August . °959 | 792 | 77:5 | 81:4 | 80°9 | 81-1 | 83 | 79 05 | 76:9 922 95 1°45 9 |0°50 5
September "947. | 80°7 | 79°2 | 82°8 | $2°2 | 82°5 | 85 | 81 06 | 79:0 988 98 2°34 8 |1°05 2
October . “870 | 81°8 | 80:2 | 83°4 | 82°9 | 83-2 | 85 | 81 05 | 797 |1:011 95 6:22 9 |1°83 5
November °817_ | 83°2 | 81°6 | 85:1 | 83:5 | 84:3 | 88 | 81 16 | 811 | 19059; 95 544 9 165 6
December . “786 | 83°5 | 814 | 85-4 | 84:2 | 848 | 87 | 82 1-2 | 80°8 | 1:047 94 3°86 8 |1:07| 10
Year 1900 | 29:887 | 82-2 | 80:5 | 84-7 | 81:2 | 85:9 | 98 | 60 35 | 80°0 | 1026 95 | 61°66 114 |5°10} 99
» 1899 “911 | 81-7 | 79°4 | 85:9 | 78:6 | 82:3 | 90 | 73 73 | 785 | °974 90 | 35°16 | 94 |2:78) —
» 1898 *889 | 81:4 | 78:5 | 84:5 | 76°2 | 80°3 | 87 | 69 84 | 759 946 88 | 25-007/ 39 |2°50; —
5 LOO "904 | 80°7 | 77:0 | 83:2 | 75-4 | 79°3 | 88 | 71 78 | 75°6 “886 85 | 52°56 | 42 |5:50) —
» 1896 "906 | 80°3 | 75°6 | 82:9 | 75°8 | 79°3 | 89 | 70 71 =| 738 | *832 81 | 65°24 | 94 [431] —

Mean, 1896-

1900, -| 29°899 | 81°5 | 78:1 | 84:2 | 77:4 | 81-4 | 90! 712| 68 | 77°92 | 79097! 867 | 47:92 | 77 15:10] —

Mombasa.—All readings have been corrected for instrumental error, excepting those of the barometer, the records
of which have, however, been reduced to 32° F. and to standard gravity in Lat. 45°.

* The readings of the minimum thermometer during March should be rejected. On 10 days the max. and min,
temperature is stated to have been the same, and on 4 days the min. temp. is entered as having exceeded the max.
temperature. It is probable that the wet bulb readings for several years past have been too high.

* Omitting the year 1900, ® Partly estimated.

90 ; Oo 4
Shimoni (Wanga). 4°38’ S., 39° 21' ZB. LOIN i Ea ee

|
E 3 TAR S. Fe » We
Observers: M. G. Carvatho, BE. H. L. Murray, and the ie ae be: ye pre ice mae
late BE. H. Russell. | = = :
|

Mean Humidity 9 a.m,
Humidity, eran Temp. _ a
Atmospheric) ,Mean 9AM. Month igo a | Hs ef
Pressure | Lemp. = Fa| 62 les
Month 9 AM. HP OB 2 * » | 85] 22 leg
2B/ 22 las] Bo) 2 hse P| S | Fa) Se les
o-s| 22 jag SI ae|es fa) ie Al '
9 a.M.| 3 P.M.) Dr Iweel Pe fe 4 S Wen of
a Raa ald aoe ical _| 1900 e 2 ° In. | Pic.
| January .| 845 | 80° | 79:2 | :995 | 88
1900 In. TH comlinco Ml vot |b, aie) evel ait |No.| In aertee 847 | 81'7 | 80°7 ae 91
January . /29°882|29°818 | 84-4 81-2) 80-2! 1-028] 90 | 2-85 | 8 | 1-90 || March . | 85:0 | 80°38) 79:5 |1:003 | 87
February . | °865| -813 | 84°5/ 82°5 81-9! 1:087| 94 | -89) 2| -70 || April .| 88:0 | 815 | 810 |1°057 | 91
March .| *909| 813 | 84-4) 82-3| 81-6] 1:078| 94 | 3:16 | 7 | 1-87 || May. . | 83°61 80°8 | 79-9 |1°019 | 92
April . | *908/ -811| 81-4) 79°5/ 78-9] -984/ 94 | 2-98 | 9| 1-50 || June .| 814 | 786 | 77-7 | 0-946 | 92
May. ./| *914| -815| 79-0 77-4) 76-8} -921| 95 |21°15 | 25 | 4-92 |) July. .| 79°5 | 76-1 | 748 | *862 | 89
June. .| +957] +860 | 76*3, 74-9| 74-4] -848| 95 | 4:47} 11 | 1-15 || August .| 78:9 | 762 | 75:3 | +873 | 90
July. —. /30°029) +966 | 766) 75:1 74:5, -853| 95 | 5-06 | 21 | 1-30 || September | 791 | 77-1 | 76-4 | -907 | 94
August .| O41) +970 | 75°9/74°8 74:5] +853) 97 | 2:82 | 16 | +50 || October .| 82:3 | 80:3 | 79°3 | 1-000 | 91
September | 010] +969 | 76:5| 76-4] 76:0 -897| 99 | 9:45 | 8 | 1-45 | November | 84:0 | 825 | 82'4 | 1-106 | 96
October . |29°979} +920 | 79:0) 77'8| 77-4) -938| 96 | 3:69 | 8 | +75 | December. | 845 | 82-4 | 81-7 | 1-082 | 94
November | *906| +945 | 80:9) 79°8| 79:4) 1:003| 93 | 866 | 12 | 3-00 2;
December. | *878| +835 | 81-1) 80:0) 79°6} 1010 98 | 1:58 | 13 | -39 | Year 1900 | 825 | 79-9 | 79:0] -991 | 91
-— —|/— |—_ — — | 5, 1899 | 82:2 | 79:3 | 784 | -970 | 88
Year 1900 |29-940 |29-878 | 80-0] 78:5) 77°9| -958| 95 |59:76 120 | 4:92 | > 1898 | 890) 782 | 768 | -999 | 84
sy 1899 | *943/ 879 | 76°6| 77°7| 77-0] -927} 92 | 52°51 | 91 | 4:60 || , 1897 | 81:6 | 787 | 77°6 | -951 | 88
sy 1898 | 901) — | 80°7| 79-1) 78:5} -974| 93 | 27-30 | 85 | 2:80 || ,, 1896 | 82:0 | 77-4] 75:7 | -886 | 81
» 1897 | °788] — | 81-0) 79°1/79°3| +977] 92 | 56-75 109 | 4-60 | ) = rey
|.» 1896 | *805) — | 80°1/76°5|75-2| +874] 85 |56°57 |111 | 5:25 || Mean. 1896-
ie aR - —|— | — — 1900. .| 82:1 | 78:7 | 77:5 | -944 | 86
' ean, — i = a ¢ . =,
| i i Jali hialbeaall i | Lamu.—Yhe rainfall for 1899 is partly
| a Se Se ee eee Eee estimated. No rainfall obecrralions Rage
Shimoni.—Al readings have been corrected for instrumental error || P&*2 made since September of that RS:
| (see Report for 1898, p. 4). The dry bulb readings are those of the | . The rainfall Was 41°29 in. in 1896 ; 82:28
thermometer attached to a barometer, | in. in 1897 ; 12°39 in. in 1898; about 14 in.
. ° o || in 1899, and the mean (1896-1900) 28 in.
The barometer readings haye been reduced to 32° F, and Lat. 45 at The heaviest fall (8°25 in.) occurred in

but not to sea-level. | April 1897.

Long.

ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA. 391

Month

Ps
i=]
g

September
October .
November

| December

1900
1899
1898
1897
1896
1895

_ Malindi.

; Year

; 2

1900

Tahaungu. Lat. 3° 41' S., || Kisimayu. Lat. 0° 22’ S.,Long.43° 33'L. Nairobi. Lat. \° 2'S.,36° 57’
39° 52’ F. Ob- Observers: R. G. Farrant, Wallace E., 5,450 ft. Observers:
servers: OC. F. Braganza | Blake, and R. W. Humphrey. W. D. Spiers, F. Gitki-
and G. H. L. Murray. | ACE 3 son, Louis S...[illegible].
Ouro | ie Rain Bee
ae BB; 38 ee
Rain I Months | 4 a isa 2 i ie A ' ' Rain
| i= 2 lesen
6 ra 2 Mont! 2 m_2
2 22) gam, | 94mM.| § 14 825 ae ; then EEL
= ao wes a jt ca ' 5 elEag
iS) ie |b S| ° | 4 |A l83
3 s \|eg4 1900 In. In, |No.|} in ; 3 OS
4 A gas January .| 29920} 833 — |}-j — 5 ee at é gua
February . “876 83°5 — |}-| — ; 1899 In. |No.| In.
te No) in. || Mfareh, <<) s908 | “efor peas’): 1 | 0°48 Qetober . «| 462 | 5 | 3-46
an NO. or > || April * | 30338 | 856 03 | 1] -03 November .| 2°30 | 10 | 0°75
. 183 ; ve | May y 135 841 3°67 | 6 | 183 December | 2:34) 4) 1:56
BR tiie || aqay||ouner) bay) 2udby | sot) heels (98 |) Pod | | 1900 |
| 365] 7 | 945 || July é 914| 79:0 | 1°81) 8 | 0°61 August . «| 000] 0) —
* }ogd5 | 92) 543 | August . 959 | 794 | O10) 2 | 0:08 September «| O17 | 1) 017
* |%5.95 | “9 | 0-68 || September 997 | 80:0 04) 1] 04 October . «| 047 | 8} +18
. 3-79 | 99 | Q-4g || October . 936 80°1 “Ole \0) November .| 6°48 | 15 79
. 1418 re 0:27 | November. +810 82°7 175 4} 1:10 December -| 5°26 .1}13 | 1:79
Peli api ra | eco! || Deceuihersi|f | .<BDB || i 8l8e je P S20)» 0. jc! *
5 6°40 | 13 | 2:72 || Year 1900 29°972 82:0 | 12°87 | 3L 183
> | 372/10] 079 |] ,, 1899 gos | Sil |12-40 | 37 | 412
> | 111| 6| O40 || 3 1898 | 29885 | 80°8 | 10°91 | 30 | 3:44
ja | The readings have been corrected for instru-
5 mental error.
58:09 124 | 5-43 | “Phe parometrical readings have been reduced
: ot
oN ee | ape | to standard temperature of 32° aud standard
reer: 104 | 513 | gravity in lat. 45°, but not to sealevel. ' ;
47°80 | 79 | 3:27 Kitui. Lat. 1° 50' S., Long. 38°L. Ob-
35°71 | 68 | 3°30 server: S, L. Hinde.
Temperature Rain
Ex- silts
Month : prenae: aah ?| ates
Mean|Meanj | 3 b 2
Max.| Min.} » | . g a
Lat. 3° 13' S., Long. 40° 7' E. | Bag leas) han
Observer: James Weaver. | Peau bers es
|| 1900 < o | © | © | In. |No.} In.
M qT, | July. 71:3 | 571 | 77 | 52 | 0°23 5 | 0712
aa NP’ | “Humidity, 9 a.m. Rain September | 76:7 | 600 | 80 | 58 | 018 | 1) 0-18
ol October . | 74°6 | 62°3 | 78 | 60 |1381 | 7 | 4:40
= November. | 80°5 | 62°0 | — | 60 |12°58 | 12 } 2°80
| | " BE Bes a i a | 8_, || December. | 75°6 | 63°3 | 78 | 61 j1455 | 14 3:20
Dry | Wet |pum| S2 (ges| 2 |2| s8 |——— abst dd}
Pr legs | 4 g Fort Smith, Kikuyu. Lat. 1°14" Nv.
= = = maul Ee Soma Rca Long. 36° 44' H. Alt. 6,400 feet. Ob-
| 0 oO. n. appa * 5 Hy q
gia | 78:3 | 761 |-899 | 82 | 087 | 6 | O83 server: Francis G. Hall.
852 | 806 | 791 992 86 33 2 18 | Mean a
85°5 | 80°3 | 786 | °975 84 56 4 | °30 Temp Ma gr eh Rain
84:7 | 80°3 | 78°8 987 86 1:96 6 “51 AM.
824 | 792 | 78:1 | 960 | 90 [17-08 | 14 | 5-25 [ae
797 | 76°5 | 75°4 876 90 | 184 4 | 0°73 Month no)op| 2 122
784 | 74-4 | 728 | +805 | 87 | 2:77 | 6| 66 | leglzeise| €| 2 |2s2
79°3 | 74:7 | 72:9 | 808 | 86 | 1-72 | 5| -38 Wet Dry |23/aclaq|o| 8 bag
797 | 752 | 73:9 | 834 | 89 | 148 | 5 | -67 PA\S ele b A ges
80°9 | 75°9 | 74:0 | 838 85 2°30 im 60 ae |e 3
80°3 iv 763 906 91 3°68 8 | 1:32 1899 g o ° |In.|P.c.| In. | No.| In.
815 | 777 76°4 907 88 2°47 7 | 143 January . 59°9 65°5 |63-2 |578 92 10:29) 1 "29
a SS SS — February . |61°0 68-0 |65°4 624} 92 |0'81) 2 | 60
| 81:8 | 775 | 76-0 | 898 | 87 (37°05 | 74 | 5:25 March ~ . |60-1 6675 |63°8 |-590| 91 |2°54)" 5 | 1:94
814 759 73°8 833 78 (3338 (102 | 5:30 | April (620 65:0 |63°8 |590 96 |5"11 15 | 2°41
8L7 | 77-1 | 754 882 81 |14°44 | 53 | 1°65 May. . 60°0 62°8 |61°8 |°551 | 97 |4°79)°16 | 1:44 ~
— = — == — (58°00'| 91 | 4°85 | June. 55°3 57°6 |56°5 "457 | 96 | 07) 2 05
811 | 780 | 76:9 929 87 (53°60 | 89 | 4:36 | July. 54:0 58°6 |56°2 452 | 92 |1:09| 12 23
—— August . 54:6 57°3 |55°9 "466 | 98 | -67| 9 17
81:5 | 771 | 75°5 | 885 83 (39°29 | 82 | 4:28 September oes 60°4 {54:8 |-429 | 52 | 01) 1 “01
| ves | |
During a thunder and hail storm at 3.20 P.M, on
1 Partly estimated. May 18 the thermometer dropped 13 degrees in half
s an hour.

392 REPORT—1901.

Machako’s, Lat. 1°31' 8., Long. 37° 18' £., 5,400 feet. Observer: W. Maclellan Wilson.

eicge ss * oH wey ' n

oe Temperature Humidity 9 sai Rain ; 32 3 S2iss32

Mot ee =| io | &2 (2a S @,|Cloud|S0) Bg SS RESES

Bo 9 | Mean| Mean Extremes z 2 S FA 3 = 8 B : 3 cm 2 = 2 ro E iS Go ne iB
S| am. | Max.| Min. |7—7— | Ag | 8 (GE) 8 1 \8e Sel SoS ae Gees
Max.| Min. a lam] << loam. je oes = ao 8&
1900 Th. © In. |P.c.) In. |No.| In SPS geglsas
January . | 24:74] 661 | 757 | 56-4 | re2 | 57 | 587 | 495 | 77 | 817 | 17 [218] 25 | 17 prea nSEa
February . *74) 67°9 | 75-1 | 57°9 | 78-7 | 52°5 | 58:3 | -487 | 71 | 8-10 | 15 |1-'74| 5-0 | 1-2] 3 a Besse
March .| 74} 666 | 75:1 | 59:0 | 785 | 54-6 | 60-1 | 521 | 80 |10-15 | 21 241] 75 |12| o BETS. eas
April «| “74| 65°8 | 74-0 | 59°2 | 78:3 | 56-1 | 58:7 | -497 | 79 | 5-43 | 16 1°93] 68 | 11] EGEESSSHS ®
May. .| °85} 63:9 | 73:0 | 56-9 | 75:8 | 48:0 | 57-9 | -481 | 81 | 5°89 | 13 160] 69 |09| HS SSPRS BS
June. «| +86) G13 | 71:0 | 54:8 | 73:6 | 43:5 | 55-2 | +552 | 80 | 0-07 | 2 1006) 78 | 11) SSSe vee ew
July. . | 86) 596 | 6&1 | 52-7 | 72-6 | 47-9 | 53:6 | -412 | 80| 035 | 7 009) 84 |15| HSp820 SERS
August .} 81) 606 | 707 | 531 | 76:8 | 42-9 | 53-7 | 413 | 79 | 0-08 | 6 0-02) 76 | 1:0] Les 2m SSL,
September | 80} 62:5 | 743 | 54:5 | 78-3 | 48:0 | 538 | -415 | 73| 00 | 0| —| 73 |12| @ 28 PS San
October - | -75| 656 | 77-2 | 57-3 | 827 | 53-0 | 55:2 | -437 | 71| 3-40 | 8 \1'53| 49 | 14) SPSSNS Sec
November | -71| 66-2 | 72°8 | 58:1 | 76:3 | 53-2 | 588 | -496 | 78| 864 | 21 |1-04| 65 |16| SPSSAge ess
Deventer | 770) 65-40) 74 | 687 | 746 | nee | 500,| 301 | gt | 804 | 98 |o95] 66 | 18) Sao Boos S oz

ee - |———}___ = | E Sashofag
= | | | / Seen He vio
Year 1900 |24°775| 643 || 73:0 | 56-7 | 82-7 | 42-9 | 56:9 | -475 | 77°5| 58:82 |154 |2-41| 65 |13| SSSS#SE8S

Machako's—continued.

Lrequeney, Direction and Total Force (0-6) of Winds, at 9 A.M.

N, |N.N.E.| N.E.'E.N.E.| 1.

ES.E.| SE.|S.S.E.| 8. |8.S.w.|S.w.|W.S.W.) Ww. |W.N.W. N.W.|N.N.W.!Calms
Month, |— = —= = a . | he |
dam [ol8ls(Blelels [8 isle) 6/2 lsl8)o/2lel8)el£lel2ls/8 |el8| 2 [Els 2)s| 21 wo
5 PALA mIS | Zl\Sb\le\eizl\s\ 2) 3 Siz 5 i 5) y im | Si |
| & \e| 4 ge |4le |4 SA Sy Sa Ba (Ole | OT |e le A Vm (Ale |
1900 | alt [hal [alee [ara | | |
January -| 1) 1) 1)- 1) 4) 8 4) 8/612) 1) 1) 6) 9) 4! 7 1/2] 3) 4 | —}| —)|—|—) — —|—|-—| 2
February . | 2} 3} 1] 1) 4) 8) 1] 1] 517 —|—| 4) 6 3) 5—— - Se Uta W Ge Tis A i We | —|' | —| — 6
March .|—|—| 1) 1) 5) 8} —| —] 316) 2 2) 7) 10) 3 7@——| 1) 1— 1}1)—)— 1) 1); — —] 7
April 21a a i Po ee OB 4, 5/8 12) 5 7 25) — 1 1 1 1—-| —| S— + — — 6
May. =. |=) — ——|—| =| —| 4) 7| 2} 2] 9) 10) 1) 1j—'—} —| — 3) 4} 9} oi} | — | —- It) a) 2) 9
June. ||| =| =|} =| =| 4} 6] 4; 6} 3} 5} —| —| 1) 2] —| —| 8113 -- |} —— —| — —| 10
July . SS] SS] I] a] ] 84] | Sida} 4) 8) a) 4) 1) 1] =) 1) 3) a a] =| — | —--—-— 9
August. |—|—| — | - =| —| 5]. 9) 4) 8) 7) Ja} =| — 1/1) a) y——| -] — | |, ea
September |—|—| —| —|—|—, —} —] 5112] 8, 12/ 4, 10] 1 3 | ==] = == }—| 1
October ea a RH he ae Se eS eS ee —|/-4 4 -—
November | 1) 5} 2/ 8| 2| 6| 3] 51/3! 9 3/5) 11) 4. s—i— EA eS = | ee = aal
December | 2) 7| 8) 19) 2) 4) 2). 3) 3) Gly a] 2} 2) 3) 1) aba) 2) —| | | _) |} pe a ye
| fs aes | a ra | al a babar S| Dell EC puro | Retin as | Voda ha | Poe el | | pee
Year 1900 | 616 13) 301836 11] 21/4894 40 5961 106) 24, 48, 916] 3) 31422) 5, 6) 2, 2) — | | 1} 1] | 1) 10

Kikuyu, about Lat. 1° 14! §., Natete, near Mengo (Buganda). Lat. 0° 20' N., Long. 32° 36’ #., 4,000 feet

Long. 36° 42' E., 6,400 ft. |) Observer: A. M. Machay, Church Missionary Society.
Mean \| Mean|M
Tem- Rain | Month Rainfall. Amount in Inches Rainfall. No, of Days Max.
perature | Tem.
Month 2 2 || 1879 | 1881 | 1882 1883 | 1884] 1885 |1886]1879/1881/1882/1883]1884/1885/1886] F.
. . fm | °
eS rel e ‘|| Jan. .} 5°60| 5°36] 1:58| 450) 0°52] 119}2-05} 11] 5 | 6| 6] 5| 3) 4 | 872
sla 8#ig Sm Feb. .| 3°65) 4°84) 4°96 | 2°60 | 3°30] 5:04) 3°83) 12 Di) 1Syh eS 5 6 5 | 86°0
= | fy || Mar. 5°27] 6°58) 2°11) 2°93) 3°02) 6°62) 3°85) 11 | 15 9; 6 6) 14 7 | 87-5
———— = — April | 5°67 |13°60| 841 7-05 4°30 5°73 | 8:90) 15 | 12 9 | 6 4 5 9 | S14
1900 z In. |No.| In, |} May | 800} 4-26 | 3:87 | 432) 2:45] 547/869} 15/11] 9] 9] 3] 6| 8| 793
January . | — | — [5-25] g |1-54|| June” | 205) 2°58] 1:88) 2-92) 3-92] 516/251) 3| 8] 6] 6] 9} 6| 7] 782
February | — | — |9:21] 14 |2-80 || July *| 0°35| 2°63] 2°88) 5°39) 358] 5-21) — | 1] 5] 8|10} 5) 5 | —| 796
March — | — |5-66| 14 [1-46 || Aug..| 114] 3:50] 3:10) 4°75! 1-40] 3-46; —]| 9] 8] 4} 9] 6] 5 |—] 821
April — | — [5-18] 91 |0-74|/ Sept.. | 5°53] 3°04] 4°67) 2°78) 4:30) 3:07) —] 13] 8] 8|10]10|] 3 | — | 867
May — | — ]?-85| 21 |2-93 || Oct. .| 3:48] 3°54] 760) 227) 9:24) 5:32) —] 11/11/12) 8| 9] 5|—| 886
June —|— |v] 4 |i-35 |) Nov.. | 3:31] 468 281) 3°93 | 434) 4:28] — | 11] 12] 9)j12] 11] 11 | — | 844
October . |78*4.|61°9 |6-04! 15 (2-00 |! Dec 152] 2°34) 104) 0°80) 0:29] 2°04) —| 6] 5) 5/ 5] 2] 7|—| 842
November |77°4 |61-0 |6°67 | 20 1:45 a ee se le |S Pl ec Saeed se oe =o ec ie
December |75°7 |59°4 4°68 | 22 1-43 || Year . |45°57 |54°95 44°91 44°22 40°66 52°59] — |114 |109 | 97 | 92 | 75 | 76 | — | 83:8
| The above are taken from the journals of the late A. M. Mackay, brought to England
The observations up to June | Dr. Junker. The temperatures are the means of observations made between January 1
were made at the Station of the | and June 1886, They have been corrected for supposed index errors, but the mean maxi
East African Scottish Mission | appear to be still very much too high. In November 1885 the thermometer was removed t
(by Rev. T. Watson); the re- |) the north side of the house, and the mean maximum at once fell from 91:2° in October to 83%
mainder at Fort Smith, 24 miles | in November 1885. The mean for the months November to June, before the removal, W ;
distant from it, by the late Fran- | 84°5°, after the removal only $3:0°. According to observations made by Rey. E. Millar 1

cis O. Hall. 1893, the mean of all maxima was 81°8°, that of all minima 521° (see Third Report).

ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA. 393

Victoria Nyanza Lake Levels and Rainfall, in Decades. 5 Ntebe. Rain, 19001
Observers: EF. Pordage, I’, A. Knowles, H. Galt, S. Spire, W. 2. Walker, 2
and others. = ce ‘=
Be i : ee Satunes Sele (ha
6 @| ee
Ntebe oe 7 s H |Aa| Be
at Bususton; Ntebe (P. Alice), 1900 Fort Kisumu, <4 ise]
Thruston | 02 -S4V1-
— = eee (Lubwas) rondo we In. | No.| In.
Decades Taken al Ngowe a
Rainfall Level, |Bay- Lake! Jan. | 2°26 | 8) 072
Lake Lake Lake 1900° Level, | | Seb. | 4:23 | 12) 2:50
Level Level Level 1 : 1900 Mar./ 6°10 | 14) 1:39
Rental Dans Heaviest’ Apr. | 13°54 | 20 | 1°96
"| YAY | Fall May | 2:70 | 13) 0-93
|| 3 — Jun. | 5°81 | 12 | 2°82
: “98
In. In. In. In. No. In. Tn. rend er F i
January, I. | +43:00 —0'76 —668 | 114 4 0-75 = — 5°30 Sept.) 343 | 9 | 151
5 II. 2:62 —1-03 —63 1-12 4 0-62 — — 5°85 Oct. | 153 | 11 | 0°78
a DE. | 2°67 —1°31 —=@r12" 70:00) || —= = = | — 6°45 Nov. | 5°99 | 16 | 1:36
February, I. 367 | —2°81 —5'88 1:37 6 0°63 —_ | — 7°80 Dec. | 12°51 | 13 | 2°10
| % ine 317 | —2:56 —5:38 | 2°63 Stal Po-sor || — 8:20 Deon Bate Gee Sa
i Py Ill. 2°66 —1'85 —503 | 0°23 3 0-07 — |} — 4°67 *
March, I. |} 3:04 —2°36 --5°33 0°02 1 002 | — | — 7:80 Year | 61:43 |138) 2°82
ay a a 2°72 —2°98 —5°03 | 2°77 5 116 — — 820 |,
cs It. 2°47 —385)d —453 | 331 8 1°39 — — 467
| April, 7: | 1:72 =376! =a" | 1:81 5, | 085 — — 510 There can be no doubt
” ar. 182, —368 | —5'53 6°87 8 1:96 — hiv 9°30 that the lake level is pri-
- il. | 3:97 —248 —553 | 4°86 fe SOF) — 3°90 marily influenced by the
| May, I | 364 —2-48 —498 | 1-01 3 | 0:93 — | + 075 | yainfall. At Ntebe the
2 TE | 454 +032 | —5:03 | 0:47 4 0:27 = — 235 level rose in the course
” ee | = 4:22 +3:°22 | —4:58 1:22 6 062 | — — 2-94 ot 1898 (which was a
June, TT) 4°89 +217 | —4:28 409 4 | 282 | —1918 | — 2°50 year of abundant rains),
” Ii. | 442 —0°28 —3°63 | 169 6 | O80 + —18'98 | — 150 but in the course of 1899
i BOUT 4°65 —113 | 3-43 | 0:03 2 | 002 | —1853 | — 375 | it fell slightly below the
July, Us eee —3:08 | —3:03 | 000 | — | — | —1883 | — 5°50 | level of 1896, and in 1900
a xs me | 4°95 —273 | —253 | O15 3 0-08 | —18'88 — 6:90 it fell a further 7°62
| os III. 361 | —2:93 | —2:15 _| 0:28 1 | 028 |} —1880 | — 7-76 inches. As that year
q August, 5. 217 —$'23 —2:78 1:00 4:4) 0°35 —18'78 — 697 (1900) was one of fairly
ms TE | +032 | —12-48 —323 | 1:25 1} 1:25 —1873 , — 7°90 | abundant rainsalong the
so NEE —2°30 —15°49 —412 } 0°65 1 | 0°65 —19°08 —12°57 Buganda shore (61 inches
September, I. —3°55 —16°38 —5'83 | 0°22 T0122 — 10°10 fell at Ntebe) we are
| vA IT. —4:68 —17-08 —753 | 310 | 4 | 1:2 —10°65 bound to assume that it
a inn —6'58 —18'98 —10°23 {O11 | 4 0°04 — 6°30 is not loeal rains which
| October, i —6'33 —19°93 —1338 | O15 | 4 0°05 —15°05 appreciably affect the
» 1) is) —21-78 —15°93 | 035 | 3 0:27 —16-20 level of the lake, but the
” WT. | —7-76 | —2243 | —17-21 | 1-03 | 4 | 048 | —1675 | precipitation throughout
November, I. | —830 = —1808 |153 | 5 | 1-15 + 1750) |!) dee -yast! drainage area
» TT. | —8'88 -- —18°73 | 1:29 S|) 0:76 —16-45 Thus an abundant rain-
or GL —973 = { —19°53 =| 3-17 | 8 | 1:56 - 16°90 fall along the Buganda
December, I. —9°53 _— —18'98 424; 4 | 1°61 —15°97 shore would be neutral-
a Ir. | —8-93 = —1808 | 4°38 5 2°10 | 1460 | ised by a deficiency in
» Til. | —6-48 = —1655 | 3:89 4 | 167 —1148 | the rainfall in the south.
| Since the beginning of

the present year (1901)
the lake has risen rapidly, and by June 1 its level stood 24 inches above the mean level of 1896. The relations between
loeal rainfall and lake level are illustrated by the following facts :—
At Ntebe, between March 20-24, 1900, 3:7 inches of rain fell, and in the course of April 13°54 inches, yet the level of the
ake remained unaffected, the heavy local rains being balanced by the outflow and the loss by evaporation, or deficiency
of rain elsewhere. Yet in the course of May the lake rose slowly, but steadily, although very little rain was registered
ocally. Again, between December 3-5 4°21 inches of rain fell, while the lake only rose half an inch. More remarkable still,
on September 12 1-25 inches of rain fell, yet the lake level actually fell half an inch. The cther stations afford similar instances.
The winds exercise a decided influence upon the level of the lake. There are regular land and lake breezes, and
Mr. Macallister remarks that a strong S.W. breeze will cause a rise in the level of the lake to an extent of from
to 3inehes. At Fort Thruston, on November 13, a severe storm caused the lake to rise 3 inches. The influence of the
ind could be eliminated by making at least three observations daily, and which would be preferable, by establishing a
self-registering gauge. Further fluctuations of the lake may be produced by differences of barometric pressure.
_ The differeazce between the highest and lowest level at Ntebe amounted to 19°0 inches in 1896, 16°5 inches in 1899, and
17-50 inches in 1900. The extreme range, as far as our observations extend, has been 435 inches ; but if the level, in 1881,
oF that of 1898 to the extent of 8 feet, as asserted by the French missionaries in Buganda, its amount cannot be less
than 10 feet.
All observations made at Ntebe and Fort Thruston (Lubwa’s) are referred to the mean lake level at those stations in
1896. On October 1898 Mr. C. W. Fowler, Superintendent of Marine, claims to have adjusted ail gauges to Port Victoria (where
bservations ceased to be made at the end of July 1899). I fail to see how this can have been done unless the three stations
were joined by a line of spirit levelling. On comparing the observations made between October 1898 and February 1899,
as recorded, I find that, assuming the level at Port Victoria to be —0°00, the level at Ntebe exceeded that datum level to
the extent of 1:98 inches, whilst that at Fort Thruston fell short of it to the extent of 1:89 inches. Such differences in the
el may exist, though I fail to see how they can have been ascertained. From all observations recorded since October 1898,
53 inches have been deducted in order to reduce them approximately to the mean lake leyel of 1896. In the case of Kisumu,
j however, only 30°3 inches have been deducted,

394: REPORT—1901.

Victoria Nyanza Lake Levels and Rainfall, in Decades—cont.

In order to elucidate the interesting problems connected with the physical geography of the Victoria Nyanza, it
would be necessary to instal rain-gauges throughout its drainage basin, and to establish at least four gauges for
measuring the level of the lake, and to connect these gauges by lines of spirit level ; a consummation most devoutly
to be wished, though not likely to be realised for a considerable time to come. The observations should,as a matter
of course, embrace all atmospheric phenomena, and more especially atmospheric pressure.

Victoria Nyanza.—Lake Levels and Rainfall, Monthly Means.
Port Victoria (January to July 1899),
Ntebe (P. Alice) Fort Thruston (Lubwa’'s) Kisumu, on Kavirondo or Ngowe Bay
(September 1899 to December 1900) k
Month Extremes Extremes | Extremes Rain
| |
Mean Mean | Mean | |
Level Level Level | High-
| Highest) Lowest Highest Lowest | Highest. Lowest} Amt. | Days | est
/ | | Fall
| i
1899 In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. Tn. In. No. | In
January = | + 2°76 | + 3°97 | + 2:47 | — 1:04 | + 0:97 | — 1°53 | + 0-73 | + 247 | — 1:03] — 3 — |
February . | + 3°20 | + 647 | + 1:47 | — 2:42 | — 0°53 | — 3°53 |— 063 + O97 — 253) — 9 —
March . + 2°64 | + 3:97 | + 0°72 | — 2°95 | — 153 | — 4°03 |— 1:79 | + O97 | — 3°53 |. 1:03 8 0-29 ;
April . + 250 | + 5°47 | + 0°97 | — 3:30 | + 0°47 | — 4:03 | + 1:56 | + 147 | — 5:03 | 3°38 | 18 098
May . - | + 414 | + 647 | + 2°97 | + 0°10 | 4+ 4°72 | — 3°03 | + 2:21 | + 647 | — 253 | 485] 19 1:02
June | + 465 | + 5°97 | + 847 | + 0-78 | + 3°47 | — 2°53 | + 2:30 | + 5:47 | — 0:53 | 2°55} 10 0:88
July . | + 3°83 | + 5°97 | + 147 | — 2°92 | — 1:53 | — 5°53 | — 3:96 | + 0°47 | — 8:53 | 0-10 4 Ont
August - | — 0°02 | + 2°97 | — 3°03 | —11°16 | — 3°03 | —14°53 —- | = — — — —
September . | — 4:94 | — 3:03 | — 8:03 | —16°48 | —15-53 | —19:°53 | — 3:12 | + 3:20 |— 7:30 | 2°68] 13 0°75 |
October .|— 7:09 | — 6:03 | — 8-03 | —21°42 | —19°53 | —23:53 | — 7:20 | — 4°30 | —10°30 | 2-91 2 1°50 | }
November . | — 8:98 | — 8:03 | —10:03 a _— _ — 843 |— 4°30 | —1130 | 4:64] 11 115
December . | — 861 |— 7°03 | — 9°53 _ — — 617 as 2°20 |—11'80 | 504] 14 1:83. |
= = | * oss
Year . - | — 051 | + 6:47 | —10°03 _ =_ _ _ — -- — — —
ES : | Pe,
1900
January .|— 6°38 |— 6°03 | — 7:03 | —21°5 —- | -— — 585 |— 1°30 | — 830} 518) 17 1°84
February .|— 5°46 | — 5°03 | — 6:03 | —21°5 = — 5°94 | — 2°30 | —10°30 | 6°45] 14 254
March . » | — 4°95 | — 4:53 | — 3:55 | —21°5 — — 714 | + 1:70 | —12°30 | 464] 11 1:30
April . .» | — 553 |— 5°53 | — 5°53 | —20°5 —- — — 483 |— 1:30 |— 7°30 | 5:04) 14 1:83 |
May . .|— 4:95 |— 4:53 | — 5:53 |—195 = | = | = 162] 2:70 || = 5801), 8B eaOu || 105
June . . |— 3-78 |— 3:03 | — 4:53 | 18:90 | —18:03 | —20°53 | — 2:58 | + 0-70 |— 630] 2:86] 11 O91 |
July «| — 2°66 | — 2°03 | — 3:03 | —1884 | —18°53 —19°03 | — 6°75 | — 3:30 | —12°3) 156 10 1:06
August . | — 2:37 |— 2°53 | — 4:53 | —18:87 | —18°53 | —19°03 | — 8:91 | — 6°30 | —12°30 | 2°70] 10 0°85
September . | — 7:86 | — 5:03 | —11°53 | —21°66 | —19°53 | —2453 | — 8:98 = 4°30 | —12°30 | 3°66 12 1:04
October . | —15°53 | —12°53 | —17°53 | —26°16 | —24°53 | —30:03 | —16°03 | —10°30 | —19°30 | 2:89 5 2°35
November . | —18'75 | —17°53 | —19°53 | —30°31 | —29°30 | —32-03 | —16-98 | —12:30 | — 24-30 | 6-27 | 10 1:96
December . | —17°82 | —15°53 | —19°53 | —26:27 | —21°53 | —30°53 | —12°78 — 5°80 | —18°30 | 623 10 135 |
| | |
|
Year . - |— 813 | — 2°03 | —19°53 — —18:03 Raa — 820 | + 2°70 | —24°30 | 49°36 | 134 2:54
1

1899.—At Webe the lake attained its highest level on June 8. It stood lowest from November 25-28. The
difference between the highest and lowest levels amounted to 16 inches. |

1900.—At Vtebe the lake reached its highest level on July 21 and maintained it up to July 28, It stood at its
lowest from November 21 to December 2. The difference between the highest and lowest levels amounted to}
17°5 inches. During the whole of April the lake steadily maintained its level of 5°53 inches below the level |
of 1896. |

At Fort Thruston the lake level was lowest on November 12, and highest.on June 22, the difference amounting |
toldinches. At Kisumu it was lowest on November 3, highest on May 10, the range having been 27 inches, an
amount accounted for by the position of the gauge in shallow water at the bottom of a bay and high winds.

1901.—At Wiebe the lake on June 1 stood 23°43 inches above the level of 1896 ; at Aiswmu on May 7 it stood only
15°16 inches above that level, as assumed by us; and on June 28 14:0 inches.

The bench mark cut on the Camp Tree at the head of Port Florence in 1898 by Commander B. Whitehouse, R.N.,
is 19 feet 11 inches above the zero on the Lake Gauge.

ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA. 3895

dle

+tl_h
E | JULY | AUGUST |SEPTEMBER| OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER

,
’
Diagram illustrating the Fluctuations in the Level of the Victoria Nyanza,
; at Ntebe, in 1896-1901, compared with the Rainfall.
pay
\ ea Br RY i
SOUT TT | Mr
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Le uk q
fl q stan tah Dios 4
i

MARCH | APRIL

Diagram illustrating the Fluctuations in the Level of the Victoria Nyanza,
at Ntebe, in 1900, compared with the Rainfall.

Annual Rainfall in British Africa, in Inches. Se ag asSe8 3
Soe a ae om 9
British East Africa :Coast | British East At | Yoana | SREEL EE Se?
é rica : Coas iGa.cslnland Nyasalan giana e e858
ee BSescg ed ea a
= oan S o >
i £ cs = SRA BO
Velel. e/4|2lal2edsaelolg|o| 2 8cae2 e365
Pepa lela ia |e) S812 teees| | els | aa eeahe 8
PB Se) Ss /Sl(Cl2|]S mg ea/8) 8] 8 Ses tess Eaeeat el ESR OO sen
is los (1 8 | ale |S (Base |S, | Bboloeet let oe thse bye Cie hee
g/e &/3/2/4/8 Skag/a/6 1) 8 | $828 2u ses
= Vw =ao5po SHyro
a Bea Se ew 2OR
D aS ve eoanes eae
Se AF HASH he
| | | | | | |) | — | | ——_ , —_|—_ —__ o eral ET Girt SOUS
=| * ° =
Bey =A 0) =| 847) — b=} =) Sy bere re
mer rere ane a | ei et ee — — e eeogss 23
1892/ — | 30-2/ — | 321/264; | —|—|—| — |—|eos| —| SEP SRT Ress
* |1893) — | 50°8| 44°5| 40-7, 642 66:3, — | — |530/ — |—|901| —| gSRRSPSR os
1894) 13°7| 28:9) 21-1] 38:0, 38-0) 42-0 26-7| 42°0| 48-1] — | — | 95-4 1044) € (geass ho
1895] — | 34-9] — | 35-7) 343 385 33:1] — |650| — |— 160 1317| 22S SER Bees
1896) 19°5| 53°6) 41°3) 47-8) 65:2 56°6 21:7| 25:9) 29°558°8 |52°0, 95-4 1081) BRAS SESS.
1897| 19°9| 58:0) 32°3) 54:4/ 52°6 56:7) 21°5| 31-7| 36°3|93°5 | — | 64:8) 79:0 Abe ost ee oS
1898) 10°9| 14-4) 12-4) 24-0) 25°0 27:3) — | 24°3) 36-2/69°10| 600 967 1589| BE ESE ST. 2
1899) 12-4) 33:4) 22-0) 33:1) 35°2, 52:5 — | 278) — | — |47°5 8871281) ZB EATA RES
1900) 12'9) 37-0) — | 58-1) 61-7, 59-8) — | 583 — |50°0 |39°6 600) 936 F Ee SP sats
bg | —— fase. be bes
» At Frere Town (opposite Mombasa) 41°9 in. fell in 1876 ; 91-Lin. PSS RSSSS
mMROn OFS SPH

in 1877 ; 51-3 in. in 1878 ; 45-6 in. 1879 ; and 44:7 in. in 1880.

)
i
|
|

Erratum in Report for 1897.
P. 9, second column, line 7 from bottom : instead of 84 in. read 9*4 in.
Errata in Report for 1900.

P. 2, second column, line 18 : instead of 29°756 read 29°839.
P. 6, first column, line 16 : instead of 1898 read 1896,

fa)

396 REPORT—1901.

The Survey of British Protectorates—Report of the Committee, coir
sisting of Sir T. H. Houpicu (Chairman), Col. G. E. Caurcn,
Mr. BE. G. Ravensrein, and Mr. H. N. Dickson (Secretary),
appointed to draw up a Scheme fur the Survey of British
Protectorates.

Your Committee are of opinion that a representation should be submitted
to His Majesty’s Government in support of an organised scheme for sur-
veying British Protectorates in Africa, and that it would be advantageous
to secure the co-operation of the Royal Geographical Society, and of other
bodies unconnected with Government who may be specially interested in
the matter, in bringing forward their proposals. At present, various sur-
veys have been commenced in different parts of Africa under local
administrations, which are unconnected with each other and have appa-
rently no common basis of technical system or scale, from which it will be
difficult eventually to compile a satisfactory and homogeneous first map
of our African possessions. A large amount of geographical work,
carried on more or less under the auspices of the Royal Geographical
Society, is gradually accumulating, all of which might be usefully turned
to account in a general survey scheme, if uniformity of method and scale
were adopted. A comprehensive scheme of geographical survey (apart
from special surveys for local requirements), to be carried out jointly with
other nationalities in the continent of Africa, will undoubtedly prove a
necessity in the near ‘future for purposes of boundary demarcation and
administration ; but such a scheme must emanate from those responsible
advisers of Government who are best acquainted with the opportunities
for combined action and the means for carrying it out.

But, pending the adoption of such a scheme, and with due apprecia-
tion of the value of the disjointed efforts which are now keing made to
secure partial surveys for administrative purposes in various parts of the
country, your Committee are of opinion that the following considerations,
none of which involve immediate financial outlay, should be especially
brought to the notice of His Majesty’s Government ; inasmuch as
immediate attention to them would undoubtedly tend to hasten the
attainment of the end primarily in view—viz., the construction of a
homogeneous and consistent geographical map of that part of Africa
‘which affects Imperial interests.

(1) The advantage of a common scale should be impressed on local
administrations who have already commenced surveys within the pro-
tectorates under their administration, and every effort should be made in
the first instance to secure a general map on the smallest geographical
scale which can be made practically useful for purposes of either adminis-
tration or strategy. This scale should not be less than one in
five hundred thousand.

(2) Inasmuch as all future surveys, on whatsoever scale, must ulti-
mately depend on the accuracy of the initial base measurements if they
are to fit together into one homogeneous map, it is most desirable to draw
the attention of local administrators to this point ; and, wherever local
surveys have already been commenced, to test the accuracy of their linear
measurements by the adoption of a geodetic base. Such a base need not
be measured by the cumbersome processes which have made the measure-
ment of geodetic bases so laborious and expensive in the past. New

ON THE SURVEY OF BRITISH PROTECTORATES. 397

methods and improved means have lately been introduced which greatly
simplify the work, but there is no method which does not require scientific
direction. It would therefore be advisable that the same instruments,
under the same personal supervision, should be used in every case. Unity
of scale and of linear measurement is absolutely essential to final com-
pilation in such vast areas as Africa presents, and much good work now
in progress may be rendered valueless for general map-making purposes.
if'such unity is not secured ab initio.

(3) Itis the earnest desire of the Royal Geographical Society that
those travellers and explorers who use their instruments and accept their
assistance financially should add to the practical outcome of mapping
material in Africa. For this purpose the Society has established training
classes in practical geography, and keeps a record of the names of those
who are qualified to work as geographical surveyors. But in order to
utilise their work to the fullest extent it is essential that the geographical
data determined by such professional surveyors as from time to time are
sent to Africa under the direction of the Intelligence Department should
become generally available ; and it is therefore most desirable that all
such material (indispensable for the proper location of field surveys and
for check on final positions) as may be collated at the {ntelligence Office
may be placed at the disposal of the Royal Geographical Society.
Attention should very specially be drawn to the great amount of geo-
graphical mapping (at present disconnected and wanting in topographical
detail) which is annually turned out by irresponsible travellers. The value
of this might be largely increased if it were based on exact data.

(4) One of the most important factors in dealing with the vast area
of our African possessions in the matter of geographical (or first) surveys
is the absolute necessity of resorting to native agency for its topography.
Effective topography can never be secured without the assistance of
surveyors and draughtsmen specially trained to this particular branch of
map-making. European agency (except for purposes of supervision) is
out of the question on account of the expense. Indian native agency is
equally impossible for more than comparatively restricted areas. The
vast mass of African mapping must be secured through the agency of
natives of Africa, just as Asia has largely been mapped by Asiatics.

There is apparently no reason why natives of Africa, trained in mission
and other schools, should not be as effective in the field of survey as
Africans generally have proved in the field of arms.

It is suggested that in the earlier stages of the formation of such an
agency scientific societies might be willing to take the initiative. It is
to the interest of the Royal Geographical Society, for instance, to secure
the assistance of native topographers for explorers. What is immediately
wanted is the initiation of a training school ; and it seems probable that,
if one or two promising pupils were selected from each protectorate for
training, an invaluable school would in a few years be established, which
would rapidly extend of itself. The Commissioners and Administrators
of our African Protectorates might be requested to assist in the experi-
ment by ascertaining whether volunteers from the native schools can be
found for the purpose. Every assistance to such a scheme may be
confidently anticipated from the Indian Government, who have long had
practical experience of the enormous advantages of native labour in the
field of surveying.

398 REPORT—1901.

Terrestrial Surface Waves.—First Report of the Committee, consisting
of Dr. J. Scorr Keirir (Chairman), Lieut.-Col. Bamry, late R.E.,
Dr. VaucHan CornisH, Mr. A. Roope Hunt, F.G.S., Mr. W. H.
Woeeter, M.lnst.C.E., and Mr. HK. A. Fuoyer. (Drawn up by
Dr. VAUGHAN CORNISH.)

Tue following papers have been published by Dr. Vaughan Cornish since
the Bradford Meeting, viz—On the Formation of Wave Surfaces in
Sand, ‘Scottish Geographical Journal,’ January 1901 ; On Sand-waves in
Tidal Currents, ‘Geographical Journal,’ August 1901.

On December 4, 1900, Dr. Cornish left for Canada to study the surface
forms of snow, returning to England March 16. During the voyage out,
Liverpool to Boston, much heavy weather was encountered, and observa-
tions, with some measurements and photographs, were obtained of deep-
sea storm-waves. On the return voyage, New York to Southampton,
some good observations were obtained of the conditions obtaining in a
heavy swell. A paper on ocean waves, embodying results obtained by
Dr. Cornish during several years, is in preparation.

Canada was snow-covered during the whole of the expedition. The
country was traversed from Montreal to Vancouver and back by the
Canadian Pacific Railway. Special facilities were most kindly accorded
by this railway company in the interest of pure science. The principal
places of observation were Montreal, Winnipeg (Manitoba), and Glacier
House (British Columbia), which afforded good opportunities for the study
of the three principal kinds of snow surface which were encountered.
The observations appear to divide themselves naturally under two heads :
(1) snow-waves and ripples ; (2) snow-drifts and snow-caps; and the
results of the expedition are now being worked up under these heads.

The most striking point with reference to the trains of moving waves
of cold, dry, drifting snow is that the place most favourable to their
formation is an extensive level surface free from inequalities or obstruc-
tions, such as a frozen lake. Here most readily occur those local swr-
charges of snow which originate the long trains of waves. At first these
travel freely, but their march and growth do not continue so long as is
the case with the homologous waves of sand, because the snow readily
sets into a coherent, though friable, mass. The height of these waves was
generally not more than six inches. They are flatter than the homologous
zeolian sand-waves, the wave-lengths being often forty or fifty times as
great as the amplitude.

Ripples, perfectly homologous with the eolian sand-ripples, are pro-
duced in the granular snow-stuff formed by erosion of consolidated snow.
Their wave-lengths are similar to those of the sand-ripples, but their
amplitude is less. There are also regularly undulating surfaces carved by
the wind in more coherent snow, particularly when it is well stratified.
The ridges retreat before the wind, keeping their steeper slope on the
weather side. The material has an internal arrangement not imposed by
the wave motion, and, so long asit isa part of the waved structure, is itself
stationary. It is therefore fitting that these surfaces, which are frequent
and regular, should have a distinguishing name, and it is proposed to call
them wndulates. The ratio of height to length in the undulates is greater
than in the normal waves and normal ripples.

ON TERRESTRIAL SURFACE WAVES. 399

The most interesting drifts were those on the prairies, where the cold
is great and the snow is dry. The normal snow-drift round a house on
the open prairie in Manitoba consists mainly of a snow-bank in the form

_ of a U, the house being situated in the bend, near the bottom of the letter,

with a few yards nearly free from snow between it and the snow-bank.
Between the two limbs of the U, which are much longer, reaching further
to leeward, than the shape of the printing type permits to be here indi-
cated, the ground is kept almost clear of snow by the operation of the
wind as modified by the presence of the building, and this clearance is
sometimes noticeable beyond the distance to which the two arms of the
drift extend as a noticeable snow-bank. Close to the house, centrally
situated on the lee side, is a relatively small accumulation of snow, which
is, however, conspicuous from its form and position. Beyond the limbs
of the U-shaped snow- bank to right and left the depth of the snow on
the prairie is not notably affected by the neighbourhood of the building.
The height of the U-shaped snow-bank is commonly four to six feet when
there are three or four inches of snow on the open prairie.

In the calm upper valleys of the Selkirk Mountains, where the snow-
fall is very heavy, the flakes usually large, and the temperature during
precipitation usually near the melting point, the notable forms in which
the material accumulates are not those of drift but deposition, not snow-
banks but snow-caps. On tree stumps these frequently take the form of
gigantic mushrooms, nine to twelve feet wide and four to four and a half
feet thick, which project from three to four feet all round beyond their
supporting pedestal. These strange growths are not unstable, as are the
small globular masses of snow upon a slender support, but, on the con-
trary, possess a remarkable degree of permanence. The depth of snow in
them is sufficient to express most of the air, and to weld the lower parts
into a tenacious mass,

Much attention was given to overcoming the difficulties of the real
photography of snow, 7.e., the rendering of the detail of the snow surface,
instead of photographing objects silhouetted against snow, as is done in
the ordinary ‘snow-scene’ photograph. After some initial failures suc-
cess was achieved, and a large collection of good quarter- and half-plate
negatives has been brought back which is of very considerable scientific
value.

The whole of the grant has been expended, and the Committee apply
for a grant towards the expenses of continuing the investigations.

Women’s Labour.—First Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr.
E. W. Brasroox (Chairman), Mr. A. L. Bow.ry (Secretary), Miss
A.M. Anperson, Mr. C. Bootu, Professor 8S. J. CHAPMAN, Miss
C. E. Cotuet, Professor F. Y. EpGEwortTH, Professor A. W. Fiux,
Mrs. J. R. MacDonatp, Mr. L. L. Price, Professor W. Smart,
and Mrs. H. J. TENNANT, appointed to investigate the Heonomic
Effect of Legislation requlating Women's Labour.

Tut Committee, as appointed at the Bradford meeting, sought the
assistance of Mrs. H. J. Tennant, late H. M. Principal Lady Inspector of
Factories, Miss A. M. Anderson, her successor in office, Miss C. E. Collet,
of the Board of Trade, and Mr. Charles Booth, to all of whom the

A00 REPORT—1901.

members of that Committee return their thanks for accepting the invita-
tion to join them.

The Committee, as thus enlarged, resolved that it would adopt the
classification of industries made by the Labour Commission, and would
request some of its own members and some other competent observers
to enter upon a local investigation of the question, as far as practicable,
in every locality in which such industries were pursued by women.

It proceeded to prepare, for the use of the members and others thus
commissioned by it, the following scheme of investigation :—

Scheme of Investigation for Commissioners.

Commissioners should be supplied with—

(1) Abstracts of legislation.

(2) Information already obtained by parliamentary or other inquiries.

Commissioners should then visit the industry and make themselves
acquainted with the nature of the work, and especially with any changes
which have taken place since the legislation for women began.

Commissioners should observe the following points in their investiga-
tions :—

I. The effects of the legislation generally.

(1) Has it necessitated or induced any alteration of custom, or merely”
enforced what was customary before, in the case of the women themselves,
in the industry in question, or in others related thereto ?

(2) Has it necessitated any alteration in the case of other workers
(men, young persons, or children) in the industry in question, or in other
industries related thereto ?

II. The effects of the legislation specially on the position of women,
whether (a) prejudicially :—

(1) Has it lowered the wages of women relatively, either temporarily

or permanently ?
(2) Has it caused any displacement of women ?
(3) Has it initiated any important changes in the use of machinery

or the division of labour ?

Or (6) beneficially :—

(1) Has it increased the efficiency of the women themselves as indus-
trial agents ; and is this efficiency due to all, or only to some, of the legal
restrictions ?

(2) Has it increased their economic efficiency as members of society
(e.g., with relation to home life, the health of the children, the morality
of the race), and are these effects due to all, or only to some, of the

restrictions ?

(N.B.—The legislation may affect the demand for women’s labour
(1) directly, in the industry in question by adding to difficulties of
management, or by diminishing the output of the women themselves, or
of others engaged in the work; (2) indirectly, by effects on other
industries related to the industry in question ; or it may increase the
supply of women and their substitution for men by rendering the work

healthier or easier.)

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. 4.01

Commissioners should endeavour to discriminate between changes
affecting the employment of women which are due to the legislation and
those which result from other causes.

The Committee awaits the reports of the several Commissioners, and
would be glad to receive offers of assistance from any other persons who
are able to procure and furnish the information sought with respect to any
particular field in which women’s labour has been regulated by legislation.

The Committee begs to thank the Secretary of State for the Home
Department for having given permission to the Inspectors of Factories to
furnish the information required with respect to their several districts.

The Committee received an offer of information from the Freedom of
Labour Defence, of which it would be glad to avail itself.

As the reference to the Committee is general in its terms, and includes
the economic effect of legislation in every country regulating women’s
labour, the Committee addressed the following circular to the heads of
the statistical bureaux of various countries and to other persons of
authority, not only in Europe, but also in the United States and the
British Colonies.

Circular to Foreign and Colonial Authorities.

‘The above-named Committee, having been appointed by the British
Association to enquire into the economic effect of legislation regulating
Women’s Labour, are desirous of obtaining information relating to that
subject in industrial centres outside of the United Kingdom, and have
directed us to ask the favour of your assistance.

‘They will be greatly obliged to you for any information you are able
to furnish them in answer to the subjoined questions with regard to your
own country.

‘1. Did any enquiry precede the enactment of the statutes regulating
women’s labour? Kindly give full reference to any record of such
enquiry.

‘2. Has any enquiry been made into the results of such legislation
since its enactment? Kindly give reference to records.

‘3. What are the particular industries in which women’s labour is
regulated? And what proportion do women and girls employed in such
industries bear to the whole industrial female population of the country ?

‘4. Are any statistics available with regard to the industries affected
by such legislation of —

(6) The wages paid to them of the enactment ?

(c) The number of men employed ‘\(B) At or shortly before the
(¢d) The wages paid to them present time ?

(e) Other economic data (C) At any intermediate period ?

(a) The number of women feyey! (A) At or shortly before the date

Kindly give full references to records.
‘5. Can you favour the Committee with any observations of your own
on the matter ?’

The Committee has received from its foreign correspondents a great
quantity of valuable information, for which it has returned its thanks.
The Committee has thus taken the necessary preliminary steps towards
the ao of the subject referred to it. The subject is a large one,
: DD

4.02 REPORT—1901.

and the investigation will no doubt occupy some time. The results of the
census recently made in the United Kingdom will have a direct bearing
upon it. The Committee does not think it would be advantageous to
publish in the present preliminary report any of the particulars as yet
obtained, either with relation to the United Kingdom or to foreign
countries.

The Committee therefore asks to be reapppointed in order that it
may pursue the investigation.

The Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir ALEXANDER BINNIE (Chairman), Professor HELE-
Suaw (Secretary), Mr. A1rken, Mr. T. C. AvELING, Mr. J. Brown,
Professr Hupson Brare, Mr. W. W. Beaumont, Colonel
Crompton, Mr. A. Mautocrk, Sir Davin Satomons, Mr. A. R.
Sennett, Mr. E. SHrapneLL Smita, Mr. J. I. THoRNyYcRoFT,
(Drawn wp by the Secretary.)

Ar the first meeting of the Committee it was decided—

1. That an experimental car and dynamometer were necessary for
performing the experiments on road traction.

2. That members of the Committee should be invited to state their
views in writing concerning the mode in which the experiments should
be carried out.

3. That ultimately, with a view of obtaining results on different
types of roads, trials should be conducted at three centres where facilities
could be obtained—namely, Aldershot, Cupar in Fifeshire, and Liver-

ool.
Z 4, That a summary of all work hitherto done in the investigation of
road resistance should be prepared by the Secretary.

At the same meeting Mr. J. Brown, of Belfast, offered to alter the
viagraph, which is the self-recording instrument of his own invention, in
order to make it specially suitable for carrying out the experiments, and
to place it at the disposal of the Committee. Other members of the Com-
mittee, amongst them Mr. Aitken and Colonel Crompton, undertook to
carry out experiments with the special facilities at their command.

At a subsequent meeting the suggestions contributed by various
members of the Committee were fully discussed, and it was decided that
in order to undertake experimental researches in a thorough and complete
manner it would be necessary to raise a sum of about 1,000/. The
Committee felt that, in view of the great development of mechanical
traction upon roads, the scope of the report should not merely be limited
to experiments on tractive resistance, but should deal with the effects of
vehicles upon road surface of various kinds, and should involve experi-
ments, not only with two different kinds of tyres, but with varying loads
and speeds and with different types of vehicles.

An investigation would be undertaken concerning the relative effect
upon the roads of various forms of mechanical traction and the best types
of road for this purpose. They might therefore look with confidence to
substantial pecuniary support from makers and users of traction engines
and manufacturers of motor vehicles. The Committee might also reason-
ably expect substantial pecuniary support from various County Councils

ON THE RESISTANCE OF ROAD VEHICLES TO TRACTION. 403

and Local Boards. A circular was drawn up with this end in view ; but
pending the consent of the General Committee an application for funds in
the above directions has not been pressed.

The step has been taken, however, of appointing Mr. T. C. Aveling,
a member of the Committee, who is conversant with the traction-engine
world, as Hon. Treasurer.

Meanwhile, an offer having been received from Sir David Salomons to
lend to the Committee for an indefinite period, to alter as they pleased, a
motor-car, it was determined in accepting this kind offer to proceed at once
with a series of preliminary experiments, which would pave the way for
future and more complete investigations. During the past few months
work has been steadily proceeding upon the motor-car, the cost of new
engines for which is being defrayed by Sir D. Salomons. Although great
delays have been experienced with the engines, it is hoped that very
shortly a preliminary series of the experiments may be commenced.
These it is proposed to make in the first place with single wheels, with
different kinds of tyres. The track for this purpose in the first place
would be artificial, consisting of different kinds of materials laid in a
trough or trench, about eighteen inches or two feet in width, so that the
dynamometer itself can be thoroughly tested when the car is running
upon a road of level surface.

In this way the autographic records obtained for materials, such as
sand wet and dry, loose stones, artificial projections of cross pieces of
wood of different sizes and differently pitched, can be thoroughly under-
stood and constants of the dynamometer obtained, so as to enable the
actual road trials to be made without unnecessary delays.

This the Committee consider to be very important matter, since the
difficulties involved in securing permission to make, and in actually making,
trials upon the roads themselves should be reduced to a minimum. The
new viagraph of Mr. Brown has been received and is awaiting these trials,
It has been altered by the important addition of a device for attaching
different curved surfaces, representing segments of wheels of different
diameters. The rise and fall of this curved piece is autographically
recorded, and from experiments which have already been made by Mr.
Aitken it is clear that the actual contour of the road or surface being
experimented upon can be clearly indicated at the same time that the
actual resistance is being recorded by the dynamometer. The Committee
have not thought it advisable in the present report to publish a detailed
description of the dynamometer, since the instrument may possibly
undergo considerable modification in the course of the experiments.
Further, they consider that in view of the fact that the work of different
experimenters on road resistance (an abstract of which has, in accord-
ance with their instructions, been prepared) consists in many cases
in the enunciation of laws and formule, it will be better, instead of
publishing at the present juncture this abstract, to wait until their own
experiments can be compared with those of previous workers, particularly
as, for the first time, it will be possible to make observations at any
required speed from the highest to the lowest velocities of practical
interest.

The grant of money already given will not be sufficient to cover expendi-
ture already incurred ; therefore they make application for a further sum
of equal amount (viz., 75/.), with permission to raise the additional sum
they require, and for the reappointment of the Committee.

DD2

4,04: REPORT—1901.

APPENDIX.

Abstract of Suggestions.
Mr. Aitken :—

(a) The dynamometrical apparatus for recording the different con-
ditions in the resistance of road vehicles to traction would require to be
self-contained ; that is, a separate machine on wheels or an apparatus
attached to the loaded vehicle. For slow-travelling traffic all the different
items which go to make the net result might, with the exception of
vibration, be accommodated on an apparatus with wheels, placed between
the prime mover and the vehicle hauled. For fast-travelling traffic such
an apparatus could not, he imagines, be used with safety, so that the
appliance would require to be fixed to the motor or loaded vehicle. Ata
high velocity the viagraph would not be available, but records could be
made previous to carrying out the experiments with the road vehicles,
The connecting appliance would require to be short-coupled in order to
reduce oscillation.

(b) The scheme of experiments would cover all descriptions of pavements
and macadamised roads. In the experiments the viagraph must play a
conspicuous: part ; and if the speed, pull, and vibration could be auto-
graphically recorded to correspond with the ‘viagram’ the different
conditions could be seen at a glance, while a scale of measurements would
give definite results.

For experiments at high speeds a viagraph section would require to
be made first, a record taken one way corresponding with the exact
position which would be occupied by the vehicle, and another back and
corresponding with the width between the wheels of the vehicle, so as to
arrive at a mean value of the irregularities of the road surface. A
distinctive mark made by the viagraph in previously passing along the
road would guide the driver of the experimental vehicle in following the
proper course,

The pull, &e., on the best laid asphalte pavement might be taken as
the standard to work from, and which in all probability would give about
5 feet per mile of unevenness.

Each road surface from that point and for each succeeding 5 or 10 feet
per mile up to 100 feet of irregularity could be tested on level stretches
and on gradients at different speeds to ascertain the pull required and the
amount of vibration.

The extent of the unevenness recorded by the small wheel of the
viagraph, and that of wheels of varying diameter, could be ascertained
experimentally, from which, no doubt, some kind of formula could be
deduced.

Mr. Aveling :-—
The Sub-Committee might be divided for the purpose of making trials
into—

(a) In heavy or road locomotive class ;
(6) In medium or steam lorry class ;
(c) In automobile or light class ;

so that the experiences of each of the sub-Committees in their own par-
ticular line should be more directly available.

i

ON THE RESISTANCE OF ROAD VEHICLES TO TRACTION. 405

Mr. W. Worby Beaumont :—

A. Resistance to be obtained by a, say, 8-horse power Daimler car
hauling :

(a) A light two-wheeled vehicle with iron tyres and

1. Running light.
2. With 3 cwt. load.
3. With 6 cwt. load.

(b) A light four-wheeled vehicle with iron tyres. Tests same as above
for two-wheeled trap.

(c) A heavier type of two-wheeled vehicle with iron tyres and 10 ewt.
and 1 ton loads.

(d) A heavier four-wheeled vehicle, same load.

B. Hauling vehicles same or similar to (a), (0), (¢), (d), but with

(2) Solid rubber tyres.
(b) Pneumatic tyres.

C. Iron-hoop tyres to be shrunk on vehicles in (a), (0), (c), (d), of double
width makers ordinarily put on same, and same tests again made.

D. Trials of two-wheeled vehicles to be made with two different sizes
of wheels, say 33 inches and 48 inches.

E. Angle of draught to be at least two, say (1) horizontal, 7.e., level
with axle ; (2) upward inclination of, say, 20 degrees. Trials made with
skeleton vehicles, all tests to be made (1) on level, smooth asphalte ;
(2) on all sorts and conditions of other level roads ; (3) on all sorts of
roads of different grades.

Speeds to be the four speeds of the hauling car.

Mr. J. Brown :—

The surface of the roads upon which the experiments are to be made
should be tested in two particulars :—

a) The smoothness.
(6) The hardness.

The smoothness of the roads should be tested by means of his viagraph,
to which he suggests the addition of a skate with the curved outline
corresponding to a wheel.

For the hardness an apparatus in which the weighted stamper is raised
and lowered at intervals might be used, the amount of yield in the road
being autographically recorded,

Mr. A. Mallock presented a design for a dynamometer using a single
wheel. The arguments for such were as follows :—-

ey This requires at most only half the number of experimental
wheels.

(b) Changes from one form of wheel to another can be made more
rapidly.

(c) The tractive force can be more regularly measured.

(d) The effective load carried by the wheel can be known with
certainty.

Mr. Mallock’s designs for the single-wheel dynamometer may be

4.06 REPORT—1901.

roughly said to consist of a castor frame in which the single wheel is

held, the wheel being capable of being loaded to any required amount.

The castor frame is attached to the tractor, the pull on the wheel or

tractive force being taken through a bell crank frame on to a small ram,

so that by fluid pressure the tractive force can be continuously recorded.
The following are Mr. Mallock’s general suggestions :—

1. Variable radius of wheel, load, and speed. Begin with five wooden
wheels, with iron tyres 2 inches wide ; diameter of wheels, 5 feet, 4 feet,
3 feet, 2 feet, 1 foot. These to be tried each with increasing loads, beginning,
say, at 500 lb., and at two, four, six, eight, and ten miles per hour.

In the first few sets of experiments small increments would be made
of the loads, as it is probable that for each kind and state of road there
may be one or more critical pressures. Experience will show how large
the increments may be without loss of accuracy in the resistance-in-
terms-of-load curve. If suitable apparatus is used it might be expected
that a complete series of experiments, both for variations of radius and
load, could be completed in a day.

2, The experiments should be repeated with the roads in various
conditions of wetness. After the variations of resistance in terms of
radius and load have been well worked out, one or two diameters might
be selected with which to try variations in the width of the tyre. The
widths should range from 1 inch to 10 inches.

3. Trials might then be made of various classes of tyres, such as solid
rubber, pneumatic tyres, de.

4. Some method should be devised to classify and describe the con-
dition of the roads.

5. Every series of experiments should begin and end with a trial of
some particular wheel for the sake of reference.

Sir David Salomons :—

All vehicles to be loaded to 1 ton, 14 or 2 tons, as the case may be, to
avoid calculations,

Gradients to be taken by percentages, say 2, 24, 5, 74, 10, 124, and
15 per cent.

Nature of surface classified, such as asphalte dry, wet, and greasy ;
wood dry, wet, and greasy ; macadam dry, wet, muddy, freshly laid,
worn, very worn.

Experiments to be made on roads laid with syenite, granite, Maidstone
stone, Sevenoaks gravel, flint.

Also when rough laid before rolling and after rolling.

Also cinder, sand, beach, and other roads.

Traction measured when from standstill at two, five, ten, twelve,
fifteen, eighteen, twenty, twenty-five, and thirty miles per hour.

Wind and air resistance to be calculated from actual registering
apparatus to give net results and air resistance.

Air experiments might further be made thus :—

Flat front of vehicle and same at back built of light board.
Front conical to cut air and back flat.

Front and back both conical.
Wheels might be steel, solid rubber, pneumatic tyres, flat, and rounded.
Various diaineters of wheels, those generally adopted, and a few trials

ON THE SMALL SCREW GAUGE. 4.07

with wheels of greatly larger diameter, say 6-foot front and back wheels
equal, and of different diameters, first larger in front, then larger behind.

Small Screw Gauge.—Report of the Commuattee, consisting of Sir
W. H. Preece (Chairman), Lord Kexvin, Sir F. J. BRAMWELL,
Sir H. Trueman Woop, Major-Gen. WEBBER, Col. Wark, Lieut.-
Col. Crompron, A. Srrou, A. Le NeEvE Foster, C. J. HEwITT,
G. K. B. Evpuinstone, E. Riec, C. V. Boys, J. Marsan
GorHam, O. P. CLements, W. Taytor, Dr. R. T. GLAZEBROOK,

_ and W. A. Price (Secretary), appointed to consider means by which
Practical Effect can be given to the introduction of the Screw Gauge
proposed by the Association in 1884.

Tue Committee report that the present condition of the matter sub-
mitted to them is as follows :—

In the report presented at the meeting of the Association which was
held at Bradford in 1900 it was recommended that the shape of the
thread of the British Association screw gauge for the use of instrument
makers should be altered in the following particulars for all screws from
No. 0 to No. 11 inclusive.

For screws.—That the designating numbers, pitches, outside diameters,
and the common angle of 474° remain unchanged ; but that the top and
bottom of the thread shall be cylindrical, showing flats in section, and that
the depth of the thread shall be increased by one-tenth of the pitch, the
diameter of the solid core being in consequence diminished by one-fifth of
the pitch.

For nuts.—That the designating numbers, the pitches, the diameters
of the clear holes, and the common angle of 474° remain unchanged ; but
that the top and bottom of the thread shall be cylindrical, showing flats
in section, and that the depth of the thread shall be increased by one-tenth
of the pitch.

The effect of these alterations is as follows :—

The threads of the screws and taps are of a very simple form, being
cut with a single point tool or grinding wheel, with straight sides and a
flat top, and the top of the thread is part of a cylinder. Though the
form of the bottom of the thread depends on the correct grinding of the
end of the tool, great accuracy is unimportant, as the screws and nuts do
not come into contact there.

The threads of the nuts and ring gauges will be accurate in proportion
_as are the taps used to cut them, the edge of the thread forming the
through hole being part of a cylinder.

The actual differences between the screws and nuts of the old form
and that recommended are so small that it is believed the old stocks will
in practice be interchangeable with the new screws, so that the amount of
inconvenience caused by the change will be exceedingly small.

The British Association screw gauge has been in use in England for
seventeen years. Many firms in England have originated the threads
and constructed gauges for sale or for their own use, but the difficulty of
producing them is great, and the market obtainable may have been

408 REPORT—1901.

insufficient to induce them to perfect the processes necessary for making
them accurately interchangeable. In short, the British Association screw
gauge of 1884 was of too complicated a form to allow of its accurate
realisation except at a cost which has proved prohibitive.

That very accurate gauges with rounded threads can be produced is
not disputed, but the difficulty of doing so for small screws is very great.
The names of three firms in America and of one in Germany have been
proposed to the Committee as being competent, and probably willing, to
undertake the production of gauges and tools of the rounded thread. The
Birmingham Small Arms Company, who produce interchangeable work on
a very large scale, and to a high degree of perfection, use only round-
topped screws, fitting all over, for bicycle work ; and Mr. Clements
exhibited gauges used by that firm illustrating his paper read before the
Section at Bradford. This firm does not produce these gauges for sale.
The American firm of Pratt & Whitney have manufactured a large
number of sets of gauges and screwing tools for the English Government,
but declined to submit these to the Committee on the ground that they
were not sufficiently accurate to satisfy us. After long delay they
submitted to us three specimens, which were reported upon by this
Committee at the Dover meeting. Though the best we had seen, they
were distinctly inferior to the screws used in the ordinary micrometers
purchasable in tool shops, which have threads of the character which
this Committee has recommended for adoption.

While the round thread is only produced satisfactorily by a very few
firms, who have made a special study of this class of work, the Committee
believe that the form of thread they have proposed can be made in
any fairly equipped tool room; and that this facility in producing or
obtaining the necessary appliances must very greatly encourage the
maintenance of an accurate standard in small screws, to promote which
has been the object in the view of the Committee. If, on the other hand,
these tools and gauges are very special, and perhaps costly, appliances,
obtained only by the refined processes of certain factories, their use
in workshops will extend slowly. The Committee aim at putting the
matter on such a footing that the common everyday appliances in the
hands of workmen shall be of a good order of accuracy, and this is
only possible if they are produced easily and cheaply.

It is not suggested by the Committee that the form of thread
recommended is the best for all purposes and for all sizes of screws, and
they have expressly excluded sizes of screws below No. 11 British Associa-
tion gauge, which are produced by pressure and not by cutting. Their
recommendation applies only to the screws used in instrument making
and similar trades for assembling parts, of which screws a large
proportion—perhaps 95 per cent.—are of brass. Considerations affecting
the use of screws for other purposes have been put before the Committee,
especially by Mr. Clements in the case of bicycle and gun screws, and by
Mr. Taylor in the case of lens screws. These have thrown suggestive
light on the question before the Committee, and will be closely considered
by them if reappointed.

Since the last report the Committee’s proposals have attracted much
attention, but no sets of gauges or tools of the new thread have been
submitted to them, and so far their recommendation has had no practical
result. They are informed, however, that one firm of manufacturers in
England is occupied in producing tools and gauges for their own use, and

ON THE SMALL SCREW GAUGE. 4.09

if they succeed in producing them of satisfactory accuracy will submit
them to the Committee.

Mr. O. P. Clements, the author of a paper on screw threads used in
bicycles, read before the Section at Bradford, has been elected to the
Committee.

Mr. W. Taylor, who has taken a leading part in the standardisation of
the screws of photographic lenses, and has been in communication with
the Committee, has also been elected a member.

Dr. R, T. Glazebrook has been elected a member of the Committee.

Correspondence has passed between the Committee and Dr. R. T. Glaze-
brook, the Director of the National Physical Laboratory, respecting the
examination of screw gauges, and the following arrangements have been
made :—

The National Physical Laboratory will undertake to examine and to
report upon gauges of the British Association submitted to them.

The Committee have applied the grant of 45/. made to them at Bradford
to the purchase of apparatus for the examination of gauges by the National
Physical Laboratory, and have appointed Mr. C. V. Boys, Lieut.-Colonel
Crompton, Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, Mr. W. A. Price, and Colonel Watkin
to be a sub-Committee for the expenditure of the grant. The Committee
are of opinion that the previous grant of 45/7, made in 1900, will be
insufficient to purchase the necessary apparatus, and recommend their
reappointment, with a grant of 45/.

Ethnological Survey of Canada.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor D, P. PENHALLOw (Chairman), the late Dr. GEORGE
M. Dawson (Secretary), Mr. E. W. Braproox, Professor A. C.
Happon. Mr. E. S. Harrnanp, Sir J. G. Bourrinor, Mr. B.
SuLte, Mr. C. Hiti-Tout, Mr. Davin Boyte, Mr. C. N. BELL,
Professor E. B. Tytor, Professor J. Mavor, Mr. C. F. Hunter,
and Dr. W. F. Ganona. :

In recording the work of the past year we are called upon to notice the
very sudden decease of Dr. G. M. Dawson, which occurred at Ottawa en
March 2, 1901, as the result of bronchitis. Dr. Dawson had been
identified with the work of this Committee from the time of its organisa-
tion, and he served at first as its Chairman, and later as its Secretary,
which position he held at the time of his death. His well known ethno-
logical studies in connection with the Indians of the Pacific coast and the
keen practical interest which he constantly manifested in the prosecution
of such work gave special weight to his connection with this Committee
the object of which commanded his warmest sympathy and his deepest
interest ; and we are keenly sensible of the great loss we have sustained
in the removal of one whose broad interest in the progress of scientific
research, and whose intelligent appreciation of the many difficult problems
connected with the prosecution of ethnological work in a country where
the conditions are changing so rapidly, gave him exceptional qualifications
for the guidance of our work and imparted to those especially engaged in
collecting data a never-failing stimulus and enthusiasm.

Renewed negotiations with certain of the provincial Governments
have been opened during the year with a view to having the work of this
Committee placed upon a more permanent basis, and it is hoped that
favourable results may appear before our next annual report is made.

410 REPORT—1901.

Dr. Ganong has undertaken the organisation of systematic work in
New Brunswick, with special reference to the remnants of Indian tribes
in that section of the country, and a somewhat definite statement of
progress in this direction may be anticipated for the next report.

The anthropometric work of the Committee has been in progress for
the last three years, and material is steadily accumulating which will
ultimately be placed in competent hands for final analysis.

Mr. Léon Gérin, whose very acceptable work upon the Indians of
Lorette was reported upon last year, has continued his studies with
reference to the Iroquvis of Caughnawaga; but the material is not
sufficiently advanced to make it available for the purposes of the present
report.

; Mr. A. F. Hunter has shown continuous activity in the ethnology of
Ontario. He has published in the ‘ Archeological Report of Ontario’ for
1900 his third contribution to the bibliography of Ontario archeology.
In volume iii. of the ‘Ontario Historical Society’ he has also published
an article on ‘The Ethnographical Elements of Ontario.’ This paper was
prepared in the line of the investigations of this Committee, and, as in the
case of the contributions by Mr. Sulte, it will serve as an important basis
for further investigations. Its importance and the fact that the place of
first publication would secure only a limited circulation made it desirable
that a certain number of extra copies should be secured by the Committee
for use in its special work. These are now available, and a copy is
transmitted herewith.

Mr. Hill-Tout has continued his studies of the Salish tribes of British
Columbia. His report for this year deals chiefly with the Halkomé/lem
tribes of the Lower Fraser. The evidence, both from his archeological
investigations and from his linguistic studies, leads him to conclude that
these tribes are comparatively late comers in their present territory, and
that the original undivided home of the Salish stock was not on the shores
and bays or tidal rivers of this coast, each tribe or division having
separate and distinct names for the various kinds of fish and other marine
products, which could not conceivably have been the case had they lived
together here, since fish formed the principal portion of their food from
time immemorial, as their midden-heaps testify. Their stories and myths
accounting for the origin or presence of the salmon and other forms of
marine life in these waters are also widely dissimilar, plainly showing
that they have been independently evolved since the separation of the
tribe into its present divisions.

Another important result has been reached by a comparative study of
the philosophy and social customs of the Salish tribes. It has been found
that their beliefs and customs furnish us with the steps by which the
peculiar totemism of the northern tribes of this coast is reached. It is
seen to be the natural outgrowth and development of an earlier fetishism,
the different cultural planes of the Salish presenting very clearly the
intermediate steps by which the former gave rise to the latter.

The linguistic part of the report, to which the author has devoted
much time and study, forms a valuable addition to our knowledge of the
Salish tongue. It presents a comprehensive exposition of the grammatical
structure of two important dialects of this family, to which are added
examples of native text and extensive glossaries of Kwa’nthen and
Teil’qéuk terms,

The Committee desire to be reappointed, with a grant of 30/., in
addition to the balance of $46.15 in hand. The Committee recommend

ON NATURAL HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY OF MALAY PENINSULA, 41]

that Mr. ©. Hill-Tout, of Abbotsford, British Columbia, be appointed
Secretary, and the Rev. John Campbell, of Montreal, a member of the
Committee.

Natural History and Ethnography of the Malay Peninsula.—Second
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. C. H. Reap (Chavr-
man), Mr. W. Crooks (Secretary), Professor A. MACaLIsTER, and
Professor W. RipGEway.

Tue Committee have received the following report from Mr. W. W.
Skeat, the leader of the expedition in continuation of the report presented
last year :—

Second Report on Cambridge Exploring Expedition to the Malay Provinces
of Lower Siam. Drawn up by W. W. SKEAT.

Tn continuation of my report of last year (in which the route taken by the
Malay States Expedition was described) I have the honour to forward a
report descriptive of the ethnographica! material collected in so far as it
is possible for me to do so under existing conditions.

I propose also, for convenience’ sake, to preface the ethnographical
part of the report with a few general remarks on the collections made in
the other departments of science which were represented on the staff of
the expedition.

Notes on Zoology.

Zoology.— An extensive collection of Vertebrates was made, but this
group has been, comparatively speaking, so well worked that the interest
of the collection is more likely to consist in extending the range of
species already known than in the making of new or startling additions
to our existing information about the Peninsula. About three or four
new species have, however, already been reported.

A few of the most interesting points about the entire collection, from
a zoological point of view, are :—

1. The discovery of the first two species of Peripatus found in the
Malay Peninsula.

About thirteen specimens of Peripatus (comprising two species) were
collected by members of the expedition.

The first species was first collected on Bukit Besar (3,000 ft.), in Patani,
by Mr. R. Evans, and the second some time later by Mr. F. F. Laidlaw
at Kuala Aring, in Kelantan, both localities being in the East Coast States.
A third species was collected some months afterwards (and independently
of the expedition) by Mr. Butler in the West Coast State of Selangor.
All three species are included by Mr. Evans in a new genus which he has
called ‘ Eoperipatus.’ !

A point of great interest (Mr. Evans tells me) is that in the earlier
stages of development (e.g., in the size and structure of ovum) they
resemble the Australian forms, but at a later period (e.g., in the size of
embryo at birth), they more nearly approximate to the American forms,
to which anatomically they also bear so strong a resemblance that they
have been included in the same sub-family (of Peripatide). Mr. Evans

1 Quart. J. Mier. Se., vol. xliv., Pt. IV. n.s.

A412 REPORT-—1901.

concludes that the Peripatidee must once have had a common centre of
distribution either in Africa or in some lost continental tract which
formerly afforded a means of land communication between Africa, the
Malay region, and South America.

2. The collection of Spiders and other Arachnids, of which more than
one third have been determined as new by M. E. Simon (Paris), the great
authority on this group.

3. The collection of Insects.

4. The collection of Oligocheta (the majority of which are new).

5. A good piece of work is Mr. Evans’s account of the formation of
the gemmule in Lphydatia.

The information about the rest of the collection is not yet fully avail-
able. I append, however, for convenience’ sake, a table showing the groups
to which the specimens collected belong, together with a list of the
authorities who have kindly consented to work them out.

Freshwater Sponges 1 new species Described as Lphydatia blem- |

Marine Sponges Few | bingia by R. Evans, M.A,
B.Sc., in ‘Quart. Jour. Mier.
Sci.,’ vol, xliv. p. 71

Miss I. Sollas

Medusze 2 or 3 R. T. Giinther (Oxford)
Alcyonaria | Few Professor 8. J. Hickson (Manches-
ter), M.A. (Downing College)
Turbellaria Many species, mostly | F. F. Laidlaw, B.A. (Trinity
new | College)
Cestoda, Trematoda, | Few A. E. Shipley, M.A. (Christ’s
Nematoda College)
Oligocheta Not less than 16 | Desciibed by F. HE. Beddard,

species, of which M.A., F.R.S., in ‘Proc. Zool.
at least 10 are new Soc.,’ 1900, p. 891!

Polycheta Few A. Willey, M.A., D.Se.

Sipunculoidea Probably 4 or 5 | W.F. Lanchestcr, M.A. (King’s
species College)

Crustacea Considerable number 3 Ws

Peripatus Two species R. Evans, M.A. (‘Q. J. Mier. Sc.,’

vol. xliv., Pt. IV. ns.)

Myriapoda Few F. G. Sinclair, M.A. (Trinity
| College)
Arachnida Not less than 139 | H. Simon (Paris) v. ‘P.Z.8.,’ 1901

species, of which
48 species and 4
sub-species are new
| Insects — Paper on habits by N, Annan- |
I dale, in ‘ P.Z.S.,’ 1900, p. 837 |
|
|
|

| Lepidoptera —_ | Professor E. B. Poulton, F-.R.S.
| (Oxford)
Hymenoptera — P. Cameron v. ‘ P.Z.S.,’ 1901
Hemiptera —_ W. i. Distant

Orthoptera (part) — M. Burr (Oxford)
Orthoptera (Phasmidae) — D. Sharp, F.R.S.
Odonata (Dragon-flies) | About 60 species, | F. F. Laidlaw, B.A.
probably 10 new
Coleoptera = D. Sharp and F, F. Laidlaw
Mosquitos _ F. V. Theobald, M.A. (St. John’s
' College)

1 Cp. also F. E. Beddard on a freshwater Annelid of the genus Bothrioneuron
[B. iris, nu. sp.] in Pt. I. 1901 (p. 81) of the P.ZS.

ON NATURAL HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY OF MALAY PENINSULA. 413

Lamellibranchiata and | About 70 species E. A. Smith (British Museum)
afew other Molluscs |
Other Molluscs (Gas- | Including about 20 | F. F. Laidlaw
teropoda, &c.) species of terres-
trial Operculates,
of which probably
6 or 7 are new
Other Molluscs (Slugs, | About 25 species, | W. E. Collinge (Birmingham)

&e.) probably 5 or 6 new,

Cuttle-fishes | 2or3 W. E. Hoyle, M.A. (Manchester)
Fishes | Numerous L. W. Byrne, B.A. (Trinity
| College)

Amphibia | About 29 species Described by F. F. Laidlaw in

| (mone new) ©P.ZS.,’ 1900, p. 883
Reptiles | Not less than 80 | F. F. Laidlaw

species, 2 or 3 |
probably new
Birds About 140 species | Paper by J. L. Bonhote, B.A.
| (Trinity College), ‘P.Z.S..
Pt. I. 1901, p. 57

Mammals About 55 species, | Described by J. L. Bonhote, B.A.
1 new (Trinity College), in ‘P.Z.S.,
1900, p. 869

Specimens not yet distributed.

Corals Considerable number , Probably J. S. Gardiner, M.A.
| (Caius College)
Echinoderms Moderate number Unassigned. These were to have |

| been described by F. P. Bed-
ford, B.A. (King’s College), who

| died Oztober 1900
Nemertines 2 or 3 Possibly R. C. Punnett, B.A.

(Caius College)
Hirudinea —_— - Unassigned
Polyzoa | 1 or 2 species 278. ¥. Harmer, F.R.S.
|
Botany.

Upwards of 1,000 species of dried plants were collected—about 430
by Mr. Gwynne- Vaughan and upwards of 600 by Mr. R. H. Yapp.

I understand from Mr. H. Ridley, M.A. (Superintendent of Gardens
and Forests, Singapore) that both collections include specimens of much
interest.

In both cases the specimens consisted mainly of Phanerogams and
Vascular Cryptogams. They included a number of new flowering plants
and probably one or two Ferns.

Messrs. Gwynne-Vaughan and Yapp have both been engaged in
anatomical research on the material, preserved in spirit, collected during
the expedition.

A small collection of Algze have been distributed between Messrs.
F. F. Blackman and G. 8. West, both of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

A few Fungi were also collected. They will probably be undertaken
by Mr. R. H. Biffen, of Emmanuel College.

414 REPORT—1900.

Geology.

With regard to the progress made in dealing with the geological
specimens, Professor T. McKenny Hughes kindly sends me the following
notes :—

The occurrence of fossils on some of the images of Buddha sug-
gested a search for the quarry from which the rock was obtained out
of which the images were carved, and it was at length found on the
western flank of the great central axis of the Peninsula. The finer rock
is in places highly fossiliferous ; the coarser has so far yielded only traces
and suggestions of orgarisms. The collectors very wisely brought back
large lumps of the portions which appeared to be fossiliferous, and by
breaking these up with greater care than could have been used in the
field, we have obtained a sufficiently large number of well preserved
species to enable us to determine the geological horizon of the deposit.

There is a trilobite (Proetus), encrinite stems and arms; several species
of lamellibranchs and of brachiopods, among which last there is at least
one species of Chonetes. There is a well preserved and highly ornamented
Pleurotomaria and a Cephalopod, which, by its horseshoe lobes, confirms
what is suggested by the general facies, namely, that the deposit belongs
to the highest beds of the Carboniferous, or rather, perhaps, to beds inter-
mediate between the Carboniferous and the overlying system to which
the compromise name of Permo-Carboniferous has been applied.
The rocks brought home fall into two divisions: (1) a grit of varying
coarseness, consisting almost entirely of siliceous grains with occasionally
larger included fragments of quartz and some foreign material ; and
(2) a very fine rock in which, however, the constituents appear to be the
same as those in the coarser rock, only more finely divided. Both rocks
are jointed, and the joints are often picked out by bright coloured oxides,
and in the case of the coarser rock by thin mineral veins in which limonite
is conspicuous. The microscopic examination of both finer and coarser
rocks confirms the views suggested by the macroscopic examination of the
coarser specimens. The chemical analysis shows that the rock is almost
entirely composed of silica, but it is evident that it has undergone much
mechanical and chemical alteration. There are evidences of strain
throughout ; the fossils are distorted, and some of the larger pebbles are
broken and the parts displaced by movements in the rock. It is clear
also from the character and condition of the fossils that there must have
been originally much carbonate of lime in the rock furnished by large
lamellibranchs and thick-shelled brachiopods. “The cavity where the
shell was is sometimes found lined with silicates, whereas no trace of the
carbonate of lime remains in it. The absence of carbonate of lime was
suggested by the sharp and undecomposed appearance of the carved work
which, though it had evidently been exposed to the weather and the action
of vegetation, nowhere showed the fretted surface of a calcareous rock.

ANTHROPOLOGY.
Notes on
I. Anthropometry.

There was so much heavy work to be done in other departments that
but little time could be devoted to this branch of science.

Such statistics, however, as it was possible to compile should be of |

—

ON NATURAL HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY OF MALAY PENINSULA. 415

especial interest, since it appears to be the first time that any systematic
observations have been made on the Malays of the east coast of the
Malay Peninsula.

As far as I have ascertained at present, abeut forty-four natives in
all were measured. Of these about thirty were East Coast Malays, and
the remainder (with the exception of one wavy-haired Sakai woman) were
aboriginal jungle-dwellers, with the dark skin and frizzly hair of the
Negrito type.

Upwards of twenty measurements were taken in the case of each
individual, and a number of observations were made with reference to
the colour and condition of skin, hair, and eyes, as well as various par-
ticulars bearing on the life of the individual measured.

The full measurements have not yet been thoroughly worked out, but
the records of height appear to be thoroughly consistent in indicating the
presence of two quite different standards of racial stature: (a) a high one,
(d) a low one.

(a) From 159-166 C. ; (6) from 151-156 C.

This largely confirms what has been written about the people of the
East Coast States by Mr. Hugh Clifford and others ; indeed, the differ-
ence of type is so marked that it could hardly fail to strike the ordinary
observer.

The men belonging to the first type—

(a) Are tall, fleshy, raw-boned, and bulkily made men, somewhat
resembling the Maori in general build.

Those belonging to the second type—

(6) Are short, with spare frame and comparatively slender lower
limbs—as different as a polo pony from a plough-horse.

The taller type largely predominates in the East Coast States of
Patani, Kelantan, and Trengganu, the centre of its racial focus lying in
the most central of the three States referred, 2.¢., in the State of
Kelantan.

Notes on

Il. Ethnography. ‘

An examination of the ethnographical specimens has served to
emphasise the importance of the area traversed, as one of the most vital
of the connecting links between Asiatic civilisation and savagery. An
interesting point is that this offshoot of the Mongolian race has adopted
a culture which appears to be almost fundamentally Indian.

Another point to which perhaps justice has hardly been done consists
in the immense value to Great Britain of her Malayan dependencies, the
volume of whose trade (not including Borneo and Sarawak) amounted in
the year 1900 to 51,900,000/.,' a figure which only falls short by a few
millions of the great import and export trade of Canada, which in the
same year amounted to 64,000,000/.2, Most of this trade is certainly
made by the Chinese ; but even apart from the commercial question, and
on merely general grounds, I think it is now being recognised that the
work of understanding our native fellow-subjects possesses a high
practical value, not only for science, but for government and trade, a

? Reckoning the dollar at 2s. ? Reckoning the dollar at 4s.

416 REPORT— 1901.

notable instance of which was to be seen in the labours of the late
Miss Kingsley.

With the additional material collected during the expedition it will
now, I think, be possible to lay the foundations of a reasonably exhaustive
ethnographical work dealing with the Malays of the Peninsula, their habits
and customs, their religion and their industries. For this work I have
already commenced to arrange the material. It would give me much
encouragement to feel that I had the approval of the Association in this
laborious task, which I have taken upon myself solely because work of
this particular description is unfortunately so unremunerative under
present conditions that nobody else could be found to undertake it at all.

As regards the method adopted for dealing with the material, my
object is to have all special points which lend themselves to such treat-
ment worked up by specialists in each particular*branch of knowledge,
aw method which, I trust, will give an increased value to the ultimate
result. Among those specialists who have most kindly undertaken to
work up special sections I may mention Dr. R. J. Lloyd, of Liverpool ; Mr.
W. L. H. Duckworth, Professor Wm. Ridgeway, Mr. H. Warington
Smyth, Mr. W. Rosenhain, Mr. H. Ling Roth, and others.

I shall proceed to a description of the material collected, though it is,
I fear, impossible to give a really adequate description of the collection
within the limits of the present paper.

Dress.

The working dress of the jungle Malays in Kelantan and Patani was
of the scantiest description, a mere waist-cloth being at times the only
garment used. As we worked further south, however, towards the
Trengganu and Pahang frontiers, this free exposure of the person
diminished continually, until in Trengganu town we found the sareng
frequently worn as low as to the ankles, exactly as in most of the States
under British protection. .

The specimens of dress collected consisted chiefly of sarongs, the most
valuable specimens of which (presented to the expedition by the Raja
Muda of Patani and the Sultan and Raja Muda of Kelantan) were
unfortunately stolen after they had been handed over to the expedition’s
agent in Penang. In this way some unique specimens were lost. On the
other hand, a fairly complete set of named sarong patterns, showing the
arrangement of the threads in producing a great many varieties of the
Malay check patterns, were obtained, this point being an especially
interesting one, as it exhibits in the Malay Peninsula an exact parallel
to the existing Scotch (and former Irish) tartans. Among the miscel-
laneous articles of attire collected may be mentioned a series of head-
dresses, shoes, sandals, &c., and some curious scts of toilet requisites
carried on the person (including silver tweezers, cane tooth-brush, silver
ear-pick, and silver tongue-scraper), and a set of exceedingly ingenious
and primitive folding palm-leaf umbrellas, which are constructed on an
entirely different principle from those of Europe.

Ornamentation,

Among the Malays of the East Coast and Kedah, as among those of
the British possessions, the adornment of personal belongings and house
furniture is seldom rich, and is the exception rather than the rule. In
certain departments, however, with which Moslem tradition has not

NATURAL HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY OF MALAY PENINSULA. 417

interfered, the Malay artificer shows no marked inferiority to his fellow
worker of China or Hindustan. The work of Malay gold and silver smiths
in the Peninsula may in fact generally be distinguished from that of their
Chinese and Indian con/fréeres in the same region by its being less florid
and in juster taste than the latter, and finer in execution than that of
the former.

This question of ornamentation is of especial interest on the East
Coast, where Mohammedanism may be seen struggling for the mastery,
and not always getting the better of the spirit of the people. Most
important in this connection are the rare traces of anthropomorphic and
zoomorphic decoration, ¢.g., in some of the axe-helves brought back by the
expedition, which bear an astonishing likeness to certain Polynesian
designs, as well as in the ornithomorphic ornaments, which, like the
frigate bird to which Dr. Haddon has drawn attention in neighbouring
islands, play so large a part in the East Coast rites of marriage and
circumcision. In the case of the latter ceremony the anomaly is especially
remarkable, the candidates for circumcision being usually first paraded
in a chariot representing some animal or bird, a thing which I have never
seen among the West Coast Malays, who are in closer touch with
civilisation.

East Coast designs (more especially those of animals) may conveniently
be studied in the extensive series of Malay ‘fancy ’ cake-moulds collected
from the various districts through which we passed. I regard this series
as an important one, the designs being very fairly representative of this
branch of Malay decorative work. The objects represented include the
lion, elephant, bull, goat, and several kinds of tortoise and fish ; the rose
and other flowers ; the axe and various forms of the Malay dagger, or
kris. For the same purpose I obtained some fine specimens of mat-work,
basket-work, needlework, weaving, photographs of decorative house-
walls, pottery stamps, and three beautiful specimens of Kedah water-
chatties, one of which is decorated with a floral design, and the other two
with representations of fish, which are depicted as swimming round the
waist of the chatty.

Weapons.

Among the Malayan daggers the most interesting was perhaps what
Professor Louis calls the ‘kingfisher’ variety of the Malay kris, the
hilt of which represents a sitting figure with an abnormally long nose,
which in some cases reaches a length of several inches, the body of the
figure itself being only about 3 inches high. This particular dagger has a
very long scabbard, and is frequently if not usually inserted in the belt
in the middle of the wearer’s back. To draw it the wearer gives a back-
ward kick, which, just touching the bottom of the scabbard, drives the
hilt upwards between the shoulders, where it can be seized by the hand
(over the shoulder) and drawn for action.

Hunting and Fishing, §c.

As regards the series of traps, snares, and nets used by Jungle Malays,

of which a large collection was made, the greatest ingenuity, as well as a
considerable knowledge of the life-history of the animal, is often exhibited
in their construction. Magic as a rule plays a large part in the
processes employed, and I hope in due course to be able to work out this
ag interesting side of Malay ethnography.

EE

418 REPORT—1901.

An ingenious method was investigated of catching male elephants
(instead of corralling them) by means of a snare set under a tree to which
a decoy (female) elephant was tethered. This method of elephant-catching
requires, of course, a cord of immense thickness and strength.

Fire-making and Cooking Implements.

Some interesting specimens of the cocoanut scraper, two representing
animals, and one a man prostrating himself in prayer, were obtained at
Singora. But perhaps the most interesting objects collected under the
above heading from an ethnological point of view were a set of the tire
syringes (g enerally manufactured from bone or horn) which are still used
in some up-country villages for the production of fire.

The collection of Malay cake-moulds has already been referred to.
Notes were also taken in detail of the methods of making many
kinds of Malay ‘fancy’ cakes and sweetmeats, as wel] as a number
of other dishes. The working out of my collection of notes upon
Malay cooking processes has been very kindly undertaken by Miss
Duckworth.

Coins,. Weights and Measures.

The collection of coins (native ‘cash’), weights and measures is
representative of all the important local States in which Siamese or Straits
money has not yet usurped the place of the native currency, as well as of
several in which the native currency has now long become completely
obsolete. The collection of coins includes two interesting gold dinars
from Jambu, in Patani, which are stamped with the figure of a bull, and
are probably of local coinage. They have some resemblance to a small
gold coin, formerly current in Achin (Sumatra), but are apparently
unrepresented in any British collection. This, indeed, appears also to be
the case with a large number of the specimens of tin cash. They are cast
in the form of trees, which are called cash trees, the three specimens of
which, obtained by the expedition, are, I believe, unique in this country.
The general type is that of the round cash, with a circular hole in the
centre, though one kind, the half-cash of Trengganu, is a solid round coin
(without the hole). In some of the designs Javanese aflinities may be
traced. Mr. H. Grueber and Mr. W. J. Rapson, of the British Museum,
have both seen these coins, and Mr. Rapson has most kindly measured
and weighed them. They have now, together with the weights and
measures, been handed to Professor Ridgeway, who has already done a
good deal towards working them out.

Sets of weights and measures were also obtained whenever possible in
each of the East Coast States. Some of these are stamped with the
stamp of the Raja, a charge for affixing which is made in several of the
States. The Malay ‘gantang’ roughly corresponds to our own gallon
measure. The ‘chupak’ represents the half cocoanut shell (of which it
usually consists), and this again is further subdivided.

Another valuable set from an ethnological point of view is that of the
primitive weighing machines in the shape of ungraduated steel-yards
which are used for weighing out fixed quantities of certain recognised
Bupstances, e.g., Salt, ‘blachan’ (the well-known strong-smelling Malay

‘prawn paste’), cotton, and tobacco. For weighing rice a much larger
variety is used, which may be made adjustable under certain circum
stances,

ON NATURAL HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY OF MALAY PENINSULA. 419

Trade.

A great many statistics were obtained, in passing, about trade, the
figures of imports and exports being obtained for five out of the seven
States which go to make up the old Malay country of Patani. In some
cases these figures were those for the first year in which the statistics
had been properly kept, a Siamese clerk having been appointed to do
the work on the previous first of April (the New Year's Day of the
Siamese). These statistics, therefore, may be taken as fairly reliable,
and as showing the character of the trade and the stage of development
of the people.

Agriculture.

A quantity of notes were collected about agriculture. Swamp-rice
(on the embankment system) and hill-rice were both grown as in the West
Coast States, the latter especially in ‘jungly ’ places.

In most parts of the Peninsula the Malays do not habitually use the
sickle, but those who do use it generally prefer to have it furnished
with teeth. Specimens of this instrument were obtained, as well as of an
ingenious variety which has a long wooden crook springing from the base
of the handle for drawing together the heads of rice before they are cut
with the blade. The habitual Malay (Peninsula) reaping knife consists
of a blade set in a horizontal piece of wood which is affixed transversely
to a short bamboo stick. The rice is often roughly threshed by striking
the heads of grain against the rungs of a short ladder of about three feet
in length, which is made to lean against the inside edge of a large tub,
but occasionally it is laid upon mats and trodden out by buffaloes, or in
smaller quantities by foot. I may add that buffaloes are similarly used
for breaking up the surface of the ground before the rice is planted.

Metal-work— General.

As regards Malay metal-work, Mr. W. Rosenhain (late of the
Engineering Department of Cambridge University) last year read a
paper before the Association, and more recently before the Institute, in
which he touched upon various points of Malay metallurgy in which
his experience was likely to prove useful. His investigations covered
a portion of my notes upon Malay kris-making, copper founding, chain
making, and goldsmith’s work.

LTronwork.

A series of specimens illustrating the Malay method of manufacturing
a waved and damascened ‘kris’ were collected at Trengganu, together with
detailed notes of the operation extending over three days, and photographs
of the blacksmiths at work in the forge. To produce the damask a ‘pile’
is made consisting of layers of iron : this is welded into a rod, and heated
and twisted into the shape required for the design of the damask (usually

~ some kind of a scroll). The scroll is laid between other layers and welded

until the edges of the welds of the scroll appear through the later layers.
The ‘ waves’ are produced by heating the entire blade and then cooling it
with water throughout except at the point where a ‘wave’ is required.
This portion being still red-hot gives way on being hammered, and a
repetition of the process with the blade reversed makes a single complete
‘wave.’ The Malay smith uses tool-iron, and seldom if ever smelts him-
self; but in one place I was shown what I believe to have been
telluric iron cropping out above the surface of the ground, and which I
EE?

4.20 REPORT—1901.

was assured was formerly manufactured into kitchen utensils, though un-
fortunately the smith had long left the neighbourhood, and I could get no
further information about it. The Malay smith makes all sorts of
weapons (chiefly daggers and knives) as well as agricultural implements
(axes and hoes).

Copper-work.

The manufacture of copper vessels which I witnessed in Kelantan and
other places is effected by the cire-perdue process, of which my notes con-
tain full details. Photographs were taken at various stages of the
operation, and the specimens include copper vessels in all stages, from the
making of the mould to the finished article, as well as specimens of tools
used by the operator. An alloy of tin, which is called by the Malays
‘white copper’! (for which it may be merely an inferior trade substitute,
in which case the name may be a mere tradition of twéaneg, or ‘ tooth-
and-egg’ metal, as it is sometimes called in the trade), is cast by an almost
identical (cire-perdwe) process.

Tin-work.

The trade of the tinsmith (which consists largely in the making of tin
oil lamps) is almost exclusively in Chinese hands, but certain branches of
it form special industries. Thus the casting of chains to serve as
weights for casting nets is a Malay industry, and is effected by means
of a very ingenious mould, which after casting a first series of links
can be taken to pieces and reversed so as to enable a second row to be
cast through the first, the combined series thus forming a chain.” Another
very important allied industry consists of the manufacture of the tin
coins or ‘cash,’ of which every petty State on the East Coast once had
its own type, but which are fast becoming obsolete in most localities. A
very interesting and important point (referred to above) about the manu-
facture of these ‘cash’ is that they are cast in the shape of trees, which
are called ‘cash trees,’ three specimens of which I was fortunate in obtain-
ing ; a fact which may possibly give fresh meaning to the ‘shaking of the

d
pagoda-tree, which was formerly so familiar a phrase with Englishmen.

Gold and Silver Smith.

A set of goldsmith’s tools, goldsmith’s balance and weights, goldsmith’s
crucible, and other articles used in his work were obtained for the expedi-
tion, making a very interesting series. An excellent photograph of the
goldsmith at work, showing his small portable furnace and bellows, was
also taken, and details of the methods ascertained which in this case at
all events are clearly of Indian origin. The most interesting process (of
which full notes were taken) was perhaps that of reddening the gold,
which is effected by artificial means, and gives it a greatly enhanced value
in the eyes of Malay buyers.

Carpentry (Houses and Boats).

Photographs and notes were taken of the building of houses and of
boats. The information collected under this latter head is being incor-
porated in a monograph upon the boats of the Malay Peninsula by Mr. H.
Warington Smyth, the material being based upon my notes and the large
collection of Malay boats and boat-building models now in the Cambridge
University Museum.

1 White metal. ? Used to weight casting nets.

ON NATURAL HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY OF MALAY PENINSULA. 421

Sheath-making (Cabinet-work).

The making of sheaths and hilts (for knives and daggers) is a separate
industry about which full details were obtained, together with a complete
set of sheathmaker’s tools, including some very ingenious gauges for
measuring the depth of the hollow in a sheath.

Pottery.

I saw in several places the making of the unburnt article. A portion
of clay is separated from the heap, moistened, and kneaded partly by foot
and partly by hand. When sufliciently worked up it is ‘thrown’ on the
wheel, 2.¢., it is placed upon the centre of the potter’s wheel, which is a
species of small turn-table resting on a finely polished hard-wood
pedestal or block upon which it revolves, the lump of clay in the centre
being moulded by hand as it revolves with the wheel. With considerable
difficulty, owing to its being thought an unlucky object to sell, I succeeded
in buying one of these wheels as a specimen, together with the half-formed
vessel then standing upon it. When the shaping process is complete the
pots are decorated (the design being partly printed by means of the
stamps and partly traced according to requirements with a small spatula
or pointed stick), after which they are fired and piled in stacks in the open
until the time comes for their removal. Glaze is not used, but I have
seen pots being painted with a species of dark-red stain or ‘ paint,’ as
the Malays call it (made by grinding a kind of laterite and mixing it
with water, when it is applied to the vessel ‘by way of ornament,’ as
the Malays say.

Rope and String Making.

A great deal of rope and string was being made at Trengganu, much
more than in any other place visited by the expedition. Exhaustive lists
of the substances of which the raw material was composed were made in
more than one locality, the processes investigated, and several kinds of
apparatus used for the twisting of the strands, one of them a species of
box with pins revolving in opposite directions, were purchased.

Mat and Basket Work.

A large number of mats and baskets were obtained by the expedition,
but it has not yet been possible to do anything towards working them out,
though Mr. H. Ling Roth has kindly offered to undertake the former.
The mats which were made by the women were usually composed of
woven strips of mengkuang (screw-palm) or pandanus leaf, the latter pro-
ducing the finer article, but various other vegetable substances were used.
For the mat-work wall-screens of a house flattened stems of bamboo were

combined to form many striking patterns, whilst for the wali screens of a
rice barn the flattened stem of a creeper was used. Mat-work was also
largely used for sails. When the strands, which are made by slitting up
the leaves into strips with a toothed instrument, are dry enough, the
operator, sitting on the floor of her house, presses down the even strands
with her foot or a ruler-like implement constructed for the purpose, at
the same time lifting up the odd strands under which she proceeds to push
the even ones with a species of wooden bodkin. Many of the sleeping
mats we saw (e.g., those on the Aring River) were of beautiful workman-
ship, and found a ready market in the East Coast States. Baskets are

4.22 REPORT—1901.

made of bamboo, cane, and many other vegetable substances, and though
they are as a rule made plain are not unfrequently (especially when
used for holding rice) decorated with tasteful patterns.

Spinning and Weaving.

The set of apparatus used for spinning and weaving forms one of the
most valuable series brought back by the expedition. The spinning
industry is already as nearly as possible obsolete, being only practised by
the poorest of the poor in out-of-the-way jungle districts, and the
implements when seen had to be purchased at sight for whatever their
owners would accept in payment, as there was but small chance of meeting
with them again. The cotton is first passed through a small hand-mill or
gin (of which two specimens were obtained) for the removal of the hard
black seeds. It is then scutched by means of a small bow (one specimen
purchased), the string of which was twanged with a short piece of bamboo
(also purchased), flattened, and rolled a little on a special board with a
specially made rolling-pin (both purchased), spun off on the point of a
spinning-wheel of the Indian (Behar) type, and wound off on to a winder
(purchased), stretched on a rack (purchased), dipped and brushed with
the fruit of the nipah-palm (brushes purchased), dyed and transferred to
the spools which were hung on a spool-carrier (also purchased). So far
as the spinning goes there does not seem to have been any important
divergence from Indian methods. The warp-laying, however, appears’ to
be done on a system for which I have as yet failed to find any parallel.
In India (Dacca) two parallel rows or rods about four feet apart are
planted in the ground, and the warp-layer, holding a small wheel of warp
yarn in each hand, passes the latter over one of the parts, and then walks
along the rows laying down the threads and crossing them. In parts of
Sumatra this method may, I believe, be seen, tut the Malay warp-layer of
the Peninsula, on the other hand, arranges the spools in an elongated frame,
which may be compared to a ladder, of which the spools form the steps or
rungs. This frame or spool-ladder is suspended horizontally from the
roof-timbers of the house, and on the floor beneath it is deposited a second
frame, which consists of a number of long pegs (probably corresponding to
the rods used by the Indian method), which are fitted firmly into a couple
of boards, the distance between which may be varied by shifting a central
board which runs between them. Round the pegs just referred to the
warp-threads are laid, the threads being drawn down as required from the
spools lying in the frame above the warp-layer’s head. It will be
interesting to discover a parallel to this process, which is, I believe, widely
known among Malayan tribes.

The Malay shuttle again presents a marked divergence from the
Indian type, though the methods of pattern making (by tying and dyeing
the threads, &c.) appear to be similar to Indian methods, and are identical
with those followed in other parts of the Malay region, e.g., in Borneo and
Sumatra. Throughout the Siamese-Malay States I collected specimens
illustrating the various stages in the process of dyeing, to show the
arrangement of the threads in the formation of the favourite Malay
check-patterns. In order to complete the series I purchased a Malay
loom, with the cloth in process of making, which is now with the rest
of the ethnographical specimens brought back by the expedition. The
specimens also include embroidery and needlework frames.

ON NATURAL HISTORY AND. ETHNOGRAPHY OF MALAY PENINSULA. 423

Miscellaneous Industiies.

Other interesting industrial specimens which were obtained were (1)
the grooved hard-wood block on which waxed cloths are polished by means
of a cowry shell, the pressure being applied by a springy rod, the upper
end of which is made fast to one of the roof timbers (cowry shell, rod, and
cloth also purchased, and photograph taken of operator), to which may be
added (2) an oil-press for manufacture of cocoanut oil. (3) Model of a
sugar-cane press, worked on an ingenious elaboration of the cog-
principle. (4) A tobacco-cutting machine. The tobacco leaf is pushed
along a species of shallow trough till it reaches a hole (at the end of the
trough), and is then sliced off with a sharp knife as it is pushed through
the hole.

Of non-industrial specimens I may specially mention the sets of Malay
fighting-cock spurs and the series of Malay instruments of music,
including Malay fiddles, flutes, and the primitive instruments made of
bamboo which are found everywhere among Jungle Malays. I may here,
too, mention the phonographic records (so kindly undertaken by Dr. Lloyd),
most of which were records of the songs of the aborigines, though a few
were those of Jungle Malays.

Prisons and Instruments of Torture.

The system of confining prisoners in small cages or kennels about
6 feet by 2 feet by 6 feet is rapidly becoming obsolete, but still lingers
on in a few localities. We brought away with us most of the typical
furniture of a Malay lock-up, including the huge bamboo yoke, or ‘ cangue,’
which the prisoner wears round his neck on his way to jail, and which
consists of a couple of big bamboos about 10 feet in length fastened
together with pins. In addition to the cangue were obtained (1) a small
beam which served as the local ‘stocks’; (2) apparatus for compressing
(crushing) the thumb or great toe; (3) apparatus for compressing
(crushing) the temples, a species of big nutcrackers the application of
which to the victim’s skull is said to have been frequently fatal ; (4)
apparatus for strangling condemned criminals. (5) Photographs were
also taken of two men who had their hands and feet lopped off for theft,
as well as of a number of prisoners who were confined in the kennels above
referred to.

Ceremonial Rites and Games.

A number of objects obtained by the expedition were connected with
ceremonial rites, especially marriage and circumcision, about both of
which ceremonies a large body of information was obtained.

Games were also carefully studied, full descriptions of many of them
being taken down as they were performed.

Popular Religion and Folklore.

A large number of the specimens and notes collected fall under this
heading, and these it is my intention to compare with the contents of my
book on Malay magic as soon as the opportunity offers. The notes taken
may be classified as follows :—

(1) Folk-tales and fables.
(2) Specimens and notes relating to popular religion and magic.
(3) General mythology and superstitions.

494, REPORT—1901.

Of the foregoing (1) a small selection of the best fables and folk-tales
has been made, and will now shortly appear, under the auspices of the
University Press. It is entitled ‘ Fables and Folk-tales from an Eastern
Forest.’ (2) The notes on religious ceremonies include detailed descrip-
tions of the rites connected with marriage, adolescence, and death ; annual
ceremonies for the expulsion of evil spirits from the villages by means of
spirit-boats ; invocations of the elephant-spirit, &c. ; hunting, fishing,
and trapping charms, and ceremonies performed by the medicine-man both
for purposes of divination and for the expulsion of evil spirits from sick
persons by means of good ones, as well as various spiritualistic perform-
ances such as the fish-trap dance, which was witnessed in several places.

Other of my notes describe the expulsion of evil spirits from inanimate
objects, e.g., fruit trees and crops, as well as various methods of working
upon nature by means of ‘make-believe,’ e.g., by the ceremony of taking
the rice-soul, by ceremonies for the production and prevention of wind
and rain, &.

This latter class includes a great many notes on superstitions about
natural phenomena, birds, beasts, &c., which will be valuable for pur-
poses of comparison with the beliefs held by the West Coast Malays.

Aborigines.

In order to deal with my notes upon the wild aborigines, I have
planned the outlines of a book, which I hope to publish at no very distant
date, in which they will be incorporated together with much of the
information previously collected by myself on the same subject as well as
that obtained from other writers. The information collected during the
expedition consisted of notes on physical characteristics, dress, ornaments,
weapons, hunting and fishing, food and cooking, agriculture and arts,
music, songs and dances, wedding and funeral ceremonies, medicinal and
other notes, mythology and superstitions, magic and religion, vocabularies
and language, and a variety of similar subjects.

A chapter on the measurements taken and the physical characteristics
of the aborigines is being worked up by Messrs. W. L. H. Duckworth
and Laidlaw. The phonographic records of their songs have been sent to
Dr. R. J. Lloyd, of Liverpool, the well-known phonetician, who has
already commenced work upon them. The vocabularies and grammatical
notes (the former consisting, I believe, of several thousand words) have
been sent to Mr. C. O. Blagden, who has kindiy undertaken to write the
chapter on the language.

Phrams.

As regards the Book of the Phrams, referred to in my last report, I
regret to say that I am not yet able to report much progress. The only
evidence as yet forthcoming has been of a negative character, though it is
nevertheless by no means without importance. The Phram-book has been
examined by Dr. Grierson, of the Linguistic Survey of India, who has
pronounced it not to be composed in any Indian dialect. What appears
to be required for its decipherment is a combined knowledge of Siamese
and Sanskrit, or Pali, a combination which has hitherto proved not very
easy to encounter.

ON SILCHESTER EXCAVATION. 495

Silchester Excavation.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr.
Artaur J. Evans (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myres (Secretary),
and Mr. E. W. BraBrooKk, appointed to co-operate with the NSil-
chester Hxcavation Fund Committee in their Hxcavations.

Tur Committee have to report that the excavations at Silchester in 1900
were begun early in May, and continued, with the usual break during
the harvest, until December 4.

The excavations were confined to the large area, containing in all
8 acres, situated between Jnsula XII (excavated in 1894) and Jnsula
XXII (excavated in 1899), and extending up to the north gate and town
wall. The area in question contains four inswle, which have been
numbered XXIII to XXVI.

Insula XXIII formed the northernmost of a series of unusually
large squares occupying the central portion of the town. A fair-sized
house at the south-west corner was uncovered by the late Rev. J. G.
Joyce in 1865 ; the recent excavations have revealed an additional series
of chambers on the north-east. Another house of large size with several
mosaic pavements was also uncovered on the east side of the insula, and
in the mouth of its courtyard was a small square building which may
have been devoted to sacred purposes. This had been built up round a
small and earlier structure of the same character. The other traces of
buildings in this inswla, despite its size, were singularly scanty, but the
rubbish pits and wells were unusually productive in objects of interest.
In pottery these yielded upwards of a hundred whole vesse!s of all kinds
and sizes, and from one of the wells was recovered another great hoard
of iron tools, mostly a smith’s, similar to that found in 1890 in Jnswla I,
but considerably larger numerically.

Insula XXIVV forms a long and narrow triangular strip, bounded on
the north by the town wall and its bank. Such strips have hitherto
proved more or less empty of buildings, but in this case it contained two
houses, one of which was of large size and of exceptional interest from
the peculiarity of its plan and the number of mosaic floors in it.

Insula XXV, a small triangular area next the north gate, contained
only two small structures, apparently connected with dyeworks.

Insula XX VI, though of some size, had in it at least two houses :
a small one on the west, and another in the south-east quarter which
was partially uncovered by Mr. Joyce in 1866. Its complete plan has
now been revealed. There are also traces of a ruined house near the
south-west angle. Besides the houses, Znswla XXVI contained traces
of at least three other structures. One of them was represented by a
solid circular platform with a cement floor 27 feet in diameter, enclosed
_ apparently by woodwork or half-timbering. The pit and wells in this
insula were few in number, and yielded few objects of interest.

Taken as a whole, the results of the season’s work were fully up to
the average, both in the character of the buildings uncovered and the
variety and number of objects found in and about them. The quantity
of pottery and the hoard of smith’s tools are also quite exceptional.
The objects in bronze, bone, &c. also include many interesting things.

The coins found were as numerous as usual, but not very important.

A detailed account of all the discoveries was laid before the Society of
Antiquaries on May 23, 1901, and will be published in ‘ Archzologia.’

426 REPORT—1901.

A special exhibition of the antiquities, &c., found was held, as in
former years, at Burlington House by kind permission of the Society of
Antiquaries.

The statement of accounts for the year 1900 shows a total expendi-
ture of 5571. 3s. 7d.

It is proposed, during the current year, to excavate a strip of ground
east of Inswle XXI and XXII, and, if possible, to begin the systematic
exploration of the grass field in the centre of the town. The Committee
therefore ask to be reappointed, with a further grant.

a | ee Tg

r-4-------- ---_

Scale of Feet

200 400 600 80% toog
——

Anthropological Photographs——Interim Report of the Coinmittee, con-
sisting of Mr. C. H. Reap (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myres
(Secretary), Mr. H. Batrour, Professor FLinpERS Petrin, Dr.
J. G. Garson, Mr. HE. 8. Harrianp, and Mr. H. Line Rors,
appointed for the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registra-
tion of Photographs of Anthropological Interest.

Tue Committee report that further progress has been made in the
collection and registration of photographs of anthropological interest, and
that a first list of photographs is in course of preparation. The Com-
mittee ask to be reappointed, with the balance in hand from the former
grant of 10/,

ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES 427

The Age of Stone Circles—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Dr. J. G. Garson (Chairman), Mr, H. Batrour (Secretary), Sir
JoHN Evans, Mr. C. H. Reap, Professor R. MeLpoua, Mr. A. J.
Evans, Dr. R. Munro, Professor Boyp Dawkins, and Mr. A. L.
LEwIs, appointed to conduct Explorations with the object of Ascer-
taining the Age of Stone Circles. (Drawn up by the Chairman.)

THE Committee have to report that after careful consideration of the
various stone circles in different parts of the country that of Arbor Low
in Derbyshire was fixed upon as the most convenient and suitable for the
exploration which the grant at their disposal would permit of being
undertaken, a well marked ditch and rampart surrounding it, while the
circle itself is fairly complete as regards the stones forming it, although
none of these are now standing. The consent of the ground landlord,
the Duke of Rutland, was freely given for the exploration, as was also that
of the First Commissioner of Works, under whose care the circle is placed
aS an ancient monument under the Act of Parliament. The tenant of
the farm, Mr. Warrilow, likewise readily acquiesced in the project. The
Committee were fortunate enough with the consent of the chairman and
committee of the Taunton Museum to secure the services of Mr. H. St.
George Gray, the curator of that museum, who has had much experience,
acquired under the late Generai Pitt-Rivers, to direct the exploration.
Finally, through the kindness of Mr. A. Pitt-Rivers, the excellent
apparatus used by his father in his excavations was placed at their dis-
posal. To one and all of these gentlemen the best thanks of the
Committee are due for the part they have taken in facilitating the exami-
nation of this important and interesting monument of antiquity.

The following is the report submitted to the Committee by Mr. Gray
which gives an account of the work conducted by him, after which follow
reports by Mr. H. Balfour on the stone implements found, and by Dr.
Garson on the human remains.

On the Excavations at Arbor Low, August 1901.
by H. St. Georce Gray.

Arbor Low is situated in one of the most sparsely inhabited districts
of Derbyshire, in the parish of Bakewell, from which town it is 44 miles
distant in a south-westerly direction as the crow flies. The nearest
railway station is Parsley Hay, one mile to the west, on the new Buxton
and Ashbourne Railway. Hartington is 23 miles to the 8.W. of Arbor
Low, Middleton 2} miles to the east, and Monyash 2 miles to the north.
The monument, which is situated on a long ridge of hill nearly 1,200
feet above the sea-level, commands a most extensive view towards Buxton
and Bakewell, in a northerly and easterly direction.

Preliminary arrangements having been made and the workmen having
been directed to remove turf in various places, the first thing to do was
to begin a complete survey of the monument. A square (98 metres = 820
feet on each side) was formed round the vallum, enclosing an area of
about 23 acres, and the plan of the stones was commenced at a scale of

428 REPORT—1901.

240 to 1 (=20 feet to an inch). The exact position of each stone was
taken by means of bearings and triangulation from fixed points, checked
by cross-measurements. The plateau on which the megaliths lie is
encompassed by a fosse, and averages about 49 metres in diameter. The
figure formed by the circle of stones is pear-shaped, the top of the pear
to the south-east, the point to the north-west. It consists of rough
unhewn stone slabs of mountain limestone, of which many of the largest
average 3 metres in length by 1™-40 in breadth: they are of variable
thickness, extremely irregular in form, and some are fractured ; they all,
with one exception, lie upon the ground, many in a somewhat oblique
position, all more or less recumbent. The weathering of their surfaces,
the cleavage, the ‘pot-holes’ in them, are intensely interesting, especially
to the geologist. In giving numbers to the stones (Nos. I. to XLV1,
in the plan) there is no pretension made to count the original number of
the stones as put into position by the constructors of the monument ;
they are simply numbered to facilitate reference and to distinguish
one from another in describing them. Some of the very small stones
and stumps have been numbered separately (Nos. 1 to 13). The
position and slope of the stones individually are extremely varied :
the majority lie in shallow depressions, although some are quite on a
level with the general turf line ; others, again, are surrounded by slight
mounds, the turf in many cases growing round and over the sides of the
stones. The longest stone is in the centre of the circle (No. II.), which
measures 4™°57 in length, whilst the widest is also in the centre (No. I.),
2-44 in width. The largest stone in the circle is No. X., the length
of which is 3™-96, and the width 1™-83. There is one exception to the
stones being recumbent, and that is No. XVI., on the west side, which
leans towards the north-east at about 35° or 40° with the surface of the
surrounding turf: it stands at its highest part 1™-06 from the ground.
It would be desirable to excavate round some of the stones of the circle
to endeavour to find holes in which these monoliths may have originally
stood. This kind of thing has been done in the exploration of circles
on Dartmoor. Dr. Pegge mentions an old man who saw some of the
stones standing,' and Mr. Bateman another.” Glover, in his ‘ History
of the County of Derby,? mentions a third, and tersely adds that ‘this
secondary kind of evidence does not seem entitled to much credit.’

The published plans of Arbor Low are for the most part far from
correct, Sir J. G. Wilkinson’s plan being the only exception.‘ In this
small plan the position of the circle of stones is fairly correct, although
there are several discrepancies in the proportional sizes of the stones, and
the central group should be a few feet further north-west and west.

The area, or plateau, enclosed by the fosse presents a very uneven
surface, but the contours across this part of the plan have been delineated
to follow the general slope of the ground, and not to mark every little
depression or slight elevation as it occurred. The contours, of 0:5 foot
(15 em.) vertical height, show the shape of the monument and its
immediate surroundings within the ‘square.’ The highest contour comes
on the top of the tumulus on the south-east rampart (opened by Bate-
man), the lowest, at the northern corner of the survey, showing a fall of
7™-47 in the ground from top to lowest part. It is not unusual to take

' Archeologia, vol. vii. pp. 131-148.
* Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc., vol. xvi. p. 116.
* Published in 1829, vol. i. p. 275. - 4 Jowrn. Brit. Arch. Assoc., vol. xvi. plows

ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 429

levels on fixed lines giving contours of 1 or 2 feet (30°5 or 61 cm.) vertical
height, and to fill in intermediate 15-2 cm. (6-inch) contours by the eye ;
but to ensure absolute precision, to show the little knolls and depressions
on the vallum at the south-west, north, and east, to mark the irregu-
larities made by Bateman on the summit of the tumulus, to indicate the
little dyke running in a southerly direction from the vallum—it was
desirable that all the 6-inch contours should be surveyed severally, which
entailed the necessity of taking some eighteen hundred levels !

The periphery of the crest of the vallum constitutes almost a true
circle, with a diameter of exactly 76™:25, as shown by the outer circle
described on the plan. The centre of this circle comes near the middle of
the south-western side of stone, No. III. of the central group. The crest
of the vallum deviates very slightly in any part from the true circle
excepting on the north-west, where it bulges out. The bottom of the
fosse, as seen on the surface of the silting, declines from the line of the
true circle far more than the rampart, as shown by the inner circle
described on the plan, with a diameter of 58 metres ; the only segment of
this circle that can be said to be true is on the south, south-west, and
west. The ditch is thrown out far more than the rampart to the north
and north-west ; but it would not be expected to find that the fosse silted
up regularly and symmetrically all round, whereas the crest of the ram-
part, of course, is much about in the same position as it was at the age of
construction.

The ditch was marked by a depression from the original surface all
round averaging 1™°37, and it is surprising that in the course of all
these ages it should not have silted up to a greater extent ; had the monu-
ment been situated in a chalk district, the ditch would probably have
been indicated by a much shallower depression on the surface.

The average height of the vallum above the general surrounding turf-
level is 1™-83 (6 feet)—Dr. Brushfield states 16 feet, z.c., 47-88. Judging
from those portions of the ditch already excavated, the material obtained
from the fosse when it was first excavated was not enough to form the
vallum, but the construction of the latter will be mentioned later on
when dealing with the excavations. The confines of the rampart are
bounded at various points by ten small Governmental stones. The fosse
and vallum are interrupted on the north-west and south-east by the
entrance causeways, which are not in line with the central group of
stones. The causeways are on the same general level as the area occupied
by the megaliths and the surrounding land. The circumference of the
rampart, including the entrances, is about 246 metres.

The vallum is joined on the south-west by a slightly raised bank—
about 30 cm. in height—and an almost imperceptible ditch, which runs
for some distance in a southerly direction. It would be desirable to cut
a section or two across this so-called ‘serpent,’ to ascertain if it is of the

same date of construction as Arbor Low itself, or more recent.

On the south-east, adjoining the external face of the vallum and partly
resting on it, a tumulus stands, the summit some 2™13 above the sur-
rounding turf level. ‘Between 1770 and 1824 three unsuccessful
attempts had beenjmade to discover an interment, but a fourth, made by
Mr. T. Bateman on May 23, 1845, resulted in its discovery. About
46:cm. above the natural soil a large slab, 1™°52 broad by 91-5 cm. wide,,

1 Journ. Brit, Arch. Assoc., 1900, p. 129.

430) REPORT—1901.

was found to be the cover to a six-sided cist, constructed of ten pieces of
limestone of different sizes placed on end, and having a floor formed of
three other pieces, these, like the rest, being untooled. No soil had pene-
trated the cist, and its original contents had been undisturbed. These
consisted of two small urns (one 11-4 cm. and the other 12 cm. high),
calcined human bones, a bone pin, a small flint weapon, and a piece of
iron pyrites.’! Mr. Bateman never took the trouble to fillin his excava-
tion properly, the result being that five little knolls exist round the top of
the tumulus bounding a rather deep depression in the centre. In addition
to this he threw some of his rubbish into the ditch, as indicated by the
contours on the plain. The formation of this tumulus, which is probably
of somewhat later date than the vallum, has caused a gap to occur in the
vallum on either side of the mound. There is also another irregularity
in the form of the rampart to the north of the tumulus, caused by a kind
of spur which extends half-way across the fosse.

The photographs of the diggings on the whole are not quite satis-
factory, although some of them could not well have been better under the
circumstances, unfavourable weather prevailing at least for one-third of
the time. The photographs-of some of the ‘finds,’ the skeleton, and skull
portray the originals excellently.

Excavations.—The excavations were commenced on August 8, 1901,
by making a cutting through the ditch, 3™-66 wide, close up to the
south-eastern causeway (called Section 1). Roman remains were looked
for under the turf, but without success. The silting was re-excavated
30 cm. at a time as far as practicable. Strewn on the limestone floor of
the ditch thirteen teeth of ox were found, and on the bottom in the
north-west corner of the cutting, at a depth of 1™65 from the surface
(2 on pian and section), pieces of red deer’s antler—one piece 38 cm.
long—were found resting on a solid vein of clay (running between the
limestone), which traversed the bottom of the ditch obliquely and con-
tinued both ways in south-easterly and north-westerly directions. It
appears probable that this may have been used as a kind of pick for
loosening the previously fractured limestone at the time the ditch was
first excavated, in the same manner as the antlers of the Stone Age
described by Canon Greenwell in Grimes Graves.” Fifteen fragments of
antlers of red deer were found by General Pitt-Rivers at the bottom of
the ditch of Wor Barrow, Handley Down, Dorset, amongst Stone Age
relics.’ Nothing else was found in Section 1, which was the deepest part
of the fosse re-excavated ; greatest depth 1™:65. The filling consisted of
turf and turf mould, 15 cm. ; mould mixed with small pieces of chert,
46 em. followed by a stiff clayey mould to the bottom. The nature of
this latter is well shown by the pick-marks in the photograph. The
hard stone sides of the ditch and causeway were exposed.

Sections 2 and 3 were next commenced. Section 3 was a cutting,
3™-05 wide, made across the ditch, midway between Section 1 and the
north-west causeway. The silting was very soon removed in this case,
the uneven limestone floor being found at a maximum depth of 55 em.
and a minimum depth of 33 cm. from the surface of the silting. The
vallum at this point was particularly high. Threestone implements were

1 From Dr. Brushfield’s paper, Journ. Brit. Areh, Assoc., vol, vi., new geries,
1900, p. 134.

2 Journ. Ethnological Society, vol. ii. p. 426.

3 Hacavations in Cranborne Chase, vol. iv. p. 133.

ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 431

found in this cutting. At ‘3’ on plan and section, at a depth of 36 cm.
a rudely chipped pointed stone implement (?spear-head), having a plano-
convex cross-section, length 61 mm., greatest width 44 mm. ; at ‘6’ a
worked flake of black flint with fine secondary chipping at a depth of
15 cm; and at ‘7,’ at the same depth, a chipped end-scraper of greyish
flint: this implement is of the long narrow variety, with a notch on
both sides. At Section 2, about 4™:88 to the west of the north-western
causeway, another cutting, 3-05 wide, was made through the ditch and
the rampart. The vallum was chosen at this point, as it presented an even
surface, and being comparatively low and narrow it would not entail so
much labour in removing. No relics were found in this cutting, except
a small doubtfully artificial stone scraper picked up on the ‘old surface
line’ (4 on plan and section). The absence of relics in this section was
very disappointing.! The cutting, however, was of value in showing the
material out of which the vallum was constructed and has been plotted in
section, on the scale, of 60 to 1. Measuring from the crest of the rampart
downwards, the soils, &c., occurred as follows :—(1) Turf and turf mould,
15 cm. ; (2) rough pieces of thin-bedded limestone mixed with a little
mould, 98 cm. ; (3) band of small pieces of chert with a little mould,
9 em. ; (4) yellowish-brown clayey mould, 15 cm. ; (5) ‘old surface line’
of dark brown mould, 9 cm.; (6) light-yellowish brown sand. The
greatest depth of the ditch in this section was 76 cm., and it was
filled to the bottom, below the turf mould, with mould mixed with
small pieces of chert. This part of the ditch having been laid bare, the
re-excavation of the ditch was continued from this point in the direction
of the north-west causeway, the hard stone sides of which were found.
As stone relics were more numerous here, and the bottom of the ditch
was far more irregular than in Sections 1 and 3, surveys were made in
various directions, and have been plotted to a scale of 60 to 1. The
average depth of the ditch here was 91:5 cm. from the surface, and the
nature of the filling was the same as in Section 1. The following is a list
of the finds in this part, called ‘Ditch Extension, Section 2.’ The
numbers tally with those on the plan and in sections,

5, Small flint flake, with fine secondary chipping ; depth 21 cm.
8. Stone scraper, with bevelled edge, 36 mm. in width 3 depth
36 cm.
10. Outside flake of flint, with secondary chipping in two places ;
depth 24 cm.
11. Flint, chipped along the edge ; depth 24 cm.
_ 12. Two pieces of chert, with secondary chipping (?) ; depth 43 em.
13, Flint flake, with serrated edge ; depth 46 em.
14. Small narrow scraper of flint, worked all round edges
43 cm. ‘és
15. Large flint scraper, of pale bluish-grey colour, with chipped
bevelled semicircular edge and pointed end ; plano-convex cross-section -
depth 70 cm., near the bottom of the ditch. :
17. Six flakes of white flint, mostly of exceptionally large size, found
together, in the ditch at a depth of 82 cm. from the surface, on a ledge

; depth

' General Pitt-Rivers once cut four sections, 10 feet wide, through the rampart
and ditch of a Bronze Age encampment without finding a relic worth mentioning :
but he did not despair, and forthwith commenced to dig away the rampart and

ditch all round, being rewarded by finding bronze implements and much pottery,

432 REPORT—1901.

on solid side of causeway in the north-east corner of the ditch extension,
Section 2. These flakes must have been placed on the ledge and for-
gotten, eventually becoming buried in the silting.

Just to the west of this ledge a small oval-shaped hole in the lime-
stone floor of the ditch was found, filled with a stiff clayey mould, but
no relics were found in it. Other doubtfully artificial pieces of flint
and chert were found in this excavation, some of which need to be
examined by the geologist as well as the archeologist : they have been
preserved. The only animal remain found here was a tooth of sheep ;
depth at 21 cm.

The excavations made in the fosse revealed nothing but early
Neolithic chipped stone implements, the majority of which were found
below the 30 cm. level from the surface. It would be, however, some-
what rash to state on these grounds alone that the ditch was undoubtedly
of Stone Age construction, although the evidence certainly points in that
direction, for only a comparatively small portion of the whole fosse at
Arbor Low has been explored ; in fact, only one-twelfth part. It would
be safe to assign the construction of Arbor Low to a definite age, if,
say, one-fourth part of the fosse were re-excavated ; and the somewhat
inconclusive nature of the evidence at present seems to point to the
desirability of further excavations being made in the most systematic
and skilled manner possible.

Before leaving the ditch it should be stated that its average width at
the parts already excavated is 6™-40, and the average depth of re-
excavated ditch beneath surface of silting, 1™-98.

The remainder of the time and funds were expended in trenching
down to the undisturbed rock in the centre of the circle, between the two
large stones, Nos. I. and II., and further in an easterly direction. The
area excavated, which covered a very irregular surface, measured 10™-67 by
2m-]2,and is marked on the contoured plan. To the west a stump (No. 13)
was found under the turf standing in a leaning position towards the north-
east. At ‘19,’ the only fragment of pottery was found at a depth of 15 em.,
just under the turf: it consisted of a fragment of rim of Romano-British
pottery, grey on the outside and brick-red on the inside. Close to and
between Stones I. and IT. (20 on plan), a small chipped flint implement—
length 33 mm., width 28 mm.—approaching a leaf-shaped arrowhead in
form, was found at a depth of 27 cm. : it has a bi-convex cross-section.

The primary idea in making this excavation was to see whether holes
could be found in which Stones I. and II. originally stood ; but no holes
were found between these stones ; in fact, the undisturbed ground in this
part was struck at about 52 em. from the surface. To the east of
Stones III. and IV. there were signs on the surface of this part having
been excavated before (in somewhat recent times). The rock was
reached here at very variable depths, and at the extreme east an excava-
tion 2™-40 deep was made before the undisturbed ground was struck.
The hole was filled with rich mould mixed with a little chert. No relics
were found, except a fragment of human ulna (9 on plan) at a depth of
15 cm. It is possible that a skeleton or skeletons may have been removed
from here, and that this ulna was lost in the filling in. If this part had
been excavated before there were no signs of the ground having been
disturbed to the west of the small stene, No. IV. Here, close to
Stone III., a human skeleton was discovered ; the middle of his body (a
fully adult male) was situated 1™83 to the south-east of the centre of the

ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 433

circle. It was discovered on August 16, but as Mr. Henry Balfour was
expected to visit the diggings next morning,' the men were directed to
cover it up. Next morning the skeleton was uncovered and cleared in
order that it might be photographed in situ. It was an extended inter-
ment, the skull being at a depth of only 36 cm. from the surface. The
skull, which was much crushed and weathered, was found on removal to
be in forty to fifty pieces ; some of the facial portions and sides had
unfortunately decayed, so that its restoration could not be made quite
complete ; the lower jaw was not present. Other parts of the skeleton
were missing, including the condyles of the femora, the tibie and fibule,
one patella, the feet, and hands. The end of the left femur came close
to the south-east corner of Stone No. III. The skeleton, which was
buried in pure mould, lay on the back, with the face turned slightly to
north-east, and was surrounded by large blocks of stone built up on the
south, west, and north sides to within a few centimetres of the surface ; the
ends of all the long bones were much decayed, the head was to the south-
south-east ; the bearing along vertebral column was 1643° 8. ; the length
from the top of skull to the lower end of femora was 1™°19.

The approximate length of the left femur is about 453 mm., which
gives a stature (by Rollet’s method) of 1™-66. This is above the average
of a Stone Age man, and below that of a Bronze Age man.” The skull
has been restored as far as possible, and turns out to be mesati-
cephalic, or medium-headed, with a cephalic index of about 78:0 ;
so that this interment appears to be of later date than the construction
of Arbor Low, but how much later it is difficult to say, no relics having
been found with the skeleton. Dr. Garson wili no doubt make a report
on the skull ; and as the meatus auditorius is present on both sides, and
the basion also, the majority of the usual measurements can be taken.

At 77™°80 to the east-south-east of the centre of the monument is
a small tumulus which appears to have been reduced in height owing to
agriculture. As this may probably be connected with Arbor Low it has
been surveyed to a scale of 120 to 1, with contours of 6 cm. vertical
height. A cutting was commenced on the north ; but as mould was
found to extend down to a depth of 1™-68 in places, and it promised to
be rather a large undertaking when funds were nearly exhausted, the
work had to be relinquished, at any rate for the present. One flake was
found near the surface.

Dr. Brushfield’s opinion, expressed two years ago, as regards the
probable age of Arbor Low was that the monument belonged to the
Early Neolithic Age. Judging from the nature of the relics already
discovered and their positions, there is some reason for referring it to at
least some part of the Neolithic period ; but the evidence deduced can
scarcely be regarded as conclusive, and we can hardly consider the
problem as to the date of construction decisively solved as yet. Neither
has the original position of the central group of stones been determined.
One thing, however, is certain, that Arbor Low has been used as a place
of sepulture.

1 Mr. A. L, Lewis visited the excavations on August 9, and Dr. Garson on
August 22.

* The secondary interments, Romano-British, in Wor Barrow (Stone Age),
Handley Down, Dorset, averaged 1™651 in stature.

1901, FF

434, REPoRT—1901.

ARBOR LOW. [August 1901.]

Short Descriptions of Stones as numbered on the Plan. Nore.—The
length and breadth of the Stones can be ascertained from the Plan.

Stone T.—In centre, nearly flat, broken in two at N.W.end. Slopes a little to W.
At E. point it stands 13 foot from turf. It also stands 13 foot from turf on W. side,
but there is a trench along this side of the stone. Surface fairly smooth. There is
a small flat stone to E. (not numbered), which is only about an inch above turf.

Stone II.—Near No. I., nearly flat, but sloping a little towards W. to turf line.
It is about 10” above turf on EH. side. The slab is rather thicker at the N. end
than at 5. end.

Stone IJT.—To the 8.E. of No. IL, flat, sloping very slightly to E. Pitted sur-
face. The human skeleton was found close to 8.E. of this stone; in fact, the left
femur almost touched the stone.

Stone TV.—A small stone to N.E. of No. III. Slopes rather considerably towards
S.; only about 2'’ above turf all round.

Stones V., VI., and VII.—Photographed together from 8. In a group, the
nearest stones of the circle to the 8. causeway. A considerable depression in turf to
S. of No. V. At 8S. end this stone stands about 2 feet above average turf level, and
it slopes gradually to turf on N. The under-surface of stone at 8. has been much
polished by the rubbing of sheep, &c. No. VII. slopes towards N., and is fractured
in two places. It is somewhat thicker at N. end than at 8., where it is about 1 foot
from turf. No. VI. is a fractured stone about 9’’ thick, which stands on end
between Nos. V. and VILI., leaning slightly to W.}

Stone VIII.—Lies in a slight depression at about 9’’ above level of turf, in
depression all round; slightly higher in the middle. Pitted and rough, but ‘pits’
are not very frequent, large but not deep.

Stump 1.—Between Stones IX. and X. Stands about 1 foot from turf level, and
leans a little towards centre.

Stone IX.—Flat, sloping, slightly towards ditch on 8.W. Stands 14 foot from
turf on §.W., and 1 foot on N.E. Much pitted surface, small, frequent, and deep.

Stone X.—Photographed from §.E. Marked depression in turf at W. end of
stone, which end is squared, or, rather, of oblong form, 2 feet in thickness. This
depression sinks to about 6 below the surrounding turf level. The stone slopes
towards the N.E., the stone only showing about 10’ above turf on E. side. The
upper surface is fairly flat, and is characterised by a broad crack along middle, and
what may be called a ‘pot-hole’ near N. corner. Turf grows between stone on
N.W. Much shecp-rubbed underneath to 8,W.

Stones XI., XII., and XTIZ.—Small stones in a little group between Nos. X.
and XIV. Ina slight depression, partly in continuation of deep depression at the
W. end of Stone X. No. XI. slopes towards centre, and has a smooth flat surface.
Height 1 foot from turf at 8.W., 4’ at other end. No. XII. has turf growing up all
round the sides; greatest height at N.W. is only 4’ from turf. No, XIII. slopes
towards 8.W. and §.E. to turf ; on other sides only 4’’ from turf.

Stone XJ V.—Lies in slight depression at ditch-end; flat stone, pitted in places
by weathering, with cracks in which turf has grown. Height about 10” from turf
all round.

Stone XV.—Very smooth surface, sloping to turf on E.; at W. end, which is
square, its height is 1:3 foot from turf.

Stone X VI.—Upper side fairly flat ; leans at about 35° or 40° with general turf
level towards the N.E. In a well marked depression all round, from which it stands
at highest part 33 feet. Thickness of stone about 1} foot at 8S. and avout 14 foot at
N. ‘The only stone in the circle that can be said to be standing at the present time.

Stone X VIZT.—Lies in slight depression ; nearly flat, but sloping slightly towards

1 Mr. Lewis, who measured the circle in May 1871 (see his plan, &c., in
Anthropologia), says that Stone VI. was not then inits present position, but has
been placed there since. On going over the ground in 1901 to revise his plan, he
thought he saw signs of a certain amount of surface digging during the previous
thirty years, but no material alteration in the circle generally,

ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 435

the W. ditch, where its height is only 6’ above depression in turf, rising at N. to
about 1 foot ; very rough surface and sides, a little overgrown with turf.

Stump 2.—Cleaved in two and partly overgrown with turf; about 10!
above surrounding turf. (3

Stone X VTIT.—Slopes off rather considerably to the W. ditch; at H, its height
is about 9'’ above turf; at W. about 14 foot from turf. Flat surface, but much
pitted, and turf-covered in one or two places,

Stump 3.—Stands at two highest points 1 foot from turf, with a depression, 4!
from turf, across middle.

Stone XIX.—Lies ona slight mound. Height at 8. 0:7 foot from surrounding
turf, rising slightly higher (ridge N.H. and S.W. line), and then gradually sloping off
to turf level at N. and N.W.

Stone X X.—Slopes all round to turf level from a central point about 1 foot high.
It does not, however, slope off at W. point.

Stone XXZ—Lies in slight depression, sloping slightly towards ditch. Flat
surface and somewhat pitted in places. Height about 1-2 foot from turf all round.
Ragged along N.E. edge.

Stone XXIZ.—Flat ; slopes rather much towards the ditch; height about 1:3
foot from turf allround. Half-oval weathered hole through side of stone on S.W.

Stone X X7ZI.—Lies in very slight depression, more particularly marked on the
ditch side. Stone has very uneven side towards W. Rough surface, pitted some-
what to 8.E.,8., and 8.W., and highest at these points. Flat surface to N. and
N.W., where it stands nearly 1 foot from turf. At other points it averages 1:2 foot
in height. i

Stone XXITV.—Slopes towards N.; slopes off to turf level at N.W. and N., but
not at N.E. Depression in turf at S. end, extending under stone to N. half-way
across stone. At 8.E. corner its height from turf in depression is 1:3 foot ; at S.W.
2 feet from same, gradually sloping along W. face to turf on N.W. Flat surface
with very small but numerous ‘ pittings.’

Stone XXV.—At 8. there is a marked depression in turf, but not at the N.
Height of stone above depression at S. 22 feet. The stone slopes towards the N.,
where it reaches the turf level. Rough surface, with fracture at N., running N.W.
to §.H. Turf rises in depression under the stone at 8., to support it. The stone is
tilted up at S., at an angle of about 20° with surrounding turf level. Much rubbed
underneath at S. by sheep.

Stone XX VI.—In slight depression to N., more marked to S. Slopes towards
N., almost to turf level. At S. its height is about 2 feet from depression in the turf,
and the stone itself is about 15 foot thick at thisend. Large ‘pittings,’ but not
very numerous. Two oval holes, through stone to turf. The larger hole measures
18" x 10" in the line of stone, a little to N. of middle.

Stump 4.--Very narrow and sharp, about 8’’ above surrounding turf.

Stone XX VII.—Very rough, standing at middle about 1:5 foot from surrounding
‘turf. At N. there is an angle only 3’ from turf, from which angle the stone rises
abruptly to top.

Stone XX VIII.—Height only 2" above surrounding turf; almost entirely over-
grown except a small portion to N. Flat.

Stone X XTX.—Pointed at bothends. Slopes somewhat considerably towards N.
Smooth flat surface. A depression in turf at N. only, where it stands about 1 foot
from turf in depression. Smooth sides all round. ‘he thickness of stone appears
to be only 6"’ at N.E. point, whilst on the S.W. side its thickness is 2 feet, to which
it gradually rises from N. to N.E. The stone is thicker at S. than at N.N.W.

_ Stones XXX. and XXXJ.—Slight depression in turf between and to the EB. of

these stones. Both flat and fairly smooth; height only about 1’ or 2" from turf,

ae XXX. slopes very slightly to N.; No. XXXI. slopes somewhat considerably to
.and E,

Stone XX XII.—Of the nature of a stump, but rather larger than those that have
been counted as stumps. Slight depression to S.W., and surrounded by a mound of
turf to N.E., E., and §.E., where the stone only rises 2’’ above turf. On S.W. the
top of the stone is 1 foot from turf in depression. Turf grows in places on top of
stone, which is rather flat. Rough at sides, sloping abruptly from top at S,
and N.W.

Stone XXXIII,—Lies in slight depression, sloping slightly towards ditch,

FF2

436 REPORT—1901.

Fairly flat surface. Height about 1 foot from turf all round. Point to N.E., only
3'' above turf in depression.

Stone XXXIV.—Lies in a marked depression on inner bank of ditch. The
depression particularly marked at N. and at E. Stone somewhat heart-shaped and
flat and fairly smooth. About 6’’ in height above turf in depression all round, with
tutf growing up sides everywhere, except at W. and S.W.

Stone YX XV.—Flat smooth surface. Slopes slightly towards centre of circle,
On W. slopes off to turf. On E. 9" in height above turf.

Stone XXXVI.—Smooth but uneven surface. Slopes slightly to E., and partly
overgrown with turf, especially over centre and to S. and §$.S.W. At N. and
N.N.W. it stands 3’’ above turf, but turf runs up to level of stone on all other sides.

Stone XXXVII.—Lies in slight depression all round, which, however, deepens
considerably to E. and §.E. Slopes slightly towards ditch and N., with fairly
smooth flat surface. At W. point it is 2 feet above turf in depression, and at KE.
about 2°3 feet. This stone is cleaving lengthwise, or, rather, horizontally into three
slabs. This is particularly well seen on all sides but the N. At N. its height is
only 10’ from turf in depression. Upright sides all round.

‘Stone XX XVIII.—Small flat stone, level with the turf, which is growing over
it. Plan shows only that part of stone which appears at surface. Slopes to N.
and E.

Stone XXXIX.—On slight elevation. Broken into three pieces, all of which
are becoming overgrown with turf. The N. piece is nearly level with turf. The
middle has somewhat rounded surface, and rises in middle to about 6/’ above turf.
The piece to S. slopes from N. end to 8., where it reaches the turt; the N. end of
this piece is about 7” or 8'’ above surrounding turf.

Stump 7.—Much overgrown with turf. <A piece of stone only 9" x 6’ shows at
present, which does not rise above turf level. Plan shows the probable outline
when turf is removed.

Stones XL., XLI., and XLII.—Together in a mass in slight depression all
round. See photograph. No. XL. slopes to 8. and S.S.W. At highest point at N.
it is 14 foot above turf in depression. The S.E. and N.W. points are about 10" from
turf. At S. and S.S.W. it meets the turf. No. XLI. slopes from the 8.E., meeting
the turf level under No. XLIII.; rather rough, uneven surface, standing at N.E.
about 1°5 foot from turf in depression, at $.E. about 1°3 foot, and at 8.S.W. about
1 foot. No, XLII. overlaps No. XLI. to S.E., and slightly over No. XL. to N.E. ; thick-
ness of stone about 1 foot at S.E.; stone slopes to centre, where it is only 4"’ from
turf. At S.B. end the highest point is about 1} foot from turf in depression.

Stone XLIII.—Slopes very slightly towards centre of circle. Flat and smooth
surface, Runs to turf on N.W., §.E.,S.,and S.W.; in fact, pretty well all round. At
S.E. the stone is about 4’ above turf level.

Stump 8.—Very narrow, just appearing above turf.

Stone XLIV.—Flat, sloping but slightly towards ditch. Height about 7’’ from
turf Jevel at N.W. S.S.E. corner overgrown with turf, N.E. corner also; in fact, a
very little of the stone at S.E. shows above the surface. Uneven, weathered
surface.

Stone XLV.—Flat, with very uneven weathered surface and fractured. More
than half the stone is overgrown with turf, fairly regularly distributed.

Stone XLVI.—Nearly flat, sloping slightly towards centre of circle. Fairly
smooth surface. ‘Shoulder’ across middle, height 7’' above turf, rising again to 6”
above turf at S. Turf growing across depression below ‘shoulder.’ Stone almost
entirely overgrown, dotted on plan, to 8.8.W. of XLVI.

Stumps 9 and 10,.—Small stones (not really ‘stumps’), just appearing above
surface.

Stumps 11 and 12.—Ragged stones, broken off, just appearing above surface.

Stump 13.—This stump, leaning towards E., was only revealed by excavation.

Stones outside S. Causeway.—Fairly large, long and narrow stone, height at E.
1-3 foot from surface, sloping off at centre westwards, and rising again near W. end
to about 9” from turf. Stump close to two rounded stones a little above turf
level, on side of 8. rampart.

Tro Stones in Ditch—Two stones in ditch on S.W. One long and narrow, about
8" in height from turf ; the other, an uneven boulder, rising 1 foot above surface.

There are other small stones here and there at Arbor Low, which seem to be
hardly worth mentioning, although they might prove to be somewhat larger if
exposed by excavation.

— a

ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 437

The Stone Implements excavated at Arbor Low, 1901,
By Henry Batrour.

Detailed references to the positions in which the various stone imple-
ments were found during the excavations are given in Mr. Gray’s reports,
and the exact position of each is marked upon the plan prepared from his
elaborate and very careful survey, which it is hoped may be published later
on. The depth at which each implement was found is also noted in the
report.

As regards the implements collectively but little need be said, as they
are unfortunately few in number, and, while all are of forms well known
in the finds of the Neolithic period, with which such forms are usually
associated, they are not of a sufficiently typical and distinctive kind to
render it absolutely certain that they belong to Neolithic times. That
they should be referred to that period seems to me extremely probable,
particularly when the facts regarding the nature of the implements are
considered in relation to other evidence, viz., the total absence of any
objects of bronze amongst the finds, and the fact of what is stated to have
been an early Bronze Age tumulus having been constructed out of the
material which formed part of the original structure of the monument,
which must therefore have antedated the tumulus, and, presumably, by
a period long enough for the original function and probable sanctity of
the circle to have been forgotten. At the same time it must be admitted,
in regard to the stone implements hitherto unearthed, that any or all of
them might have been made and used during the Bronze Age. Simple
flakes, flakes with secondary chipping, and ‘scrapers’ of flint belong
practically to all periods. Their manufacture persisted during the metal
ages so long as their efficiency as tools and the rapidity with which they
could be made rendered them desirable.

Perhaps the most striking implement of those found, and the one
which might claim with most justification to be assigned definitely to the
Neolithic period, is that numbered 20 in Mr. Gray’s report, found near
the centre of the circle at a depth of 27 cin. This is a small blade of flint .
of very broad, leaf-shaped outline, flaked. on both sides and rather clumsily
shaped, being thicker towards one edge than the other. It resembles a
leaf-shaped arrow-head, but may have been hafted and used perhaps as a
knife, as the point is extremely obtuse and not very carefully shaped for
penetration.

With one or two exceptions, the remaining implements showing any
considerable working along the edges may be classed as varieties of the
‘scraper’ or ‘side-tool,’ and in this category I should class that numbered
3 by Mr. Gray, who suggests that it may have been a spear-head. It
could at most be regarded only as a spear-head in process of manufacture,

rejected before completion. It is worked on one face only, and, rough
though it is, would serve very well as a scraping tool ; the point at one
end, if intentional, could have served for cutting grooves. Three well-
defined ‘ scrapers’ (Nos. 7, 14, 15) were found in the ditch varying from
a very broad, semicircular-edged form to a very narrow ‘duck-bill’ shape :
they are familiar forms. An ‘outside flake’ (No. 10) shows secondary
chipping along two edges, and was probably a scraper : it is evidently
but a fragment of a fair-sized flake, broken, perhaps, in use. No. 5 is
also a fragment showing some flaking at the bulb end of a small-size flake,

438 REPORT—1901.

One broken flake (No. 13) shows a very delicate serration along one edge,
forming a finely toothed saw. The serration evidently extended along
the portion of the flake broken away. This saw must have been intended
for delicate work only.

In adJition to the implements already referred to, there are several
flint flakes showing well marked bulbs of percussion, a few with secondary
chipping at the edge; also some which are doubtfully worked ; and a
certain number of flints were picked up and kept, which prove on inspec-
tion to exhibit natural fractures only, and these I have rejected. Mr. Gray
very rightly submitted these rather than run any risk of overlooking
examples which might possibly betray human agency, however slight.

The finding of six large flakes (No. 17) together is interesting, It is
evident that these could not have come by accident into the position in
which they were found, and it is virtually certain that they were placed
by hand upon the small ledge in the side of the northern causeway. The
flakes are of considerable size and weight, and of fine quality black flint
which has been weathered white to a considerable depth. It is difficult
to determine the use for which they were intended. They are irregular
in outline and surface, though their edges are still sharp and undamaged.
It is possible that such heavy flakes may have been intended to be used
as digging tools, for which purpose they would be not badly adapted ;
but no used examples are as yet forthcoming from the site, and the
suggestion is merely conjectural. They may have been purposely covered
over at the time for concealment, and forgotten, or they may have been
accidentally covered by loose earth falling from the causeway on to the
ledge. In either case they have remained as originally placed.

It is greatly to be hoped, if further excavations are undertaken, that
the yield of implements may be greater, and that the examples may
present more definite features, so that the negative evidence afforded by
the absence of metal, if it continues to hold good, may be backed by
positive evidence of Neolithic date from the nature of the implements
discovered. For the negative evidence to be completely convincing, more
extensive exploration is necessary, and the very suggestive nature of the
positive results so far obtained by Mr. Gray renders it highly probable
that further examination may yield results of great importance.

One point to which I may perhaps be allowed to refer here arises out
of the excavation of the ditch to its full depth. The bed-rock bottom
presents a very rough and uneven surface, and there does not appear to
have been any definite attempts to create a level surface along the ditch
bottom by fillmg in the hollows and levelling in other ways. It is of
importance to note this, as it precludes the idea that the fosse itself may
have been used for processional or other like purposes. The steepness of
the causeway sides forming the ends of the fosse also points towards the
same conclusion as regards this matter.

Report on the Human Skeleton found in the Stone Circle of Arbor Low
in 1901. By J. G. Garson, ILD.

The skeleton found by Mr. Gray near the centre of the Stone Circle of
Arbor Low in August 1901 is that of an adult male. The bones are not
in a good condition as regards preservation ; hence it has not been pos-
sible to ascertain from them the probable stature of the individual more
nearly than has already been done by Mr. Gray in hisreport. The upper

ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 459

part of the brain-case, or calvaria, and part of the face, though much
broken and very imperfect, especially the latter, have been pieced together
by Mr. Gray in a most creditable manner, so that it is possible to ascertain
and determine the most important points in the morphology of the former
fairly well. The muscular ridges are well developed, the glabella and
brow ridges are well marked and continuous with each other, the most
prominent part of tie latter being over the inner third of each orbit. The
tubera of the parietal bones are prominent, the curved lines on the
occipital bone and the surface between them for the insertion of the
muscles of the head and neck are well marked ; but the mastoid pro-
cesses of the temporal bones are of very moderate size, or may even be
regarded as small. As viewed from the front, the malar bone, which is re-
tained on the left side, shows that the axis of the orbit slants markedly
downwards as well as outwards ; the orbital processes are of moderate size,
and the interorbital width appears to have been of medium size. As viewed
from behind, the lateral walls are seen to be nearly vertical but slightly
converging, as they rise upwards, and finally curve over to form the
vault with a flat or low arch. When viewed from above the outline of
the calvaria is unsymmetrical in the occipital and posterior parietal
regions, and converges slightly from the tubera of the parietals towards
the orbital processes of the frontal with straight sides. On viewing the
cranium laterally the profile outline of the mid-parietai region is elevated
and bulged upwards: this fulness extends from one tuber to the other,
while the frontal region above the glabella follows a graceful curve back-
wards and upwards to the bregma, and the occipital region is slightly
bulged backwards and rounded.

To reduce these general characters to actual figures as far as possible
the following are the chief dimensions which the state of the cranium
permitted me to determine :—Maximum length, 189 mm. ; maximum
breadth, 148 mm. These figures give a cephalic index of 78°2, which
places it, as regards general form, above the middle of the mesaticephalic
group (75-79°9) and shows that the individual when alive had a head
slightly rounder than that of the average male of the present population
of Great Britain, more brachycephalic than in some parts of the country,
but more dolichocephalic than in others. The ophryo-occipital length is
185 mm., the point of greatest length on the occiput being the same as for
the maximum length ; the projection of the glabella is, therefore, 4 mm,
The minimum frontal breadth is 106 mm., and the maximum frontal
breadth is 125 mm. ; the relative properties of these two measurements to
the maximum breadth (the latter being taken as 100) is 71°6 and 84:5
respectively. The biauricular diameter is 130 mm., while the auriculo-
bregmatic arc is 316 mm. The horizontal circumference is 530 mm. ; the
longitudinal arc, from the nasion, over the bregma, lambda, and the
occiput to the opisthion, is 377 mm.; the base of the cranium being
absent it is impossible to obtain the length of the foramen magnum and
basio-nasial length to complete the longitudinal circumference. The
length of the frontal portion of this longitudinal arc is 130 mm., that of
the parietal 130 mm., and of the occipital 117 mm. ; while the chords of
these arcs are: frontal, 113 mm. ; parietal, 117 mm. ; occipital, 97 mm.
The relation which the are bears to the chord may be expressed as an
index to indicate the curve of the bone ; the chord being taken as 100,
the frontal index is 115-0, the parietal index 111-1, and the occipital
index 120-6, These indices show that while the curvature of the frontal

44.0 REPORT—1901.

«
and occipital are about normal, that of the parietal is greater than usual,
Little can be said about the characters of the facial portion of the cranium,
as it is so imperfect. The palate is parabolic in form. The teeth are
moderately worn down, especially the molars, and there is a slight deposit
of tartar upon most of them.

The osteological characters show that the individual was not of the
type found in interments of the Neolithic period, neither do they point to
his being of the Bronze Age type, though he was more nearly allied to it
than to the former. Onthe other hand, there are no characters about the
specimen which would preclude its being much more recent—even that of
a person interred only about a hundred years ago. The extended position
in which the body had been laid decidedly supports the view of the inter-
ment being of more recent date than the Bronze period, to which I con-
sider the weight of the evidence afforded by the osteological characters
also points.

The Committee have special satisfaction in submitting the very
careful and exact survey of the circle which Mr. Gray has prepared, and
the sectional diagrams of the excavations made under his direction. The
former is undoubtedly the most complete survey of the circle ever made,
and will constitute a lasting work of reference for future investigations ;
indeed, it has been prepared with so much care that there will be no
difficulty in constructing from it accurate models of the circle and its
surroundings. The Committee recommend that the specimens found be
eventually placed in the national collection in the British Museum.

Mr. Gray has informed the Committee that about two to three weeks’
further excavations of the circle on the lines hitherto pursued will be
sufficient to complete the examination of the ditch and rampart. The
excavations made during the present year have been confined to the west
side of the circle ; the eastern half of the ditch and rampart have not been
touched, nor have any of the external approaches which it is also desirable
to excavate been explored. From personal observations (the circle
having been visited during the explorations by the Chairman, the Secre-
tary, and Mr. Lewis) the Committee can confirm Mr. Gray’s statements
to them, and are convinced of the desirability of the work being resumed
at the earliest possible opportunity,

The whole of the money granted by the Association has been
expended, and the amount slightly exceeded in the work which has been
done.

The Committee apply to be reappointed, and ask that a grant of 40.
be placed at their disposal to carry on the investigations which have
proved to be so successful and hopeful in their results towards solving the
somewhat disputed age of stone circles as regards Arbor Low.

Explorations in Crete.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir
Joun Evans, 4.C0.B., F.R.S. (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myres
(Secretary), Mr. A. J. Evans, Mr. D. G. Hocartn, Professor A.
MAcaListTER, and Professor W. RipGEway.

In order to present the results of the season of 1901 in their proper
bearings the Committee introduces its Report with a retrospect of British
exploration in Crete,

—-_ =. |. ae

ON EXPLORATIONS IN CRETE. 441

The Cretan Exploration Fund was formed in 1899 with the object of
assisting British explorers and the British School at Athens to investigate
the early remains of the island, which from indications already apparent
seemed likely to supply the solution of many interesting questions regard-
ing the beginnings of civilisation in Greece. To the furtherance of this
work, begun in the spring of 1900, the grant of 145/. was made last
autumn by the British Association.

Already in 1894 Mr. Arthur Evans had secured a part-ownership
(completed last year) in the site of Kephala at Knossos, which evidently
contained the remains of a prehistoric building. Excavations, to which
the fund has largely contributed, begun by him in 1900 on this site and
continued during the present year, have brought to light an ancient palace
of vast extent, which there is every reason to identify with the traditional
House of Minos, and at the same time with the legendary ‘ Labyrinth.’

The result of the excavations of 1900 was to unearth a considerable
part of the western side of this great building, including two large courts,
the porticoes and entrance corridors, a vast system of magazines, some of
them replete with huge store jars, and a richly adorned room, where
between lower benches rose a curiously carved gypsum throne, on which
King Minos himself may have sat in council. The second season’s work
has uncovered a further series of magazines, the whole northern end of
the palace including a bath-chamber and an extensive eastern quarter.
It was only towards the close of this year’s excavations that what
appear to have been the principal state rooms first came into view. A
triple flight of stone stairs, one flight beneath another, here leads down
from an upper corridor to a suite of halls, showing remains of colonnades
and galleries. It was at this interesting point that, owing to the
advanced season, Mr. Evans was obliged to bring this year’s excavations
to a close.

Apart from the architectural results already gained, the finds within
the walls of the palace have been of such a nature as to throw an entirely
new light on the art and culture of prehistoric Greece. Partly still cling-
ing to the walls, partly on the floors of the chambers, were found the
yemains of a whole series of fresco paintings. Among these the full-length
figure of the cup-bearer supply the first real portrayal of a man of the
Mycenzan age, while the miniature groups representing court ladies show
a liveliness and expression far beyond any work of the kind in contem-
porary Egypt. Allied to this branch of art are the painted reliefs in gesso
duro, showing a force and naturalism for which no parallel can be found
till the great days of Greek sculpture some ten centuries later. To the
remarkable bull’s head discovered last year the more recent excavations
have added parts of human figures, in which the muscles and even the
yeins are reproduced with a singular mastery of execution.

The marble mouth of a fountain in the shape of a lioness’s headand a
‘triton shell of alabaster, together with many other beautiful stone vessels
and architectural ornaments, also evidence the high level already attained
in the sculptor’s art. Among the minor arts represented is that of minia-
ture painting on the back of crystal and intarsia work of ivory, rock-
crystal, enamel, and precious metals, of which a splendid example has
been found this season in the remains of a royal draught-board. Other
finds illustrate the connections with ancient Egypt and the East. Part of
a small diorite statue from last year’s excavations bears a hieroglyphic
inscription fixing its date about the beginning of the second millennium

442 REPORT—1901.

B.C., while a more recently discovered alabaster lid bears the cartouche of
the Hyksos King, Khyan. A fine cylinder of lapis lazuli, mounted with
gold and engraved with mythological subjects, bears witness to the early
connections with Babylonia.

But of all the discoveries made within the palace of Knossos the most
interesting is the accumulated evidence here for the first time afforded that
there existed on the soil of prehistoric Hellas a highly developed system
of writing some eight centuries earlier than the first written Greek monu-
ments, and going back six or seven centuries, even before the first dated
record of the Pheenician script. A whole series of deposits of clay tablets
has come to light, many of the most important of them during last season’s
excavations, engraved with a linear script, often accompanied by a decimal
system of numeration.

That these documents largely relate to the royal stores and arsenals is
seen by the pictorial illustrations with which the inscriptions are often
accompanied. Others, in which signs representing men and women fre-
quently recur, probably contain lists of slaves or officials. Others again
of a different class may, perhaps, ultimately reveal to us fragments of con-
temporary records or the actual formulas of Minoan laws.

Besides these linear tablets there was discovered a separate deposit of
clay bars and labels containing inscriptions of a more hieroglyphic class.
Although contemporary with the linear tablets, the script on these is
apparently of quite distinct evolution, and in all probability in a different
language. The characters answer in fact to the sign-groups already
observed in certain seal-stones mostly found in the east of Crete. The
hieroglyphs themselves present many parallels to the presumed pictorial
prototypes of Pheenician letters.

Beneath the palace itself and the adjoining houses, and underlying
the whole top of the hill, was also a very extensive Neolithic settlement.
A detailed account of the exploration of this Neolithic settlement, the
first of the kind uncovered in Greece, will be communicated by Mr. Evans
to Section H. The relics found, such as the small human figures of clay
and marble, supply the antecedent stages, hitherto wanting, to the Early
Metal Age Culture of the Aigean Islands.

In addition to the assistance given to Mr. Evans in his work at Knossos,
the Cretan Exploration Fund has contributed towards various works of
exploration in the island undertaken under the auspices of the British
School at Athens. In 1899 the late Director of the School, Mr. D. G.
Hogarth, excavated a series of prehistoric houses in the lower town of
Knossos. He found in these many remarkable painted vases, showing that
a highly developed ceramic art flourished here already before the days of
the civilisation known as Mycenan. A large number of similar houses
await exploration ; in fact, the whole plan of the early town could prob-
ably be recovered. Mr. Hogarth further successfully explored the great
cave of Zeus on Mount Dicta, discovering remains of a prehistoric sanc-
tuary and large deposits of votive bronze figures and other objects, among
which the double axe, the symbol of the Cretan and Carian Zeus, was
specially conspicuous.

During the present year Mr. R. C. Bosanquet, the new Director of the
British School, has carried out an exploration of the site of Praesos, in
the easternmost region of Crete, in historic times the chief civic centre of
the original Eteocretan element of the island. The remains on the actual
site of Praesos proved to belong to the geometrical and later periods. A

ON EXPLORATIONS IN CRETE. 4.4.3

remarkable inscription was found, however, the second of its class, written
in Greek characters of the fifth century B.c., but composed in the old
Eteocretan language. Two sanctuaries with votive deposits also came to
light, and the remains of a large public building of Hellenistic date, which
may have been an ‘ Andreion’ of the kind in which the Cretan citizens
met for common meals.

This season Mr. Hogarth has also been enabled by a grant from the

fund to explore an ancient site at Zakro in the extreme east of the island.
He has there uncovered a small Mycenzean town with well preserved re-
mains of the lower part of the houses and magazines, and a pit containing
fine examples of early pottery. But the most important discovery was a
deposit of clay impressions of Mycenzean gems and signets containing 150
types, some of them throwing a new light on the early cult of Crete.
Among other subjects represented was the Minotaur, which also occurs on
a seal impression recently discovered in the palace at Knossos. Further-
more, some interesting cist-graves were found in caves about Zakro. These
yielded incised and painted pottery of the pre-Mycenean age, including
types novel in Crete but familiar in Cyprus and Egypt. The general
result has important bearing on the origin and history of Mycenean
civilisation in Crete.
_ Other interesting sites, already previously secured for British excava-
tion, remain to be explored. The Executive Committee of the Cretan
Exploration Fund, however, are cf opinion that, before devoting any sums
towards breaking new ground, a sufficient amount shall be raised to enable
Mr. Evans to complete his excavation of the palace of Knossos, a con-
siderable part of the cost of which has already fallen on the explorer’s
shoulders. The large scale of the work, on which throughout the whole
of last season 200 workmen were constantly employed, makes it necessarily
costly, and in this case, in addition to many other incidental items of
expenditure, a great deal has to be done towards the conservation, and in
some cases even the roofing-in, of the chambers discovered. Jt is estimated
that a sum of between one and two thousand pounds will be necessary for
the adequate completion of this important work. The unique character of
the results already obtained is, however, so widely recognised that the
Committee confidently trust that no financial obstacles will stand in the
way of this consummation.

Report on Excavations at Praesos, in Eastern Crete.

Praesos, the ancient capital of the aboriginal Eteocretans, lies high
on the central plateau of Eastern Crete. The excavations at Praesos,
conducted in the spring of 1901 by Mr. R. C. Bosanquet, the Director of
the British School at Athens, with the aid of Mr. J. H. Marshall and Mr.
R. D. Wells, architect, did not bear out the expectation that the
Eteocretan capital would prove to have been a centre of Mycenean cul-
ture. It is true that the Acropolis yielded a product of pure Mycenean
art under singular circumstances. A large lentoid gem, with a represen-
tation of a hunterand a bull, was found embedded in the mud-mortar of
a late Greek house: it must have been plastered in unseen along with
the earth from an adjacent rock-cut tomb, which had evidently been
emptied by the Hellenistic builders.

But no other vestige of Mycenean occupation was found upon the site
of the later city. The waterless ridge, encircled by deep ravines, offered

44,4 REPORT—1901.

nothing to primitive settlers. The earliest remains lie a mile away in a
lateral valley near a spring. Here are several groups of megalithic walls,
the chief of which was shown by excavation to be a sub-Mycenean home-
stead. Its strictly rectangular plan, its massive thresholds, the spiral
ornamentation of large jars in its cellars, show that, whatever fate had
overtaken the cities on the coast, a certain standard of good workman-
ship had been their legacy to the people of the hills. Nearer the city two
tombs of the same period were discovered : the one, a square chamber
with a dromos, yielded parts of two painted /arnakes, thoroughly Mycenean
in design, a gold ring, a crystal sphere, parts of a silver vase, and a
quantity of iron swords. The other was a well built bee-hive tomb,
differing from the usual type in being entered through a vestibule: it
contained an enormous mass of geometric pottery, an openwork gold ring,
a bronze fibula, and other objects in gold, ivory, and Egyptian porcelain.
Tn the same neighbourhood a number of later tombs were opened, ranging
from the geometric period to the fourth century. Among the numerous
geometric vases there are several new types, in particular a vessel in the
form of a bird, and a slender jug painted with delicate white patterns on
a black ground. The later graves yielded jewellery in gold, silver, and
crystal.

Prominent among the considerations which caused Praesos to be put
upon the programme of the Cretan Fund was the fact that an inscription
in an unknown tongue, presumably the Eteocretan, had come to light
there, and the hope that others might be found. It was dug up at the
foot of the Altar Hill, a limestone crag precipitous on three sides which
dominates the south end of the site, and had probably fallen from the
level summit, long known to the peasants as a hunting-ground for
‘antikas.’ More fortunate than Professor Halbherr, who made a small
excavation here with the same object before the Cretan revolution, we
obtained a second and longer inscription of seventeen lines, and apparently
in the same non-Hellenic language, close to the entrance steps of a
temenos on the hill top. It must have been a frequented place of sacri-
fice, for the rock was covered several feet deep with a deposit of ashes,
burnt bones, and votive offerings of bronze and terra-cotta. The terra-
cottas, ranging from the sixth to the fourth century, are important as
giving a glimpse of a local school of artists working in clay (for Crete has
no marble of her own, and Praesos, at any rate, imported none) and
possessed of an independent and vigorous style. The great prize is the
upper part of an archaic statue of a young god, half the size of life : the
head and shoulders are intact; the remainder has disappeared. An
equally well preserved head, with fragmentary body, of a couchant lion
is a further revelation of early Cretan sculpture. The bulky fragments
of another lion, life-sized, later and feebler in style, prove the persistence
of the local method. Among the bronzes there is a noteworthy series of
votive models of armour, helmet, cuirasses, and shields. The pottery
shows that the Altar-hill was frequented from the eighth century onwards.

By this time Praesos had probably become the religious and political
centre of the district, a primacy for which it is admirably fitted by its
position at a meeting place of valleys midway between the two seas. The
Acropolis was fortified, the water of the distant spring brought to its
foot in earthenware pipes, and a small temple built on its summit. The
upper slopes of the Acropolis, though much denuded, yielded two archaic
bronzes. Trial-pits in the deeper terraces below revealed only Hellenic

ON EXPLORATIONS IN GRETE. 445

things, plainly built houses of limestone, roadways and cisterns, and a
rubbish pit full of terra-cottas. A building larger and more massive than
the rest was completely excavated : it contains eight rooms and has a
front seventy-five feet long. Outside the town two minor sanctuaries
were investigated : one adjoining the spring already mentioned contained
large terra-cotta figures of a goddess of quite new type. A survey of the
whole site was made by Mr. Wells, and a systematic exploration of the
surrounding country by Mr. Marshall.

Although Praesos was barren of Mycenean remains, they are evident
enough at Petras, on the modern harbour of Sitia, seven miles to the north.
I made some trials here in June. Nine-tenths of the site has been ruth-
lessly terraced by its Moslem owner, and would not repay a large exca-
vation. The remaining tenth is occupied by cottages, and here under the
roadway it was possible to uncover one side of a large building containing
pithoi and kamerais vases. On the hill-top there remain a few foun-
dations of a large mansion, and outside the walls—for Petras is unique
among early Cretan sites in possessing remains of fortifications—was
found a rubbish heap of the now familiar type, yielding whole cups and
lamps and shreds of earthenware and steatite. ‘Ten miles east of Petras,
across the Itanos peninsula, is another early site, Palaiokastro, which has
been sadly mauled of late years by clandestine excavation. In the course
of one of his exploring journeys Mr. Marshall made a remarkable dis-
covery here. Heavy rains—the same that flooded Mr. Hogarth out of his
quarters on the beach at Zakro—had exposed the corner of a very fine
larnax. The native aiggers had not noticed it, and he lost no time in
securing it, and some fine vases for the Candia museum. One of its four
picture-panels represents a double axe planted upright upon a column, an
important illustration of the axe and pillar cults discussed by Mr. Evans
in the ‘Journal of Hellenic Studies.’

The Micro-chenistry of Cells.—Report of the Coiamittee, consisting of
Professor E. A. SCHAFER (Chairman), Professor H. Ray LANKESTER,
Professor W. D. Haturmurton, Mr. G. C. Bourneg, Professor
J. J. Mackenzie, and Professor A. B. MacaLtum (Secretary).
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

THE research of the previous year on the distribution of phosphorus in
animal and vegetable cells was continued with the view of making the
field of investigation as large as possible. The results of these observa-
tions cover a large number of details, but these, while corroborating the
. conclusions advanced in the last report on the subject, have not furnished
any additional generalisation which merits special mention here. The
paper embodying all the results will, it is hoped, be ready for publication
in a few weeks,

Micro-chenrcal Localisation of Oxidases.—The work of the previous
year on oxidases was continued, and efforts were made to localise them
micro-chemically. After a considerable amount of experimenting with
different leuco-compounds it was found that the reagent mixture recom-
mended by Rohmann and Spitzer! for the detection of oxidising enzymes

1 «Ueber Oxydations-Wirkungen thierischer Gewebe,’ Ber. d. d. Chem. Ge sell.,
1895, vol. xxviii. p. 567

446 uivontT—t1 901.

in extracts of animal tissues was of considerable service if used in dilute
solutions on the protophytan cell. It consists of a mixture of a-naphtol,
paraphenylendiamin, and soda in the proportions by weight of 12, 9,
and 10, and when freshly made should have only a slight yellow-red
tint ; but on exposure to the air for some hours it gradually becomes violet
and then blue, due to the formation of indo-phenol. The reactions which
occur thus and in the cell may be indicated as follows :—

‘ «AMO, Ns
(a) C,H,(NH,).+C,,H,0H+0= NH 4+H,0
™.C})»H OH
we ONE: eS TCT,
(6) NH +0 = Qe eee
Ss NG POE OO HELO

When the reagent is poured on the fresh protophytan threads and allowed
to act on them for 20-30 minutes, or even for 2-3 hours, the fluids in
the cell spaces (Spirogyra, Ordogonium, &e.) are often coloured violet
blue, and contain small sheaves of the blue crystals of indo-phenol.
This indicates the occurrence of oxidising enzymes in the fluids of the
cell spaces or cavities, but no coloration was found in the protoplasm
itself or in the nucleus, and the chromatophor itself gave only a very
faint reaction in a few cases, except in the immediate neighbourhood of
the pyrenoids, when frequently a deeper reaction was observed. That
the blue reaction was not due to the diffusion of the colouring material
from other points is indicated by the fact that indo-phenol, to which the
blue colour is due, is almost insoluble. It is to be noted that in the
report of last year the conclusion that the chromatophor contains no
oxidising enzymes was based on the fact that that organ did not appear
to be affected when extracts of the enzymes were made by hydraulic
pressure from the cells. This conclusion, in view of the fact given above,
must now be considered untenable. The reagent was also employed on
the Cyanophycex to determine the presence of oxidases in these non-
nucleated forms, and it was found that one is present in the peripheral
coloured zone and its granules in these cells, but the ‘central body,’
which is considered by some to be the homologue of the nucleus of the
higher forms, is absolutely unaffected, as are also its granules, by the
reagent. The peripheral zone would appear to correspond to the cell
fluids and chromatophor of higher Protophyta, while the ‘central body,’
so far as absence of an oxidase is concerned, corresponds to the nucleus
and cell protoplasm of Spirogyra.

The reagent cannot be used to detect the peroxidases, so that the
micro-chemical localisation of these enzymes could not be determined.
The difficulties in the employment of solutions of guaiacum for this pur-
pose on fresh cells, or even on alcoholic preparations of them, were found
to be insuperable.

The main point to be noted in all these observations is that the oxi-
dases are not components of the living framework of the cells, but are
dissolved in the fluids which bathe that framework and circulate in the
cell spaces and cavities. In consideration of the relations which these
fluids bear to the surrounding media it would seem proper to regard these
oxidases, not as enzymes, but as oxygen-carriers, playing the part in the
cell mechanism that hemoglobin does in the animal body.

——

ON THE MICRO-CHEMISTRY OF CELLS. 44,7

On the Nature of Hemosiderin.—Dr. B. N. Coutts, under Professor
Mackenzie’s direction, investigated the composition of hemosiderin from
a micro-chemical point of view and ascertained a number of interesting
facts. He found that hemosiderin of liver cells is different from that of
the alveolar cells of indurated lung in regard to the way in which the iron
is held, as well as in the chemical reactions of the basic material of the
granules themselves. The iron of the hepatic hemosiderin is in an
inorganic form easily extractable with very dilute acids, and to a certain
extent also by prolonged action of distilled water. The iron in hepatic
hemosiderin is also readily demonstrated by acid ferro-cyanide solutions,
or by ammonium sulphide almost immediately after their application,
this indicating that the iron is not firmly bound in the substance of the
granules. That it is inorganic is shown also by its reactions with pure
dilute hematoxylin solutions. In the pulmonary hemosiderin granules
the iron seems to be combined differently, yet in an inorganic form, prob-
ably with a proteid body, for on digestion with artificial gastric juice the
granules diminish in size and lose their iron. In both pulmonary and
hepatic heemosiderin granules the iron may be extracted, with the result
that the colour, shape, and size of the granules may be unchanged, but the
residual matrix in pulmonary hemosiderin is much more readily affected
by stronger acids than is the case with hepatic hemosiderin. The residue
in neither seems to show any chemical aftinities with, hematoidin (biliru-
bin) or with hematoporphyrin.

The conclusion from these observations is that hemosiderin is not a
chemical compound, that it is not uniform in composition, and that it is
for the most part a mixture of an inorganic iron compound with a brown-
yellow iron-free substance.

The Chemistry of Bone Marrow.—Interim Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor H. A. ScHAFER (Chairman), Dr. R. Hurcar-
son (Secretary), Dr. Leonarp Hix, and Professor F. Gorcu.

Tut work of the Committee has been considerably retarded by the diffi-
culty of obtaining a sufficiency of material for examination and analysis.
A certain amount of progress has, however, been made in the estimation
of the nucleins and nuclein bases in red marrow, and the investigation of
the proteids has been begun. So far (1) a histon and (2) a nucleo-proteid
have been isolated, and the further investigation of these bodies is now
being proceeded with. Hereafter it is hoped that the estimation of the
iron compounds in marrow will be undertaken.

The Morphology, Ecology, and Taxonomy of the Podostemacew.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor MARSHALL
Warp (Chairman), Professor J. B. Farmer (Secretary), and
Professor F, O. Bower.

Tur Committee report that the grant of 20/. made at the Bradford
meeting of the British Association has been expended by Mr. J. C. Willis
in the prosecution of the research above named.

448 rEPoRT—1901.

Several districts of the Indian Peninsula have been travelled over,
and Mr. Willis’ investigations have thrown much light on the habits,
development, and affinities of the plants composing the Order.

The first instalment of his memoir, dealing especially with the classi-
fication of the Indian forms, is nearly ready, and will shortly be followed
by a second paper on the morphology and natural history of the species.

As the object of the grant has now been fulfilled, the Committee do
not ask for reappointment.

Fertilisation in the Pheophycece.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor J. B. Farmer (Chairman), Professor R. W. PHILLIPS
(Secretary), Professor F. O. Bower, and Professor Harvey
GIBSON.

Tur Committee report that the grant of 15/. made at the Bradford meeting

has been expended by Mr. J. Ll. Williams in connection with the above

research.
Mr. Williams’ results are now practically complete, and will shortly
be embodied in the form of a memoir.

The Influence of the Universities on School Education.
By the Rt. Rev. Joun Percivat, D.D., Lord Bishop of Hereford.

Tue subject before us this morning, as I am given to understand, is not
the general influence of universities on national life and character,—a
subject of the highest interest and importance, and nowhere better illus-
trated than in Scotland,—but simply the consideration of some practical
questions suggested by the relationship in which our ancient English
universities stand to the education given in our secondary schoels.

And, although we are met on Scottish soil, and may very well hope to
obtain some help and guidance from Scottish example, as I have no
direct personal experience of the Scotch University system, though I
possess a highly prized degree conferred by your most ancient university,
I must be content to base my observations and suggestions exclusively on
my English experience.

Leven leave out of my purview the newer English foundations, such
as the University of London, the Victoria University, the various
university colleges of our great provincial cities, and that latest birth of
time, the University of Birmingham,

It is from no lack of appreciation that I do this, but partly because,
as yet, these modern institutions do not exercise the same influence as
the older universities on our general system of secondary education, and
partly because, having so lately grown up under the pressure of actual
local or national needs, they are not open to the same criticisms.

Our great English universities have till quite recently, as regards their
direct action and influence, been to a large extent, we might almost say in
the main, the universities of the privileged and the professional classes.
Within my own memory they were indeed virtually monopolised by those
members of the Established Church who belonged to these classes or were

THE INFLUENCE OF THE UNIVERSITIES ON SCHOOL EDUCATION. 449

seeking to enter them. To the mass of the people they were something
vague and far off.

Sixty years ago a distinguished German, in his description of them,
said that their aim was to produce gentlemen, especially Tory gentlemen ;
and I am not sure that any of us could prove him to have been altogether
mistaken.

But for half a century the process of nationalisation has been going
steadily if not rapidly forward. It has been and is the earnest desire of
the men who inspire and direct our university life to make them national
institutions in the best and truest and broadest sense of the term ; and
they are, I feel sure, ready to give sympathetic and favourable considera-
tion to any criticism or suggestion which is likely to help towards this
end.

Thus I venture to think they will welcome the discussion by so weighty
a body as the British Association of these very practical questions :—
How do our ancient universities act with special or directing or deter-
mining influence on English school education ? And in connection with
this influence are there any reforms which would be clearly beneficial ?

The answer to such inquiries has to be mainly sought through obser-
vation of the examinations they conduct or require, the use they make
of their endowments, and the type of teachers they train and send forth.

Through its examinations the university largely determines the
curriculum or relative amount of attention bestowed on different subjects
of study in the schools that prepare for it.

Through its endowments and prizes it fixes the bent of study to be
pursued by the most promising and ambitious students ; and finally, by
the stamp it puts on the teachers sent out, their attainments, their
tastes, their aims, opinions, and ideals, it sets the tone and tendency of
both life and work in the wide field of school education.

I. As regards examinations we have to look chiefly at—

(1) Examination of schools or of boys and girls still at school.
(2) Entrance examinations to colleges or to the university.
(3) Examination of students during the university course.

By their school examinations, such as the local examinations, the
examinations of the Oxford and Cambridge Joint Board, and examinations
for commercial and other certificates, experience shows that the univer-
sities have done a very good and useful work, and they have done it in a
liberal and progressive spirit.

The committees charged with this work have been allowed a tolerably
free hand ; they have sought the best practical advice, and they have
aimed at consulting the needs of different types of school, whilst careful
to maintain a reasonable standard of proficiency as a qualification for
their various certificates.

If there are defects in any of these examinations the authorities of
schools and public opinion are to a great extent responsible for their
continuance.

But when we turn from these outside examinations to the conditions
of entrance to the university itself it must be admitted that we meet with
some survivals that seem altogether out of date, and some obvious defi-
ciencies that call for attention and reform.

Taking the case of Oxford, with which I am more familiar, it is to be
noted that the examination known as Responsions or its equivalent is

1901. Hotelie:

450 REPORT—1901.

practically the wicket gate through which every student must enter the
University. The various colleges are free to admit students on their own
terms with or without examination, but as a matter of practice it is
usual for a college to require the passing of Responsions either before
commencement of residence or in the course of the first term, so that for
actual influence on the ordinary curriculum of secondary schools we may
disregard all qualifying entrance examinations except this one.

What, then, does the University in this examination require of a boy
fresh from school ?

Turning to the examination statutes we find that every candidate
desiring to pass Responsions or its equivalent examination has to reach
the requisite standard of attainment in the following stated subjects, and
in these only :—Latin, Greek, Elementary Mathematics.

So much for the subjects required, But a glance at the papers set will
show that as regards the literary portion of the examination the study
encouraged is almost exclusively grammatical and of a very rudimentary
type.

The writing of elementary Latin prose, the translation of passages
from one or two prepared books in each language, and the answering of
questions on elementary grammar form the staple of the examination.

No knowledge is required of the art, or literature, or history, or general
life of Athens or Rome, and little or no inquiry seems to be made even
as to the authors or contents of the books specially prepared.

The mathematical part of the examination is also open to criticism,
though perhaps in a less degree.

But the really surprising thing is that natural science still meets with
no recognition, modern languages are ignored, and no questions are
asked even as to the candidate’s knowledge or ignorance of our own
language and literature. Here, then, it must be admitted, is some room
for expansion, We are even tempted to pause and inquire whether we
have not stepped back into some earlier century ; and I venture to think
that it would be difficult to point to any single educational reform which
is more urgently needed or would be likely to produce a more wholesome
effect on the teaching in our secondary schools than a reform of this
examination.

In the first place if it were made permissible to offer certain equivalents
in place of Greek, this single modification would bring our universities
into touch with that large and increasing group of modern schools or
modern departments in schools which are now suffering from lack of this
connection.

The existing requirement of Greek from every candidate, together with
the accompanying exclusion of modern languages and natural science from
this examination, practically dissociates this whole class of modern schools
or departments in schools from direct university influence, and the effect
is found to be specially unfortunate in the modern departments of the
larger secondary schools.

Whatever may be a boy’s ultimate aim or profession or business in life,
if his intention is to pass through the university these conditions amount
to a warning that he had better avoid a modern school or modern depart-
ment,

Consequently such schools or departments are very liable to become
the refuge of the dull or the idle or those who are preparing for nothing
in particular, so that standards of effort. and attainment are inevitably

THE INFLUENCE OF THE UNIVERSITIES ON SCHOOL EDUCATION. 451

lowered. In drawing attention to the consequences of these antiquated
university arrangements I desire to say that I am not raising theoretical
or hypothetical objections to them, but simply speaking of what I have
seen and known in one school and another ; indeed, I would claim that
throughout this paper I have been careful to bear in mind the old
Newtonian example which is, I imagine, sometimes disregarded even at
the British Association, ‘ Hypotheses non fingo.’

Thus, as the result of my personal experience, the first reform I
would advocate is that Responsions without Greek should be made an
avenue to a university degree for all candidates who can reach a good
standard of attainment in certain equivalent subjects of study.

So much for our first change in the direction of liberty of choice.

We may now go on to consider whether or how far any other changes
would effect some improvement in the kind and quality of ordinary school
education.

So far as the school curriculum is influenced by this examination, with
its rigid exclusion of everything but elementary mathematics and the
grammatical study of two dead languages, it must be obvious that it would
be improved by an infusion of subjects and methods, the greatest of all
needs in our English education being scientific methods, that would help
to develop such qualities as observation, taste, thought, and interest in
the world around us.

With this view I venture to put the question whether the following
scheme of requirements on entering Oxford or Cambridge would not
constitute a reasonable substitute for the present Responsions or
Little Go :—

1. Latin.—The examination to include the translation into English of
easy unprepared passages, and also some questions on a selected period
of Roman history and literature.

2. Elementary mathematics.—More attention to be given to scientific
arithmetic and to easy original work in geometry.

3. The elements of natural science and scientific method.

4, An elementary knowledge of either French or German or Italian.

5, English.—The examination to include—

(a) English composition.
(6) Questions on some period of English history and literature.

6. Greek.—The examination to include translation into English of
easy unprepared passages and also some questions on a selected period of
Greek history and literature ; or

6a. French, or German, or some branch of natural science.—The
standard required to be such as to show that the candidate is fitted to
enter on an Honour Course of university study.

It would be reasonable that any student who had passed in three of
the six subjects here required should be allowed to commence his residence
in the university on condition that he pass in the remaining three before
admission to any other examination in the university course. As univer-
sity study tends to become more specialised it is all the more necessary
thus to secure at the outset a good preliminary liberal training.

Such a scheme as is here indicated would do this, and it would exer-
cise a most wholesome influence on school education generally. On the

GG2

4.52 REPORT—1901.

one hand it would compel all schools preparing students for the univer-
sities to give a fair share of attention to modern and scientific studies,
and more attention than is generally given to our own language and
literature ; whilst it would at the same time interpose a check on the
mischievous tendency to premature specialisation of study whilst a boy is
still at school.

To these suggestions I have to add one more.

This examination, like some others at the university, is a purely
‘pass’ examination, in which no opportunity is offered to the candidate
of winning any honours, and no mark of distinction can be gained by
work of unusual merit.

In my judgment the continuance of any such pass education is
educationally a grave mistake, and I desire to see it made a rule that
the university will give marks of distinction for work of superior merit
in every examination which it conducts.

The reasons in favour of such a change are sufficiently obvious, the
surprising thing being that the pass examination, with its corresponding
type of university student known as the ‘ passman,’ should have been left
to survive into the twentieth century.

A standard which every student is required to reach as a preliminary
to further instruction or as the qualification for a degree which is under-
stood to be within reach of any person of ordinary intelligence is, of
necessity, a comparatively low standard.

It represents the minimum of attainment qualifying for a certificate, or
diploma, or degree. Not to win it is to be a failure.

The natural result is that a large proportion of the students who offer
themselves for examination, and are, in fact, capable of reaching a con-
siderably high level of attainment, are content to aim at a minimum
instead of a maximum standard. This in many cases means the loss of
intellectual interest at the very time when it ought to be cherished and
stimulated, a loss which degenerates in not a few instances into down-
right idleness and waste.

The pity of it is that many of those to whom the preparation for a
pass examination, in which failure is discreditable and success no honour,
is irksome drudgery would become keenly interested in the very study
which is now a weariness if their ambition were roused by the hope of
some distinction to be won in connection with it.

So, then, I plead for such changes as I have here suggested in the
belief that the effect would be to send a fresh stream of intellectual
activity through many of our schools, to give a fair field to modern and
scientific studies, and to draw out the undeveloped capacities, the dormant
faculties and gifts of many of our boys and young men, whilst doing no
harm to the traditional classical culture of either school or university.

It may possibly be alleged in some quarters that my proposed require-
ments would lay too heavy a burden on many candidates for admission.

The argument will no doubt be used that by requiring an acquaintance
with so many subjects we should overweight the learner or reduce the
knowledge of each subject to a superficial smattering. It is better, we
shall be told, to concentrate and make the standard to be reached in any
subject studied a fairly high one, and thus give some real mental
discipline. To this familiar line of argument a sufficient answer is not
far to seek. In the first place the candidates, asa rule, are at least

THE INFLUENCE OF THE UNIVERSITIES ON SCHOOL EDUCATION. 433

eighteen years of age, so that they have had a considerable period for
preparation ; and it is open to question whether the present standard of
knowledge attained is in all cases a very high one, or one that guarantees
any great amount of valuable intellectual training. Even within the
narrow field of the present examination a large proportion of the
candidates would, I fear, be sorely puzzled by very simple riders on the
first Book of Euclid, or by any straightforward piece of narrative in
Thucydides, or Herodotus, or Livy, or Tacitus, which they had not seen
before, to say nothing of Horace or Virgil, Sophocles, Homer, or Plato.

The fact is that no experienced person looks upon these university
requirements as in any sense representing what candidates of eighteen
years of age about to enter on a university course ought to have studied.
Neither does any experienced school teacher doubt the capacity of the
ordinary boy or girl, if properiy trained in habits of industry and atten-
tion, to sufliciently master my schedule of subjects. To the plea that, the
present limited range of subjects being so indifferently mastered, it
would be folly to widen the range, the real answer is that the English
schoolboy is, as a rule, a very practical person. He has no great
enthusiasm about learning for learning’s sake ; he has come somehow to
understand that a certain minimum will serve his purpose when he
presents himself at a college in Oxford, and so his mind is quiescent in
front of his Xenophon, or Euripides, or Virgil, or Euclid, or it is occupied
with other things.

He is commonly described as an idle boy, but this, I venture to think,
is a misnomer.

Give him a practical motive for learning, extend the range of his
practical interest in subjects to be studied, stir his practical instincts,
rouse his personal ambition by making it clear to him that he may win
some distinction in such and such subjects for which he has shown some
aptitude or ability, and he sets his mind to work and learns what is
required of him with an amount of success which is not seldom a surprise
both to himself and to his teacher. So experience shows us to what an
extent our antiquated educational arrangements leave capacity un-
developed and let young lives run to waste.

My concluding observation on this subject of examinations is that I
should prefer to see the examination of secondary schools retained, as far
as possible, within the circle of university influence.

Even in the presence of the right honourable gentleman who presides
over us this morning I must pluck up courage to say that I should regret
to see it established exclusively at Whitehall. My hope is that whatever
reforms are instituted the headquarters of this work may somehow be
maintained in connection with our universities, so as to secure that the
men who examine may be familiar with the current work of both school

-and university, and, as a rule, men who either ars or have been them-
selves engaged as teachers.

II. I now turn to the influence exercised through university or college
endowments. This part of the subject is of such importance that it
might advantageously be considered by a fresh university commission at
no very distant date, experience having shown that the reforms of previous
commissions stand in need of some further revision.

The system of election by merit or unrestricted open competition,
ridding us, as it has so largely done, of a system of patronage and privi-
lege and arbitrary preferences has brought great benefits to English life ;

454, REPORT—1901.

but in regard to educational endowments, both at school and university,
it is now seen to have been made in some respects too universal and
absolute.

One result of our present system is that prizes go too exclusively to
the well-to-do.

A considerable proportion of the endowments both at school and
college, given as scholarships or exhibitions, is enjoyed by those who do
not need such pecuniary assistance. There is consequently a certain
amount of waste which might be avoided.

But a much stronger objection to this unrestricted competition is that
the endowments in many cases thus become the rewards, not of the most
promising ability, but of the most elaborate and expensive preparation :
‘To him that hath shall be given.’

These considerations suggest that, whilst the principle of open election
by merit should be scrupulously maintained, the value of open scholar-
ships and exhibitions, both at school and university, should be consider-
ably reduced, and the amount thus saved should form a supplementary
exhibition fund out of which the authorities might increase the emolu-
ments of every meritorious scholar so elected who applied and gave proof
that his pecuniary circumstances were such as to call for this addition.
They suggest, further, that there should be some modified return to the
allocation of endowments to districts (the poorer country districts, which
are sometimes the birth-places of boys and girls of talent, having specially
suffered by the reforms of the last half-century), care being taken so to
arrange the allocation as to encourage and cultivate ability and to give
that further and general intellectual stimulus which is given by arousing
local interest and enlisting in the cause of educational development the
spirit of local patriotism, thus stirring a good deal of intellectual ambition
which now lies dormant.

The ancient country grammar schools, owing to their connection with
some college at Oxford or Cambridge, undoubtedly exercised in their day
a stimulative intellectual influence which has been to some extent lost in
some rural districts of late years.

Looking, then, to the needs of our rural districts I venture to put it
forward as a suggestion which deserves favourable consideration that not
less than 5 per cent. of the funds now awarded at Oxford and Cambridge
in scholarships and exhibitions might be formed into a ‘county scholar-
ship fund,’ and offered in due proportions to the various counties on
condition, in every case, that the county educational authorities provide
an equivalent sum for the same purpose.

These scholarships to be confined, in the first instance, to candidates
born and educated in the county, and to be tenable in any college of
either university.

Now that the Honour Schools of the university are thrown open to
women, a fair proportion of these scholarships should be made available
for girls.

I commend this suggestion to the universities as a reasonable and
prudent mode of casting their bread upon the waters. The result could
hardly fail to be a wide extension of their influence, tending to make
them more truly national, whilst it would give a considerable stimulus to
intellectual interest, culture, and progress in every district thus aided.

My other criticism on the present use of endowments has reference to
the premature specialisation encouraged and fostered by the offering of

THE INFLUENCE OF THE UNIVERSITIES ON SCHOOL EDUCATION. 495

scholarships for special subjects. The scholar elected for proficiency in
classics and mathematics combined, and prepared to read for double
honours, is said to be almost extinct at Oxford, whilst the literary critic
complains that in some cases scholarships in mathematics and natural
science are awarded to candidates who are almost entirely destitute of
the elements of a liberal training.

It may, I fear, also be said that history scholarships are at times
awarded to boys who have been diverted to exclusive reading of history
at a time when they would have been better employed on the general
curriculum of school work.

And it might even be urged that in many schools the classical training
is little more than a sort of old-fashioned specialisation on the learning
of two languages, with very little of that training of thought, or taste, or
faculty which would be given by an adequate amount of attention to a
wider range of subjects, and, what deserves to be specially noted, with no
training at all in scientific method.

Whatever force there may be in these various allegations, it must be
obvious that, in so far as premature specialisation is thus encouraged by
the universities, their influence on our schools is being exercised to the
detriment rather than the encouragement of a truly liberal and well
balanced educational system.

On this theme I desire, in conclusion, to support what I have been
saying by calling into the witness-box a very distinguished living authority
who can speak to you from a direct personal experience of both school
and university education extending over half a century—Dr. Butler, the
Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, and formerly Headmaster of
Harrow.

Tn an address published about a year ago he says: ‘A new creed
seems to have reached us from some unaccredited educational Mecca that
man lives by literature or science alone, and that schools live by scholar-
ships.

‘There has arisen in our schools a modern Polyphemus, one-eyed, mis-
shapen. Under his new name of specialisation pupils and teachers bow
down before him, cultivating exclusively just one part of the mind and
one only, and that sometimes the least social and the least human, asif the
boy were made for the subject of study and the emoluments attached to
it, and not the subject and its emoluments for the boy.

‘It is, for instance, one of my privileges,’ he tells us, ‘in the college of
Newton, and Bacon, and Tennyson to havea share in conducting entrance
scholarship examinations.

‘In connection with one of these examinations I take up the English
essay paper or the paper of general questions which by a recent and
refined barbarity, sanctioned as yet by only a few colleges, all the candi-

dates at Trinity are now obliged to attempt, and the English work shown
‘up by a considerable proportion of the candidates is simply appalling.’
Such is the description given of candidates for the prizes offered by the
greatest of Cambridge colleges, and we may fairly ask, If this is the green
tree, what of the dry ?

‘T know,’ he adds, ‘from happy experience the excellent English which
many schoolboys are able to write. But in the essays I have in my
thoughts you can detect, after the kindliest search, no mind, no arrange-
ment, no substance. It would seem as though no topic had an interest
for the writers, and that they had, so far in their lives, found almost

4.56 REPORT—1901.

nothing to think, to feel, to say. And who, as as a rule, are these un-
fortunates? They are the boys who have been specialised in that
modern phrontisterion which prepares them to win scholarships in special
subjects.’ And these subjects, it must be confessed even here, are generally
mathematics and natural science. If time permitted I might extend
my quotations from Dr. Butler’s criticism, a criticism which cuts in
various directions, like a two-edged sword ; but I must be content to
note his practical conclusion : ‘It seems to me tolerably certain,’ he says,
‘that we must ere long reconsider our methods, and, if the phrase may
be permilted, redistribute our bribes.’

My observations on the topics already dealt with have run to such
length that I must not tax your patience farther. I therefore limit what
I have to suggest on the influence exercised by our universities through
the training of teachers to a few brief concluding words.

As a rule the authorities of secondary schools prefer to employ univer-
sity graduates in all branches of school education, and it is most desirable
that this preference should be encouraged and assisted by every possible
means ; for there is no better service which the universities can do to the
nation than that of training and sending out highly qualified teachers.

And yet till quite recently no attention has been given to this aspect
of their work apart from the general courses of study which are provided
equally for men who are looking forward to other professions or to no
profession at all.

It may possibly be argued that it is not the business of the university
to give pedagogic any more than medical, or legal, or industrial, or com-
mercial, or any other form of technological training.

This, however, is only partially true, seeing that in the first place a
university cannot properly fulfil its function as a teacher of its own
students so long as it continues to give no training in the art of teaching,
and in the next place the relationship in which the universities stand to
school education is entirely different from their relationship to the various
professions and occupations of later years.

Thus we may fairly argue that it is high time for our ancient univer-
sities to give more special attention to educational methods, and more
encouragement than has hitherto been given to the selection of such
courses of study and such combinations of subjects as will form the best
equipment for that large body of students who year by year go out direct
from the universities to the work of teachers in secondary schools.

I plead for these various reforms on the ground that, whilst pouring
a stream of fresh life and interest into many of our secondary schools,
they would involve no interference with any of the higher functions of
our universities, no undue dissipation of energy, no lessening or lowering
of their work as homes of learning and research. Such changes would,
on the other hand, bring an extension and deepening of their influence in
the general life of the people, making them more truly and more fully the
universities of the nation, instinct with larger and more vigorous
activities, and bringing them nearer than ever before in our day to the
realisation of that ideal which a great English writer saw in his dreams
when he said :

‘A university is a place of concourse to which a thousand schools
make contributions. She draws the world to her like ancient Athens,

and sends out her literature, her preachers, her missionaries into the
world.

THE INFLUENCE OF THE UNIVERSITIES ON SCHOOL EDUCATION 457

‘A university is a place which wins the admiration of the young by its
celebrity, kindles the affection of the middle-aged by its beauty, and
rivets the fidelity of the old by its associations. It isa seat of wisdom,
a light of the world, a minister of the faith, an a/ma mater of the rising
generation.’

So, with much more to the same effect, wrote John Henry Newman ;
and it is just because I desire to see our universities maintain and extend
their marvellously fascinating and attractive influence as the nursing
mothers of all that is best and most illuminating and most powerful in
our national life that I press for the reforms I have ventured to advocate
in this paper.

For convenience and clearness it may be well that I should briefly
summarise the chief suggestions I have ventured to make.

A. Examinations.—1. The external examinations conducted by the
universities would in many cases be better and more valuable if made
more concrete and practical.

2. In the entrance examination to the university (Responsions or
Little Go),

(a) Candidates should be free to offer some suitable equivalent in
place of Greek.

(6) Some other much needed improvemeuts should be introduced, e.g.—

(i.) An elementary knowledge of natural science and of one modern
language should be made obligatory on all candidates.

(ii.) Ability to write English should be tested, and a knowledge of
some period of English history and literature should be required.

(iil.) The examination in Latin or any other language should include
questions on some period of history and literature, and on the subject
matter of any prepared books, together with the translation of easy
passages from authors that have not been prepared.

(iv.) Candidates should not be excluded from residence before passing
this examination, nor should they be required to pass all subjects at the
same time, but the passing in all the parts of this examination should be
a necessary preliminary to entry for any other examination required for
a degree.

(v.) It might reasonably be made a rule that no scholar should enjoy
the emoluments of his scholarship until he had passed this examination.

(vi.) Marks of distinction should be given for work of superior merit in
this and every other examination conducted by the university.

B. Endowments.—1. The value of open scholarships and exhibitions
should be considerably reduced.

2. The money thus saved, or part of it, should be given in augmenta-
tion of scholarships held by poor students.

3. A fair proportion of scholarships should be awarded for excellence
in a combination of subjects.

4. As arule, no scholar should be allowed to receive any emolument
till he had passed Responsions.

5. A percentage of the endowments now awarded as entrance scholar-
ships (say 5 per cent. or more) should be distributed over the country as
county scholarships on condition that the county raised an equivalent
sum in each case ; and a due share of these should be allotted to girls.

458 REPORT—1901.

C. Training of Teachers.—1. There should be established in each
university an Honour School or Tripos specially suited for those who
are to take up the profession of teaching, and qualifying for the degree
of B.A.

2. The establishment of such a school would carry with it the pro-
vision of adequate professorial and other instruction in the subjects
required.

The Teaching of Science in Blementary Schools.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. J. H. GLADSTONE (Chairman), Professor
H. HE. Armstrone (Secretary), Lord Avesury, Professor W. R.
Dunstan, Mr. GrorGE GLapDSsTONE, Sir Pamip Magnus, Sir
H. E. Roscor, Professor A. SMITHELLS, and Professor 8S. P.
THOMPSON.

APPENDIX.—Trish National Schools: Object Lessons and Elementary Science pp. 464

For a number of years past your Committee have given a tabular state-
ment showing the increased attention which has been devoted to instruc-
tion in natural and experimental science from year to year. Up to 1890
the Government Code of regulations for day schools was so framed as
practically to exclude such teaching. Schools were at that time limited
to two so-called ‘class subjects,’ which were specifically defined as
‘English, Geography, History, and Elementary Science,’ and of which
‘English’ must be one. Of the other three ‘Geography ’ has always been
the most popular, and ‘Elementary Science’ was the least so. Hence,
in the year 1889-90, the number of school departments in which English
was taken amounted to no less than 20,304, while Elementary Science
was taught in only 32. At that period the instruction in English was
almost exclusively confined to grammatical exercises, and that in
Geography to topographical details. Nowadays both terms are to be
understood in a much broader and more scientific sense. At the period
above named a free choice among these subjects was given, and the pre-
ponderance of English grammar began to decline, and has continued to
do so ever since. In 1890-91 the figures for English and Elementary
Science were 19,825 and 173 respectively ; in 1891-92 they were 18,175
and 788 ; the table given below will show the comparative figures each
succeeding year to 1899-1900. Object lessons were made an obligatory
subject of instruction in the three lower Standards from September 1,
1896, and hence the rapid rise in the two succeeding years; they then
became merged into the general term of Elementary Science, and, follow-
ing the terminology of the Code, may sometimes be included under the
head of Geography, which may account for the reduced numbers for
Elementary Science in the last two years of the table :—

5 | | | |
Class Subjects—De- | 1g99_93 1893-94/ 1894-95] 1895-96 1896-97] 1897-98 1898-99 1899-
partments | | | 1900
English. . | 17,394 |17,032/ 16,280/ 15,327 | 14,286 | 13,456 13,194) 12,993
Geography . | 14,256 | 15,250 15,702 | 16,171 16,646 | 17,049 | 17,872, 18,632
Elementary Science} 1,073! 1,215! 1,712] 2,237) 2,617 2,143 }
Object Lessons.) — | — | 1,079, 8,321 | 21:82 ie hoes cea

THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 459

A still greater change in these figures will probably become apparent
next year, as the terms ‘class subjects ’ and ‘Elementary Science’ are
removed from the Code, and this branch of instruction is covered by the
term of ‘lessons, including object lessons, on Geography, History, and
Common Things.’ The number of pepe in ‘schools for older
scholars’ for the year 1899-1900 was 23,214, so that English Grammar,
which ten years previously was taken almost universally, is now taken
in little more than one-half of these ; Elementary Science, mainly in the
form of object lessons, being taken instead.

In last year’s Report your Committee gave the number of scholars
qualified for grants in specific subjects as compared with the number of
scholars presented for examination in these several subjects in former
years. It seemed to indicate that the abolition of the system of indivi-
dual examination had been received with great favour by school managers
and teachers, and that the work of the upper Standards had been more
largely devoted to this branch of instruction. The returns for the year
1899-1900 appear to show that the spurt caused by the change in the
plan of assessing the grant has not been fully maintained, every subject
showing a falling-off as compared with the previous year, either abso-
lutely, or relatively to the number of scholars in the upper Standards.

Scholars qualified for Grants |
Specific Subjects —
1898-99 1899-1900

Algebra. ; : : : ; ; : A 111,486 109,351
Euclid . é é ; 5 : ; : : 5,932 6,208
Mensuration . : : < 4 3 A F 24,848 24,432
Mechanics . F : ; A : aN 50,324 | 42,534
Animal Physiology ( 5 5 : : A | 41,244 36,810
Botany . ; P 4 ‘ : sal 8,833 | 8,905
Principles of Agriculture : , . : ‘ 1,163 1,166
Chemistry . d ; : A : 14,737 13,557
Sound, Light, and ‘Heat ; : : i A 1,943 } 1,733
Magnetism and Electricity . 3 . : aj 7,697 7,026
Domestic Economy 3 a : é : + 95,171 87,518

Totals . : : : 363,378 339,237

The figures for 1898-99 gave 50-7 as the percentage proportion of
scholars qualified for grant as compared with the possible number of
students. Those for 1899-1900 gave a percentage of only 4571. It does
not necessarily follow, however, that the ultimate result is to be regarded
as unfavourable, for it appears that the amount of time given by the
scholars individually during the year has been raised from about fifty-two
to sixty hours,

The aggregate number of scholars in the Evening Continuation Schools
taking subjects of instruction more or less scientific in their character has
not varied much in the year 1899-1900 from that of the previous year’s
return, but is still considerably less than in 1897-98, as the following
table will show. The fluctuation in the individual items is, however,
larger than might have been expected from the close approximation of
the totals, and would rather seem to indicate a want of continuity in the
course of the studies.

460 REPor't—-1901.

| Number of Scholars
Science Subjects |——___________ ————- - =e
| 1896-97 1897-98 1898-99 | 1899- 1900 |

Euclid . a : : 5 By | 1,036 1,525 TOG el 1,601
Algebra . 5 A ‘ ey 7,467 9,996 7,432 | 7,247
Mensuration . . .| 27,388 | 29,966 | 24,369 | 23,090
Elementary Physiography c Sh elec 4,807 | 4,213 3,552
Elementary Physics and ola 3,135 2,902 | 3,116 3,497
Domestic Science . ~ ) — Le 142 | 471
| Science of Common Things . ile LOO 13,874 11,499 11,418
Chemistry - , : é | 5,658 | 6,590 5,963 6,704
| Mechanics x . 1,365 | 1,129 | 987 1. 2pe
Sound, Light, and Heat . 4 al | 726 813 437 305
Magnetism and Electricity . 3 3,834 | 3,967 |} 3,005 3,244
Human Physiology : - cf 5,865 6,237 4,296 4,619
Hygiene. " : ; ; ; 3,179 4,062 3,276 3,228
Botany . 4 2 ns ; 6 692 | 763 597 718
Agriculture . ‘ H 3 é 2,355 | 2,300 | 1,826 1,847
Horticulture . : ; , : 1,001 | 1,354 1,350 1,511
| Navigation. . : : . ae 68 oT 46 118
| Ambulance . j : ‘ 4 9,086 13,030 12,980 14,838
Domestic Economy 5 A ; 19,565 23,271 19,915 18,968
Totals . é . | 107,042 126,740 106,665 108,228

The alterations which have been made in this year’s Code for England
and Wales, beyond embodying last year’s Minute establishing Higher
Elementary Schools, consist mainly in the abolition of the schedules of
instruction ; teachers are thus left free to adopt whatever course of study
they think best, or to follow more or less closely the specimen schemes
which have been issued by the Board of Education for their guidance,
and which were referred to in last year’s report. In the matter of Higher
Elementary Schools very little progress has been made. The School
Board for London and many of those in the larger provincial towns
proposed to put their Higher Grade Schools under the Minute, but very
few of their propositions have yet been approved by the Board of
Education ; the net result is that some half-dozen or so of schools which
were recognised as Organised Science Schools under the Science and Art
Department have been transferred to the Whitehall Board as Higher
Elementary Schools, and are doing under the Minute very similar
work to what they were doing before. Only one or two new schools
have been opened as such. If the School Boards in England and Wales
had the same freedom of adapting their schools to the special requirements
of the locality that is enjoyed under the Scotch Code, many more of the
Higher Grade Schools would ere this have been working under the Minute.

There has been considerable discussion between the School Board for
London and the Board of Education as to the requirement by the latter
of fully equipped Chemical and Physical Laboratories for the first and
second years’ scholars in these Higher Elementary Schools, as well as for
those of the third and fourth years. To comply with the conditions of
the Minute the children will have to be entered at about eleven years of
age ; and the School Board contends, and in this they are supported by
the opinion of eminent authorities, that special laboratories and elaborate
apparatus are not needed during the first two years, and that such would
be harmful rather than otherwise. The School Board maintain that
their proper function is to provide for these younger scholars practica]

THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 461

instruction in the rudiments of Science suited to their age and capacity,
which can be illustrated by simple experiments in their ordinary class-
room even hetter than in an expensive and highly organised laboratory.

Much difficulty is experienced by the School Board for London in
obtaining teachers of experience. On this matter Lord Reay made the
following remarks in his last annual address: ‘The subject of the
training of teachers is so important that I should not be justified if I did
not allude to it. This Board has taken great care in providing better
opportunities for training ex-pupil teachers and pupil teachers, and I
trust that the increased facilities we asked for training our ex-pupil
teachers for the Certificate Examination will be granted by the Board of
Education. The Board had reason to believe that in too many cases the
view of the teacher in giving a Science lesson was too exclusively confined
to simply imparting isolated facts of Science to the scholars. It accord-
ingly arranged courses of Pedagogical Lectures, confined to teachers
capable of profiting by them, for the purpose of improving the methods of
instruction in the practical teaching of Elementary Science. I believe
that these lectures have already resulted in materially increasing the
efficiency of the instruction, and that with the help of suggestions contained
in the reports received from Dr. Kimmins, of the Technical Education
Board, these lectures will be of increased value in still further improving
the methods of Science instruction in schools of the Board.’ The Board
of Education at South Kensington have also arranged that ‘a limited
number of teachers and of students in Science classes under the Board
who intend to become Science teachers are admitted free for a term or a
session to the Sessional Courses of Instruction in the Royal College of
Science. The London School Board allow leave of absence to any of
their teachers accepted for this course of instruction.

A Departmental Committee has been appointed to consider and report
upon Training College Courses of Instruction. The principal term of the
Reference was ‘To draw up specimen Two-year Courses of Instruction for
students in Training Colleges, with a view to ensuring that every student
who leaves College shall have been through some course which shall pre-
pare him in the best manner for some one or other of the various types of
Elementary Schools.’ The specimen schemes of instruction are still under
the consideration of the Committee ; but the Memorandum which has
been already issued sets forth the general principles recommended by the
Committee. The principal features are the liberty given to the Colleges
to frame their own courses ; theinclusion for the first time of Elementary
Science and Manual Training ; the minimising of examinations ; and the
association of the teachers with the examiners.

The Scotch Education Department has this year issued a Code of Regu-
Jations for Continuation Classes providing further instruction for those
who have left school. This is to replace the former Evening Continuation
School Code and the Science and Art Directory in so far as that related to
evening classes. The chief novelty of this Code consists in the fact that
the classes may be held at any time of the day. It is also interesting
to note that there is no superior restriction of age. The work is arranged
in four divisions. The first is apparently intended for the benefit of
those whose early education has been somewhat neglected, and does not
include any higher subjects than would be taken in an ordinary school—
‘the Principles of Arithmetic with such practical applications as may be
approved of in any particular case, Geography and Nature Knowledge.’
In Division II. the work begins to be specialised under different heads—

4.62 REPORT—1901.

‘(E.) Mathematics: Elementary Geometry, Algebra, Mensuration, Dy-
namics. (F.) Science: the Elementary Study, Theoretical or Practical,
of Physical or Natural Science, or any branch thereof. (G.) Applied
Mathematics and Science : (a) General : Practical Mathematics, including
technical arithmetic and the use of mathematical instruments and tables ;
mechanical drawing; (6) Special: the application of Mathematics and
Science to specific industries, Machine Construction, Building Con-
struction, Naval Architecture, Electrical Industries, Mining, Navigation,
Agriculture, Horticulture, or any other industry the scientific principles
underlying which admit of systematic exposition. Where the nature of
the subject requires it, previous or concurrent study of (G. a), or of the
related branch of (E.) or of (F.) will be made a condition of taking any
subject under (G. b). . . . By practical instruction is meant instruction
under heads (F.) and (G.), which proceeds mainly by means of actual
experimental work on the part of the pupils themselves in properly
equipped laboratories or workshops, supplemented by the necessary
explanations and demonstrations. Supplementary theoretical instruction
may be reckoned as part of the practical course, but to an extent not
exceeding one-half of the time occupied by the pupils in practical work.’
In Division III. the work is of a more advanced character, and ‘may
either provide for graduated instruction in a single subject or for
systematic instruction in a group of subjects, arranged with a view to
fitting students for the intelligent practice of some particular industry or
occupation.’ A higher grant above that for the Commercial Courses is
allowed for the Industrial Courses, subject to the condition ‘that
provision shall be made in properly equipped laboratories or workshops for
such amount of practical work on the part of the students (being work
illustrative of the principles taught, and not merely the practice of trade
processes) as the Department may deem requisite in the particular cireum-
stances.’ Division IV. is concerned with auxiliary classes which do not
come within the purview of this Committee.

The new Programme of Instruction for the National Schools of Ire-
land, which was issued in September 1900, abolished payment by results :
the compulsory subjects of instruction were considerably changed, and
the Commissioners of National Education indicated the methods of in-
struction they expected the teachers to adopt. It gave greater latitude
to the teachers, both in the organisation of their schools and in the
methods and amount of instruction given in them,

The following quotation from the Revised Regulations indicate the
prominent position that has been accorded to Science Teaching in Irish
Schools :-—

‘Elementary Science and Object Lessons are compulsory in schools in
which there are teachers holding certificates of competency to give in-
struction in them, and these branches must be introduced into all schools
as soon as possible,’

Tn view of the fact that little or no instruction in Science has been
given for some years past in the schools, the Commissioners have appointed a
Head Organiser for Science Instruction, whose duties are (a) to advise the
Commissioners on matters relating to the introduction and development
of Science Instruction, (6) to supervise the instruction of King’s Scholars
in the Training Colleges, (c) to arrange for the instruction in methods of
Science Teaching of the teachers at present at work in the schools.

The extract from the ‘ Notes and Observations of the Commissioners,’
which will be found in the Appendix, explains the purposes for which the

THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 463

subject is introduced, and indicates the character of the teaching that is
deemed desirable.

The problem of giving some training in the methods of Science
Teaching to the 12,500 teachers in the National Schools is a very difficult
one. It is further complicated by the fact that there are over three
hundred large and well equipped convent schools conducted by nuns of
various religious orders, who would naturally adopt the new subjects of
instruction if they were properly trained ; but in the majority of cases
the nuns cannot leave the convents to attend the central classes for teachers.

Training centres have already been established and laboratories
equipped in Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Londonderry, Waterford, and Limerick,
and some five hundred male and female teachers have been taken through
courses of training during the past year. These courses are of two kinds :—

(a) Day courses, at which the teacher attends every week-day for six
weeks, spending about five hours per day in the laboratory.

(6) Evening courses, at which the teacher attends one or two evenings
a week for a period of three hours each evening.

Travelling expenses and a small maintenance allowance are paid to
teachers attending these courses. In addition to the laboratory work,
each teacher is expected to produce a satisfactory written record of the
practical work performed in the laboratory, and the certificate of com-
petency to teach is not granted until a satisfactory notebook of the
teacher’s individual practical work is produced.

The course of work undertaken in these classes is based on the sugges-
tions of the Committee of the British Association, and is similar in
character to the old Course H of the English Code. Through this instruction
endeavour is made to impress upon the teachers the importance of the
method of scientific inquiry and of habits of accurate work, observation,
reasoning, and expression ; in the later stages of the work for Girls’
Schools the science underlying domestic economy and hygiene is treated.

Of the six Training Colleges two give instruction to both men and
women, two to women only, and two to men only ; all have during the
year provided themselves with laboratories for instruction in Experimental
Science, and a most praiseworthy start has been made ; thus nearly nine
hundred students in training have received careful laboratory instruction.
The average size of these Training College classes is thirty students. A
new Training Coliege for women, to be opened next session in Limerick, ig
also provided with an excellent laboratory.

The Commissioners have recently decided that the entire Inspection
Staff is to undergo a course of training under the Head Organiser, in order
to familiarise them with the methods the teachers are expected to pursue.
A number of Inspectors are already attending these classes.

_ In order to facilitate the introduction of subjects of practical and
manual instruction into schools in the poorer districts, the Treasury has
sanctioned small grants of apparatus to these schools, on the condition
that one of the teachers of the school has been through a satisfactory
course of training.

The untimely death of the greatly esteemed Professor G. F. FitzGerald
and the retirement from the Board of Commissioners of his Grace the
Catholic Archbishop of Dublin (Dr. Walsh) are irreparable losses to the
cause of true education in Ireland. To the efforts of these two dis-
tinguished educationists, both as members of the Commission on Manual
and Practical Instruction and as Commissioners of National Education

ASA REPORT—1901.

the sweeping and far-reaching reforms in the Irish system of National
Education are mainly due. It is impossible to overestimate the debt the
country owes them.

Your Committee have not felt called upon to express an opinion on
the important questions involved in the decision of the Court of King’s
Bench in the case of Rex v. Cockerton ; but, whatever may be the final
outcome of the present controversy, they trust that the interests of
Science Teaching will not suffer, whatever the authority be to which it
may be entrusted.

APPENDIX.

Irish NationaL SCHOOLS.
‘ Object Lessons and Elementary Science.

‘The Programme provides for alternative courses in Object Lessons and
Elementary Science ; but in most of the rural National Schools it would
be desirabie that the courses embracing the principles underlying Agri-
culture and Horticulture should be adopted. In this connection the
Commissioners desire to direct the attention of Managers and Teachers to
the French Scheme for teaching Agriculture, of which a translation is pub-
lished in the Appendix to the Report of the Commission on Manual and
Practical Instruction. At the same time the Commissioners leave
Managers and Teachers free to select, with the concurrence of the Inspec-
tor, any of the courses that may seem most suited to the special circum-
stances of the schools. Managers may also submit for the approval of
the Commissioners other courses than those provided, if they consider
none of the Programme courses suitable.

‘As regards Course I. of Elementary Experimental Science, it is
intended that, as far as possible, all experiments should be performed by
some, at any rate, of the scholars. The teaching should he directed, in
the first place, to produce accurate habits of experiment, observation, and
thought. The experiment should be undertaken with the object of
solving a definite problem, and the explanation or discussion of results
should not take place until the experiment has been repeated by indi-
vidual members of the class a number of times. An accurate Balance is
essential to such a course, and it should not be attempted without such
an instrument. The greatest possible importance should be attached to
the composition and style of the accounts of the experiment : these notes »
should represent the scholar’s own version of the experiment. The
primary purpose of such a course is to produce accurate habits of thought
und work, and the mere giving of information should be subordinate to
this purpose. :

‘In giving instruction in Object Lessons teachers should make a dis-
tinction between observation of the Object itself and giving information
about the Object. The pupils in the first instance should be asked closely
to oberve the Object, and to describe everything they can see or discover
about it, before the teacher gives any instruction on the Object. In
connection with Object Lessons and Elementary Science Lessons, as in con-
nection with Manual and Practical Instruction, the Heuristic method
should be continuously employed. The pupils should cultivate the habit
of obtaining knowledge directly and at first hand, finding out for them-

THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 465

selves, and thus developing the faculty of observation. Children should
also be encouraged to make collections of Natural Objects to be found in
the vicinity of the schools, and each school should have a Museum formed
as far as possible from the cdlleztions of the pupils. Shells, stones,
flowers, &c., would form most appropriate objects for a School Museum.

‘A most useful combination of Drawing and Clay Modelling can be
introduced as a help to the pupils in Object Lessons. Children should be
encouraged to make simple drawings or models in clay of the simpler
Objects. As with Drawing, the teacher should make frequent use of the
blackboard in connection with Object Lessons.

‘Where the circumstances are suitable, school excursions, to see Objects
in their habitats, could be beneficially undertaken. Thus, a visit to the
Zoological Gardens would enable the children to compare types of domestic
animals with which they are familiar with wild animals of the same
general order. In the same way periodical visits to a good kitchen
garden would form an excellent series of Object Lessons of a real and
useful character. While Object Lessons make the school lives of the
children more happy, they also fulfil three principal and most important
uses : they teach the children to observe, compare, and contrast ; they
impart information ; and they form the basis for instruction in Drawing, «ve.

‘The courses in Elementary Science detailéd in Section V. of Pro-
gramme are not too difficult for the ordinary National School pupil. And
here, again, the Commissioners think it necessary to remark that by the
courses in Elementary Science they do not wish to train electricians, agri-
culturists, &c., but they wish to give all pupils useful instruction, and
the possible future electrician or agriculturist such a knowledge of the
great natural principles underlying his profession as will enable him to
pursue it with success in after life.

‘The great end teachers should endeavour to secure in connection with
Elementary Science is to produce the scientific habit of research, and to
impress the leading scientific principles upon the nascent intelligence by
observation and simple experiment on the part of the pupils, and by plain
expository and practical illustration on the part of the teacher.

‘ As a help to instruction in Course II., every school should, whenever
possible, have a small plot of ground as a garden. If this is not feasible,
garden boxes should be placed in the windows, and be planted with the
simpler flowers, which could be used for illustrating the lessons. The
gardens and boxes would, moreover, make the schools more cheerful and
attractive to the children, and would aid largely in the development of
artistic taste and a love of Nature.’

Corresponding Societies Committee.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Mr. W. Wurraker (Chairman), Mr. T. V. Hotes (Secretary ,,
Professor R. MELpoua, Mr. Francis Gatton, Sir Joun Evans,
Dr. J. G. Garson, Mr. J. Hopxrnson, Professor T. G. BoNnnrEY,
the late Sir CuTHBERT PEEK, Dr. Horace T. Brown, Rev. J. O.
Bevan, Professor W. W. Warts, Rev. T. RB. R. STEBBING, Mr.
C. H. Reap, and Mr. F. W. Ruvier.

Tue Corresponding Societies Committee have to report that in conformity
with their resolution mentioned in the Report of last year notice was
sent in March last to the Corresponding Societies inviting them to consider

1901, HW

466 REPORT—1901.

what subjects they wish to have discussed at the Conference of Delegates
at Glasgow. To this request only one Society, namely, the Hertfordshire
Natural History and Field Club, responded, suggesting for the considera-
tion by the Delegates ‘ The desirability of County Photographic Surveys.’
As, however, the Delegate nominated by that Society afterwards found
that he was unable to be present at Glasgow there was a subsequent
request that the consideration of the subject be postponed. The Rev.
J. O. Bevan’s offer to bring before the Delegates the proposition ‘ That the
Committees of the Corresponding Societies be invited to lay before their
members the necessity of carrying on a systematic survey of their
counties in respect to ethnology, ethnography, botany, meteorology,
ornithology, archeology, folklore, &c.,’ and Mr. C. H. Read’s request to
have an opportunity of introducing ‘ A plea for an Ordnance Map Index
of Prehistoric Remains’ were accepted as subjects for discussion at the
Conference of Delegates at Glasgow, and notice of the same was sent by
the Assistant General Secretary to the Delegates on receipt of their
names from the Secretaries of their respective Societies. The question
of copyright, which was a topic of discussion at the Conference of Dele-
gates at Bradford last year, having been taken up by the Council of the
Association, and they having authorised the General Officers of the
Association to co-operate with other Societies in regard to the question
if a Bill be again brought before Parliament, the Committee have taken
no further action in the matter.

The Marine Biological Association of the West of Scotland and the
Haslemere Microscope and Natural History Society were added to the
list of Corresponding Societies. The Mining Association and Institute
of Cornwall was removed from the list, it having ceased to publish.

Report of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies
held at Glasgow, September 1901.

Mr. F. W. Rudler, F.G.S., Chairman, Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S.,
Vice-Chairman, and Dr. J. G. Garson and Mr. Alexander Somerville,
Secretaries.

The Conferences were held on Thursday, September 12, and Tuesday,
September 17, at 3 o’clock p.m., in the Medical Jurisprudence Class Room
of the University, which was also open to Delegates to meet in at any time
of the day during the meeting of the Association. Professor Glaister,
moreover, was good enough to place his retiring room adjoining the class
room at the disposal of the officers for meetings of Committee. For this
indulgence the best thanks of the Committee are due to Professor
Glaister. The following Corresponding Societies nominated Delegates to
represent them at the Conferences. The attendance of Delegates at the
Conferences is indicated by the figures 1 and 2 placed in the margin
opposite each Society, the former figure referring to the first Conference,
the latter to the second Conference. Where no figure is shown the
Society will understand that its Delegate did not attend either of the
Conferences, and that it was therefore not represented.

List of Societies sending Delegates.

Andersonian Naturalists’ Society . G. F. Scott-Elliot, M.A., B.Sc,
1 2 Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club . . William Gray, M.R.I.A.
1 2 Belfast Natural History and Philoso- John Brown,
phical Society

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

467

1 Birmingham and Midland Institute C. J. Watson.
Scientific Society
1 2 Birmingbam Natural HistoryandPhilo- Alfred Browett.
sophical Society
Buchan Field Club. J. F. Tocher, F.1.C.
1 2 Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club Professor W. W. Watts, F.G.S.
Chesterfield and Midland Counties In- Professor H. Louis, M.A.
stitution of Engineers
2 Croydon Microscopical and Natural W. Whitaker, F.R.S.
History Club
1 2 Dorset Natural History and Anti- Vaughan Cornish, D.Sc., F.R.G.S.
quarian Field Club
1 2 Kast Kent Scientific and Natural His- A.S. Reid, M.A.
tory Society
1 2 Wssex Field Club F. W. Rudler, F G.S.
l Glasgow Geological Society J. Barclay Murdoch.
1 Glassow Natural History Society A. Somerville.
Glasgow Philosophical Society Dr. Freeland Fergus.
Hampshire Field Club and Archeo- Wm. Dale, F.S.A.
logical Society
2 Hertfordshire Natural History Society W. Whitaker, F.R.S.
1 2 Holmesdale Natural History Club Miss Ethel Sargant.
1 2 Hull Geological Society . G. W. Lamplugh, F.G.S,
1 Hull Scientific and Field Naturalists’. Sheppard, F.G.S.
Club
Institution of Mining Engineers. . Professor Henry Louis, M.A.
1 2 Isle of Man Natural History and Anti- P.M. C. Kermode.
quarian Society
1 2 Leeds Geological Association Professor P. F. Kendall, F.G.S.
1 2 Liverpool Geographical Society . Stafi-Com. Dubois Phillips, R.N.
1 2 Liverpool Geological Society Joseph Lomas, F.G.S.
1 2 Malton Field Naturalists’ and Scientific M. B. Slater, F.L.S.
Society
1 Manchester Geographical Society Eli Sowerbutts, F.R.G.S.
1 Manchester Microscopical Society F. W. Hembry, F.R.M.S,
1 Marine Biological Association of the Dr. James Rankin.
West of Scotland
1 2 Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Francis D. Longe.
Society
1 2 North of England Institute of Mining J. H. Merivale, M.A.
and Mechanical Engineers
1 North Staffordshire Field Club . R, Hornby, M.A.
Northumberland, Durham, and New- Professor M. C. Potter, F.L.S.
castle-upon-Tyne Natural History
Society
1 2 Nottingham Naturalists’ Society W. Bradshaw.
1 2 Paisley Philosophical Institution Andrew Henderson, LL.D.
1 2 Perthshire Society of Natural Science Henry Coates, F.R.S.E.
Rochdale Literary and Scientific James Ogden.
Society
1 2 Scotland, Mining Institute of James Barrowman.
Lind Warwickshire Naturalists’and Archeo- Wm. Andrews, F.G.S.
logists’ Field Club
1 Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club. Rev. J. O. Bevan, F.S.A.
1 Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic <A. R. Dwerryhouse, F.G.S.

bo wp

Society
Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union

Harold Wager, F.L.S.

First Conference, September 12.

A Conference of the Delegates of the Corresponding Societies in
connection with the British Association was held in the Medical Juris-
prudence Lecture Theatre of the Glasgow University on Thursday,
September 12, 1901, Mr. F, W. Rudler, E.G. S., Chairman, ac at

HH2

468 REPORT—1901

The Corresponding Societies Committee were represented at the Confer-
ence by the Chairman, Mr. F. W. Rudler, the Secretary, Dr. J. G. Garson,
the Rev. J. O. Bevan, and Professor W. W. Watts. The representatives
of the Societies who attended will be seen from the list of Delegates,

The Chairman, in opening the proceedings, said :—If I may judge
from the opinions which have been expressed at some former meetings, it
will be the general desire of the Delegates, whom I have now the pleasure
to welcome, that our present Conference shall be utilised for the dis-
cussion in a brief and business-like fashion of any suggestions which
may be made for improving the work of our local Scientific Societies. No
one mistakes this Conference for a supplementary Section of the Associa-
tion ; no one comes here, I hope, expecting to hear formal addresses and
scientific papers such as he may hear and discuss at his own Society.
But the prime object of these meetings, I take it, is to bring together
representative members of various extra-metropolitan Societies, so that
once a year at least they may have an opportunity of rubbing shoulder
to shoulder ; and, by social intercourse and a healthy exchange of ideas, may
overcome any of the disadvantages which, in the case of the smaller
provincial Societies, are likely to arise from insulation.

But although a formal address is not exacted from the Chair, yet I
understand that some brief informal remarks by way of introduction to
our work are not only usually tolerated, but have rather come to be
expected. On this occasion it might perhaps be assumed that from my
official connection with museum work I should take advantage of my
position to say something about the relation of local Scientific Societies to
local museums. That, however, is a subject which has already been dealt
with at some of these meetings, notably at the Oxford Conference of
1894, when an interesting discussion on local museums—their origin,
organisation, and maintenance—was initiated by the late Sir Cuthbert
Peek. This name I cannot mention without adding an expression of
personal regret at the loss which we have unexpectedly suffered. Sir
Cuthbert was a member of the Corresponding Societies Committee, and
a frequent attendant at these meetings ; a man of very varied scientific
interests, from whom, being in the prime of life, much good work might
have been reasonably expected in the future.

In connection with museums it occurs to me that there is one
unambitious piece of work which local Scientific Societies might readily
and usefully undertake—work which no doubt has been to some extent
already accomplished, but which has rarely been carried out persistently
and systematically. I refer to the Registration of Type-specimens.
Every working naturalist from time to time finds himself confronted
with the difficult tusk of tracing types and figured specimens. These are
scattered far and wide over the country, often in provincial museums,
sometimes in private collections, and occasionally coming to light in
quarters where they would be least expected. Undoubtedly the best
central treasure-house for all scientific specimens of exceptional interest
is the British Museum, and the best thing to do with a type-specimen is
to present it to that Museum. But in certain cases there will always be
more or less objection to this course, and then the next best thing is
obviously to place it in some provincial institution and let the scientific
world know its whereabouts. No doubt this has already been done to a
limited extent. Thus Committees of the British Association have been
appointed to deal with particular groups of types, such as fossils ; but

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 469

what I am anxious to urge is the importance of prosecuting the work in a
systematic manner, and extending it to all departments of natural history.

So far as concerns the types which are- preserved in provincial
museums it may be said, probably, that the work should be done either
by the museum itself or by that excellent institution, the Museums
Association, an Association which has recently increased its usefulness by
the issue of a monthly journal, which I may commend to the attention of
local Societies. It is true that some of the larger museums have already
published, or are now engaged in publishing, lists of their type-specimens,
or at least certain classes of types. But most museums fail to possess the
means of carrying out such work and properly publishing the results, and
therefore could hardly resent the interference of a local Society. More-
over a museum could not be expected to take cognisance of specimens in
private hands, whereas a Committee of the local Scientific Society could
make it its business to seek out all the type-specimens within its sphere
of influence, whether in the local museum or in private collections, and
could give permanence and publicity to the information thus acquired by
printing the schedules of types in its proceedings.

The same kind of research might, in my opinion, be extended with
advantage to local antiquities, at least to those of prehistoric age. Each
Society might fitly publish lists of the antiquities which have been
discovered within its own district, and which have been described and
figured. Where the specimens remain in private hands, it is often
difficult, and sometimes impossible, to trace them, but no one is likely to
be more successful in the search than the members of the local Society.
The advantage of knowing, when working at any particular subject,
where the original specimens are located is so obvious that I venture to
hope that the Delegates may see their way to urge the Societies which they
respectively represent to move in the direction which I have indicated.

It seems to me doubtful whether it is desirable to suggest at this
Conference many new lines of work to be taken up by our local Societies.
In most cases they already possess programmes which are pretty heavily
weighted, some Societies perhaps undertaking even more than they can
satisfactorily accomplish ; and I believe it would probably be better in
most cases to systematise and improve the existing work than to attempt
the introduction of new departments of study. The governing body in
each Society might well be charged with the duty of seeing that the work
is worthy of the present position of science. The steady growth of
scientific education in this country during recent years ought to tell
most favourably upon the character of our local Societies. New members
come prepared with a groundwork of scientific training unknown to most
of the older members at the time they entered, and as a consequence the
work of the Society should be lifted to a higher level than that on which
we were formerly content to let it rest. It is satisfactory to note that in
many cases this has been thoroughly realised, and indeed a review of the
proceedings of the various local Societies at the present day shows that a
high standard of excellence is often attained.

With regard to geology—the department of natural knowledge in
which I happen to be specially interested—it is a matter of congratulation
that so much good work should be accomplished by the several Societies
which are in correspondence with the British Association. Not only are
the local sections, the fossils, and the rocks receiving attention from those
members who are interested respectively in stratigraphy, in paleontology,

4.70 REPORT—1901.

and in petrology, but attention is being directed to the physiographic
features of the district worked by the Society, or to that branch of inquiry
which is nowadays known as geomorphology. In working out the history
of the local topographic forms the geologist and the geographer join
hands, and a grand field is opened up for just that kind of work which
many members may take up with great advantage. On the fascinating
subject of river development, for instance, I may point to recent papers
by Mr. Buckman, read to the Cottswold Field Club, and by Mr. Paul to
the Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society. Each local Society
might well work out the history of the rivers in its own province, seeking
to explain the whims of each stream, why it flows in this direction rather
than in that, how it has flowed in the past, and how it may possibly flow
in the future. Mr. Cowper Reed’s recent Sedgwick Essay on the Rivers
of East Yorkshire may be taken as an example of what may be done in
this respect. In the modern view of river development, largely due to
American geologists, the stream is regarded as working its way down-
wards, cutting its channel deeper and deeper, until it eventually reaches
what Major Powell has called its ‘base-level.’ Then ceasing to work in
this way, it meanders sluggishly over its plain, until an uplift is effected
by some earth-movement, when a period of rejuvenescence sets in, and a
new cycle of erosive activity is initiated. In a somewhat similar manner
it may happen that a local Society, which in its youth was vigorous as a
mountain stream, gradually finds its energy on the wane, and may at
length reach a base-level of existence, when it flows placidly along, like
the river in its lower reaches, very beautiful, and no doubt useful in its
way, yet decidedly sluggish. But these annual meetings ought to act as
elevatory agencies, restoring strength and revivifying the working powers.
Let us hope, at any rate, that our present Conference may represent one
of these periodical uplifts, and may be the means of starting some local
Society upon a fresh career of healthy activity.

I ask you to pardon me for having trespassed upon your time by these
prefatory remarks, and we shall pass now to the solid business which
Dr. Garson has to bring before us. It appears that a circular was
addressed on August 14 to the various Societies explaining that this
meeting was to be held, and that a communication would be received
from Mr. Read, the Keeper of British Antiquities in the British Museum,
respecting an Index Map of Prehistoric Remains, but I fear he has not
been able to attend the meeting. Secondly, there is a communication to
be received from the Rev. J. O. Bevan, with a resolution to the effect
that the Committees of the Corresponding Societies be invited to lay
before their members the necessity of carrying on a systematic survey of
their counties or districts in respect to ethnography, ethnology, meteorology,
ornithology, &c. Iam happy to say that Mr. Bevan is with us, and perhaps
he will favour us with his communication.

Dr. Vaughan Cornish: On the matter of order, before proceeding
to a fresh subject for the consideration of this Conference, I for one
should like to know what has been done with reference to the communi-
cations brought before us last year, in which we were asked to do certain
things which we were told would be of advantage to science. I should
like to hear some report of the result of our efforts, and if it is not too late
I should rather like to know what was the result of the communications
and work which we did in the previous year; and I think some of us

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. A471

will be interested also, although it is a matter of ancient history, to know
the result of the efforts made in the year before that. These years cover
the extent of my official connection with the Conferences, and on each of
these occasions a learned gentleman has come before us and pointed out
our shortcomings, and has urged us to fresh activities ; but we have gone
away, and what we have done or what other Delegates have done I for
one do not know, because in the succeeding year there has been such a
hurry to bring on the next proceedings that they have made no report of
the last year’s proceedings.

The Chairman: Personally I am very grateful to Dr. Cornish for
bringing forward this subject, because it enables me to point out that
though the bread which we cast upon the waters here may not always
return to us, it may be carried elsewhere and feed some excellent Societies
or other bodies with scientific pabulum. Last year a special communication
was made by Professor Miall on the subject of Dew-ponds, and I took
occasion on seeing him yesterday to inquire whether any work had been
done following his suggestions. It was explained to me that he did not
know that any Society had yet taken up the suggestions, but that he had,
with some friends, been carrying on his investigations, and I believe that a
person who gave him very great assistance in that direction in consequence
of the subject having been brought before the last Conference was the
Rev. Mr. Cornish, brother of Dr. Cornish, so that possibly Dr. Cornish
himself could tell us what was done better than anyone else here.
Something, therefore, has been accomplished, but the results have not
been brought before the Association.

Dr. Cornish : We sometimes meet here and express doubts as to our
usefulness. My impression is that we really have done a good deal of
work in the last three years, but sufficient pains have not been taken to
indicate the results from year to year ; and I throw it out as a suggestion
that at future Conferences the record of the past year should precede the
reception of the paper in the next year.

Mr. Eli Sowerbutts : We sometimes have matters brought before us
of no possible interest to us in the North, and it seems to be getting
the habit to have long papers read to us, whether we want them or not.
The difficulty lies in this, that there are no means of having communi-
cation between any of the Societies. We want these meetings to be of
use to the British Association, but in a secondary way there is a vast
amount of use which the Delegates’ meetings may be to the various
Societies scattered all over the kingdom ; and we have great need for some
meetings by which we could come more in contact. We are working in
our little colonies here and there, and we think we are doing very well.
Some man may be doing the same thing elsewhere under great dis-
couragement, and if he could communicate with us, through the Secretary,
I think that we might be able to help one another.

Dr. Garson : In order to allow us to get on with the business to-day,
I may at once explain this matter by reminding the Delegates that at the
Second Conference they are put in communication with the Secretaries
of the various Committees appointed by the British Association each year,
and it is from them that the Delegates or the Secretaries of Societies must
receive and to whom they should give information as to what their
Societies are able to do localiy to further any investigation that a Com-
mittee of the Association is engaged on. What is actually done by the
various Corresponding Societies, and the assistance which they have been

472, REPORT—1901.

able to give, should be stated in the reports of the various Conimittees
which appear in the Annual Report of the Association.

After a long discussion Captain Dubois Phillips (Liverpool) gave
notice of a motion, to be brought forward at the next meeting, requesting
that the Conference should receive each year a report on the outcome of ©
the work of the previous year.

The Chairman then called on the Rev. J. O. Bevan to open the subject
accepted of him by the Corresponding Societies Committee for discussion
at this Conference: ‘That the Committees of the Corresponding Societies
be invited to lay before their Members the necessity of carrying on a
systematic survey of their counties in respect to ethnology, ethnography,
botany, meteorology, ornithology, archeology, folklore, cc.’

Mr. Bevan said :—

Looking at the number of Societies involved—at the facts that they are
at work all the year round, collecting and assorting material—that a
spirit of inquiry has been evoked as to the means by which a larger
number of Societies could be knit to the General Association and a more
complete co-ordination secured—it seems permissible to think that (with
proper care and foresight) the Conference of Delegates bids fair to become
as important an element of the British Association as any of the Sections ;
nay, more, that it may be developed so as to fulfil an independent function
and to constitute the Association a General Clearing House of Science.

For some time past the Delegates have been inquiring at the annual
meetings : ‘ What can we do—what can our Society do—to further the
ends of science through the Association ?’

Undeniably, the complete solution of this question will demand more
thought and energy on the part of the Delegates, and on that of the
Corresponding Societies Committee ; but it need hardly be contended
that if a thing be worth doing it is worth doing well, or that if a Con-
ference of Delegates be run at all it should be run on business lines.

In all countries there is, and has long been going on, the preparation
of more or less complete researches, and even the production of mono-
graphs dealing with all forms of nature and life—of archeology and
history—of population and resources—of health and disease—and the
like ; but this has been usually without preliminary consultation and
agreement between the several bodies engaged as to details of plan or
scale. Consequently, the work is carried on without any unity as to
the result, eventuating in greatly diminished usefulness and even
intelligibility. Hence, the existence of general surveys—ordnance, geo-
logical, meteorological, botanical, anthropological, and archzological—
in all stages of conjecture and incompleteness; but the interrela-
tions of things, eg., of geology with geography—of flora and fauna
with soil and climate—of territory with race and occupation, with
national character and religious belief—have been suffered to remain
unrecognised. Thus national, and especially international, comparison is
rendered extremely dificult ; in fact, no adequate comparison can be said
to exist. One of the conclusions at which we arrive is that even the
better monographic work of the past needs collation, rearrangement, and
revision. The solution of the problem, however, is fairly in sight, viz.,
that of uniting all surveys into a regional survey, in which, as far as
possible, all the classes of phenomena occurring in a specific region can .
be observed, recorded, and correlated with each other, so as to hinge
together all the sequences of cause and effect.

we

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 473

Tn part, from its general character, the work must be carried out
under Government sanction and authority, asin the case of the Geological,
Ordnance, and Census Surveys. Again, the Society of Antiquaries has
elaborated a scheme for the archeological survey of England and Wales.
The work, however, progresses slowly, and does not touch Scotland or
Ireland. Here at once is opened out a wide field of useful effort on the
part of local Societies well within the compass of individual members—
work as interesting as useful, lending itself, as it does, to literary, photo-
graphic, and artistic illustration. In this connection, moreover, the
labours of the National Photographic Survey, under Sir J. B. Stone, may
be indicated. But it is clear that investigation under more systematic
lines is to be desiderated in respect of regional surveys throughout Great
Britain and Ireland. This need was touched upon at the International
Assembly in Paris in 1900, and circumstances at the Glasgow meeting of
the British Association seem favourable for pressing the matter home. It
is specifically alluded to in this paper, inasmuch as the subject is one in
which the Corresponding Societies, without exception, would have an
interest, and in which would be employed the energies of many members,
each in his own sphere and in the exercise of his own special gift.

It is plain that unless the work is conducted and systematised through
some central organisation, and tabulated on forms supplied or accepted
by that organisation, a great part would be rendered useless or difficult
of comparison.

The interchange of photographs and specimens would be a branch of
the undertaking of great interest, and, besides, would contribute to an
important object, viz., intercommunication between Societies of kindred aim.

It is hereby suggested that the Conference of Delegates should select
one or more subjects of pressing interest, and undertake to bring before
the respective Societies the advisability of undertaking systematic work
(each in its own district) in these directions. These affiliated Societies,
through their Delegates, would be expected to make a return of the results
—partial or complete—at the ensuing meeting of the British Association.

In the choice of subjects three considerations (at least) present them-
selves :—

(a) They should be of a general kind, capable of being worked up by
the local Societies in their respective districts.

(5) A preliminary arrangement should be arrived at whereby may be
determined the lines and limits of investigation, the mode of tabulation of
results, the scale of chart or map, the scheme of symbolical representation,
coloration, nomenclature, conventional arrangement of detail, the method,
form, size of publication, and the like.

(c) A special society or expert should be indicated as ready to advise
in regard to each of the particular subjects.

The ends to be gained are these : The taking stock of all facts by a
connected series of methodical surveys; their registration before the
corroding effect of time, the amalgamation of race, or any other cause,
puts it beyond the reach of effort ; the full completion of surveys already
begun ; the setting forth of results in a manner directly susceptible of
useful comparison. A collateral advantage would be the discovery of a
considerable amount of work already elaborated, and (with necessary
pon and reduction to the common scale) its inclusion in the General

urvey.

ATA REPORT—1901.

A beginning or an extension of past work might be made in respect
of —

Meteorological and seismological phenomena,

Life zones,

Registration of type specimens.

Photographs of sections ; records of well-borings, &e.
Phenomena of glaciation ; erratic blocks,

Origin of lakes ; changes of area and depth.

Coast and river erosion,

Pond, cavern, underground life.

Ethnographical, ethnological, archeological surveys.
Botanical survey to include fungi and alge.
Phenological observations.

It will be understood that this list is provisional, but it is selected by
reason of the fact that the field has been already entered upon, and that
little further organisation is needed.

The Conference will make it clear that there is no intention to dictate
to the various Societies involved. The suggestions are tentatively put
forth in the interests of scientific research, and in response to the demand
frequently made by Delegates. Each Society will consider the matter,
and, in its wisdom, deal with the subject which seems the more nearly to
come within its purview.

Certain objections may be forestalled :—

(a) ‘Many Societies are composed of men possessing neither the inclina-
tion nor ability to take a share in a work of this kind, a few individuals
constituting the leading spirits.’ From such associations much will not
be expected. Even in this case, however, the course suggested may act
by way of stimulation, and these Societies are the ones which need to be
waked up.

(6) ‘The work is already done by our Society for its own neighbour-
hood.’ Yes, but is it on the proper lines, and can it be brought forward
for publication on the accepted system ?

(c) ‘ A danger exists lest persons filled with enthusiasm, but otherwise
imperfectly qualified for the task, should be incited to essay the task.
This might lead to the production of results false and misleading.’ But
it is proposed that persons anxious to conduct any inquiry, or to co-operate
therein, should be referred by the Committee of the Corresponding Society
to a Society or individual expert in the work who would be in a position
both to furnish direction and to check results.

I venture to move the resolution which stands in my name—‘ That
the Committees of the Corresponding Societies be invited to lay before
their members the necessity of carrying on a systematic survey of their
counties or districts in respect of ethnography, ethnology, meteorology,
ornithology, &e.’

Mr. Gray : I have very great pleasure in seconding the resolution. I
think the communication which Mr. Bevan has read is one of the most
valuable that we have had as crystallising our efforts and pointing out
what we should really do. Anything in connection with the British
Association must be done in an organised way. I have been a Delegate
to this Conference from the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club for many
years, and I do think that the Conference itself has acted like the river
that the Chairman described. The Society I represent is an active
Society. Of course we are composed of Irishmen, and necessarily active,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, A75

and we have done and desire to do good work. With the exception of
Yorkshire, which has a number of organised Societies joined together, no
one Society has done more than my own Society. No one has done more
for archeology, and we have more material than any similar Society in
Great Britain. I myself started many years ago with a systematic
grouping of the ancient monuments of Antrim and Down, but our local
work is not made generally useful for national purposes owing to the
want of a proper systematic scheme, which should be formulated by a
central authority like the British Association. It is perfectly useless for
any local Society to start a system of its own, because that will be applied
only locally, and we must adopt some systematised method. I therefore
say that there should be an instruction to such a Society as ours as to
the lines on which we should act. I understand that to be the object of
this Conference, and I hope the suggestions will be taken so that we may
act upon the lines laid down, and do very much more useful work, as
might be done by the representatives at the Conference.

The Chairman: The resolution has been very ably moved and
seconded, and it is now open for discussion.

Mr. F. D. Longe : I should like to know whether the British Asso-
ciation really means to take the initiative in suggesting to Societies what
local work they should do. If the British Association will take the lead
in that way I think that practical results will follow, but if it is left to the
different Societies to take up what they like I think there will be endless
discussion.

-Dr. Garson : Every year the Secretary of the Corresponding Societies
Committee sends a letter to the Recorder of each Section, intimating
during the first week of the Meeting that the second Conference of the
Delegates will be held on the following Tuesday, and requesting him to
bring this fact before the Section of which he is Recorder, so that a repre-
sentative from the various Committees appointed to do special work in
connection with that Section may come here and explain to the Delegates
what work they propose to do, and how the Corresponding Societies can
assist these Committees.

Prof. J. H. Merivale : Mr. Bevan made a practical suggestion, which
might be carried out, that we should have a social meeting—at least I
think he meant a social meeting—each year. We had a meeting at
Ipswich which was a great success. I think it would be a very excellent
thing that we should have an opportunity of seeing one another and
discussing matters in which we are mutually interested.

Mr. Gray : I am afraid that that suggestion does not come within the
scope of the Association. I think that in Ireland, in accordance with our
usual hospitality, we may take some steps to have you all together next year.

The Chairman : I should like to hear some remarks bearing directly
on the subject which Mr. Bevan has so ably brought forward—remarks
that would lead to something definite.

Captain Phillips : Although a systematic survey comes within the
work of some of our Corresponding Societies I do not think it would come
within that of all of them. For instance, my Society is a geographical
Society, and the members of it are business men, who have their time
fully taken up ; in taking a survey such as is here contemplated in
archeology you would find that my Society would be woefully in the dark.
I shall, however, lay it before my Committee, but I do not think that I
shall receive much encouragement, or that this meeting will receive much
encouragement from my Society on this subject.

476 REPORT—1901,

Mr. Alfred Browett : With the earlier portion of Mr. Bevan’s remarks
I must say that I feel most heartily with him, and it would be a great
advantage if these remarks could be put on a leaflet and sent to the various
Societies which we are here to represent. Speaking for my own Society,
I think that we are largely in a state of ignorance as to what is expected
of Delegates to this Association. I cannot help thinking that if a small
leaflet were drawn up by the Committee of the Delegates we should
have something to guide us, and efforts would be made to give effect to
the suggestions that might be brought before us.

Mr. Gray : Might I call attention to the fact that the Annual Reports
of the Association explain exactly what the relation of the various Societies
is to the British Association, and that all the work that is done at these
Conferences is brought, in the report, before the local Secretary of your
Society, and it ought to be his duty to bring before the Council what is
expected of you ? :

Dr. Vaughan Cornish : Do I understand that it is not the duty of the
Delegate to bring these matters before the Society, but the duty of the
Secretary of the Society? With whom does the function lie to bring it
before the Society ?

Dr. Garson : There is a copy of the Report of the Conferences of Dele-
gates sent to the Delegate and also to the Secretary of each Society.

Dr. Vaughan Cornish : But whose duty is it ?

Mr. Gray : It is the Secretary’s duty to bring it before them when no
Delegate from the Society has been appointed, and it is the duty of the
Delegate to do so when there is one.

Mr. Sowerbutts : To make it secure that the Report of the Conferences
is brought before the Societies it was resolved that the Committee be
asked to send a report to the Secretary as well as to the Delegate.

Professor Merivale: I wish to suggest that the Societies might do what
the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers have
done with reference to geology. We have published sections of Northum-
berland and Durham. That is rather a large order, and the majority of
the Societies, even if they should wish to do it, may not be in a position
to do it. I throw it out as a suggestion to include geology more
particularly to draw your attention to the immense amount of useful
work that would be done by the publication of geological sections. We
have six good-sized volumes, and they are invaluable to the mining
engineer, at any rate, and to others in the district.

Professor Kendall: I think the suggestion is an admirable one, and I
can see a way that the difficulty which Professor Merivale contemplates
may be met. A Society which is poor can at least send reports to others
which can be made available to all comers. It is appalling to think of
the amount of geological information of priceless value which is utterly
wasted year by year. Many well-sinkers take no trouble to record their
work, and we only get very vague results. I think that if the local
Societies would take up the matter and make persevering attempts to get
into the confidence of the well-sinkers it might easily be done.

Mr. Henry Coates : Before the motion is put to the meeting I should
like to make a suggestion ; and it is this, that instead of coming toa
formal resolution upon an important matter like this, it would perhaps
clear the way if Mr. Bevan’s paper were printed in extenso and copies
sent to each of the Societies, and the Societies instructed to consider that
paper fully during the coming session, and Delegates be instructed to

-

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 477

report upon the position taken up at our next Conference, because there
is a great deal of detail in his paper that we have not heard to-day ; and
I think it would form very good subject-matter for the Societies to con-
sider in detail, and then we would be in a better position to come to a
resolution at our next Conference. It seems rather like taking an unfor-
tunate time of the day when we have to come toa resolution without
having considered the paper fully.

Professor Watts : I would suggest an amendment in order that the
subject may be brought to an issue. JI ought to say that I think any-
thing in the way of systematising our work would be very important
indeed ; but I do not think we can expect any good from generalities.
The Society that I represent—the Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Clubh—
has a little volume called ‘A Record of Bare Facts.’ It is a very
unambitious little work, but it nails down certain well known facts about
the district. I should like to see a small Committee appointed to take up
Mr. Bevan’s paper and bring something before us at our next meeting in
a definite form. I therefore propose that a small Committee, including
Mr. Bevan, should be appointed to consider this subject and bring a
definite statement which could be sent to the local Societies that we
represent, with a suggestion to systematise work, because it is that kind
of work that we practically want.

Professor Merivale : I beg to second Professor Watts’ amendment.

On the amendment being put to the meeting, after much discussion,
fifteen voted for the amendment and two against it.

The Chairman: Then the amendment is carried, and as a matter of
form I propose to put it now as a substantive motion that this Committer
be appointed. There is no one against it.

A Committee was then appointed, consisting of the Rev. J. O. Bevan,
Mr. William Gray, Professor Watts, Professor Merivale, and Dr. Vaughan
Cornish ; Professor Watts to be convener.

Mr. Sowerbutts : Is there anything to report on the Conference as to
the question of copyright? We went to a good deal of trouble and ex-
pense in gathering information to help us to see what the results of pub-
lishing the Societies’ transactions when the proposals before the Com-
mittee of the House of Lords were carried out. I suppose it did go before
the Committee of the Association at least, and we are anxious to know
how it stands. We are given to understand that the Committee of the
House of Lords is to be reappointed, and we should not be found asleep.
It is of importance that the publication of a man’s paper by us should not
lose him the copyright. I sent a copy of the reports and of the corre-
spondence to every Society, so that if the Delegates have not got it it is
their own fault.

The Chairman: The Council of the Association has empowered the
officers to co-operate with other scientific Societies for mutual protection
if this Bill should be brought forward again, but at present it has lapsed,

The meeting was then adjourned.

Second Conference, September 17.

The Second Conference of Delegates of the Corresponding Societies of
the British Association for the Advancement of Science was held on Tues-
day, September 17, 1901, Mr. F. W. Rudler, F.G.S., Chairman of the
Conference, presiding.

478 REPORT—1901.

The Corresponding Societies Committee were represented by Mr. W.
Whitaker, Mr. F. W. Rudler, Dr. J. G. Garson, the Rev. J. O. Bevan,
and Professor W. W. Watts. The representatives of the Corresponding
Societies present will be found in the list of Delegates.

The Chairman : It will be remembered that at our last meeting Cap-
tain Dubois Phillips gave notice of a motion which he would bring forward
to-day, and I now call upon him to move it.

Captain Phillips: The resolution I have to propose is in the following
terms :—‘ That the Corresponding Societies Committee be requested in
future to bring before the Conference of Delegates some account of the
outcome of the Conference of the preceding year.’ ‘Good wine needs no
bush,’ and I desist from making any remarks upon the resolution.

Dr. Vaughan Cornish : I rise to second the resolution moved by Cap-
tain Phillips, which was to some extent discussed at the last meeting.
Any outcome of this resolution must entirely lie within the discretion of
the Corresponding Societies Committee, and therefore I follow the ex-
ample of Captain Phillips, and simply second that resolution without
discussing its merits. .

The Chairman : This motion has been moved by Captain Phillips and
seconded by Dr. Cornish and the matter is open for discussion, but we
discussed it so fully at the last meeting that I doubt whether it is reason-
able to say much more on it now. We are all agreed upon it.

Mr. Whitaker : Iam not going to discuss this resolution, as I have
no doubt the Corresponding Societies Committee will fall in with it.

The resolution was then put and carried.

The Chairman: At our last meeting a small Committee of Delegates
was appointed for the purpose of considering the suggestions brought
forward by the Rev. Mr. Bevan ; and Professor Watts, as convener of that
Committee, will kindly bring up the report.

Professor Watts : Commendable brevity has been the keynote of this
meeting so far, and I shall try to follow on the same lines. The Com-
mittee met and, endeavouring to act in accordance with the sense of the
meeting so far as they could gather it, have drawn up the following
recommendation which I shall read presently. In so doing they have
endeavoured to avoid in any way dictating to the local Societies which
have been doing good work along certain systematic lines, and we only
wish to suggest that other Societies might take some part in this work.
Some Societies may take up one branch and some another. The mere
fact that these Societies are represented here is sufficient evidence that
they are doing good work on their own account, so that no question arises
on that score. There are certain subjects on which systematic work has
been done, but that work is of comparatively little value because of its
not being carried on all over the country. Now, although local Societies
are doing a good deal of work, there are frequently members who are
ready to take up new lines of work if these lines of work are suggested
to them. The Committee have appended such a list, but they regard that
list as merely provisional for this year, and they have avoided in most
cases including subjects which will be brought before this Conference by
the Delegates from the different sections. They would like to ask that
this list should stand or fall as it is for this year, till it is seen how it
works. If the matter is good, then the list can be added to or subtracted
from, and in any case the work can be capitalised in that way, This is
what the Committee recommend :—

ae

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 4.79

The following provisional list of subjects, together with the names of
some of the Societies which have already done work in connection there-
with, and the names of persons who would be willing to receive com-
munications thereon is recommended by the Conference of Delegates for
adoption by the Corresponding Societies Committee of the British Associa-
tion, and to be issued by them to the Corresponding Societies in the hope
that those Societies not already engaged in similar work may take part in
so much of it as comes within their scope, in order that the work may be
extended over a wide area, and be done as far as possible upon a uniform
system :—

‘ Registration of Type Specimens,’ Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

‘Coast Erosion,’ Mr. W. Whitaker.

‘Record of Bore Holes, Wells, and Sections,’ North of England
Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, and Prof. J. H. Merivale.

‘Tracing the Course of Underground Water,’ Yorkshire Geological
and Polytechnic Society, and Mr. A. R. Dwerryhouse.

‘Erratic Blocks,’ Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, and Professor P. F.
Kendall.

‘Geological Photographs,’ Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, and Pro-
fessor W. W. Watts.

‘Underground Fauna,’ Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing.

‘ Variations in the Course of Rivers and Shape of Lakes,’ Dr. H. R. Mill.

‘ Archeological Survey by Counties,’ Woolhope Field Club, and
Rey. J. O. Bevan.

‘Ethnographical Survey,’ Anthropological Institute.

‘Botanical Survey by Counties,’ Mr. W. G. Smith.

‘Photographic Record of Plants,’ Mr. A. K. Coomara-Swamy.

I beg, then, to move that that report of the Committee be adopted.

Mr. Gray: I have pleasure in seconding the motion. As one who
went over the list, any objections that I had have been effectively met by
the report of the Committee.

The Chairman : This resolution has been moved by Professor Watts
and seconded by Mr. Gray, and the subject is now open for discussion ;
but I would venture to remark that as we have a great deal of work
likely to come before us this afternoon, those Delegates who favour us
with their views should do so as concisely as is consistent with clearness.
That suggestion I am bold enough to make, not for the purpose of fetter-
ing discussion, but to avoid any undue prolongation of our sitting.

Captain Phillips: Since last meeting I have taken some pains on the
subject of the suggestion brought before the meeting by the Rev.
Mr. Bevan. I have written to Liverpool, and I find that most of the
work that is spoken of, archzological, geological, and biological, has been
taken up for years by the Societies there, and the work has been done
and is all tabulated and charted. I think something might be done by
this Conference getting into communication with the different Societies,
and getting their work done so as to make a harmonious whole for the
country, instead of having it only in detached groups.

On being put to the meeting the motion was unanimously agreed to.

The Chairman: I understand from Dr. Garson that we are favoured
to-day with the presence of certain members from the various sections,
and it is my duty to call upon those representatives to tell us whether
they have anything to report or not.

480 REPORT—1901.

Section A, MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

The Chairman: The work of Section A includes Meteorology, which
is a subject very largely taken up by the Corresponding Societies, and
often discussed in these Conferences. As there does not seem to be any
representative present, we pass to

Section B, CHeEmistTRy.

Professor Herbert M‘Leod : I should like to say on behalf of Section B
that we have nominated a Committee to register the scientific chemists
who are at work at different manufactories. Lately a great contrast has
been drawn between the way that this country and Germany and other
countries are using trained chemists in all their works, and we are
seriously afraid that the numbers in this country are very small. The
Jommittee was nominated by Section B to investigate this matter at the
suggestion of Dr. Armstrong. It strikes me that it is not impossible that
many of the members of this Conference might be able to assist in finding
out the names of these people. It is not easy for persons living in
London to send round to the different works and make inquiries when
they may not know even of the existence of these works, and these
gentlemen may not be able to assist.

I should like to refer to another subject which rather interests
me at the present moment—I mean the tremendous number of scientific
serials that exist. I do not say that they are not of the greatest possible
value, but when I tell you that there are about 4,000 serials that
have to be indexed for the International Catalogue, you may know the
amount of time that is consumed in indexing them. I have in my hands
the continuation of the Catalogue of scientific papers of the Royal Society
from 1884 to 1900, and I cannot tell you the number of periodicals of
which we have a list, but it must not be far short of 1,000. It is possible
that these may contain papers of great value, and some must be of com-
paratively small value. We do not wish to catalogue any reprints or ab-
stracts. I think that many members of this Conference might be of great
assistance to us in telling us what would be advisable to index in their
own periodicals, and if any of you will be good enough to write to me on
the subject I shall be delighted. We begin at 1884, and we go up to 1900.

The Chairman : I understand that the representatives of the Sections
are supposed to explain to the Delegates what work the Corresponding
Societies can do to assist the various Committees that are appointed by
the Sections. Then we come to

Srection C, Gronoaey.

Mr. A. S. Reid: I was asked to represent Section C. There has been
no new Committee nominated in Section C, and there are only the old ones.
The subjects which appeal to all the Societies are geological and photo-
graphic subjects, the registration of type specimens of fossils, and the
movement of underground waters. The other subjects do not appeal to
so many. The exploration of Irish caves does not naturally appeal
to any of the English or Scotch clubs, and the study of the structure of
crystals is more a matter for experts ; but we have the subject of erratic
blocks and their area. The Geological Photographic Committee has been
doing certain new work during this term of office, which Professor Watts

could explain.

a

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 481

Professor Watts : I am glad to take this opportunity of expressing
how deeply grateful I am to the local Societies for the help they have
given me during the time I have been Secretary of the Geological Photo-
graphic Committee. I should think that there are twenty Societies
which have contributed photographs, often very valuable ones, and at
least twelve Societies have done something or other towards making a
photographic survey of their geological districts. If there are any gentle-
men present at this Conference belonging to the counties at present
unrepresented which I am going to mention, I hope they will see that
their counties are no longer unrepresented. Rutland, Huntingdon, and
Cambridge are the only counties in England which have not yet con-
tributed. There are three Welsh counties and eleven Scotch counties
and fourteen Irish counties. Amongst these counties are such interesting
counties as Brecknock, Dumbarton, Ross-shire, Wicklow, Kilkenny, and
Waterford, in all of which there is a lot of geological work to be done.
I think I should make some slight allusion to the Publication Committee
that has been formed in association with us. It was thought that there
were a good many Societies which might like to have copies of photo-
graphs, and there have been made sixty or eighty or possibly a hundred
sets of prints of interesting geological phenomena. Delays have un-
fortunately occurred, but still we are pushing on, and hope to complete
the publication within the specified time. The set of photographs that
should have been issued in 1900 is still unissued, but the prints are pre-
pared, and the slides will very shortly be prepared, and I hope they will
be issued to subscribers within a month.

Mr. Whitaker : I would like to add a word on this matter, referring
not only to Section C, but to others. Unfortunately the grants were
much cut down. An application was made for a grant for the geological
photographs, and instead of obtaining 10/. it has fallen to 5/. I hope
some means will be taken to make up the 5/., because I am afraid if we
do not Professor Watts will suffer in pocket, and that is not a thing that
should be allowed. It is a splendid Committee and does magnificent
work, and I have benefited very much by it, and through me others have
benefited by it, but the absence of money is very unsatisfactory, and
somehow or other we must try to get a little more funds.

The Chairman : We are greatly indebted to Professor Watts not only
for giving this interesting explanation to the Conference, but also for the
amount of labour he has spent upon this work. He is the life and spirit
of the Committee, as we all know, and it is pleasing to hear that he has
been so ably assisted by a large number of local Societies that are in
‘correspondence with us,

Professor Kendall: I should like to put in a word about the grant
for the erratic blocks. I had 6/. last year and spent it all and more than
all. I thought that I would make a modest demand this year, and that
if I asked for 10/. I should get 5/. I modestly asked for 5/. and got
nothing at all, That is rather a hard case. The expense of the erratic
blocks Committee is considerakle. In the present year it is particularly
unfortunate. In my report I am making an offer which will inevitably
involve an expenditure of time, which we all expect, and of money, which
we do not expect. Three years ago I visited Norway to study and collect
specimens of the most characteristic rocks of Norway that we know to
occur in the British group, and I have brought back about a ton of them.
Last year I went and collected on a liberal scale the rocks on the

1901. 11

A82 REPORT—1901.

Cheviots with the same end, and in the present year I have sent sets of
rocks to any local Society making application for such type rocks as are
likely to occur in their districts. I made that reservation, because I do
not see the use of supplying a South Welsh Society with Norwegian rocks,
or of sending rocks from the Lake District to the North of Scotland.
This involved me in a good deal of trouble and a good deal of expense,
but I grudged neither the trouble nor the expense while the work was
continued, but it is my experience that local Societies will just go as far
as they are pushed, and directly we leave off pushing they stop. We
have a magnificent record of erratics in the Liverpool district, but I am
inclined to think that the local Societies there consider that they have
reached an approximate finality in this work. We have also had records
of the Pennine Chain through Lancashire and Yorkshire, but with these
exceptions we have scarcely any reccrds coming in at the present time.
The Isle of Man was being done, also the North of Ireland under the
very energetic guidance of the Belfast Naturalist Society, who have done
very admirable work; but these are two bright spots over a very dull-
looking map. In Scotland we have no erratics recorded at all. I sent a
circular to every one of the Corresponding Societies, and I got a small
number of responses ; one response which came from Scotland gave
me the assurance that the erratics in Scotland had been done, but I
have failed to extract any useful or any considerable amount of useful
information from the records, which relate largely to the position of
boulders and other characteristics. I had only a few records from Ireland.
The scope of this Committee has been enlarged deliberately at the request
of the Committee itself, and I do hope that the Corresponding Societies of
the British Isles will make a response, and if any locality will indicate
anything in reason in the way of assistance I can give by means of
specimens, &c., I shall be very pleased.

The Chairman : Professor Kendall has our sympathy in the unfortu-
nate position in which he finds himself. We may now pass to

Srection D, Zoonoey.

Mr. Denny : I am supposed to represent Section D. Just at the end
of the business of the Committee I was asked to come here asa substitute,
but I am not commissioned to bring anything before the Committee.

The Chairman : We next turn to

Section E, GrocrapPny.

Dr. Vaughan Cornish: I am delegated by Section E to bring before
this Conference a new matter which has arisen at this meeting. You will
have heard that there was a joint Conference of two or three Sections on the
subject of Limnology, the study of lakes. This, of course, is a subject which
can only appeal toa limited number of Societies—those in whose areas lakes
occur—but it is hoped that these Societies which are fortunate enough to
possess lakes in their districts will give their attention to this new pro-
posal for the systematic study of the lakes of the British Isles. It is
thought that the local Societies could assist in the early stages of that
work, more particularly by collecting the bibliography or local publications
relating to lakes ; and if any of these references or publications of local
Societies are sent to Sir John Murray he will be very glad indeed to
receive them. Geography nowadays is becoming local in its character, or
perhaps I should put it that the people of the British Isles are beginning

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 483

to turn their attention to the geography of their own country. I do not
think a meeting of the British Association ever passes but that there are
papers read which are distinctly local in their character. So far as the
Glasgow meeting is concerned, I refer particularly to the papers which
were read on Friday in Section E by Professor Scott Elliot on ‘The
Effects of Vegetation on the Valley and Plains of the Clyde’ ; the second
by Dr. Marion Newbigin on ‘ Proposed Geographical Survey of the Valley
of the Forth’; and the third by Professor W. G. Smith on ‘ A Botani-
cal Survey of Scotland.’ The authors of these papers will be glad to receive
any assistance they can get from the local Societies, and I am directed
generally to draw the attention of the Delegates to the meetings in
Section E and to the discussion of local questions which occur there.
The Chairman : The subject of Limnology, which has received a great
deal of attention on the Continent, has been ably dealt with in this
country, especially by Dr. Mill; and I believe that Sir John Murray is
to be associated with Mr. Lawrence Pullar in the survey of the British
lakes about to be undertaken. If no one else wishes to speak on this
matter, which has been fully discussed elsewhere, we will pass on to

Section F, Economic Scrmnck AND STATISTICS.
This Section is apparently not represented, so we proceed to
Section G, ENGINEERING.

Professor Dalby : I may state that we have two Committees at work at
present, one of which has been sitting for about twenty years endeavour-
ing to Standardise Small Screw-Threads. Standards seem to be settled
according to the caprice of the different makers; the Committee has
consequently been endeavouring to bring into operation a universal
standard ; in fact, such a standard has been proposed and has been put
into operation, and has been practically accepted in Paris; but as the
difficulty in making a standard arises on account of the form of the
thread, it is more a recommendation that has been made in order to
obtain a simpler form of thread than has been done before. Any informa-
tion on the point of screw-threads will be welcomed by the Committee.

The other Committee that I spoke of was only formed last year, and
refers to a subject which may be interesting—I refer to Road Traction.
A Committee was formed to find out how much it costs to pull a
wheeled vehicle over different kinds of roads, and the Committee will
be very glad to hear about the different kinds of roads in different dis-
tricts in order that they may be included in the experiments. Of course
the object of the experiments is not so much for horse-drawn vehicles as
for motor-cars, and the investigation is to find out how much it costs to
take these motor-cars over high roads. I hope we shall receive help on
this question.

The Chairman: We are very much indebted to Professor Dalby for
these remarks, and I hope that some Society will see its way to give
assistance in these matters. We now come to

Section H, ANTHROPOLOGY.

Mr. H. Balfour : I was sent as representative of this Section to put
before you some suggestions on the subject of collecting anthropological
photographs, I was asked to state that any photographs and negatives

I13

ASA REPORT—1901.

in the hands of the Committees of the Corresponding Societies, or indivi-
duals connected with those Societies, might be made more widely accessible
to persons who are engaged in anthropology and archeology, if, after a
a negative is finished with for the time being, it were deposited in some
recognised centre, say the Anthropological Institute, and placed at the
disposal of qualified people for use. In the case where the negatives are
retained by their owners and not deposited as suggested, these might be
registered in such a way that people may be able to find out what photo-
graphs have been taken, and whether they can be used for scientific
purposes. That is one suggestion that I have to make, and I do not think
it is necessary to enlarge on the subject. It has been already mooted in
connection with other Sections, and I think it is obvious to all that it
would be a very great convenience to those working at Anthropology.

Another suggestion that I should like to bring forward is that this
Conference should draw the attention of the Corresponding Societies to the
very great desirability of systematically collecting and recording instances
of the survival of primitive customs, industries, appliances, and so forth.
T am well aware that there is a great deal done in this direction, and I
do not need to mention to you the enormous value which anthropology
derives from survivals of primitive customs. Numbers of such survivals
are still existing in our surroundings and only want recording. Many of
these customs, of the very greatest interest to the student of primitive
culture, are dying out at such a rapid rate that we should endeavour at
once to record them as far as possible and photograph them if they are
interesting. I hope that all the Corresponding Societies will be willing,
on the suggestion of Section H, to bear this matter in mind. I would
only mention or bring to your recollection that much of the very large
amount of valuable work that General Pitt-Rivers did in his lifetime was
due to his study of survivals. They will fill up the gaps in the archzo-
logical records in a way that these cculd not be filled up otherwise. I
need say littie about the importance of recording them, but I may make
one remark. No one can have a higher admiration for the very noble
institution known as the British Museum than I have, but at the same
time I have a sort of uneasy feeling that it is representative of almost
everything except British archeology and ethnology ; and one object in
raising this matter to-day is to suggest that this systematic collection of
all such things as I have referred to should be made with a view to esta-
blishing some day a museum which will adequately represent the past history
of our own country, not only the prehistoric period, but also the later
medizeval and peasant life of the country which has not received sufficient
attention so far. Every big town on the Continent, especially in the
western part of it, has its Folk Museum, but we have nothing of the
kind. Isolated attempts to deal with the matter in a somewhat simple
manner are to be found, but nothing on any adequate scale. If it were
possible to aim at the formation of a museum which would represent that
side of culture, I think that we should have done a piece of work which
will be well worth supporting.

Dr. Garson: In support of what Mr. Balfour has just said, I think
T might refer to the last year’s report, where it is stated that the Com-
mittee which he is representing wants photographs of prehistoric stone
monuments, stone implements, primitive pottery, and all objects con-
nected with local superstitions and the like. Objects of this kind are
frequently to be found in local museums, and sometimes they are peculiar

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 485

to the locality only, but their existence is unknown very often except to
a few people in the locality.

The Chairman : I can assure Mr. Balfour that we are fully sensible
of our obligations to him for his very interesting remarks on this subject,
which will probably give rise to discussion.

Rev. J. O. Bevan : I do not know that I have anything to say except
about the anthropological map which I hope will be concluded very soon.
As to the other subject that Mr. Balfour spoke about, the question of
survivals, it is one that commends itself to the attention of the Delegates.
Here in Scotland one ought to meet with a great many interesting
samples, and anyone who has paid a visit to the local museums here will
agree that they show very valuable material still available.

Mr. Reid: Might I ask the representative of Section H what one
should do in the case of local dances? I know of a dance that occurs in
one of the islands in Scotland that is entirely unknown anywhere else.
It is a kind of morris-dance, with a set of words that are handed down
by father to son.

Mr. Balfour: One might obtain a surreptitious photograph of it.
No doubt photographs would be worth getting of anything of that sort.

Dr. Garson: I may say that in connection with obtaining photo-
graphs of dances, &c., there is a camera, made by Watson, in the shape
of an opera-glass, which photographs at right angles to the direction in
which you appear to be looking. Probably by that apparatus some of
those dances could be recorded.

After further remarks the Chairman passed to

Srction K, Borany.

Mr. Harold Wager: I have been asked by the Committee of
Section K to bring to your notice two new Committees which have been
formed this year, in which the members of local Societies may be of great
help. One of these is the Committee nominated to investigate the struc-
ture of blue-green alge. The determination of the structure of these
organisms is of great theoretical interest, and we shall be very glad
if the Delegates would call the attention of their botanical members to
the fact that specimens which may be obtained in various conditions will
be extremely helpful in elucidating the important point of structure.
If specimens can be sent to myself at Arnold House, Derby, we shall be
very grateful. The other Committee is one which has been appointed to
consider the desirability of collecting, preserving, and systematically
registering photographs of botanical interest. We have been in com-
munication with Professor Watts, and it is felt that botanical photo-
graphs, arranged on the same plan as the geological photographs are
arranged, would be extremely helpful to us. A collection of photo-
graphs of rare plants growing in their natural habitats would be extremely
valuable, and generally photographs would be a great help in systematic-
ally illustrating the characteristic formations of the various vegetation
areas, such as moor, soft marsh, and so forth. Again, photographs of
fungi, insects, plants as parasites and climbing plants, would be ex-
tremely interesting in a photographical botanical record. It is hoped
that there may be a classification of these arranged on the same
plan as has been found successful by the Geological Photographic
Committee, and I would ask any botanical Society, if they have any

A486 rEeorRT— 1901.

photographs to spare, to send them to Professor Weiss of Owens College,
Manchester, who is the Secretary of the Committee. I have also to
inform you that Professor Weiss will send out circulars to all natural
history Societies communicating the wants of this Committee, and asking
them to be good enough to help us as far as they can.

Mr. Whitaker : I am the representative here of a Society which does
a certain amount of work, and our members would be delighted to help.
I have seen many fine photographs of structure and abnormal growth, and
photographs of special fungi collected at some of our meetings, and I have
no doubt that other Societies will be in the same position. If Professor
Weiss sends a circular to our Societies he will get something from them,
and I am sure that they will endeavour to help him.

Mr. Coates : In our Perthshire Society, owing to the difficulty of pre-
serving specimens of fungi, we have commenced making a complete series
of photographs of all the fungi of the county. Our botanical members
collect them and bring them to our rooms and the photographic members
reproduce them. This might be found useful in other districts. We have
them in our museum, and it would be quite easy to have duplicates made
for other parties.

Mr. Wager : What we want is to have a botanical record.

Mr. Coates : I think many other Societies would be only too glad to
do the same.

Professor Watts : I think it might be worth while to call the atten- -
tion of any local Society taking this up to the fact that they might form a
duplicate collection, each in its own locality. That has been done in some
Societies in geological matters, and in this case it would be very important
for the local Society to keep a set of prints in the locality. With regard
to any other point, I should be only too delighted to give help to Pro-
fessor Weiss in the details should this be satisfactory.

The Chairman : Botany is a department of natural knowledge that is
so universally cultivated by local Socicties that I hope the suggestions
that Mr. Wager has favoured us with will bear much fruit. If no one
else desires to address the Conference on Biology we shall pass to

Sreotion L, Epucarion.

Dr. Kimmins: I have been desired by this new Section to say that we
have formed three Committees this year, but they are not on subjects which
the Corresponding Societies could render any definite assistance. It is,
however, very probable that in future years we will form Committees that
will necessitate local investigations, and then we will appeal to you to
help us.

Mr. Whitaker: The British Association has a remarkably good col-
lection of the publications of local Societies. It is growing vastly, and as
the space at the offices of the Association is limited it is a question as to
what will be done with it in time. The great thing is to put it where it
can be useful, and any suggestions on that subject would be welcome.

The Chairman : Has any other Delegate any other subject to bring
forward? If not, I have to thank you very heartily for having attended
on these two occasions, and we shall now adjourn until the next meeting
of the British Association a year hence.

On the motion of Dr. Vaughan Cornish a hearty vote of thanks was
given to the Chairman.

487

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

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490 REPORT—1901.

Cataloque of the moreimportant Papers, and especially those referring to
Local Scientific Investigations, published by the Corresponding
Societies during the year ending June 1, 1901.

*.* This catalogue contains only the titles of papers published in the volumes or
parts of the publications of the Corresponding Societies sent to the Secretary of
the Committee in accordance with Rule 2. ©

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

BuapEN, W. Wetts. Report of the Meteorological Section. ‘ Trans.
N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxv. 126-129, 1901.

Buytu, Vincent J. On the Thermal Conductivity of Substances of very
Low Conductivity. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxxr. 189-144, 1900.

Brackett, AntHUR W. Science at the close of the Highteenth Century.
‘South-Eastern Naturalist,’ v. 39-46, 1900.

Brown, M. Watton. Barometer, Thermometer, &c., Readings for the
year 1899. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xrx. 559-568, 1900.

CAMPBELL-Bayarp, I’. Meteorological Report for 1899. ‘Trans. Croy-
don M. N. H. C.’ tv. 8-16, and Appendices of Tables, 50 pp., 1900.

CuAamBers, G. IF’. Eclipses of the Sun, with especial reference to the
Eclipse of May 28, 1900. ‘Trans. Eastbourne N. H. Soe.’ m1.
235-241, 1901.

Coturys, J. R. The Phenomena of Surface Reflection of Light. ‘ Trans.
Toronto Astr. Soe.’ x1. 24-26, 1901.

CRESSWELL, ALFRED. Records of Meteorological Observations taken at
the Observatory, Edgbaston, 1900. ‘ Birm. and Mid. Inst. Sei. Soc.’
26 pp. 1901.

Crossman, Major-Gen. Sir Wm. Meteorological Observations at Cheswick,
1899. ‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xvir. 163, 1900.

Dennine, W. F. The Observation of Shooting Stars. ‘ Trans. Toronto
Astr. Soc.’ x1. 86-40, 1901.

Drapsr, Dr. C. H. The Skinof Liquids. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist,’
v. 47-55, 1900.

Eaton, H. S. Returns of Rainfall, &c., in Dorset in 1899. ‘ Proc.
Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xxr. 111-124, 1900.

GoopmaAn, A. HK. Methods of Photo-Micography. ‘Proc. Chester Soc.
Nat. Sci.’ 1900-1901, 22-23, 1901.

Harvey, A. Aurora Australis: its Synchronism with Aurora Borealis.
‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Soc.’ x1. 838-34, 1901.

Herywoop, H. Meteorological Observations in the Society’s District,
1899. ‘ Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxx11. 10-28, 1961.

Hopxinson, JoHN. Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in the Year
1899. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ x. 213-222, 1900.

— Meteorological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the Year
1899. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ x. 223-232, 1900.

Linpsay, THomas. The Total Eclipse of the Sun, May 28, 1900.
‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Soe.’ x1. 15-19, 1901.

Lopes, Prof. O. J. Further Progress in Space Telegraphy [1900].
‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soe.’ xxi. 149-152, 1901.

—— Modern Views of Matter. ‘Proc. Liverpool Lit. Phil. Soc.’ nv.
91-103, 1900.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 491

Lumsprn, Grorce E. The Total Eclipse of the Sun, May 28, 1900.
‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Soc.’ x1. 19-24, 1901.

Marxuam, C. A. Meteorological Reports—Observer’s Notes. ‘Journal
N’ton. N. H. Soe.’ x. 807-3812, 315-8283, 326-328, 332-334,338-340,
342-344, 1900, 1901.

—— MHailstorm of the 20th July, 1900. ‘ Journal N’ton. N. H. Soe.’ x.
828-331, 1900.

Mawuey, Epwarp. Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in
Hertfordshire during the year 1899. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ x.
173-179, 1900.

MircHett, Rey. J. Carrns. Results of Meteorological Observations taken
in Chester during 1899. ‘Proc. Chester Soc. Nat. Sci.’ 1899-1900,
14-20, 1900.

—— The same, during 1900. ‘ Proc. Chester Soc. Nat. Sci.’ 1900-1901,
13-19, 1901.

Moorz, A. W. Has Climate Changed? [1894.] ‘Yn Lioar Manni-
nagh,’ 11. 237-241, 1901.

NewsHoume, Artuur. Meteorological Report. ‘ Report Brighton N. H.
Phil. Soc. 1899-1900,’ 30-81, 1900.

Paterson, Joun A. Artand Astronomy. ‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Soc.’
x1. 43-44, 1901.

Puruuips, Joun. The Genesis of the Moon on the Theory of Vertical
Projection and Tidal Action. ‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Sac.’ x1. 45-47,
1900.

PoyntinG, Prof. J. H. (S. Staff. Inst. Min. Eng.) The Nature of Electric
Current. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx. 89-90, 1900.

Preston, A. W. Meteorological Notes, 1899. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat.
Soe.’ vir. 54-62, 1900.

Rosertson, Davip. On the Equilibrium of a Column of Air and the
Atmospheric Temperature Gradient. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx1.
145-151, 1900.

SHarp, Jacos. (N. Eng. Inst.) A Flash of Lightning at the Lambton
Colliery, D. and Lady Ann Pits, on October 2, 1900. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx. 259-261, 1901.

Stewart, Dr. CHartes. Notes of Rainfall and Temperature at West
Foulden and Rawburn during 1899, from the late Mr. Craw’s Records.
‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xvi. 165, 1900.

Srewart, CHartes M. Cape Meteorological Report for 1898. ‘ Journal,
Manch. Geog. Soe.’ xv1. 227-228, 1901.

Trevtet, Dr. F. 8. Address of the Retiring President. (Meteorology.)
[1894]. ‘Yn Lioar Manninagh,’ 1. 210-216, 1901.

THompson, G. CarsuAKe. Effects of a Lightning Flash. ‘Trans.
Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxxi1. 65-66, 1901.

WavswortH, Dr. J. J., and others. Preliminary Eclipse Papers [May
28, 1900]. ‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Soc.’ xr. 8-12, 1901.

WaurteLtey, J. Meteorological Table for the Year 1900 (Halifax).
‘Halifax Naturalist,’ v. 122-123, 1901.

Waurrton, Jas. Meteorological Notes, and Remarks upon the Weather
during the Year 1899, with its General Effects upon. Vegetation.
‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ vr. 141-153, 1901.

492, REPORT—1901.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

AsHWwortH, JAMES. Failures of Safety Lamps whilst in use, and some of
the Disasters caused thereby. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvr. 519-
549, 1900.

Baxer, T. (N. Eng. Inst.) The Solvent Action of Pyridine on certain
Coals. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx. 159-162, 1900.

Buavvent, Winu1aM Hurron. Description of a Plant of Semet-Solvay
Bye-product Coke Ovens at Wheeling, West Virginia, U.S.A. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ x1x. 387-844, 1900.

Branson, F. W., and W. Ackroyp. The Underground Waters of North-
West Yorkshire: Part I. The Sources of the Aire. Report of the
Chemical Sub-Committee. ‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ xrv. 18-21,
1900.

Burrevt, B. A. The Composition of some Malham Waters. ‘ Proc.
Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ xrv. 45-48, 1900.

Denny, G. A. Observations on Sampling, Computation of Assay
Averages, and Relation of Assay-value to Recovery-value as applied
to Banket Mining in the Transvaal. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xrx.
294-318, 1900.

Dr Rancz, C. EK. On Sulphur and Pyrites in Relation to Sulphuric Acid
andits Application. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvu. 75-81, 1901.

Dickson, J. CAMPBELL. On the Electrical Deposition of Copper. ‘ Proc.
Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx1. 52-66, 1900.

Gotpscumipt, Dr. Hans. Practical Applications of the Process for the
Production of High Temperatures by the Combustion of Aluminium.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xrx. 411-427, 1900.

Juritz, Cartes F. The Chemical Composition of the Soils of the
South-Western Districts of the Cape Colony. ‘Trans. 8. African
Phil. Soe.’ x1. 125-160, 1900.

LoncrinGe, Capt. C. C. (N. Eng. Inst.) Dry and Wet Treatment of
Copper Ores. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx. 224-258, 1901.

MerAcuay, I’, G. (S. Staff. Inst. Min. Eng.) The Physical Condition of
the Mine upon the Re-opening of the Hamstead Colliery after the Fire
in November 1898. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 486-488, 1900.

Partrerson, W.H. The Growthof the Ink Blot. ‘Proc. Belfast N. H.
Phil. Soe.’ 1899-1900, 42-48, 1900.

Roperts-Austen, Prof. Sir W. On Molecular Unrest in Solids. ‘ Proc.
Glasgow Phil. Soe.’ xxx1. 152-166, 1900.

StenHouse, THomas. The latest Residual from Coal-Gas. ‘Trans.
Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ v1. 83-87, 1900.

Section C.—GEoLoGY.

Bauuantyne, Jonn. A Bute Post-Glacial Shell-bed. Notes on Excava-
tions at the Rothesay Gas-works in 1896-1897. ‘Trans. Glasgow
Geol. Soc.’ x1. 280-281, 1900.

Bare, F. Report of the Geological Section. ‘ Trans. N. Staff. F.C.’
Xxxv. 103-106, 1901.

Barnes, J. Is there an Unconformity at Castleton between the Limestone
and Shales? ‘ Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxv. 114-125, 1901.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 4.93

Barnes, J., and W. F. Hotroyp. On the Mottled Carboniferous Lime-
stone of Derbyshire. ‘ Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxv1. 561-567, 1900.

— On the Origin of the Pebbles occurring in a Conglomerate found in the
Carboniferous Limestone near Windy Knoll, Castleton. ‘Trans.
Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvur. 82-94, 1901.

Bett, THomas. On the Working of Coal Mines under the Sea; also
under the Permian Feeder of Water, in the County of Durham
(continued from p. 399). ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvr. 554-559, »
1900.

Bennie, James. Note on a Microscopic Slide of the Core of the Dalmeny
Lephidophloios. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soe.’ xr. 2638-264, 1900.
Birp, C. Water Supply in the Hundred of Hoo. ‘ Rochester Naturalist,’

m1. 12, 1901.

The North Downs. ‘Rochester Naturalist,’ m1. 33-88, 1901.

Buatr, MarrHew. Moraines and Deltas. ‘ Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xt.
289-291, 1900.

Bonn, J. W. Records of Investigations in the Carboniferous Strata of
the Leeds District. ‘Trans. Leeds Geol. Assoc.’ x11. 32-37, 1900.
Caprett, Henry M. The Geology of the Oil Shalefields of the Lothians
(Anniversary Address.) ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ viz. 116-162,

1901.

CALDWELL, GrorGE. On White Sandstone Nodules found in No. 1 Pit,
Lord Derby’s siding, Rainford. ‘ Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvt.
591-592, 1900.

Catuaway, Dr. C. Notes on the Origin of the Gneisses and Schists of the
Malvern Hills. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C.’ 1898-1899, 67-68, 1900.

CHAPMAN, FrepERIcK. The Raised Beaches of Brighton and their
Microscopical Contents. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist,’ v. 56-59, 1900.

CrarKE, W. J. The Permo-Carboniferous Boundary, and what we learn
about it from the Sealandand Thurgarton Boreholes. ‘ Proc. Chester
Soc. Nat. Sci.’ 1900-1901, 27-80, 1901.

Coates, Henry. Geological and other Notes (Opening Address).
‘Proc. Perths. Soc. Nat. Sci.’ 11. xli—l. 1900.

Cowie, Cuartes R. The Glacial Phenomena of Loch Ranza Glen,
Arran. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1. 282-284, 1900.

Cratc, Ropert. Notes Retrospective on the closing of the Quarries of
Greenhill, Kilmaurs, Ayrshire. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1. 192-
198, 1900.

Dattoy, W.H. A Brief Sketch of the Crag Formation of East Anglia.
An outline of the Nature, Position, &¢., of the Beds which have fur-
nished the Collection of Crag Fossils in the Essex Museum of Natural
History. ‘Handbooks to Hssex Field Club Museums,’ No. 4, 8 pp.,
1900.

De Rance, C. E. The Salford Earthquake. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soe.’
xxvi. 495-496, 1900.

Dickinson, JosepH. Notes on Pendleton District, Irwell Valley. ‘Trans.
Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvu. 103-105, 1901.

Dickson, E. Notes on Glacial and Post-Glacial Deposits near Southport.
‘Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soe.’ virt. 454-462, 1900.

Dron, R. W. Gold Mining in the Sierra Nevada, California. ‘Trans.
Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1. 265-266, 1900.

Firzparricr, J.J. Recent Discovery of Pebbles of Argentiferous Copper
in Mexico. ‘Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ virt. 451-458, 1900.

4.94 REPORT—1901.

Fox, Howarp. Gunwalloe. [Geological Notes.] ‘Trans. Cornw. R. Geol.
Soe.’ xu. 484-487, 1901.

GoopcuiLp, J. G. Hematite on Arthur Seat. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol.
Soe.’ vit. 1, 1901.

—— Some Recent Exposures of Rock in Edinburgh. ‘Trans. Edinb.
Geol. Soe.’ vir. 2-9, 1901.

— Geological Time. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1. 267-268, 1900.

—— The Dolerite of Aberdour, with some Speculations on the Origin of
Eruptive Rocks in General. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xr. 271-
272, 1900.

--— Corals and Coral Reefs. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1. 277-78,
1900.

Goutpine, R. W. Lincolnshire Naturalists’ Union at Mablethorpe.
‘The Naturalist for 1901,’ 151-154, 1901.

Gunn, Wint1AM. On the Old Voleanic Rocks of the Island of Arran.
‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1. 174-191, 1900.

Harris, GEorGE EH. On the Makkum Coalfield, Assam. ‘Trans. Manch.
Geol. Soc.’ xxv1. 572-590, 1900.

Harrison, Rev. 8. N. Report of the Geological Section. ‘Yn Lioar
Manninach,’ 1. 198-200, 1901.

Hawe tt, Rev. Jonn. A Peat Deposit at Stokesley. ‘ Proc. Yorks. Geol.
Poly. Soc.’ x1v. 49-51, 1900.

Hepp, the late Prof. M. Forster. On the Structure of Agates. ‘ Trans.
Glasgow Geol. Soe.’ x1. 153-173, 1900.

Herpman, Prof. W. A. The Geological Succession of Morphological
Ideals. (Presidential Address.) ‘Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soe.’ vir. 429-
450, 1900.

Hitt, J. B. On some Geological Structures in West Cornwall. ‘ Trans.
Cornw. R. Geol. Soc.’ x11. 404-480, 1901.

Hino, Dr. Wuertton. The Carboniferous Limestone of Lilleshall.
‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxy. 107-109, 1901.

Hinton, Martin A. C., and A. §. Kennarp. Contributions to the
Pleistocene Geology of the Thames Valley. I. The Grays Thurrock
Area, Part I. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x1. 336-351, 3538-870, 1901.

Hinxman, Lionst W. Note on Specimens of Spherultic Felsite from
Glen Feshie. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ virt. 114-115, 1901.

Horne, JoHN. The Silurian Volcanic Rocks of the Southern Uplands of
Scotland. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1. 285-286, 1900.

Horstack, J. T. The Stones on Mundesley Beach. ‘Trans. Norf.
Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vit. 7-12, 1900.

—— Precious Stones. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw: Nat. Soc.’ vu. 15-31,
1900.

Howarp, F. T. Observations on the Lakes and Tarns of South Wales.
‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxx1r. 29-48, 1901.

——and EK. W. Smatt. Notes on Ice Action in South Wales. ‘ Trans.
Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxx. 44-48, 1901.

Howartn, J. H. Some Yorkshire Hrratics, and How to Recognise them.
‘Trans. Leeds Geol. Assoc.’ x1t. 14, 1900.

—— The Underground Waters of North-West Yorkshire: Part I., The
Sources of the Aire. Introduction. ‘ Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’
xiv. 1-11, 1900.

JessEN, A. On the Shell-bearing Clay in Kintyre. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol.
Soe.’ viir. 76-86, 1901.

es

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 4.95

Jounson, J. P. Additions to the Paleolithic Fauna of the Uphall Brick-
yard, Ilford, Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x1. 209-212, 1901.

The Hocene Flora and Fauna of Walton-Naze, Essex. ‘ Essex
Naturalist,’ x1. 284-287, 1901.

KENDALL, Professor P. F. The Glacial Lakes and River Channels of
Yorkshire. ‘ Trans. Leeds Geol. Assoc.’ x11. 27-28, 1900.

— The Underground Waters of North-West Yorkshire: Part I., The
Sources of the Aire ; Appendix, Malham Tarn Flushes and Malham
Cove. ‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ xrv. 88-44, 1900.

and J. H. Howartu. The Yorkshire Boulder Committee and
its Thirteenth Year’s work, 1898-99. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’
355-360, 1900.

— The Yorkshire Boulder Committee and its Fourteenth Year’s Work,
1899-1900. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 861-864, 1900.

—,, and W. Lowsr Carter. The Underground Waters of North-West
Yorkshire: Part I., The Sources of the Aire ; Report of the Geological
Sub-Committee. ‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ xrv. 22-88, 1900.

Kennarp, A. §., and B. B. Woopwarp. The Post-Pliocene Non-
Marine Mollusca of Ilford, Essex. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x1. 218-215,
1901.

— The Non-Marine Mollusca of the Walton Crag. ‘Essex Naturalist,’
xI. 216-218, 1901.

Kirpy, JAmEs W. Note on the Ostracoda from the Scotsman Office Sec-
tion [Edinburgh]. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vir. 15-17, 1901.

— On Lower Carboniferous Strata and Fossils at Randerstone, near
Crail, Fife. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vir. 61-75, 1901.

Kirro, W. H. Note on the History of the Foxdale Mines [1892]. ‘Yn
Lioar Manninagh,’ 11. 82-88, 1901.

Feather Ore (Plumosite) [1892]. ‘Yn Lioar Manninagh,’ 11. 33, 1901.

Kynaston, Hersert. Notes on Contact Metamorphism round the
Cheviot Granite. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ vir. 18-26, 1901.

— On some Tuffs associated with the Andesitic Lavas of Lorne.
‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ virt. 87-90, 1901.

Lomas, JosErH. Notes on a Geological Excursion to the Isle of Man
[1892]. ‘Yn Lioar Manninagh,’ 1. 22-29, 1901.

Lonzs, Dr. T. EH. The Gravels, Sands, Clays, and Loams of Western
Hertfordshire. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ x. 153-164, 1900.

Lowe, Harrorp J. The Sequence of the Lizard Rocks. ‘Trans. Cornw.
R. Geol. Soc.’ x11. 488-466, 1901.

Macxig, Dr. W. Seventy Chemical Analyses of Rocks (chiefly from the
Moray Area), with Deductions. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vin.
33-60, 1901.

—— Some Notes on the Distribution of Erratics over Hastern Moray.
‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vir. 91-97, 1901.

—— On Differences in Chemical Composition between the Central and
Marginal Zones of Granite Veins, with further Evidence of Exchanges
between such Veins and the Contact Rocks. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol.
Soe.’ vit. 98-1138, 1901.

Mactaren, J. Mancoum. The Geology of the Coromandel Goldfields,
New Zealand. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xrx. 865-376, 1900.

McMovrrriz, Jamus. The Geological Features of the Somerset and
Bristol Coalfield, with special reference to the Physical Geology of
the Somerset Basin. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx. 306, 1901.

4.96 REPORT—1901.

Macnatr, Peter. On the Physical Geology and Palxontolo

Giffnock Sandstones, and their Podnik bese the Origin of ate
Rock generally. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1. 199-281, 1900.

—_— The Problem of the Marginal Highlands. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol
Soc.’ x1. 273-274, 1900. .

-—— On the Occurrence of Plutonic Complexes at Tomnadashan, Loch
Tay, and at Cairn Chois, with Notes on the Geological Structure of
the surrounding district. ‘Trans. Perths. Soc. Nat. Sci.’ mr. 48-48
1900. :

Manseu-PLeypDELL, J. C. The Influence of Climatic and Geological
Changes upon the British Flora, with Remarks upon Three New
Dorset Plants—Hrica lusitanica, Spartina townsendi, and Setaria
verticillata. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xxt. 1-17, 1900.

MrtktEesJouN, Jonn. The Klondike Goldfields. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ ©
xix. 352-364, 1900. >

Mipctry, W. W. The Flora of the Carboniferous Rocks. ‘Journal
Manch. Geog. Soe.’ xvi. 202-206, 1901.

Minne, Dr. Jonn. The Geology of Rattray. ‘Trans. Buchan F. C.’
v. 181-186, 1900.

Moors, H. Ceci. Notes on the Geology of the Southern End of the
Malvern Range. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C.’ 1898-99, 63-66, 1900.

Morean, C. Luoyp, and 8. H. Reynoxps. Triassic Deposits at Em-
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Mortimer, J. R. Notes on the History of the Driffield Museum of
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NrewstEaD, Ropert. Human Remains in the Boulder-Clay at Saltney.
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Norman, Commander F. N. The Geology of the Berwickshire Coast-
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Owen, Franz. The Gold Mines of Boulder County, Colorado, U.S.A.
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Parsons, James. Additional Observations on the Rhetic Beds at Red-
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Pau, Joun D. The Soar Valley in Glacial Time. ‘Trans. Leicester
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Picxstone, JoserH. On Mining in South Africa. ‘Trans. Manch,
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Preston, Henry. Lincolnshire Naturalists at Little Bytham. ‘The
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Roaers, A. W., and E. H. L. Scuwarz. The Orange River Ground
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Reaves, T. MELLARD, and Puainie Honnanp. The Phyllades of the
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Srmpson, JAmEs, and Dr. Davin Heppurn. On Mammalian Bones
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Smiru, JoHnN. The Buried, or Drift-filled Channels and Glens: and the
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—— The ‘China-clay’ Mine, and the Water-of-Ayr Hone-stone bed at
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Sorpy, Dr. H. C. On the Structure of the Lower Greensand in the
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Stirrup, Marx. On the Minerals Celestine and Baryto-Celestine.
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Wess, WitrrED Mark. Pleistocene Non-Marine Mollusca from
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Bostock, E. D. Report of the Entomological Section. ‘Trans. N.
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Brapy, Prof. G. 8. On Ilyopsyllus coriaceus and other Crustacea
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Cuark, Percy. A Note on the Gullery in Hamford Waters, Essex,
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Cuarke, W. Kaatn, and THomas H. Netson. The Birds of Yorkshire.
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Coz, W. Opening of the Essex Museum of Natural History by the
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-—— The Essex Museum of Natural History: A Short Statement of the
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kK Kk 2

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Corram, ArtHur. Notes on Lepidoptera observed in Western Hertfordshire
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Craptrur, Artour. A List of the Birds of the Parish of Halifax.
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Crossman, AnAN F. Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during
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CrowrtHer, JonN E. The Freshwater Limpet, Ancylus fluviatilis.
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Cunnincuam, J. Norland Clough: 8, Animal Life: iii. Birds. ‘ Halifax
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Datz, ©. W. On the Collections at Glanvilles Wotton Manor House.
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Dosiz, Dr. HERBERT. On certain Species of Lepidoptera taken at the
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Duruig, Lieut.-Col. W.H. M. A Day with the Terns. ‘Trans. Perths.
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Eape, Sir Peter. My City Garden in a‘City of Gardens.’ ‘Trans.
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Exuis, Dr. J. W. A Contribution towards the Coleopterous Fauna of
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Forrest, H. E. The Bats of North Wales. ‘Trans. Car. and Sev.
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GaBBETT, Dr. H. Dust: its Living and Dead Constituents. ‘South-
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GemmitL, Dr. JAMES F. Some Negative Evidence regarding the
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GrorcE, ©. F. Lincolnshire Water Mites. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’
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Gincurist, Dr. J. D. F. The Genus Paraplysia, with Description of a
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GintANDERS, A. T. Phytopti, or Gall-Mites, and Arboreal Beetles.
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GRAEHAM, OxtEy. Report on the Breeding of the Lesser Terns at the
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Haurrax Screntiric Socrrry. Local Record in Natural History:
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Hawurpay, Epwarp. Wingless Moths. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ v. 37-88,
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Herpmay, Prof. W. A. Objects and Methods of Marine Biology [1893].
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Hewert, Wituram. Yorkshire Lepidoptera in 1900. ‘The Naturalist
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Hickson, Prof. S. J. The Reproduction and Life History of the
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Horxinson, Jonny. Report on the Conference of Delegates to the
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Horsxack, J. T. British Association Meeting at Dover. ‘ Trans. Norf.
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Howe, T. L. Notes on Local Insects. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxxir.
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Howes, Prof. G. B. Presidential Address. ‘ South-Eastern Naturalist,’
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Howss, Ricuarp. Index-Catalogue of the Birds in the Hancock Collec-
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Hurcuinson, T. List of Birds observed at Aylstone Hill, Hereford.
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British Snakes. Do Vipers Swallow their Young? ‘ Trans. Wool-
hope N. F. C.’ 1898-99, 121-128, 1900.

— Additions to List of Herefordshire Lepidoptera since 1892, with
Notes of Capture, by Dr. J. H. Wood. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C.’
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—— Birds of Herefordshire. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C. 1898-99,’
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Kennarp, A. §., and B. B. Woopwarp. Notes on the Mollusca Paludes-
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x1. 288-291, 1901.

Kew, H. Watts. On the Snares or Snap Nets of the American and
European Triangle Spiders. ‘ The Naturalist for 1900,’ 1938-215, 1900.

— On the Slime Threads of Planarian Worms. ‘The Naturalist for
1900,’ 807-317, 1900.

Knicut, Rev. G. A. F. Collecting Trip in S.S. ‘Garland,’ with List of
Mollusca obtained. ‘Communications I. W. Scot. Marine Biol. Assoc.’
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— Notes on the Marine Mollusca of Port Stewart, North Ireland
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Kermope, P. M.C. Bottlenose Whale, Hyperoodon rostratum (Chem-
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Maserietp, J. R. B. Report of the Zoological Section. ‘Trans. N.
Staff. F. C.’ xxxv. 44-51, 1901.

— On the Occurrence of the Petrels (Procellariide) in Staffordshire.
‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxv. 55-58, 1901.

MeRRIFIELD, FrepERIC. On Instincts which in some Insects produce
Results corresponding with those of the Moral Sensein Man. ‘ South-
Eastern Naturalist,’ v. 22-29, 1900.

—— The Colour of Pupe in relation to their Surroundings, ‘ South-
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502 REPORT—1901,

Mevricx, E. Entomological Notes. ‘Rep. Marlb. Coll. N. H, Soe.’
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—— Wiltshire Insects, ‘Rep. Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 49, 75-76,
1901.

Mitus, F. W. Recent Foraminifera of the River Humber. Part I.
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Morrat, C. B. The Habits of the Hairy-Armed Bat, Vesperugo Leisleri,
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The Birds of Ireland, by R. J. Ussher and R. Warren. (Review.)
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Neate, J.J. The Raven at Home and in Captivity. ‘Trans. Cardiff
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Newstay, Dr. M.I. Notes on Polychetes. ‘Communications I. W. Scot.
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Nicuotson, W. A. Sir Thomas Browne as a Naturalist. ‘Trans. Norf.
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Norman, the late Grorce. Sugaring for Noctue. ‘Trans. Hull Sci.
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Orp, GrorGE W. Entomological Reports, 1895-97. ‘Annals Ander-
sonian Nat. Soe.’ m1. 108-113, 1900.

OrniTrHOLOGICcAL Srction, Members of the. The Birds of the Bristol
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Paterson, JoHn. Notes on a Cruise in Clyde Waters in June, 1900.
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ParTrencE, ALEXANDER. The Decapod Crustacea of the Largs Channel.
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Ruff (Machetes pugnax). ‘Irish Naturalist,’ 1x. 187-209, 1900.

Parrerson, A. Natural History Notes from Yarmouth. ‘Trans. Norf.
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——R. Luoyp. Notes on Irish Cetacea. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ rx. 210-
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Pracocx, Max E. Fishes of Bottesford Parish, North Lincolnshire.
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—— Bird Names and Lore, ‘ The Naturalist for 1901,’ 45-48, 1901.

Pruarcey, F. G. On Some Deep-Sea Rhizopods found in the Clyde
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1900.

Percu, T. Notes on the Distribution of Land and Freshwater Mollusca
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Protection of the Lesser Tern at the Spurn. ‘The Naturalist for
1900,’ 821-822, 1900.

Pretty, S. Lister. Some Polyzoa, &c., of the Cumberland Coast.
‘The Naturalist for 1901,’ 13-15, 1901.

PickArD-CAMBRIDGE, F.O. Further Contributions towards the Know-
ledge of the Arachnida of Epping Forest. ‘ Hssex Naturalist,’ x1.
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—— Rey. O. On New and Rare British Spiders. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H.
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Puant, Dr. J. R. Snails and their Shelis. ‘Trans. Eastbourne N. H.
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Procsr, T. W., and D. R. Patterson. Notes on Ornithology. ‘ Trans,
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Ratre, P, G. Bird Life in the Neighbourhood of Douglas [1895].
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RANKIN, JAMES. Preliminary Report on the Tunicata of Millport and
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Ricwarpson, Nezson M. Report on Observations of the First Appear-
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1900.

Rocers, THomas. The Kggs of the Kerry Slug, Geomalacus maculosus,
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Rowtey, F. R. Address (A Plea for the Study of Pond Life), ‘Trans.
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Russety, C. W. List of the Coleoptera occurring around Hull. ‘Trans.

Hull Sci. F. N. C.’ 1. 129-134, 1900.

Scuarrr, Dr. R. F. The Irish Species of Land Planarians. ‘ Irish
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Sxuater, Rev.H.H. The Birds of Northamptonshire and Neighbourhood ;
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Smart, James. Annual Address. [Ornithological Notes.] ‘ History
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Situ, JoHN, JoHn Paterson, and HueH Boyp Wart. The Natural
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1900.

SmirH, Miss THeoporaA. A Pond. ‘Halifax Naturalist,’ v. 53-55,
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—— Norland Clough: 3, Animal Life: i. General Entomology.
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SouTHWELL, THomas. Some Additions to the Norwich Castle Museum in
1899. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ viz. 45-48, 1900.

— Wild-Fowl Driving in the Sixteenth Century. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw.
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Street, Ricnarp. The Law of Imitation in Ethics, Religion, and Poli-
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Note upon Habit and Instinct in relation to Imitation. ‘ Proe.
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STEPHENSON, THomas. Natural History Notes irom Whitby, February
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Storr, Joun. Birds of Hollingworth Lake. ‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci.
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Stoyen, AuBprey C. A Curious Instance of the Labour-saving Instinct
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Stuart, Dr. Cuartes. Notes from Garden and Field. ‘ History
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Swainson, E. A. Ornithology. Notes from Breconshire. ‘Trans.
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Tompson, Rey. W. E. Bird Notes. ‘Trans. Car. and Sev. Vall. F, C.’
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THORNLEY, Rev. AnFRED. Some Constituents of the Insect Fauna of
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504 REPORT—1901.

THORNLEY, Rey. Aurrep, and W. E. Ryzes. Nottinghamshire Coleo-
ptera: I. Geodephaga. ‘The Naturalist for 1901,’ 115-124, 1901.
TristRAM, Rev. Canon. Address to the Members of the Tyneside
Naturalists’ Field Club, May 26, 1897. ‘Trans. Northumb. N. H.

Soe.’ x1. 411-426, 1900.

Tuck, W.H. Aculeate Hymenoptera at Tostock, near Bury St. Edmunds.
‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir. 13-14, 1900.

Warxen, James J. A List of the Coleoptera of the Rochester District
(concluded). ‘ Rochester Naturalist,’ 11. 689-646, 1900.

Warren, Ropert. A Visit to Lough Erne in Search of the Sandwich
Tern. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ rx. 220-2238, 1900.

Waterwortnu, H. The Rook. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ v. 88-86, 1900.

—— The Mole. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ v. 74-77, 1900.

Wart, Huau Boyp. <A Census of Glasgow Rookeries [1900]. ‘Trans.
Glasgow N. H. Soe.’ v1. 21-24, 1901.

Wetcu, R. (Belfast N. F. C.). Abnormalities in the Shell of Helix
nemoralis. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ 1x. 1638-167, 1900.

Waytn, WiturAm. Bird Life on the Sidlaws. ‘ Trans. Perth. Soc. Nat.
Sei.’ m1. 55-59, 1900. ’

Wiaa, T. J. Notes on the Herring Fishery of 1899. ‘Trans. Norf.
Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir. 49-538, 1900.

Winaate, Rev. W. J. Collecting Diptera: A Few Useful Dodges. ‘The
Naturalist for 1900,’ 162-164, 1900.

Woop, G. W. The Hydroid Zoophytes of the Isle of Man, with a Notice
of Species not hitherto reported from the District [1892]. ‘ Yn Lioar
Manninagh,’ 1. 12-21, 1901.

Wooprorpg, F. C. Noctua castanea and its Varieties, with Special
Reference to a Peculiar North Staffordshire Form. ‘Trans. N. Staff.
F. C.’ xxxv. 64-67, 1901.

WoopruFFE-Pracock, Rey. E. A. Naturalists at Lincoln. ‘The
Naturalist for 1900,’ 247-252, 1900.

—— The Beck: A Study. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 257-269, 1900.

-— Lincolnshire Naturalists at Linwood Warren. ‘ The Naturalist for
1900,’ 278-276, 1900.

Workman, THomas. Incentives to the Study of Natural History.
(Presidential Address.) ‘ Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc.’ 1899-1900,
18-25, 1900.

Wricut, J. C. Nature in Wordsworth and Tennyson. ‘Trans. Hast-
bourne N, H. Soe.’ m1. 280-231, 1901.

Section H.—GEOGRAPHY.

ArnsworTH, JoHNn. A Description of the Uteamba Province, East
Africa Protectorate, and its Progress under British Administration.
‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soe.’ xvi. 178-196, 1901.

Avery, JoHN. Christopher Saxton, Draughtsman of the oldest known
Map of Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x1. 240-242, 1901.

Banks, Sir Josepu, with Notes by S.G. Percrvan. The Portion re-
lating to Dorset of a Journal of an Excursion to Eastbury and
Bristol, &c., in May and June, 1767. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. Soe.’
xxi. 148-149, 1900.

Bowes, Ald. Isaac. Barrage of the Nile, ‘Journal Manch, Geog. Soe,’
xy. 193-200, 1900.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 505

Burr, Maucorm. Montenegro. ‘Trans. Leicester Lit. Phil. Soc.’ v.
449-458, 1900.

Cuapwick, H. M. Some Phases of Life in Argentina. ‘Trans, Roch-
dale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ vi. 1-23, 1900.

Contr, W. Further Additions to Epping Forest. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’
x1. 268-270, 1901.

Cowan, Epwarp W. Across the Lapland Alps. ‘Journal Manch. Geog.
Soe.’ xvi. 106-114, 1900.

Deasy, Capt. H. H. P. The Roof of the World: Journeys in Central
Asia. ‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soe.’ xvi. 197-201, 1901.

Finucane, Moraan I. The Islands and People of Fiji. ‘Trans. Liver-
pool Geog. Soe.’ 1x. 53-71, 1901.

Garin, Rev. Freperic. Some Remarks upon the Crisis in China.
‘ Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xvi. 207-211, 1901.

GuEAVE, J.J. The Yorkshire Dales, Wharfedale (Rievaulx Abbey) and
Ryedale. ‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xvi. 244-257, 1901.

Hopkinson, JoHn. Report on the Conference of Delegates to the British
Association at Dover in 1899. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ x. lvii.-lx.
1901.

Hoyuer, F. Impressions of a Voyage to China and Japan. ‘Journal
Manch. Geog. Soe.’ xvr. 212-217, 1901.

JoNES, JosePH. A Thousand Miles up the Amazon. ‘ Journal Manch.
Geog. Soc.’ xv. 185-192, 1900.

Ka@rtuitz, Dr. Reainatp. <A Journey through Somali Land and
Southern Abyssinia to the Berta or Shangalla Country and the Blue
Nile, and through the Soudan to Egypt. ‘Journal Manch. Geog.
Soc.’ xvi. 1-80, 1900; also ‘Journal Tyneside Geog. Soe.’ rv. 823—
848, 1901.

Mackay, W. A Glimpse of the East. ‘ Rochester Naturalist,’ 11. 17-23,
1901.

Manninc, Percy. Notes on the Place-names and Field-names of the
Parish of Watford, Herts. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ x. 198-212,
1900.

Marxkuam, Sir Crements R. The Antarctic Expedition. ‘Trans.
Liverpool Geog. Soe.’ 1x. 22-42, 1901.

Mavor, Samurn. A Pilgrimage to Solovetsk. ‘Proc. Glasgow Phil.
Soc.’ xxx. 67-106, 1900.

Metxor, E. W. The Harz Mountains, with Brunswick and Hildersheim.
‘ Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xvi. 69-105, 1900.

MircHett, Ropert A. Personal Impressions of the Transvaal, Natal,
and Cape Colony. ‘ Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc.’ 1899-1900, 27-83,
1900.

Nevins, Dr. J. Brrxpecx. The Voyages of the Early Celts to and from
the British Isles. ‘Trans. Liverpool Geog. Soe.’ 1x. 71-122, 1901.
Newsy, Jonn R. Iceland and the Icelanders. ‘Journal Manch. Geog,

Soc.’ xv1. 115-148, 1900; 149-177, 229-243, 1901.

Petuam, Rev. A. Tuurspy. A Tour in Iceland. ‘Trans. Car. and
Sev. Vall. F. CG.’ 11. 217-219, 1901.

Peters, Dr. Cart. Macombe’s Country (South of the Zambesi), its
Ancient Goldfields and Industrial Resources. ‘ Journal Manch. Geog.
Soe.’ xvi. 48-56, 1900.

SowrrButTts, E. The Carlisle Institute at Meltham, ‘Journal Manch,
Geog. Soe.’ xv, 205-211, 1900,

506 REPORT—1901.

Unswortu, Mrs. A Lady’s Impressions of Hong Kong, ‘Journal
Manch. Geog. Soe.’ xvi. 218-224, 1901.

Weis, 5. Hungary and the Carpathians. ‘Journal Manch. Geog.
Soe.’ xv, 201-204, 1900

Wixinson, F', J. On the Means of Popularising Geography as a Study.
‘Trans. Liverpool Geog. Soc.’ 1x. 42-52, 1901.

Woopwarp, Prof. W. H. Report on the Geographical Prize Competition.
(Examination Papers.) ‘Report Liverpool Geog. Soc.’ rx. 8-11,
1901,

Section F.—Economic ScIENCE AND STATISTICS.

CHapmMAn, S. J. An Historical Sketch of Masters’ Associations in the
Cotton Industry. ‘Trans. Manch. Stat. Soc.’ 1900-1901, 67-84,
1901,

Cooxn-Taytor, R. WHareny. History and Philosophy of the Factory
System. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx1. 107-125, 1900.

Dawson, CHARLES. The New Local Bodies and the New Department of
Agriculture and Technical Education, and the Development of the
Resources of Ireland. ‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x. 567-579,
1900.

FiLetcHer, A. Wooproore. Municipal Trading. ‘Trans. Manch. Stat.
Soe.’ 1900-1901, 107-141, 1901.

Fux, Prof. A. W. Some Thoughts on Industrial Combinations. ‘ Trans.
Manch. Stat. Soc.’ 1900-1901, 18-84, 1900.

Hewtm, Enisan. The Middleman in Commerce. ‘Trans. Manch. Stat.
Soc.’ 1900-1901, 55-61, 1901.

Hoare, Rey. E. N. Some Conditions of Progress. ‘Proc. Liverpool
Phil. Soe.’ nrv. 1-20, 1900.

Meacnam, F. G. (S. Staff. Inst. Min. Eng.) Presidential Address
[Coal and Iron Trades]. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx. 84-88, 1900.

Mertens, F. The Growth of Foreign Competition. ‘Trans. Manch.
Stat. Soe.’ 1900-1901, 107-141, 1901.

Nerup, Epwarp. The Habitual Inebriates Act, 1898. ‘Trans. Manch.
Stat. Soc.’ 1900-1901, 85-54, 1900.

Nevins, J. Ernest. On Indian Famines. ‘Proc. Liverpool Lit. Phil.
Soe.’ try. 145-159, 1900.

OxtpHAm, C. H. Economic Development in Ireland. ‘Journal Stat. Soe.
Treland,’ x. 548-567, 1900.

Rocue, Antony. The Sanitary Condition of our National Schools.
‘ Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x. 589-547, 1900.

RussELtL, GEorcE W. The Application of Co-operation in the Con-
gested Districts. ‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x. 517-527, 1900.
Samugets, ArrHuR W.. Private Bill Procedure: The Scotch Act of 1899.

‘ Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x. 509-517, 1900.

Smart, Prof. Wm. The Theory of Taxation. ‘Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soe.’
xxx1. 16-87, 1900.

Steet, Ricnarp. The Basis of Economics. ‘ Proc. Liverpoo) Lit. Phil.
Soc.’ trv. 25-51, 1900.

Synnort, N. J. The Revaluation of Ireland. ‘Journal Stat, Soe,
Treland,’ x. 528-589, 1900,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 507

Section G.—ENGINEERING,

Aspinatu, THomas. On the Accumulation of Solid Matters in Steam
Boilers, and how to minimise the troubles caused thereby. ‘Trans.
Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xxvir. 106-115, 1901.

Arxinson, W. N. (N. Staff. Inst. Eng.). (Presidential Address.) [The
Coal Question, &c.] ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx. 100-111, 1900.
Bapcer, F. E. G. Railway Construction and Maintenance [1900].

‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soe,’ xx1. 120-182, 1900.

Bain, H. Foster. An American Longwall Mining Machine. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min, Eng.’ xrx. 144-150, 1900.

BAINBRIDGE, Emerson. An Electric Pump for Underground Use.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ x1x. 346-350, 1900.

Brown, Davip. Defects in Iron Castings [1900]. ‘Trans. Liverpool
E. Soe.’ xx1. 61-73, 1901.

Burns, Danret (Mining Inst. Scot.). Weight of Winding Drums for
Deep Shafts. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx. 49-54, 1900.

Cavett, H. M. (Mining Inst. Scot.). An Indian Colliery and its Miners.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ x1x. 60-68, 1900.

Cottier, H. M. H. On the Supply of Water from the River Thames to
the Regent’s Canal by Pumps and Pipe Lines [1900]. ‘ Trans. Liver-
pool K. Soe.’ xxr. 78-84, 1901.

Conus, W. H. On the Equipment of Electric Tram Cars [1900]. ‘Trans.
Liverpool E. Soe.’ xxi. 140-144, 1901.

CornisH, Epwin Surron. Practical Notes on Sounding in Bays and
Estuaries [1900]. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xx. 50-57, 1901.

Davey, Henry. Compound Cornish Pumping-engines. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xtx. 153-159, 1900.

Davis, Henry (Chesterf. Mid. Count. Inst.). Coal-cutting Machinery.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ x1x. 5-7, 1900.

Dzaxin, G. Wenspy. Sea and River Walls [1900]. ‘Trans. Liverpool
EK. Soe.’ xx1. 154-162, 1901.

Dixon, James S. (Mining Inst. Scot.). (Presidential Address.) [Past
Work of the Institute.| ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxi. 48-52, 1901.

Evuison, Cuarnes Cnerwynp (Midland Inst. Hng.). The Simon-
Carves Bye-product Plant at Monckton Main Colliery. ‘ Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xxt. 79-97, 1901.

Farmer, Grorce (Midland Inst. Eng.). Mining Accidents and their
Prevention. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ x1x. 72-79, 1900.

FENNELL, C. W., and J. A. Bean. The Underground Waters of North-
West Yorkshire: Part I., The Sources of the Aire. Engineering
Report. ‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ xrv. 11-18, 1900.

FitzGerap, Prof. Maurtce F. Some of the Work done by Committees
of the British Association. ‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc. 1899-
1900,’ 51-64, 1900.

Foster, Dr. C. Le Neve (N. Eng. Inst.). Methods of Preventing Fall
of Roof adopted at the Courriéres Collieries. ‘Trans. Inst. Min, Eng.’
xx. 164-167, 1900.

GmRRARD, Jonn (Midland Inst. Eng.). (Presidential Address.) [Acci-
dents in Mines. Output of Coal.} ‘Trans. Inst, Min. Eng.’ xx. 123-
144, 1900.

Goopmay, Prof. Joun (Midland Inst. Eng.). Economy in Steam-Engine
Practice, ‘Trans, Inst, Min, Eng.’ xvi, 470-477, 1900,

508 REPORT—1901.

GoouDEN, W. T. (N. Eng. Inst.). The Type-Printing Telegraph. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx1. 85-41, 1901.

GrecoryY, JoHN, and Joun T. Stosss (N. Staff. Inst. Eng.). Notes on
the Keepe System of Winding. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 450-
457, 1900.

Hapersuon, M. H. (Midland Inst. Eng.). A Joint Colliery Rescue
Station. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx1. 100-110, 1901.

Haun, Henry. Developments in Coal-Mining: Electricity as a Motive
Power. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxv. 99-101, 1901.

Hassaun, JosepH. Mining in the Southern Klerksdorp Goldfields,
Western Transvaal. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ x1x. 877-395, 1900.
Harpig, W. D. L. (Mining Inst. Scot.). Endless Rope Haulage at Leth-

bridge Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 335-339, 1900.

Hepprtewnite, W. Huron (Chesterf. Mid. Count. Inst.). The Hepple-
white Tapered Pit Props and Bars. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xrx. 8-
15, 1900.

Houtmes, A. BromnEy Inaugural Address [1899]. Applications of
Electricity. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xx1. 1-18, 1901.

Hosxoup, H. D. Notes upon Ancient and Modern Surveying, and Sur-
veying Instruments, Books, Tables, &c. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xix. 171-240, 1900.

—— (N. Eng. Inst.). Remarks upon Prof. H. Stroud’s Paper on ‘ Mag-
netic Declination and its Variations.’ ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxt.
18-20, 1901.

Humpnuris, H. (N. Eng. Inst.). A Rock-Drill for Saving Slate Rock.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx. 188, 1900.

Jounston, ArTHUR C. (Midland Inst. Eng.). Dock Equipment for the
Rapid Handling of Coal and Ore on the Great American Lakes.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xrx. 82-105, 1900.

KEEN, James (Midland Inst. Eng.). Description of the Sinking of Two
Shafts through heavily watered Strata at Maypole Colliery, Abram,
near Wigan. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xrx. 462-475, 1900.

Larsen, Axeu. Liquid Air and its Use as an Explosive. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xrx. 164-170, 1900.

Leg, J. F. (Chesterf. Mid. Count. Inst.). Underground Haulage at
Glapwell Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xrx. 110-118, 1900.
McLaren, B. (Chesterf. Mid. Count. Inst.). Preventible Colliery

Fatalities. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xrx. 21-40, 1900.

Martin, Ropert (Mining Inst. Scot.). An Ordinary Miner’s Boring
Machine adapted for Boring against Wastes. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xrx. 69-70, 1900.

MeracueEM, Frep G. (S. Staff. Inst. Eng.). The Hamstead Colliery Fire.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvur. 486-488, 1900.

Presidential Address. [Coal Trade.] ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx.
84-88, 1900.

Minter, THomas L. Electrical Distribution in Cities [1900]. ‘Trans.

Liverpool E. Soe.’ xx1. 89-113, 1901.

Moors, H. Crecrz. The Birmingham Water Supply from the Elan
Valley in Wales. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C. 1898-99,’ 150-157, 1900.

MuskeER, ArtHuR. Heavy Motor Waggons for Liverpool Traffic [1899].
‘ Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xx1. 84-44, 1901.

Oswa bp, R. (N. Staff. Inst. Eng.). New Ventilating Fan, ‘Trans. Inst
Min, Eng.’ xviii. 458, 1900, ,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 509

Parrerson, J. G. (S. Staff. Inst. Eng.). The Howat Safety Lamp.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xrx. 42-46, 1900.

Peake, H.C. Presidential Address. (Coal Supply, &c.) ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xrx. 120-138, 1900.

Pratt, 8.8. Tramway Traction. ‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ v1.
24-30, 1900.

Rasmussen, T. (N. Eng. Inst.). Shothole Recesser. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.

_ Eng.’ xx. 186-187, 1900.

Reumavx, E. (N. Eng. Inst.). The Employment of Iron Bars at the
No. 6 Pit, Lens Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx. 206-208,
1900.

Ripper, W. (Midland Inst. Eng.), A Power Indicator for Steam-Engines.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvii. 402-408, 1900.

Ross, Hucu (N. Eng. Inst.). A Method of Boring Deposits out of
Rising-main Pipes in Shafts. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx. 218-221,
1901.

Smupson, Tuomas V. (N. Eng. Inst.). Safety-lamp Cabin at Heworth
Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx. 17-19, 1900.

Smita, Witu1am (Mining Inst. Scot.). Hauling and Pumping Under-
ground by an Oil-Engine. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvirr. 396-400,
1900.

Stones, G. B. (Midland Inst. Eng.). Hydraulic Cage-loading and Un-
loading Apparatus at Cadeby Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xvi. 478-481, 1900.

Surcuirre, Ricard. On a New Method of Sinking Pits by Machinery.
‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxv1. 502-517, 1900.

Tarriey, Wir (N. Eng. Inst.). Sinking through Swamp, Clay, and
Sand. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxr. 11-17, 1901.

Taytor, A. Lester. Fire Risks of Electrical Installations [1899].
‘Trans. Liverpool H. Soc.’ xx1. 21-28, 1901.

THomson, ArtHuUR T. (Midland Inst. Eng.). Underground Electric
Haulage at Manvers Main OCollieries. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xx. 29-38, 1900.

— Gitpert. Sanitation by Compulsion. ‘Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’
xxx1. 1-15, 1900.

THornton, Norman M. (N. Eng. Inst.). Longwall Methods in the
Eastwood District, Nottinghamshire. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xix. 125-129, 1900.

Turner, Percy (N. Staff. Inst. Eng.). Coal Mining at Depths exceeding
8,000 feet. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxz. 61-72, 1901.

Wasuineton, W. (Mid. Inst. Eng.). Notes on Sinking to the Parkgate
Seam at Mitchell Main Colliery. ‘Trang. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx.
146-149, 1900.

Wricut, J.C. Ventilation: Dust arid Fresh Air. ‘Trans. Eastbourne
N. H. Soe.’ 111. 258-257, 1901.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
Auten, Rev. F. A. Polynesian Antiquities. ‘Trans. Car. & Sev. Vall.
F.C.’ m1. 246-247, 1901.
Barker, Rev. JosprH. The Wergin Stone and Hoar Stones [near
Hereford]. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C.’ 1898-99, 142-145, 1900.

510 REPORT—1901.

Barnes, Rev. W. Miues. Poxwell Circle. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F.C.’
xxi. 150-157, 1900.

BuapEN, W. Wexts. Notes on the Folklore of North Staffordshire,
chiefly collected at Stone. ‘Trans. N. \ iaff. F.C.’ xxxv. 183-185, 1901.

Bovuuesr, Prof. G. 8. Man’s First Contact with Nature. ‘ Report
Brighton N. H. Phil. Soc. 1899-1900,’ 6—10,1900.

Brappory, Dr. J. Rhullick y Keeil Khallane, Lonan {1894]. ‘Yn Lioar
Manninagh,’ 11. 115-116, 1901.

Bripemay, Rev. A. A. The Place-name ‘ Lezayre’ [1893]. ‘Yn Lioar
Manninagh,’ 11. 92-98, 1901.

Cave, E. LasHrorp. The Burning of the Bush. ‘Trans. Woolhope
N. F. C. 1898-99,’ 5-8, 1900.

OCrevuin, Miss A. M. Curious Discovery in Kirk Michael: Horse and
Human Remains, with Hatchet, Powder-flask, &e. ‘Yn Lioar
Manninagh,’ 11. 121, 1901.

— Some Antiquarian Notes in the Parish of Kirk Michael. ‘Yn
Lioar Manninagh,’ 11. 122-126, 1901.

— Report of Anthropological Section (Folklore) [1893]. ‘Yn Lioar
Manninagh,’ 11. 68, 1901.

—— Report of the Folklore and Place-name Section [1894]. ‘Yn
Lioar Manninagh,”’ 11. 194-197, 1901.

—— On Some Things Manx, now Obsolete [1895]. ‘Yn Lioar
Manninagh,’ 11. 265-270, 1901.

Cunninaton, EK. Dungeon or Dunset Camp. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F.C.’
xx1. 203-204, 1900.

Date, C. W. Round Chimneys. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F.C.’ xx1.
218-224, 1900.

Freer, Rey. 8. C. The Stone Age on the Pacific Coast of America

Trans. Car. & Sey. Vall. F. C.’ 11. 219-220, 1901.

Gray, Joun. The Origin of the Picts and Scots (Presidential Address).
‘Trans. Buchan F. C.’ y. 168-178, 1900.

Hopxinson, JOHN. Report on the Conference of Delegates to the British
Association at Bristol in 1898. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ xxx1v.—
XxxVi. 1901.

Humerrys, W. J. Lammas Lands near Hereford. ‘Trans. Woolhope
N. F. C. 1898-99,’ 165-177, 1900.

Krenuy, Henry. Ballaqueeny Cronk, the Clagh-ard or Crosh Balla-
queeny, and Cronk How Mooar [1892]. ‘Yn Lioar Manninagh,’
mm. 47-51, 1901.

Krrmopz, P.M. C. The ‘Meayll (Mule) Circle,’ near Port Erin [1894].
‘Yn Lioar Manninagh,’ 1. 117-120, 1901.

—— Provisional List of the Antiquities of Michael, not including the
Crosses [1894]. ‘Yn Lioar Manninagh,’ 1. 127-128, 1901.

—— Report of the Archeological Section. ‘Yn Lioar Manninagh,’
1. 149-152, 1901.

—— List of Manx Antiquities [1894]. ‘Yn Lioar Manninagh,’ 11. 153-
198, 1901.

McMourrriz, J. Notes on Romano-British Remains found at Kil-
mersdon Lane Quarry, Radstock. ‘Proc. Bath N. H. A. F. C.’ 1x,
201-207, 1900.

Marcy, Dr. H. Contry. On some Roman Pavements and some Intrecci
of this Country, chiefly with respect to their meaning. ‘Proc. Dorset
N. H. A. F. OC,’ xx1, 162-187, 1900,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 51

Marcu, Dr. H. Cottey. Preston Roman Pavement. ‘Proc. Dorset N.
H. A. F. C.’ xx1. 205-209, 1900.

—— A Visit to Pembrokeshire, and some Implements of Igneous Stone
found there. ‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc. v1. 88-98,’ 1900.

Meyrick, E. Anthropometrical Report. ‘ Rep. Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soe.’
No. 49, 105-130, 1901.

MiuxieaNn, 8. F. Ireland and the Scottish Isles, Ancient Connexions
and Intercourse. ‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc. 1899-1900,’ 34—40,
1900.

Moors, A. W. The Early Land System of the Isle of Man [1892].
‘Yn Lioar Manninagh,’ 11. 40-44, 1901.

Mortimer, J. R. Notes on the History of the Driffield Museum of
Antiquities and Geological Specimens. ‘Trans. Hull Sci. F. N. C.’
1. 185-141, 1900.

Movutz, H. J. Notes on Bronze. [Dorset-found Celtic and Roman
Bronze Objects.] ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xxi. 40-104, 1900.

-—— Chalbury Rings and Rimbury. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xxi.
188-192, 1900.

Piper, the late Gzoraz H. The Camp and Ancient British Town on
the Midsummer and Holly-Bush Hills of the Malvern Range.
‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C.’ 69-71, 1900.

Pratt, 8.8. Stone Axe Hammer, found at Low House Farm, near
Milnrow. ‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ vr. 95-97, 1900.

Pops, ALFRED. An Ancient British Trackway. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A.
F, C.’ xxr. 105-110, 1900.

Quine, Rey. Jonny. The Douglas Treasure Trove [1894]. ‘Yn Lioar
Manninagh,’ 11. 242-245, 1901.

Reaver, F. W. Notes on a West African ‘ Strike-a-Light.’ ‘ Essex
Naturalist,’ x1. 218-222, 1901.

—— A Handbook to the Collection of Prehistoric Objects in the Essex
Museum of Natural History. ‘Handbooks to Essex Field Club
Museums,’ No. 5, 32 pp. 1900.

Rortz, Dr. On Some Scots Words, Proverbs, and Beliefs bearing on
Diseased Conditions. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soe.’ xxx1. 88-45, 1900.

Rory, H. Line. Notes from Banktield Museum [Halifax]. I.—The
Fijian Collection. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ v. 87-99, 1900; v. 109-114,
1901; vi. 9-16, 1901. II—The Burmese Collection. ‘ Halifax
Naturalist,’ vr. 17-21, 1901.

SHEPPARD, THomaAs. Prehistoric Man in Holderness. ‘ Trans. Hull Sci.
F. N. C.’ 1. 71-89, 1900.

Local Archeological Notes. ‘Trans. Hull Sci. F. N.C.’ 1. 120-126,
1900.

SPENCE, the late J. Folklore Days and Seasons. Part III. ‘Trans.
Buchan F’. C.’ v. 215-234, 1900.

pyres, W.H. Querns. ‘ Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ vi. 81-384,

900.
ribet Hill Barrow. ‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ vi. 56-638,
0.

Watkey, R. H. The Survival of Paleolithic Man, ‘Yn Lioar Man-

ninagh,’ 11. 94-100, 1901.

512 REPORT—1901.

Section I.—PHYsIoLoGy.

Asuworrn, J. R. The Temperature of the Blood in Relation to the
Seasons. ‘ Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ v1. 78-82, 1900.

Moors, Dr. Jonny Murray. The Sub-conscious Mind: its Normal and
Supra-Normal Powers. ‘ Proc. Liverpool Lit. Phil. Soc.’ niv. 127—
148, 1900.

Sotomon, F. O. The Feeding of Horses, with special reference to
Colliery Studs. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xrx. 279-292, 1900.

Sree, RicHarp. Note upon the Law of Imitation in Psychology.
‘Proc. Liverpool Lit. Phil. Soc.’ trv. 51-59, 1900.

Sykes, Marx L. Smallpox, Vaccination, and the Glycerination of
Vaccine Lymph. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc. 1900,’ 46-58, 1901.

Section K.—Bovany.

Aupury, J. A. Report of the Botanical Section. ‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’
xxxv. 68-72, 1901.

Bouncer, Prof. G. 8. History of Essex Botany: Part I. (continued).
‘ Hssex Naturalist,’ x1. 229-236, 1901.

Boyp, Jonun. The Injurious Effect of Smoke on Trees. ‘ Annals Ander-
sonian Nat. Soc.’ 11. 81-88, 1900.

CARADOC AND SEVERN VALLEY Fir~tp Cxuus. Botanical Notes, 1900.
‘Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 10, 5-16 [1901].

Coates, Henry. The Woodlands of Perthshire. (Annual Address.)
‘Proc. Perths. Soc. Nat. Sci.’ 111., lvii—lxiv. 1900.

Cote, W. Destruction of John Ray’s House. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x1.
831-333, 1901.

‘CROSSLAND, CHARLES. Norland Clough: 4. its Fungi. ‘ Halifax
Naturalist,’ v. 102-107, 1900.

Fungus Foray at Mulgrave Woods, Whitby. ‘The Naturalist for
1900,’ 887-346, 1900.

Crump, W. B. The Flora of the Parish of Halifax. ‘ Halifax
Naturalist,’ v., vi. App. ix.—xlviii. 1900, 1901.

Cummines, Miss, Miss Payxz, and Miss A. Payne. List of Plants found
erowing within a two-mile radius of Chester, and which are not
included in the late Mr. E. J. Baillie’s City Flora, 1875-77. ‘Proc.
Chester Soc. Nat. Sci. 1899-1900,’ 81-84, 1900.

Davies, J. H. Some Mosses from North-East Ireland. ‘Irish
Naturalist,’ 1x. 171-176, 1900.

Frienp, Rev. Hinpreric. Flora of Worksop District. ‘The Naturalist
for 1900,’ 8353-354, 1900.

Hauirax Screntiric Society. Local Records in Natural History:
Botany. ‘Halifax Naturalist,’ v. 117-120, 1901.

Hamiutton, W. P. The Crocus and Morphology of the Corm. ‘ Trans.
Car. and Sey. Vall. F. C.’ 11. 256-260, 1901.

HenpERSON, Ropert. ‘Tipulide in Inverness-shire. ‘Annals Ander-
sonian Nat. Soe.’ 1. 114-116, 1900.

Hopxirk, CHarues P. Tortula cernua: A Moss new to the British
Flora. ‘The Naturalist for 1901,’ 1-8, 1901.

Hopeson, Witu1aM. Botanical Notes from Cumberland for the year
1900. ‘The Naturalist for 1901,’ 77-79, 1901.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 513

Hutcuinson, R. R. Mycetozoa. ‘Trans. Eastbourne N. H. Soe.’ m1.
232-235, 1901.

lrritability in Plants. ‘Trans. Eastbourne N. H. Soc.’ mr. 259-264,
1901.

IncHam, WiuuiAm. Additions to Moss-Flora of Yorkshire. ‘ The
Naturalist for 1900,’ 271-272, 1900.

— Moss-Flora of Arkengarthdale. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 289-
291, 1900.

— Sphagna of Yorkshire and Durham. ‘The Naturalist for 1901,’
145-148, 1901.

Jackson, A. B. Notes on the Botany of the Beaumont-Leys Sewage
Farm. ‘Trans. Leicester Lit. Phil. Soc.’ v. 495-502, 1900.

JoHNSTONE, R. B. Clydesdale Fungi. ‘Annals Andersonian Nat. Soc.’
11. 73-80, 1900.

Keraan, Dr. P.Q. The Wild Cherry (Prunus aviwm). ‘The Naturalist
for 1900,’ 217-221, 1900.

— The Chemistry of some Lakeland Shrubs and Bushes. ‘The
Naturalist for 1900,’ 293-298, 1900.

— The Facies of our Forest Flora. ‘The Naturalist for 1901,’ 69-73,
1901.

Kermope, Rey. 8. A. P. Report of the Botanical Section [1894]. ‘ Yn
Lioar Manninagh,’ 11. 201—202, 1901.

— The Flora of the Isle of Man, 1900. ‘Yn Lioar Manninagh,’ 1.
273-291, 1901.

Kipston, Rosperr. Carboniferous Lycopods and Sphenophylls [1899).
‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soe.’ vr. 25-140, 1901.

Lees, F. Arnonp. In Defence of James Bolton, the Fungologist.
‘The Naturalist for 1890,’ 225-226, 1900.

—— The Volteface of Flora [Changes in the Halifax Flora]: a Rejoin-
der. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 229-236, 1900.

—— §pring’s Pageant in Westmorland and Lancashire. ‘ The Naturalist
for 1900,’ 277-284, 1900.

Ley, Rey. Aucustin. Two New Hieracium Forms. ‘Trans. Woolhope
N. F. C. 1858-99,’ App. 2 pp., 1900.

— Some Welsh Hawkweeds. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F.C. 1898-99,’
App. 4 pp., 1900.

MarsHaLu, J. J. Additions to the East Riding Moss Flora, 1899.
‘Trans. Hull Sci. F. N. C.’ 1. 90, 1900.

— Report of the Yorkshire Bryological Committee for 1899. ‘The
Naturalist for 1900,’ 287-239, 1900.

Yorkshire Bryological Cummittee: Report for 1900. ‘The Natu-
ralist for 1901,’ 65-67, 1901.

MasskExE, GroraE. Mycological Research in the United States. ‘The
Naturalist for 1900,’ 346-350, 1900.

— Epping Forest Fungi: Report on the Species observed at the
Fungus Foray on October 6, 1900, including two new to Britain.
‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x1. 313-815, 1901.

Menvitn, James Cosmo. Addenda to Miss Stow’s Catalogue of the
Flowering Plants of Woodhall Spa. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 323—
324, 1900.

Mitts, Dr. Epmunp J., Jonn Imrie, and ARCHIBALD Gray. On the
Relation of the Ash to the Height of Plants. ‘Proc. Glasgow Phil.
Soc.’ xxxr. 129-138, 1900.

1901. LL

514 REPORT—1901.

Moss, C. E. Norland Clough: 2. Plant Life. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ v.
41-45, 1900.

— Changes in the Halifax Flora during the last Century anda
quarter. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 165- 172, 1900; ‘ The Naturalist
for 1901,’ 99-107, 1901.

Norman, Commander. The Functions of the Climbing Roots of Ivy.
‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xvi. 140-142, 1900.

——G. Additions to Mr. Broome’ s List of Fungi of the Bath District.
‘Proc. Bath N. H. A. F. C.’ rx. 208-218, 1900.

Nowers, Jonn EK. List of Mosses found in Staffordshire. ‘Trans.
N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxv. 76-100, 1901.

Parsons, Dr. H. Franxury. The Commons near Croydon, and their
Flora [1899]. ‘ Trans. Croydon M. N. H. C.’ rv. 1-7, 1900.

Pavuuson, Ropert. An Inquiry into the Causes of the Death of Birch
Trees in Epping Forest and Elsewhere. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x1. 273-
284, 1901.

Perry, 8. Lister. The Constituents of the North Lancashire Flora,
1597(?) 1894. (Nineteenth Paper.) ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 38383—
335, 1900. .

Puitie, R. H.. Deformed Diatoms in the Subway near the St. Andrew’s
Dock, Hull. ‘Trans. Hull Sci. F. N. C.’ 1. 118-119, 1900.

PickarD, JosePH F. Some Rarer Plants of Bowland. ‘The Naturalist
for 1901,’ 37-41, 1901.

Powe tu, J. T. Two more Epping Forest Rubi. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x1.
267, 1901.

Prazcer, R. Lu. (Dublin N. F. C.). Botanical Exploration in 1899.

’ ‘Trish Naturalist,’ rx. 185-189, 1900.

— Round Lough Conn. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ 1x. 224-229, 1900.

-—— Notes on the Limerick Flora. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ rx. 260-265, 1900.

Rosertson, Mrs. Pheosaccion Collinsii (Farlow). ‘ Communications
I. W. Scot. Marine Biol. Assoc.’ 1. 28-24, 1900.

Rosrnson, J. F. East Riding Botanical Notes, 1900. ‘Trans. Hull Sci.
F, N. C.’ 1. 117, 1900.

Ross, ALEXANDER. Records of Excursions in Stirlingshire. ‘ Annals
Andersonian Nat. Soe.’ 11. 117-134, 1900.

SAUNDERS, JAMES. The Habitats of the Mycetozoa. ‘Trans. Herts

N. H. Soe.’ x. 169-172, 1900.

Scorr-Exuiot, G. F. The Formation of New Land by Various Plants.
‘ Annals Andersonian Nat. Soe.’ 1. 67-72, 1900.

Suit, Ropert. Plant Associations of the Tay Basin. ‘ Trans. Perths.
Soc. Nat. Sci.’ 111. 69-87, 1900.

SouTHWELL, THomas. On the Raising of Lycopodium from Spores first
by a Norwich Weaver. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soe.’ vit. 96-97,
1900.

SrepHens, R. Darent §. A List of Plants found in the Parishes of
S. Minver, Cornwall, and Bradford Abbas, Dorset. ‘Proc. Dorset
N. H. A. F. C.’ xxi. 125-136, 1900.

Stewart, W. Notes on the Occurrence of Trichomanes radicans, Sco., in
Scotland [1899]. ‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ vi. 18-21, 1901.

Sriues, M. H. List of Diatoms found near Doncaster. ‘The Naturalist
for 1900,’ 325-830, 1900.

Stow, Miss8.C. A Tas of Flowering Plants, &c., noted at Woodhall
Spa. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 241-245, 1900.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 515

Srow, Miss 8. C. List of Mosses New to North or to South Lincolnshire.
‘The Naturalist for 1901,’ 67-68, 1901.

Tomas, Miss M. On the Alpine Flora of Clova. ‘Trans. Perths. Soc.
Nat. Sci.’ 111. 60-69, 1900.

Tompson, J. and A. H. Notes on tbe Fungi in the Chester District.
‘Proc. Chester Soc. Nat. Sci. 1899-1900,’ 34-35, 1900.

Traru, Prof. J. W. H. Notes on the Flora of Buchan. ‘Trans. Buchan
F. C.’ v. 174-179, 1900.

Vinter, Miss M. E. Mushrooms and Puff-Balls. ‘Trans. Eastbourne
N. H. Soe.’ m1. 258-259, 1901.

Warr, Hucu Boyp. Scottish Forests and Woodlands in Early Historic
Times. ‘Annals Andersonian Nat. Soe.’ 11. 89-107, 1900.

West, W., and G. S. West. The Alga-Flora of Yorkshire. ‘Trans.
Yorks. Nat. Union,’ Parts 22 and 23, pp. 1-100, 1900.

Waurtyey, Nevinte §. Species of Orchidacee found in the Neigh-
bourhood of Eastbourne. ‘Trans. Eastbourne N. H. Soe.’ m1. 241-2,
1901.

Witsrns, T. 8. Needwood Forest. ‘ Trans. N. Staff. F.C.’ xxxv. 73-75,
1901.

Wit grson, Henry J. Catalogue of British Plants in the Herbarium of
the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. App. to Part VI. and Part VII.

‘ Report Yorks. Phil. Soc. for 1900,’ 15-31, 1901.

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

Gray, Wiuu1AmM. The Position of Belfast in relation to Technical
Instruction under the Agriculture and Technical Instruction Act.
‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Soc. 1899-1900,’ 44-52, 1900.

Mexpona, Prof. R. Education in Rural Schools. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’
x1. 236-239, 1901.

OBITUARY.

Boxram, Rospert Georee. ‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xvi. 149-
152, 1900.

Bripaman, JoHn Brooks. By Thos. Southwell. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw.
Nat. Soc.’ viz. 101-109, 1900.

CorDEAUX, JoHN. By Thos. Southwell. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soe.’
vir. 100-101, 1900.

Craw, Henry Hewat. By Dr. Charles Stuart. ‘ History Berwicksh.
Nat. Club,’ xvir. 161-162, 1900.

Frower, Sir Wint1am Henry. By Walter Crouch. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’
x1. 248-245, 1901.

Gunn, Rey. Gkoraz. By Rey. David Paul. ‘History Berwicksh. Nat.
Club,’ xvir. 153-160, 1900.

Gurney, R.J.H. By W.H. Bidwell. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soe.’
vit. 98-100, 1900.

Norman, Georce. By T.Sheppard. ‘ Trans. Hull Sci. F. N.C.’ 1. 105-
112, 1900.

Pacer, Sir James. By Thos. Southwell. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.
vit. 104-105, 1900.

Pirr-Rivers, Lieut.-General. By F. W. Reader. ‘Essex Naturalist,’
x1. 245-251, 1901.

516 : REPORT—1901.

Reynoups, Ricuarp. By Prof. L. C. Miall. ‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly.
Soc.’ xtv. 97-98, 1900.

Simpson, JAMES. By D. H. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vir. 32, 1901.

StanForD, E.C.C. By Prof. G. G. Henderson. ‘Proc. Glasgow Phil.
Soe.’ xxx. 46-51, 1900.

Turner, Dr. George A. By Dr. Robert Fullerton. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil.
Soe.’ xxx1. 126-128, 1900.

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcrion.—Major P. A. MacManoy, D.Sc., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
‘ The President delivered the following Address :—

Durine the seventy meetings of the Association a pure mathematician has been
president of Section A on ten or a dozen occasions. A theme taken by many has
been a defence of the study of pure mathematics. TI take Cayley’s view expressed
before the whole Association at Southport in 1883 that no defence is necessary,
but were it otherwise I feel that nothing need be added to the eloquent words of
Sylvester in 1869 and of Forsyth in 1897. I intend therefore to make some re-
marks on several matters which may be interesting to the Section even at the risk
of being considered unduly desultory.

Before commencing I must remark that during the twelve months that have
elapsed since the Bradford Meeting we have lost several great men whose lives
were devoted to the subjects of this Section. Hermite, the veteran mathema-
tician of France, has left behind him a splendid record of purely scientific
work, His name will be always connected with the Herculean achievement
of solving the general quintic equation by means of elliptic modular func-
tions. Other work, if Jess striking, is equally of the highest order, and his
treatise ‘Cours d’Analyse’ is a model of style. Of FitzGerald of Dublin it
is not easy to speak in this room without emotion. For many years he was
the life and soul of this Section. His enthusiasm in regard to all branches of
molecular physics, the force and profundity of his speech, the vigour of his advo-
cacy of particular theories, the acute thinking which enabled him to formulate
desiderata, his warm interest in the work of others, and the unselfish aid he was
so willing to give, are fresh in our remembrance. Rowland was in the forefront of
the ranks of physicists. His death at a comparatively early age terminates the
important series of discoveries which were proclaimed from his laboratory in the
Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore. In Viriamu Jones we have lost an
assiduous worker at physics whose valuable contributions to knowledge indicated
his power to do much more for science. In Tait, Scotland possessed a powerful
and original investigator. The extent and variety of his? papers are alike remark-
able, and in his collected works there exists an imperishable monument to his
fame.

It is interesting, in this the first year of the new century, to take a rapid
glance at the position that mathematicians;of this country held amongst mathe-
maticians a hundred years ago. During the greater part of the eighteenth century
the study of mathematics in England, Scotland and Ireland had been at a very
low ebb. Whereas in 1801 on the Continent there were the leaders Lagrange,
_ Laplace and Legendre, and of rising men, Fourier, Ampére, Poisson and Gauss, we
, 2
i MM2

q

ES

520 REPORT—1901.

could only claim Thomas Young and Ivory as men who were doing notable work
in research. Amongst schoolboys of various ages we note Fresnel, Bessel, Cauchy,
Chasles, Lamé, Mobius, v. Staudt and Steiner on the Continent, and Babbage,
Peacock, John Herschel, Henry ParrHamilton and George Green in this
country. It was not indeed till about 1845 or a little later that we could point
to the great names of William Rowan Hamilton, MacOullagh, Adams, Boole,
Salmon, Stokes, Sylvester, Cayley, William Thomson, H. J. S. Smith and
Clerk Maxwell as adequate representatives of mathematical science. It is
worthy of note that this date, 1845, marks also the year of the dissolution of a
very interesting society, the Mathematical Society of Spitalfields; and I would
like to pause a moment and, if I may say so, rescue it from the oblivion which
seems to threaten it. In 1801 it was already a venerable institution, having
been founded by Joseph Middleton, a writer of mathematical text-books, in
1717.1 The members of the Society at the beginning were for the most part
silk-weavers of French extraction; it was little more than a working man’s
club at which questions of mathematics and natural philosophy were discussed
every Saturday evening. The number of members was limited to the ‘square
of seven,’ but later it was increased to the ‘square of eight,’ and later still to
the ‘square of nine.’ In 1725 the place of meeting was changed from the Mon-
mouth’s Head to the White Horse in Wheeler Street, and in 1735 to the Ben
Jonson’s Head in Pelham Street. The subscription was six-and-sixpence a
quarter, or sixpence a week, and entrance was gained by production of a metal
ticket which had the proposition of Pythagoras engraved on one side and a sighted
quadrant with level on the other. The funds, largely augmented by an elaborate
system of fines, were chiefly used for the purchase of: books and physical
apparatus. A president, treasurer, inspector of instruments and secretary were
appointed annually, and there were, besides, four stewards, six auditors, and six
trustees, By the constitution of the Society it was the duty of every member, if
he were asked any mathematical or philosophical question by another member, to
instruct him to the best of his ability. It was the custom for each member in
rotation to lecture or perform experiments at each evening meeting. There was
a fine of half-a-crown for introducing controverted points of divinity or politics.
The members dined together twice annually, viz., on the second Friday in January
in London in commemoration of the birth of Sir Isaac Newton (this feast fre-
quently took place at the Black Swan, Brown’s Lane, Spitalfields), and on the
second Friday in July ‘at a convenient distance in the country in commemoration
of the birth of the founder.’ The second dinner frequently fell through because the
members could not agree as to the locality. It was found necessary to introduce
a rule fining members sixpence for letting off fireworks in the place of meeting.
Every member present was entitled to a pint of beer at the common expense,
and, further, every five members were entitled to call for a quart for consump-
tion at the meeting. Such were some of the quaint regulations in force when,
about the year 1750, the Society moved to larger apartments in Crispin Street,
where it remained without interruption till 1845. It appears from the old minute
books that about the year 1750 the Society absorbed a small mathematical society
which used to meet at the Black Swan, Brown’s Lane, above mentioned, and
that in 1783 an ancient historical society was also incorporated with it. By
the year 1800 the class of the members had become improved, and we find
some well-known names, such as Dolland, Simpson, Saunderson, Crossley,
Paroissen and Gompertz. At this time lectures were given in all branches of
science by the members in the Society’s rooms, which on these occasions were
open to the public on payment of one shilling. The arrangements for the
session 1822-23 included lectures in mechanics, hydrostatics and hydraulics,
pneumatics, optics, astronomy, chemistry, electricity, galvanism, magnetism

1 Its first place of meeting was the Monmouth’s Head, Monmouth Street, Spital-
fields. This street has long disappeared. From a map of London of 1746 it appears
to have run parallel to the present Brick Lane and to have corresponded to the present
Wilks Street.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 521

‘and botany, illustrated by experiments. On account of these lectures the
Society had to fight an action-at-law, and although the case was won, its slender
resources were crippled for many years. In 1827 Benjamin Gompertz, F.R.S.,
succeeded to the presidency on the death of the Rev. George Paroissen. From the
year 1830 onwards the membership gradually declined and the financial outlook
became serious. In 1843 there was a crisis; the Society left Crispin Street for
cheaper rooms at 9 Devonshire Street, Bishopsgate Street, and finally, in 1845,
after a futile negotiation with the London Institution, it was taken over by the
Royal Astronomical Society, which had been founded in 1821. The library and
documents were accepted and the few surviving members were made life members
of the Astronomical Society without payment. So perished this curious old insti-
tution ; it had amassed a really valuable library, containing books on all branches
of science. The Astronomical Society has retained the greater part, but some have
found their way to the libraries of the Chemical and other societies. An inspec-
tion of the documents establishes that it was mainly a society devoted to physics,
chemistry and natural history. It had an extensive museum of curiosities and
specimens of natural history, presented by individual members, which seems to
have disappeared when the rooms in Crispin Street were vacated. It seems a pity
that more effort was not made to keep the old institution alive. The fact is that
at that date the Royal Society had no sympathy with special societies and did all
in its power to discourage them. The Astronomical Society was only formed in
1821 in the teeth of the opposition of the Royal Society.

Reverting now to the date 1845, it may be said that from this period to
1866 much good work emanated from this country, but no Mathematical
Society existed in London. At the latter date the present Society was formed,
with De Morgan as its first President. Gompertz was an original member,
and the only person who belonged to both the old and new societies. The
thirty-three volumes of proceedings that have appeared give a fair indication
of the nature of the mathematical work that has issued from the pens of our
countrymen. All will admit that it is the duty of anyone engaged in a particular
line of research to keep himself abreast of discoveries, inventions, methods, and
ideas, which are being brought forward in that line in his own and other coun-
tries. In pure science this is easier of accomplishment by the individual worker
than in the case of applied science. In pure mathematics the stately edifice of the
Theory of Functions has, during the latter part of the century which has expired,
been slowly rising from its foundations on the continent of Europe. It had reached
a considerable height and presented an imposing appearance before it attracted
more than superficial notice in this country and in America. It is satisfactory to
note that during recent years much of the leeway has been made up. LEnglish-
speaking mathematicians have introduced the first notions into elementary text-
books; they have written advanced treatises on the whole subject; they have
encouraged the younger men to attend courses of lectures in foreign universities ;
so that to-day the best students in our universities can attend courses at home
given by competent persons, and have the opportunity of acquiring adequate know-
ledge, and of themselves contributing to the general advance. The Theory of
Functions, being concerned with the functions that satisfy differential equations,
has attracted particularly the attention of those whose bent seemed to be towards
applied mathematics and mathematical physics, and there is no doubt, in analogy
with the work of Poincaré in celestial dynamics, those sciences will ultimately
derive great benefit from the new study. If, on the other hand, one were asked
to specify a department of pure mathematics which has been treated somewhat
coldly in this country during the last quarter of the last century, one could point
to geometry in general, and to pure geometry, descriptive geometry, and the
theory of surfaces in particular. This may dcubtless be explained by the cir-
cumstance that, at the present time, the theory of differential equations and the
problems that present themselves in their discussion are of such commanding
importance from the point of view of the general advance of mathematical science
‘that those subjects naturally prove to be most attractive.

As regards organisation and co-operation in mathematics, Germany, I believe,

522 REPORT—1901.

stands first. The custom of offering prizes for the solutions of definite problems
which are necessary to the general advance obtains more in Germany and in
France than here, where, I believe, the Adams Prize stands alone. The idea
has an indirect value in pointing out some of the more pressing desiderata to
young and enthusiastic students, and a direct importance in frequently, as it
proves, producing remarkable dissertations on the proposed questions. The field
is so vast that any comprehensive scheme of co-operation is scarcely possible,
though much more might be done with advantage.

If we turn our eyes to the world of astronomy we find there a grand scheme of
co-operation which other departments may indeed envy. The gravitation formula has
been recognised from the time of Newton as ruling the dynamics of the heavens,
and the exact agreement of the facts derived from observation with the simple
theory has established astronomy as the most exact of all the departments of
applied science. Men who devote themselves to science are actuated either by a
pure love of truth or because they desire to apply natural knowledge to the bene-
fit of mankind. Astronomers, belong, as a rule, to the first category, which, it
must be admitted, is the more purely scientific. We not only find international
co-operation in systematically mapping the universe of stars and keeping all por-
tions of the universe under constant observation, but also when a particular object
in the heavens presents itself under circumstances of peculiar interest or importance,
the observatories of the world combine to ascertain the facts in a manner which is
truly remarkable. As an illustration, I will instance the tiny planet Eros dis-
covered a few years ago by De Witt. Recently the planet was in opposition and
more favourably situated for observation than it will be again for thirty years. It
was determined, at a conference held in Paris in July 1900, that combined work
should be undertaken by no fewer than fifty observatories in all parts of the world.
Beyond the fixing of the elements of the mean motion and of the perturbations of
orbit due to the major planets, the principal object in view is the more accurate
determination of solar parallax. To my mind this concert of the world, this cos-
mopolitan association of fine intellects, fine instruments, and the best known
methods, is a deeply impressive spectacle and a grand example of an ideal scientific
spirit. Other sciences are not so favourably circumstanced as is astronomy for
work of a similar kind undertaken in a similar spirit. If in comparison they
appear to be in a chaotic state, the reason in part must be sought for in conditions
inherent to their study, which make combined work more difficult, and the results
of such combined work as there is, less striking to spectators. Still, the illustra-
tion I have given is a useful object-lesson to all men of science, and may encourage
those who have the ability and the opportunity to make strenuous efforts to
further progress by bringing the work of many to a single focus.

In pure science we look for a free interchange of ideas, but in applied physics the
case is different, owing to the fact that the commercial spirit largely enters into them.
In a recent address, Professor Perry has stated that the standard of knowledge in
electrical engineering in this country is not as high as it is elsewhere, and all men
of science and many men in the street know him to be right. This is a serious
state of affairs, to which the members of this Section cannot be in any sense
indifferent. We cannot urge that it is a matter with which ‘another Section of
the Association is concerned to a larger degree. It is our duty to take an active,
and not merely passive attitude towards this serious blot on the page of applied
science in England. For this many reasons might be given, but it is sufficient to
instance one, and to state that neglect of electrical engineering has a baneful
effect upor research in pure science in this country. It hinders investigations in
pure physics by veiling from observation new phenomena which arise naturally,
and by putting out of our reach means of experimenting with new combinations
ona large scale. Professor Perry has assigned several reasons for the present
impasse, viz., a want of knowledge of mathematics on the part of the rising
generation of engineers ; the bad teaching of mathematics ; the antiquated methods
of education generally ; and want of recognition of the fact that engineering is not
on stereotyped lines, but, in its electrical aspect, is advancing at a prodigious rate ;
municipal procrastination, and so on. He confesses, moreover, that he does not

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 525

see his way out of the difficulty, and is evidently in a condition of gloomy appre-
hension.

It is, I think, undoubted that science has been neglected in this country, and
that we are reaping as we have sowed. The importance of science teaching in
secondary schools has been overlooked. Those concerned in our industries have
not seen the advantage of treating their workshops and manufactories as labora-
tories of research. ‘The Government has given too meagre an endowment to
scientific institutions, and has failed to adequately encourage scientific men and to
attract a satisfactory quota of the best intellects of the country to the study of
science. Moreover, private benefactors have not been so numerous as in some
other countries in respect of those departments of scientific work which are either
non-utilitarian or not immediately and obviously so. We have been lacking alike
in science organisation and in effective co-operation in work.

It has been attempted to overcome defects in training for scientific pursuits by
the construction of royal roads to scientific knowledge. Engineering students
have been urged to forego the study of Euclid, and, asa substitute, to practise
drawing triangles and squares; it has been pointed out to them that mathematical
study has but one object, viz., the practical carrying out of mathematical opera-
tions; that a collection of mathematical rules of thumb is what they should aim
at; that a knowledge of the meaning of processes may be left out of account so
Jong as a sufficient grasp of the application of the resulting rules is acquired. In
particular, it has been stated that the study of the fundamental principles of the
infinitesimal calculus may profitably be deferred indefinitely so long as the student
is able to differentiate and integrate a few of the simplest functions that are met
with in pure and applied physics. The advocates of these views are, to my mind,
urging a process of ‘ cramming’ for the work of life which compares unfavourably
with that adopted by the so-called ‘crammers’ for examinations; the latter I
believe to be, as a rule, much maligned individuals, who succeed by good organi-
sation, hard work, and personal influence, where the majority of public and private
schools fail; the examinations for which their students compete encourage them
to teach their pupils to think, and not to rely principally upon remembering rules.
The best objects of education, I believe, are the habits of thought and observation,
the teaching of how to think, and the cultivation of the memory; and examiners
of experience are able to a considerable extent to influence the teaching in these
respects; they show the teachers the direction in which they should look for
success. The result has been that the ‘crammer’ for examinations, if he ever
existed, has disappeared. But what can be said for the principle of cramming for
the work of one’s life? Here an examination would be no check, for examiners
imbued with the same notion would be a necessary part of the system; the
awakening of the student would come. perhaps slowly, but none the less
inevitably ; he might exist for a while on his formule and his methods, but with
the march of events, resulting in new ideas, new apparatus, new designs, new
inventions, new materials requiring the utmost development of the powers of the
mind, he will certainly find himself hopelessly at sea and in constant danger of
discovering that he is not alone in thinking himself an impostor. And an impostor
he will be if he does not by his own assiduity cancel the pernicious effects of the
system upon which he has been educated. I do not, I repeat, believe in royal
roads, though I appreciate the advantage of easy coaches in kindred sciences. In
the science to which a man expects to devote his life, the progress of which he

_hopes to further, and in which he looks for his life’s success, there is no royal road.
The neglect of science is not to be remedied by any method so repugnant to the
scientific spirit ; we must take the greater, knowing that it includes the less, not
the less, hoping that in some happy-go-lucky way the greater will follow.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century it was possible for most workers to
be well acquainted with nearly all important theories in any division of science ;
the number of workers was not great, and the results of their labours were for the
most part concentrated in treatises and in a few publications especially devoted to
science ; it was comparatively easy to follow what was being done. At the
present time the state of affairs is different. The nymber of workers is yery large ;

524 REPORT—1901.

the treatises and periodical scientific journals are very numerous; the ramifications
of investigation are so complicated that it is scarcely possible to acquire a com-
petent knowledge of the progress that is being made in more than a few of the sub-
divisions of any branch of science. Hence the so-called specialist has come
into being.

Evident though it be that this is necessarily an age of specialists, it is curious
to note that the word ‘specialist’ is often used as a term of opprobrium, or as
a symbol of narrowmindedness, It has been stated that most specialists run
after scientific truth in intellectual blinkers; that they wilfully restrain them-
selves from observing the work of others who may be even in the immediate
neighbourhood ; that even when the line of pursuit intersects obviously other
lines, such intersection is passed by without remark; that no attention is paid
to the existence or the construction of connecting lines; that the necessity for
collaboration is overlooked; that the general advance of the body of scientific
truth is treated as of no concern; that absolute independence of aim is the thing
most to be desired. I propose to inquire into the possibility of such an individual
existing as a scientific man.

I take as a provisional definition of a specialist in science one who devotes
a very large proportion of his energies to original research in a_ particular
subdivision of his subject. It will be sufficient to consider the subjects that
come under the purview of Section A, though it will be obvious that a similar
train of reasoning would kave equal validity in connection with the subjects
included in any of the other sections. I take the word ‘specialist’ to denote a
man who makes original discoveries in some branch of science, and I deny that
any other man has the right, in the modern meaning of the word, to be called
by others, or to call himself, a specialist. I would not wish to be understood to
imply a belief that a truly scientific man is necessarily a specialist; I do believe
that a scientific man of high type is almost invariably an original discoverer in one
or more special branches of science; but I can conceive that a man may study the
mutual relations of different sciences and of different branches of the same science
and may throw such an amount of light upon the underlying principles as to be
in the highest degree scientific. I will now advance the proposition that, with
this exception, all scientific workers are specialists; it’ is merely a question of
degree. An extreme specialist is that man who makes discoveries in only one
branch, perhaps a very narrow branch, of his subject. I shall consider that in
defending him I am a fortiori defending the man who is a specialist, but not of this
extreme character.

A subject of study may acquire the reputation of being narrow either
because it has for some reason or other not attracted workers, and is in reality
virgin soil only awaiting the arrival of a husbandman with the necessary skill ;
or because it is an extremely difficult subject which has resisted previous
attempts to elucidate it. In the latter case, it is not likely that a scientific
man will obstinately persist in trying to force an entrance through a bare blank
wall. Either from weariness in striving, or from the exercise of his judgment, he
will turn to some other subdivision which appears to give greater promise of
success. When the subject is narrow merely because it has been overlooked, the
specialist has a grand opportunity for widening and freeing it from the reproach
of being narrow ; when it is narrow from its inherent difficulty he has the oppor-
tunity of exerting his full strength to pierce the barriers which close the way to
discoveries. In either case the specialist, before he can determine the particular
subject which is to engage his thoughts, must have a fairly wide knowledge of the
whole of his subject. If he does not possess this he will most likely make a
bad choice of particular subjects, or, having made a wise selection, will lack an
essential part of the mental equipment necessary for a successful investigation.
Again, though the subject may be a narrow one, it by no means follows that the
appropriate or possible methods of research are prescribed within narrow limits. I
will instance the Theory cf Numbers which, in comparatively recent times, was a
subject of small extent and of restricted application to other branches of science.
The problems that presented themselves naturally, or were brought into promi-

:

— =

25

Or

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

nence by the imaginations of great intellects, were fraught with difficulty. There
seemed to be an absence, partial or complete, of the law and order that investi-
gators had been accustomed to find in the wide realm of continuous quantity.
The country as explored was found to be full of pitfalls for the unwary. Many
a lesson concerning the danger of hasty generalisation had to be learnt and
taken to heart. Many a false step had to be retraced. Many a road which a
first reconnaissance had shown to be straight for a short distance, was found on
further exploration, to suddenly change its direction and to break up into a
number of paths which wandered in a fitful manner in country of increasing
natural difficulty. There were few vanishing points in the perspective. Few,
also, and insignificant were the peaks from which a general view could be
gathered of any considerable portion of the country. The surveying instruments
were inadequate to cope with the physical characters of the land. The province
of the Theory of Numbers was forbidding. Many a man returned empty-handed
and baffled from the pursuit, or else was drawn into the vortex of a kind of
Maelstrém and had his heart crushed out of him. But early in the last century
the dawn of a brighter day was breaking. A combination of great intellects—
Legendre, Gauss, Eisenstein, Stephen Smith, &c.—succeeded in adapting some
of the existing instruments of research in continuous quantity to effective use
in discontinuous quantity. These adaptations are of so difficult and ingenious
a nature that they are to-day, at the commencement of a new century, the
wonder and, I may add, the delight of beholders. True it is that the beholders
are few. To attain to the point of vantage is an arduous task demanding alike
devotion and courage. I am reminded, to take a geographical analogy, of the
Hamilton Falls, near Hamilton Inlet, in Labrador. I have been informed that
to obtain a view of this wonderful natural feature demands so much time and
intrepidity, and necessitates so many collateral arrangements, that a few years
ago only nine white men had feasted their eyes on falls which are finer than
those of Niagara. The labours of the mathematicians named have resulted
in the formation of a large body of doctrine in the Theory of Numbers. Much
that, to the superficial observer, appears to lie on the threshold of the subject
is found to be deeply set in it and to be only capable of attack after problems
at first sight much more complicated have been solved. The mirage that
distorted the scenery and obscured the perspective has been to some extent
dissipated ; certain vanishing points have been ascertained; certain elevated
spots giving extensive views have been either found or constructed. The point
I wish to urge is, that these specialists in the Theory of Numbers were successful
for the reason that they were not specialists at all in any narrow meaning of the
word. Success was only possible because of the wide learning of the investigator ;
because of his accurate knowledge of the instruments that had been made effective in
other branches ; and because he had grasped the underlying principles which caused
those instruments to be effective in particular cases. I am confident that many a
worker who, from the supposed extremely special character of his researches

has been the mark of sneer and of sarcasm, would be found to have devoted the

larger portion of his time to the study of methods which had been available in
other branches, perhaps remote from the one which was particularly attracting
his attention. He would be found to have realised that analogy is often the

-finger-post that points the way to useful advance; that his mind had been trained,
-and his work assisted, by studying exhaustively the successes and failures of his

fellow-workers, But it is not only existing methods that may be available in a
special research.

Furthermore, a special study frequently creates new methods which may be
subsequently found applicable to other branches. Of this the Theory of Numbers
furnishes several beautiful illustrations. Generally, the method is more important
than the immediate result. Though the result is the offspring of the method, the
method is the offspring of the search after the result. The Law of Qaudratic
Reciprocity, a corner-stone of the edifice, stands out not only for the influence it hae
exerted in many branches, but also for the number of new methods to which it
has given birth, which are now a portion of the stock-in-trade of a mathematician.

526 REPORT—1901.

Euler, Legendre, Gauss, Eisenstein, Jacobi, Kronecker, Poincaré, and Klein are
great names that will be for ever associated with it. Who can forget the work of
H. J. S. Smith on homogeneous forms and on the five-square theorem, work which
gave rise to processes that have proved invaluable over a wide field, and which
supplied many connecting links between departments which were previously in
more or less complete isolation ?

In this connection I will further mention two branches with which I
have a more special acquaintance—the theory of invariants, and the com-
binatorial analysis. The theory of invariants was evolved by the combined
efforts of Boole, Cayley, Sylvester, and Salmon, and has progressed during
the last sixty years with the co-operation, amongst others, of Aronhold,
Clebsch, Gordan, Brioschi, Lie, Klein, Poincaré, Forsyth, Hilbert, Elliott, and
Young. It involves a principle which is of wide significance in all the subject-
matters of inorganic science, of organic science, and of mental, moral and
political philosophy. In any subject of inquiry there are certain entities, the
mutual relations of which under various conditions it is desirable to ascertain.
A certain combination of these entities may be found to have an unalterable value
when the entities are submitted to certain processes or are made the subjects of
certain operations. The theory of invariants in its widest scientific meaning
determines these combinations, elucidates their properties, and expresses results
when possible in terms of them. Many of the general principles of political
science and economics can be expressed by means of invariantive relations connect-
ing the factors which enter as entities into the special problems. The great
principle of chemical science which asserts that when elementary or compound
bodies combine with one another the total weight of the materials is unchanged,
is another case in point. Again, in physics, a given mass of gas under the
operation of varying pressure and temperature has the well-known invariant,
pressure multiplied by volume and divided by absolute temperature. Examples
might be multiplied. In mathematics the entities under examination may be
arithmetic, algebraic, or geometric; the processes to which they are sub-
jected may be any of those which are met with in mathematical work. It is
the principle which is so valuable. It is the idea of invariance that pervades
to-day all branches of mathematics. It is found that in investigations the
invariantive fractions are those which persist in presenting themselves, even when
the processes involved are not such as to ensure the invariance of those functions.
Guided by analogy may we not anticipate similar phenomena in other fields of
work P

The combinatorial analysis may be described as occupying an extensive region
between the algebras of discontinuous and continuous quantity. It is to a certain
extent a science of enumeration, of measurement by means of integers, as opposed
to measurement of quantities which vary by infinitesimal increments. It is also
concerned with arrangements in which differences of quality and relative position
in one, two, or three dimensions, are factors. Its chief problem is the formation of
connecting roads between the sciences of discontinuous and continuous quantity.
To enable, on the one hand, the treatment of quantities which vary per
saltum, either in magnitude or position, by the methods of the science
of continuously varying quantity and position, and on the other hand
toreduce problems of continuity to the resources available for the manage-
ment of discontinuity. These two roads of research should be regarded as pene-
trating deeply into the domains which they connect.

In the early days of the revival of mathematical learning in Europe the subject
of ‘combinations’ cannot be said to have rested upon a scientific basis. It was
brought forward in the shape of a number of isolated questions of arrangement,
which were solved by mere counting. ‘Their solutions did not further the general
progress, but were merely valuable in connection with the special problems. Life
and form, however, were infused when it was recognised by De Moivre, Bernoulli,
and others that it was possible to create a science of probability on the basis of
enumeration and arrangement. Jacob Bernoulli, in his ‘ Ars Conjectandi,’ 1718,
established the fundamental principles of the Calculus of Probabilities. A

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 527

systematic advance in certain questions which depend upon the partitions of
numbers was only possible when Euler showed that the identity 2* 2?=.22*
reduced arithmetical addition to algebraical multiplication and vice versd. Starting
with this notion, Euler developed a theory of generating functions on the expan-
sion of which depended the formal solutions of many problems. The subsequent
work of Cayley and Sylvester rested on the same idea, and gave rise to many im-
provements. The combinations under enumeration had all to do with what may
be termed arrangements on a line subject to certain laws. The results were im-
portant algebraically as throwing light on the theory of Algebraic series, but another
large class of problems remained untouched, and was considered as being both
outside the scope and beyond the power of the method. I propose to give some
account of these problems, and to add a short history of the way in which a
method of solution has been reached. It will be gathered from remarks made
above that I regard any department of scientific work, which seems to be narrow
or isolated, as a proper subject for research. I do not believe in any branch
of science, or subject of scientific work, being destitute of connection with other
branches. If it appears to be so, it is especially marked out for investigation by
the very unity of science. There is no necessarily pathless desert separating
different regions. Now a department of pure mathematics which appeared to be
somewhat in this forlorn condition a few years ago, was that which included prob-
lems of the nature of the magic square of the ancients. Conceive a rectangular
lattice or generalised chess board (cf. ‘ Gitter,’ Klein), whose compartments are
situations for given numbers or quantities, so that there is a rectangular array of
certain entities. The general problem is the enumeration of the arrays when both
the rows and tke columns of the lattice satisfy certain conditions. With the
simplest of such problems certain progress had undoubtedly been made. The
article on Magic Squares in the ‘Encyclopedia Britannica, and others on the
same subject in various scientific publications, are examples of such progress, but
the position of isolation was not sensibly ameliorated. Again the well-known
‘ probléme des rencontres’ is an instance in point. Here the problem is to place
a number of different entities im an assigned order in a line and beneath them the
same entities in a different order subject to the condition that the entities in the
same vertical line are to be different. This easy question has been solved by
generating functions, finite differences, and in many other ways. In fact when the
number of rows is restricted to two, the difficulties inherent in the problem when
more than two rows are in question do not present themselves. ‘The problem of
the Latin Square is concerned with a square of order m and x different quantities
which have to be placed one in each of the ? compartments in such wise that
each row and each column contains each of the quantities. The enumeration of
such arrangements was studied by mathematicians from Euler to Cayley without
any real progress being made. In reply to the remark ‘Cui bono ?’ I should say
that such arrangements have presented themselves for investigation in other
‘branches of mathematics. Symbolical algebras, and in particular the theory of
discontinuous groups of operations, have their laws defined by what Cayley has
termed a multiplication table. Such multiplication tables are necessarily Latin
Squares, though it is not conversely true that every Latin Square corresponds to a
multiplication table. One of the most important questions awaiting solution in
connection with the theory of finite discontinuous groups is the enumeration of
the types of groups of given order, or of Latin Squares which satisfy additional
conditions. It thus comes about that the subject of Latin Squares is important in
mathematics, and some new method of dealing with them seems imperative.

A fundamental idea was that it might be possible to find some mathematical
operation of which a particular Latin Square might be the diagrammatic repre-
sentative. If, then, a one-to-one correspondence could be established between such
mathematical operations and the Latin Squares, the enumeration might conceivably
follow. Bearing this notion in mind, consider the differentiation of 2” with
regard to x. Noticing that the result is zv”-1(m an integer), let us inquire
whether we can break up the operation of differentiation into x elementary por-
tions, each of which will contribute a unit to the resulting coefficient ». If we

528 REPORT—1901,

write down 2” as the product of x letters, viz.,vvvx .. ., it is obvious that if we
substitute unity in place of a single wv in all possible ways, and add together the
results, we shall obtain n2”-1, We have, therefore, different elementary opera-
tions, each of which consists in substituting unity for 7. We may denote these
diagrammatically by

ie bm ae re ie

and from this point of view we is a combinatorial symbol, and denotes by the

coefficient 2 the number of ways of selecting one out of n different things.

Similarly, the higher differentiations give rise to diagrams of two or more
rows, the numbers of which are given by the coefficients which result from such
differentiations. Following up this clue much progress has been made. For a
particular problem success depends upon the design, on the one hand, of a func-
tion, on the other hand, of an operation such that diagrams make their appearance
which have a one-to-one correspondence with the entities whose enumeration is
sought. For a general investigation, however, it is more scientific to start by
designing functions and operations, and then to ascertain the problems of which
the solution is furnished. The difficulties connected with the Latin Square and
with other more general questions have in this way been completely overcome.

The second new method in analysis that I desire to bring before the Section
had its origin in the theory of partition. Diophantus was accustomed to consider
algebraical questions in which the symbols of quantity were subject to certain con-
ditions, such, for instance, that they must denote positive numbers or integer
numbers. A usual condition with him was that the quantities must denote posi-
tive integers. All such problems and particularly those last specified are qualified
by the adjective Diophantine. The partition of numbers is then on all fours with
the Diophantine equation

at+Bty+... +v=”,

a further condition being that one solution only is given by a group of numbers
a,R,y .. . satisfying the equation; that in fact permutations amongst the quanti-
ties a,B, y . . . are not to be taken into account. This further condition is brought
in analytically by adding the Diophantine inequalities

SSE 4 4 Sr ae

vy innumber. The importation of this idea leads to valuable results in the theory
of the subject which suggested it. A generating function can be formed which
involves in its construction the Diophantine equation and inequalities, and leads
after treatment to a representative, as well as enumerative, solution of the problem.
It enables further the establishment of a group of fundamental parts of the parti-
tions from which all possible partitions of numbers can be formed by addition with
repetition. In the case of simple unrestricted partition it gives directly the com-
position by rows of units which is in fact carried out by the Ferrers-Sylvester
graphical representation, and led in the hands of the latter to important results
connection with algebraical series which present themselves in elliptic functions
and in other departments of mathematics. Other branches of analysis and geometry
supply instances of the value of extreme specialisation.

What we require is not the disparagement of the specialist, but the stamping out
of narrow-mindedness and of ignorance of the nature of the scientific spirit and of
the life-work of those who devote their lives to scientific research. The specialist
who wishes to accomplish work of the highest excellence must be learned in the
resources of science and have constantly in mind its unity and its grandeur,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 529

The following Papers were read :—

1. On Elastic Fatigue, as shown by Metals and Woods.
By Professor A. Gray, E.R.S., J. 8. Duniop, and A. Woop.

2, The Clearing of Turbid Solutions, and the Movement of Smabl Sus-
pended Particles by the Influence of Light. By Professor G. QUINCKE,
of Heidelberg.—See Reports, p. 60.

3. On the Relation between Temperature and Internal Viscosities of Solids.
By Professor A. Gray, £2.85.

4. Note on Hydrostatic Pressure.
By W. Ramsay, F£.2.S., and G. SENTER, B.Se.

The problem of hydrostatic pressure has usually been treated as if the
liquid, in which the floating solid is immersed, were a continuum. According
to the molecular theory, however, all liquids must be regarded as consisting of
discrete particles, moving among each other freely. Accepting this view, hydro-
static pressure must be attributed to the bombardment of the immersed body by
molecules, or perhaps by congeries of molecules; and the kinetic energy of the
molecules must be capable of transmission from those parts of the uid which are
not in contact with the solid to those which are in contact, in such a manner that
the lower portions of the immersed solid are exposed to greater pressure than the
upper, due to the kinetic energy of all portions of fluid at a higher level than the
lower portions, and at a lower level than the upper portions.

Picton and Linder, working in the laboratory of University College, showed
that colloidal solutions can be prepared of various degrees of fineness of the sus-
pended particles; some solutions were prepared in which the particles were
distinctly visible with high microscopic magnification, while others contained
particles in such a minute state of subdivision that even under the highest power
of a microscope, the colloidal solution appeared homogeneous, and the particles
were too fine to polarise a beam of light by reflection. Between these two
extremes intermediate grades were successfully made; while the particles of
solid in such ‘solutions’ as contained visible solid were in rapid pedetic
(Brownian) motion, a particular grade of ‘solution’ was prepared, in which,
although the particles were too small to be visible, they revealed their presence by
polarising light; and under the microscope an appearance of confused motion
impressed itself on the eye; it seemed as though the particles were in such rapid
motion that they did not stay in focus long enough to create a permanent visual
impression.

The questions arose: do such particles produce hydrostatic pressure ? is that
pressure equal to the theoretical pressure which would be produced by a solution
of the same density ? at what stage of subdivision of the solid does such bydro-
static pressure become apparent ?

An attempt has been made to answer the first two of these questions, and with
fair success. The investigation will be continued in the hope of finding an answer
to the third question.

The colloidal solution selected was one of arsenious sulphide in pure water.
Such a solution is easily prepared by passing a current of sulphuretted hydrogen
through an aqueous solution of arsenious acid to saturation, and then expelling
excess of hydrogen sulphide by a current of hydrogen for several hours. The
density of such a solution was determined in two ways: first by means of a
Sprengel’s pyknometer; and second by weighitig in the solution a large cylinder of
glass (65 c.c.), weighted with mercury, so as to make it sink. Corrections were
introduced for reduction to weighing 2” vacuo, and for temperature.

530 REPORT—1901.

Before commencing operations with the colloidal solution, experiments were
made with a solution of barium chloride, so as to obtain a check on the results;
the agreement is satisfactory.

4u eee x Pyknometer
Lo ip 108677 se roses | Mean, 1:02683
es Se
The difference in the first case is 6 in 102,000; and in the second, 2 or 8 in
100,000.
With colloidal solution of arsenious sulphide, the data were :—
Nai Steer eel ake eae a
ii a 1-01187 ae a heaatee 0:00005
um. 27 109398 2 URES, oom
mm, oe ones es |. oer « eOPOORDE
IV. aa 101129 sae epee 0-00005

The solution IV. was prepared by diluting III.; the others were all specially
prepared; they contained arsenious sulphide of such a degree of subdivision that
the particles polarised light, but were invisible under a magnification of 1,000
diameters.

The influence of error in weighing is such that an error of 1 mgr. in the weight
of the body in air or in solution would have caused an error of 2 units in the fifth
decimal place: and 1° in reading temperature would have made an error of the
same magnitude.

It will be noticed that the apparent density with the pyknometer always
exceeds that with the float by 3 to 6 units in the fifth place of decimals; 7.e, by
3 to 6 parts in 100,000. It is probable that this is due to some unapplied correc-
tion; but it is not easy to allow for it. It may, we think, be taken as proved
that colloidal arsenious sulphide of the state of subdivision used, exerts hydro=
static pressure as if it were a liquid; at any rate, it behaves as if it were in true
solution like barium chloride.

It has long been the custom to determine the density of milk, which contains
suspended fat globules, by means of a lactometer, which involves a hydrostatic
method. The experiments cited show that this custom is justifiable.

5. The Freezing Points of certain Dilute Solutions.
By E. H. Grirrirus, £.R.S.

6. The Buildings of the National Physical Laboratory.
By Dr. R. T. Guazesroox, F.R.S.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
The Section was divided into two Departments.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 531

Department I.—Puysics.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report on Electrical Standards.—See Reports, p. 31.

2. Note on a Comparison of the Deposits in Silver Voltameters with
different Solvents. By S. Skinner, J/.A.—See Reports, p. 32.

3. The Discharge of LHlectricity through Mercury Vapour.
By Arruur Scuuster, F.L.S.

The experimental investigation of the passage of electricity through mercury
vapour is of interest on account of the metallic nature of the element, the
monatomic character of the vapour, and the purity with which it can be
obtained. Previous results of the author had led to the conclusion that the
discharge of electricity through mercury vapour differed fundamentally from that
taking place through other gases, but these results have been called in question by
other experimenters.

The work now described has extended over two years, but did not lead to
results which may be said to be decisive on the account of the extreme difficulty
of excluding small traces of moisture. Though the mercury vapour experimented
upon no doubt was much purer than that obtained by any previous observers, it
was not absolutely free from some other gas, which, probably, was aqueous
vapour. The width of the well-known dark space round the kathode observed
was ten times larger than in air. This dark space, however, may possibly be due
to the small remnant of impurity which, as has been pointed out, could not be
excluded.

4. Sur les Effets magnétique de la Convection électrique.
Par Dr. V. CREMIEU.

5. Photoelectric Cells. By Professor G. M. Mincurn, I.A., 74S.

During the past summer I have been engaged on the study of the photoelectric
cells with which I had measured the voltage produced by the light of the stars,
The object of this investigation was to discover whether the life of a cell could be
in any way prolonged or not, and also to find the best liquid that could be
employed.

In these cells the surface, which is sensitive to light, is a thin layer of selenium
spread on the end of an aluminium wire, the selenium layer being heated gradually
after it has been spread as a black viscous liquid on the end of the wire until it
assumes the brownish grey colour which characterises the state in which it is
sensitive to light. The aluminium wire is contained in a glass tube, which the
wire should so completely fit as to prevent the ascent of a liquid into the tube—
a condition which it is impossible to fulfil, as the aluminium wire cannot be
sealed into a glass tube. It is essential for complete success that only the
selenium layer on the end of the wire should come into contact with the liquid.
Let us imagine two such selenium-coated aluminium wires immersed in a small
glass tube containing a liquid, one of the wires being completely screened from
light, while the selenium on the end of the other can be exposed to light. In the
dark there should be no voltage exhibited by this cell when its two wires are
connected with an electrometer. If the wire to be exposed is left completely
naked—z.e., in free contact with the surrounding liquid—no yoltage (or almost
none) will be developed when its selenium end is exposed to light. This result is
undoubtedly due to short-circuiting in the cell itself when the light acts; but if

532 REPORT—1901.

this wire is surrounded by. a tightly fitting glass tube a very great voltage is
produced by light.

The accompanying figure represents the two aluminium wires, A and B, con-
tained in a cork which fits tightly into a glass cell, C, containing a liquid; the
wires are each contained in a tightly fitting glass tube and are connected with the
poles of a quadrant electrometer, K. The ends of the wires are exactly flush with
the ends of the glass tubes, which dip into the liquid, and these ends are coated
with the selenium layers. We shall suppose that the wire B is screened from the
incident light L. Each aluminium wire is about }mm..or 4 mm. thick, nothing
depending on the diameter of the wire—i.c., on the area of the sensitive selenium
surface—provided that the whole of this surface is illuminated by the incident light.

Now the question will naturally occur, Why do we use aluminium and not
some other metal, e.7., platinum, as the base for the selenium? The‘answer is that
many other metals have been tried, and none of them gives results approaching
those given by aluminium. Platinum develops only about half the voltage which,
under the same circumstances, will be given by aluminium. Metals with which
selenium combines readily are useless: copper, silver, and tin are very poor. Now
as regards the liquids which are most effective, I have found the following to be
extremely good: cenanthol, acetone, succinate of ethyl, malonic ether, methyl-

hexylketone, ethyl and methyl benzoate, methyl carbonate, lactic acid, lactate of
ethyl, and lactate of methyl.
Cyanide of ethyl is somewhat effective ; but such liquids as anisol, mustard oil,
ethyl acetate, valerate of ethyl, and valerate of methyl are not sensitive at all.
Within the last few weeks, however, I discovered a fact which will certainly
modify some of my statements about the want of sensitiveness of liquids—the fact,
namely, that nearly all of the little glass tubes which surrounded the aluminium
wires, and on which I had relied for insulating these wires from the liquid, were
very good conductors! I found that if the electrometer was charged by a Daniell
cell, which was then withdrawn, so that the poles of the electrometer were
insulated, one of my glass tubes laid across from one pole to the other rapidly
discharged the electrometer ; and drying the glass tube did not much improve its
insulation. As aresult of this, 1 have recently used a compound glass tube—
one tube inside another with a layer of air between them, except at a common
extremity where they are sealed together, thus:
The inner tube is P, sealed to the duter, QQ,
Q_ at the end 8, where the selenium surface of the

a contact with the liquid.

Except in the neighbourhood of §, this
interposes a layer of air between the tube P and the liquid, and the result is a
great improvement.

A more effective way still is to coat the aluminium wire with an insulating
varnish; but this varnish must be such as not to be dissolved by the liquid which
we employ.

I am now engaged on this part of the problem, and it is mainly this which has
compelled me to delay the star measurements which I was to have resumed at Sir

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 580

Robert Ball's observatory at Cambridge in continuation of the results which the
late Professor FitzGerald, Mr. W. E. Wilson, and I obtained in Mr, Wilson’s
observatory in Westmeath.

It is desirable that I should give a notion of the magnitudes of the voltages
developed in these cells by lights of various intensities,

(1) An ordinary paraffin candle, held at a distance of 2 feet from a cell in
which the liquid was malonic ether, was found to give slightly more than ‘25 of
a volt.

(2) For small intensities of the incident light the voltage will be proportional
to the square root of the intensity; that is to say, the voltage varies inversely
as the distance of the luminous source from the cell.

(3) A paraffin candle, at a distance of 8 feet from the cell, gives a voltage
almost exactly equal to that given by the light of Vega when this is concentrated
by a reflecting telescope whose aperture is 2 feet.

(4) For strong lights the law that the square of the voltage developed in the
cell is proportional to the intensity of the incident light does not hold, as is shown
by the following observation recently made :—

Room darkened and cell in the dark, except that the light of the paraffin lamp
of the electrometer was, to some extent, reflected from the walls of the room: this
very feeble light gave a deflection of 11 divisions on the scale. One candle held at
2 feet from the cell gave (not allowing for the above 11 divisions) 76 divisions.
Two candles held close together at 2 feet from cell gave (not allowing for the
11 divisions) 99 divisions, (One volt was represented by 275 divisions.)

Let z be the energy incident on the sensitive plate when nothing but the
reflected Jamplight falls on it; let I be the incident energy due to one candle at
2 feet, and I’ that due to two candles at 2 feet; then we have

i=kx ll?
T+iak x 76?
I'+ti=kx 99?
These give
I’ _99?—11?

i zea b

but I’ should be 2I, so that the law cannot hold. Indeed, diffused daylight itself
develops only about ‘5 volt in the cell.

These cells are sensitive to all parts of the spectrum, the voltage developed
by the yellow being slightly greater than that due to the other parts.

As to the nature of the action of light in a selenium cell, 1 may quote the
following interesting experiment which was made by Mr. Shelford Bidwell, and
communicated to me in a letter recently.

Mr. Bidwell took a piece of platinum foil and coated it by electrolysis with a
very thin layer of selenium by making it the cathode in a solution of selenious
oxide, or of Se dissolved in HNO,. The platinum foil, thus covered with red Se,
was gradually heated on a brass plate and thus brought into the well-known con-
dition in which it is sensitive to light.

When this coated strip was immersed in a beaker of tap water in presence of a
clean platinum strip, there was little (if any) voltage in the dark; but when
diffused daylight was allowed to fall on the coated strip a voltage of ‘101 was
developed. (This was very much less than the voltage which would have been
ais in the cells which I have just described ; but the reasons for this are
obvious.

In this cell, as in all other forms of selenium cells, the selenium plate was to
the inactive plate as copper to zinc, and from this Mr, Bidwell concludes that,
just as Zn tends to combine with oxygen in H,O, so Se in the light tends to
combine with hydrogen and form H,Se.

In order to test this, Mr. Bidwell took two small test tubes, and into each he
put some acetone and a strip of platinum coated with selenium; each tube was
closed by a vaselined cork, and from each cork was suspended in the tube a clear

1901. NN

534 REPORT—1901.

strip of silver. One of these tubes was put into a box in a dark room, and the
other was exposed to light ina conservatory. Here they were left for five years—
forgotten, I presume—and when examined at the end of that time it was found
that the silver strip in the tube exposed in the conservatory was very much
blackened, while that in the tube kept in the dark was scarcely discoloured at all.

6. On the Necessity for Postulating an Ether. B, Hopxryson.

The difference between those who say that there must be a medium to transmit
gravitation and those who deny its necessity is a purely metaphysical one. All the
facts of gravitation can be described or expressed without any reference to a
medium. In like manner it would appear so far as terrestrial phenomena go that
the facts of light transmission can be so described, in which case the necessity of an
ether for conveying light is again purely metaphysical. We may say that a
luminous body A causes a disturbance at P in its neighbourhood; the disturbance
is properly represented by a vector at right angles to the line joining A to P, and

its amount is F(r— Ve). where ¢ is the time, 7 the distance AP, and V a velo-

city. Aberration is expressed by saying that if A be in motion relative to P, in a
direction at right angles to AP, the disturbance experienced at P is the same as
that which would be produced by a similar luminous body at A’ at rest relative to
P, where ae, = pee hes and AA’ is in the direction of motion of A. There
is here no mention at all of a medium, but a complete account is given of the
cardinal optical phenomena.

This mode of expressing the facts, however, fails to cover the phenomena of
spectroscopic double stars. The periodic doubling of lines in their spectra shows
these stars (apparently single as seen in a telescope) to consist of two components
moving one about the other with an orbital velocity which can be computed from
the displacement of the lines. When the two components are in the line joining
the star to the earth, there is no doubling of the lines, but one component is
moving to the right and the other to the left with this orbital velocity. Now
according to the aboye-stated expression for aberration, or any expression which
only involves the motion of source and receiver relative to each other, the two
components should, when in the line of sight, be apparently separated owing to
the difference of their motions relative to the earth. The angular amount of the
twice orbital velocity

velocity of light
amount sufficient in some cases to be visible to the naked eye. The star would in
fact appear periodically to be double, the doubling occurring alternately with the
displacement of the lines in the spectroscope. Since no such doubling takes place
we infer either that aberration cannot be completely expressed in terms of
relative motion of source and receiver, or that the accepted theory of these stars
is wrong. The former alternative, which seems the more probable, forces one to
recognise a something other than matter to which the motion of matter can be
referred. In fact, it may almost be said that in this way the etker is made
manifest to our senses as having position. This reason for postulating an ether
differs in kind from the metaphysical reasons usually advanced; it may be
described as furnishing a logical necessity for an ether.

separation of the two components would be equal to

~ 7. On the Change of Conductivity of Metallic Particles under Cyclic
Electro-motive Variation. by Professor Jacapis CHunpER Boss,
M.A., D.Sc.

(1) Under the action of electric radiation the conductivity of metallic par-
ticles exhibits variation, In the positive class, like iron, there is an increase,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 535

and in the negative, like K, &c., a diminution of conductivity. Each class
again falls into two sub-classes—(a) sensitive substances which undergo self-
recovery, and (4) sensitive substances which do not. In the case of self-recovering
substances the conductivity distortion varies with the intensity of radiation.
Under the continued action of radiation the distortion attains a maximum,
balanced by force of restitution, and on the cessation of radiation there is an
elastic self-recovery.

(2) The three classes of substances, positive, negative, and neutral, may be
distinguished by their peculiar characteristic curves.

(3) The change produced in the sensitive substance by the action of radiation
is not, normally speaking, chemical.

(4) The conductivity change is produced, not only by very rapid, but also by
comparatively slow electric variation. Generally speaking, all the conductivity
variation effects produced by electric radiation can be reproduced by compara-
tively slow cyclic electro-motive variation.

(5) Electric conduction in metallic particles sensitive to electric radiation does
not obey Ohm’s law. The conductivity is not constant and independent of the
electro-motive force, but varies with it. In the positive class the characteristic
curve—in which the ordinates represent the currents, and the abscisse the
electro-motive force—is concave to the axis of the current. The conductivity
increases continuously with increasing electro-motive force. The variation of
conductivity in the lower portion of the curve is small, but increases with great
rapidity in the upper portion.

(6) The curve obtained with strong is steeper than that with feeble initial
current.

(7) There is found, especially when the initial current is feeble, a critical
electro-motive force, at which the conductivity change becomes so rapid as to
produce an almost abrupt bend in the curve. Stronger initial current appears,
not only to lower the critical point, but also to mitigate the abruptness of this
change.

(@) The effect of electro-motive force in modifying the conductivity of the
conducting layer is well seen in self-recovering substances. There is a definite
conductivity corresponding to a definite electro-motive force. As the electro-
motive force is increased, the sensitive molecular layer is strained, and a definite
increase of conductivity produced. When the increased stress is removed the
corresponding strain also disappears, and there is an elastic recovery of its former
molecular and conductive state. Hence when it is carried through a complete
cycle of electro-motive variation, with moderate speed, the forward and return
curves coincide, and the substance remains, at the end of the cycle, in its original
molecular condition.

(9) This is the case where there is complete recovery on the removal of the
stress. With non-recovering substances we find an outstanding residual effect.
In a curve taken with cyclic electro-motive variation the forward and return
curves do not coincide, but enclose an area. There is a hysteresis. The larger
the range of the electro-motive variation, the greater is the area enclosed.
There is a residual conductivity variation at the end of the cycle which may be
dissipated by vibration.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

DrEPARtMENT IT.—AsTRONOMY.
CuHarrmMANn: Professor H. H. Turner, D.Sc., F. B.S.

The Chairman delivered the following Address :—

Ir was hoped, as you are doubtless all aware, that this Chair would be taken
by the Astronomer Royal for Scotland, Dr. Copeland; but unfortunately illness
has prevented him coming to the Meeting. In doing what I can to fill his place

NN2

536 REPORT—1901,

at very short notice, I shall not attempt, nor would you expect, a formal address
such as we hoped to hear from him; but I will venture to put before you one
or two reflections on a topic which has been much before my attention during the
last few years because directly connected with my own work, and which has a
special interest for us from the allusions made to it yesterday morning by the
President of our Section, viz., the question of scientific co-operation. It is a
matter of considerable importance to astronomers, who have to deal with
numerous observations and calculations; indeed, the millions and billions which
express the distances, sizes, or ages of the heavenly bodies, and which are used
to such good purpose by some lecturers for startling the imaginations of their
audiences, scarcely surpass the numbers which must be used to express the work
to he done by an astronomer. The enterprise on which we are engaged at the
Oxford University Observatory at the present moment is the measurement of a
quarter of a million star-places, which will take us about seven years; and we
are only one of eighteen observatories co-operating in a scheme of work. The
product of eighteen by a quarter of a million does not bring us near the
billions; but if we are minded to produce big numbers we might remember
that in the determination of each individual star-place a good many figures
are required, At Oxford we try to keep the number to the irreducible minimum,
but it certainly exceeds thirty even there; while at other observatories it
reaches 300 or 400. Thus we can with ease secure a creditable position in the
thousands of millions in respect of this one piece of work, and the lapse of a century
or two is all that is necessary to produce billions of figures in the ordinary course
of astronomical observation. It is clear that in such work co-operation is an all-
important factor, and the study of the best means for securing it and for using it
when secured may well claim a share of our attention.

I may pause for a moment to consider the possibility that our experience may
be of value to the devotees of other sciences. ‘Other sciences,’ said Major Mac-
Mahon yesterday, ‘ are not so favourably circumstanced as is Astronomy for work
of a similar kind undertaken in a similar spirit.’ But what may be true to-day
may not be true to-morrow. It was not astronomers, but mathematicians, who
first showed the value of a certain kind of co-operation, Major MacMahon
reminded us that the Spitalfields weavers founded a mathematical society in 1717,
and thus anticipated by more than a century the formation of the Astronomical
Society in 1821, which ultimately absorbed its prototype. Possibly in the future
mathematicians will find the need of co-operation of this other kind, which consists
in sharing a great piece of work among several workers for the sake of comfort and
rapidity, and so may profit by our example, as we formerly profited by that of
the Spitalfields weavers. And there are indications that in another science,
that of Zoology, the time may be close at hand when co-operation between
workers, of a type very similar to that in full swing in Astronomy, will be a
boon, if not a necessity. Professor Karl Pearson, Professor Weldon, and others
are introducing into zoology numerical operations on a large scale, which
promise further and further increase; and they would no doubt he ready to
indicate even now enterprises of a valuable kind which they are only deterred
from undertaking by their magnitude, and which a suitable scheme of co-operation
might bring within the range of practical politics. Hence we should look to our
methods of work in Astronomy with the responsibility attaching to those who are
leading where others may follow; and above all things take care to make clear
any mistakes we have made, so that others may perhaps profit by our experience.

If it seems invidious thus to emphasise our mistakes, I would remind you that
astronomical co-operation has not always been successful; indeed, it has very
often ended in failure. I do not mean simply failure to attain its object. The
band of astronomers who divided the sky between them at the end of the eighteenth
century to look for a minor planet met with this kind of failure, for the first dis-
covery fell by the irony of Fate to another, who was not engaged in any special
search of the kind. This unlucky accident must not, however, make us forget that
the co-operators worked diligently side by side for several years. Failure of a
more real kind ha3 overtaken enterprises to chart the stars or to map the Moon,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 537

which have proceeded very little further than the preliminary organisation. Some
workers have dropped out early in the history of the scheme, some have not even
started, and the blanks have not been filled up ; sooner or later—general!y sooner—
the scheme has been abandoned. ‘The curious may read of some of these schemes in
back numbers of the ‘ Monthly Notices,’ though some of them never got into print,
and are only to be traced in the Minutes of the Royal Astronomical Society. And
yet of many of them, if not all, it may safely be said that a little more energy on the
part of somebody would have produced an assured success; somebody to see that
the gaps were filled up, and dilatory workers hastened or superseded ; somebody to
be a sort of foreman of the works. It does not seem unlikely that this general
supervision is best performed by one not actually engaged in the work himself—a
man of affairs. One of our great London schoolmasters declares that a nominally
idle man should be at the head of all enterprises; that he never knew any good
come of any work where there was not ‘a man with his hands in his pockets
looking after it.’ We have scarcely found this to be a necessity in Astronomy ;
for the men who have looked after the eighteen observatories, taking part in the
Astrographic Chart, have been Directors of the Paris Observatory—men with many
things to claim their attention. To the individual energy of the late Admiral
Mouchez and his successors the work owes a great deal. It fell to their lot to
overcome the difficulties I have indicated ; to undertake the voluminous corre-
spondence necessary at the start; and to fill up gaps in the ranks of workers.
Last July it was found that of the eighteen observatories which had promised to
take part, three had made no start ; and M. Loewy forthwith superseded them and
found three others. Thus the risk of incompleteness has been removed ; and we may
hope that one danger which threatens such schemes has been successfully averted.

But the removal of this danger draws our attention immediately to another—
that of taking far too long in finishing the work. The project for making the
Chart was originally discussed fourteen years ago, in 1887; and it was urged by
many of those then present that a reasonable time, say ten years, should be fixed
for the completion of the whole. In spite of the representations of this prudent
minority, the programme was made an ambitious instead of a modest one, and
some stretching has been done since, with the result that after fourteen years only
one or two observatories are within sight of the goal, the majority seeing from ten
to twenty years’ work ahead of them; and, as above remarked, there are three
which have not yet started. With this experience we may well ask whether the
limit proposed even by the prudent minority was not too high; and whether it
would not be well to fix five years as a limit to any scheme of co-operation which
is as yet on paper only,

The danger of attempting too much is illustrated in a somewhat different way
by the Eros campaign. It will be clear from what has been already said that
the eighteen observatories responsibie for the Chart have their hands quite full;
and now comes a special occasion—an opportunity that will not occur again for
thirty years—to determine the Solar parallax. Last winter the newly-discovered
planet Eros was known to be coming close to us, and we had an occasion of more
value than the Transits of Venus. What were the eighteen observatories to do ?
They could not at any rate refuse to take photographs, and this has been done;
even this meant a great deal of additional work for some people for a few months ;
but it is a mere trifle compared with the work that is still to come in measuring
and reducing the plates, which will be a sensible fraction of the work already
projected for the Chart. Which is to be done first ? Prudence suggests
finishing one enterprise before beginning another, putting aside the Eros plates
until the Chart work is finished. On the other hand there are thirty other observa~
tories sharing the Eros work with the original eighteen, and they will be more or
less impatient for our results. In this dilemma some rather unsatisfactory
compromise will no doubt be adopted, but we may heave another sigh that the
advice of the prudent minority in 1887 was not taken, for in that case not one
or two but many of the eighteen observatories might have completed the Chart
work before Eros came.

I now pass to a different kind of danger to which co-operation renders us

588 REPORT—1901.

liable. To secure homogeneity in the work it is necessaty to bind the associating
individuals by certain rules, and we run some risk of checking that originality
which is almost vital in scientific work. There is scarcely any scientific operation
so mechanical that it may be safely left in entire charge of those without originality
and the liberty to use it. Quite recently a scheme of co-operation has been
adopted in the preparation of the nautical almanacs of the different nations. It
is thought that certain calculations to be performed are so well settled that inde-
pendent calculation is a needless waste of labour, and thus certain sections of, say,
the American Nautical Almanac and our own will be henceforth identically the
same, printed from the same manuscript computations. I cannot but regard the
project with some alarm. The risks against which we are guarded by independent
computation may be small, but I cannot believe them to be evanescent, and I
attach some value to the healthy stimulus of comparison (or we may perhaps say
competition) even for nautical almanacs. Differences revealed by such com-
parisons in the past have often been traced to causes which were by no means
obvious or unworthy of attention.

But without laying too much stress on this case, which is obviously an
extreme one, we can, I think, well understand how the taking part in a co-operative
scheme may lower the tone of scientific work. There is a very real possibility of
replacing the alert spirit of investigation by a mere mechanical regularity; nay,
even of making one who should be an astronomer into a mere drudge. This has
at times been the declared method of great astronomers with their subordinates ;
they have professed themselves quite able to do all the thinking required, and
looked for the help, not of intelligent assistants, but of mere drudges. This was
Pond’s view, and more or less that of Airy in his early years at Greenwich ; and I
need not stop te point out the errors into which it led them, and from which we
are still struggling to free ourselves. There are, I am happy to think, few who
would now deliberately advocate it, and we need not waste words in trying to
convince these. But if we acknowledge the crushing out of intelligent independ-
ence in subordinates to be a mistake, how much greater is the evil if it spreads
through the whole staff of an observatory, including the Director himself? And this
is at least a possible result of co-operation. We can only too easily imagine a
scheme of work in which the rules are laid down so completely and so stringently
by the central body that nothing is left to the initiative or originality
of the individual observatories; and the Director of such a one might find
himself with nothing to do but see that the rules were adhered to. If the
work were at the same time planned to extend over a period of ten or
twenty years, as is quite possible in Astronomy, we can well understand
that his efficiency as an intelligent scientific worker might become
seriously affected. We must not shut our eyes to this danger. Astronomical
work is terribly liable to settle down into routine as we all know; and the exist-
ence of so many small observatories where nothing is done beyond routine
observations with the transit circle is not a credit to us. It is reassuring to find
that many of them are ready to use opportunities which present themselves.
For instance, when the Eros work was planned, fifty observatories responded to
the call for volunteers. But is there not even here another point of view?
What were all these observatories doing before, that they are able so readily to
take up a new project? Some of them we know had enough on hand already,
and only added the Eros work with reluctance; but it is to be feared that others
hailed it as a welcome opportunity to do something of some use, not having been
able to think of anything for themselves. This thinking of what one’s work is to
be is, of course, the hardest part of research—devising something to do that shall
be a real step in advance. Some fortunate men find it comparatively simple, but
to the majority it is a labour and toil, and only through much tribulation do they
enter their kingdom—their own domain in which they recognise their own true
work, It is much easier for such to turn aside and follow some king who has
come to his crown more easily ; to take a share in a great piece of work organised
by some master-mind. But is not this a serious loss to them and to science?
May not schemes of co-operation kill the originality of the humbler workers by
removing the incentive to independent thought ?

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 539

Here, however, I end, for the present at any rate, my list of the risks and
dangers which co-operation brings in its train. It is time to turn to the other and
brighter side of the matter; for there is a brighter side, which presents itself,
as it should to experimental philosophers, when we come to practical working
as opposed to forecasting ; and it is because the great scheme of the Astrographic
Chart illustrates vividly both the dark side and the bright, both the possible evils
of such schemes and the actual benefits which may replace them under certain
circumstances, that I have ventured te select it so often for reference in these
remarks. We have seen how it has escaped the premature decease which has
befallen other such schemes, owing in great measure to the energy of the central
authority. The mistake of attempting too much is unfortunately now irreme-
diable in this particular case; but it may serve as a warning on future occasions.
It remains to show how the danger of crippling individuality has been averted in
an unexpected, almost a comical, manner.

At the outset this danger was distinctly threatening. At the earlier confer-
ences there was manifest anxiety, chiefly on the part of those who were not going
to do the work, to bind down the workers rather stringently by rules of procedure.
The anxiety seemed to be intensified rather than diminished by the circumstance
that it was not very clear what these rules ought to be. Where several courses
were open, each found its champion, and the discussion was perhaps most
animated in the cases where the teaching of actual experience was least
available. On several occasions a decision was only arrived at by an expedient
which seems to be familiar in Continental meetings, but is little known in
England; perhaps it deserves a wider recognition. When formal discussion
waxes warm, the President declares the meeting dissolved, for ten minutes
of informal conversation. The meeting forthwith breaks up into animated
Imots of eager talkers; opponents who have been addressing one another
with the meeting between them rush across the room to each other and put their
points with renewed emphasis and unfettered gesture, and for ten minutes there
is apparent confusion and some noise. But when the President’s bell again rings,
the effect of the outburst is manifested in a restoration of sobriety and the passing
of a resolution ; and so the number of resolutions mounts up, and by the end of the
Conference a respectable list of them is ready for the printer; a list quite long
enough to quench any spark of originality in the individuals taking part in the
work. But now comes the unforeseen feature of the enterprise. The participating
workers go off to their observatories with a copy of these rules in their pockets,
and do not observe them. Such as they find convenient they adhere to closely ;
but when they find by experience that a rule will not work, they do not hesitate
to prefer their experience, as good and faithful experimental philosophers should.
And their individual experiences were by no means similar, so that the sheet of
rules was torn across in all sorts of directions ; the original copy would be now
barely recognisable by those who subscribed to it.

But then is anything left? Is not this the practical failure of the scheme?
On the contrary it was its salvation. The diversity of experience was not funda-
mental, but to a great extent apparent only. The rules which were broken were
those which experience proved non-essential, and which ought never to have been
made; and when those who had actually carried out a considerable portion of the
work met last year, they found that they had arrived at practically the same con-
clusions by a diversity of routes. It was inevitable that they should, rules or no
rules, if they went to work honestly and perseveringly ; and if some went a longer
way and some a shorter to the same goal this was, after all, an unimportant
matter beside the fact that they all arrived at last. Had they not thrown off
the needless constraints they might never have arrived at all.

The reality of this happy consummation was illustrated by two minor inci-
dents, which I will mention. At this last Conference several points were brought
up for discussion which had not been previously considered. Guided by expe-
rience, no attempt was made in general to frame new rules of procedure: the
object was tacitly assumed to be that the different workers should compare notes
for their own guidance, But there were some present, especially among those not

340 — REPORT—1901.

participating in the work, who had not profited by the lessons of the past ; and one of
them read out a rather elaborate resolution for deciding one of the points in question
on a uniform plan. It was just such a resolution as would have led to an excited
debate at the earlier Conferences and ultimately to a cut-and-dried rule. It was
now received in embarrassed silence. Then one who had gauged the opinion of
the meeting more adequately rose to point: out how retrogressive it was. With
the utmost courtesy to his colleague and in the most genial manner he pointed out
that such a resolution was both dangerous and useless, and was better let alone,
which was accordingly done.

Again, one of the co-operating directors rose to ask for guidance on a doubtful
point. There were certain plates which might or might not be considered pro-
perly falling to his share, according to the definition of his boundary. In this case
individual opinion was deliberately subordinated to the decision of the meeting.
Would the meeting please decide the point? Surely here the meeting might give
a decision without danger. But the meeting had been humbled, and was no longer
in the mood to give decisions. Proposals to direct the questioner to take the
doubtful plates, to recommend him to do it, and to encourage him to do it, were
successively considered and rejected as being too dictatorial ; and it was finally
decided that the meeting would not forbid him to take the extra plates if he so
wished !

But the comedy of this result has a very serious significance. We may heartily
congratulate ourselves that the time is not yet come when astronomers are pre-
pared to lose their individuality in a co-operative scheme of work; and still more
that such schemes can be found where such loss of individuality is unnecessary.
May it not be said that something very similar has been realised in the case of the
other scheme of co-operation referred to by the President of the Association
yesterday, the scheme for a Catalogue of Scientific Literature? The original
proposals were of a kind which left too little scope for the individuality of the
different sciences. J*ortunately the mistake was rectified promptly, and the present
plan leaves much more to individual judgment. Some such compromise would
seem to be essential (if we are not generalising too hastily) to the success of
co-operative enterprises in science. We must, above all things, take care not to
crush individuality. I would even zo so far as to say that so much of the element
of competition as can be preserved without endangering uniformity in essentials
should be diligently cultivated. Add that the original scheme should be as modest
as possible, and that an energetic man should be put in a position to wake up the
dilatory and to ensure that the pace, which is necessarily that of the slowest, be
not funereal, and I venture to think that we may eliminate failure from co-operative
scientific enterprises.

The following Papers were read :

1. On the Possibility of Systematic Error in Photographs of a Moving
Object. By A. R. Hin«s, IA.

An a priort objection to the method of obtaining the position of a planet from
photographs is the alleged possibility of systematic error due to the fact that the
images either of the stars or the planet must be short trails, and the ends of
these trails may not be symmetrical with respect to the mean epoch of
exposure. In photographing Eros at Cambridge last winter for the determination
of the solar parallax the exposures were made following alternately the stars and
the planet. A comparison of the two series will not show the existence of a
systematic error constant for stars of all magnitudes, but it would show an
error which was a function of the magnitude. Forty exposures each of eighteen
selected stars have been measured, and show no trace of such an error. The
author concludes, from the absence of a differential effect between stars of
different magnitudes, that the absolute systematic error due to trail is probably
insensible.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. . “oad

2. The Essentials of a Machine for the Accurate Measurement of Celestial
Photographs. By A. R. Hinks, M.A.

It is now within the power of amateur astronomers to do work of the highest
value by measuring photographs made by the existing telescopes of the public
observatories in such numbers that they cannot all be measured and discussed at
the observatories themselves. When this is more fully realised there will be some
demand for a suitable measuring machine at a not extravagant price. The author
attempts to define the essentials of the simplest machine which will do work of
the highest accuracy.

The machine shall measure one coordinate at a time on plates impressed with
a standard 5 mm, réseau.

To ensure that the error in the measure due to the machine and the observer
shall not be « large part of the whole error, the machine must read to U:0001 of a
réseau interval kh,

The object glass of the microscope should project the image of a R-square with
magnification unity on to a divided glass scale in the eyepiece, to divide it into
one hundred parts. ‘This scale should have the spaces numbered, not the divisions.
R-lines and star discs are then referred to the centre of the scale space nearest
each by a micrometer screw, which may be applied (1) to the plate carriage, (2) to
the scale, (3) to the objective. The last has not been done, but it promises the
advantage over the others that it brings the micrometer head at a convenient
distance from the eye; and since the range of motion required is small (0°5 mm.
is ample) the objective could be carried in the centre of an arm pivoted at one end
and pressed against the screw at the other, which would be simple to make.

The objective must give a flat field over at least 5mm. The tube carrying
the eyepiece and scale must have a focussing movement, preferably independent of
the objective, which should have a small independent range of adjustment to
make the R-square fit the scale and reduce errors of run. This does not disturb
the focus if the objective is midway between plate and scale. .

The plate carriage must move on two rectangular slides, which need not be
really true. It may be moved by hand, but a quick rack and pinion motion is
much better. Clamps are not necessary if the carriage is counterpoised. Rough
setting scales with adjusta)le pointers are necessary. The plate should be
brought up by springs under three studs, and an orientating screw at one corner
is required.

Uniform illumination is given by a simple convex lens below the plate and a
concave mirror. It is most important that the observer should be shielded from
direct light by black curtains and screens, that he may be able to keep both eyes
open.

The essentials are: (1) objective giving a flat field, and (2) divided scale in
the eyepiece, good optical work; (8) micrometer screw motion to subdivide the
scale spaces, the only part which wants really good mechanical work ; (4) simple
focussing movement ; and (5) orientating screw for the plate.

Semi-essentials, which quickly pay for themselves in time saved and fatigue
avoided, are :—

(6) The adjustment of objective independent of microscope tube by a divided
head; (7) rack and pinion motion for the plate carriage; (8) lens and concave
mitror illumination ; (9) light screens.

For a discussion of most ot these points reference is made to a paper by the
author, ‘ Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,’ 1901 May.

3. Note on the Singkep Commutator. By Davip P, Topp,

At last year’s meeting of the Association I described the Tripoli commutator,
a mechanical device which I employed at that station on May 28, 1900, for
operating the eclipse instruments automatically. The fortunate accident of
locating the instruments on the roof or terrace of the British Consulate made it

54.2 REPORT—1901.

possible to drive the cords from the commutator barrel by gravity. The method
could not be conveniently used except under like circumstances of elevation.

To operate the instruments at Singkep, Netherlands Indies, was a very different
problem, and led to the devising of two improvements in this type of mechanical
commutator which make it universally adaptable to the needs of both astronomers
and physicists :-—

(a) Instead of a single barrel or drum I used as many drums as there were
instruments to be operated. Each drum was provided with a collar and set-screw,
so that the process of adjusting one instrument and its automatic movements did
not disturb the adjustments of others already made.

(6) Instead of gravity as a power to turn the drums, they were turned by
hand, timed accurately to the motion of a pendulum; and the commutator cords,
after unwinding from the several drums and doing their work in tripping the
escapements, were returned over pulleys, each to its individual drum, where they
wound up on one side just as fast as they unreeled from the other. This simple
arrangement easily gave accommodation for the 80 feet of cord required by the
6m, 20s. duration of totality.

4. The Drift in Longitude of Groups of Facule on the Sun’s Surface.
By the Rev. A. L. Cortiz, S.J, F.RAS,

From a discussion of the Potsdam photographs for the year 1884, Wilsing con-
cluded that facule did not show the drift in longitude with decrease in latitude
exhibited by sun-spots. An opposite conclusion was derived from plates covering
the period 1891-94 at Pulkowa, by Statonoff. On these plates no facula was
followed for more than three days, and the measures were made on selected points
in the faculous groups. From the study of selected groups of faculee in the year
1889, Father Sidgreaves showed that groups considered as a whole during long
periods of time drifted with the spots. The present paper is supplementary to
that of Father Sidgreaves, and while traversing the same ground, gives a more
detailed discussion of the observations. Moreover, it is illustrated by diagrams
which show the drift in a very convincing way. The periods of time during which
the faculee were followed ranged from 19 to 120 days. The year 1889 was
selected as being a minimum year of solar activity, and therefore presenting less
difficulty for the identification and following of the several groups of facule than
in amaximum year. Moreover, to make identification certain, of 121 groups
drawn and measured during that year, all but thirteen were excluded. These
latter groups were all connected with sun-spots, and passed through the various
phases of growth which characterise such groups. In the study of the drift,
Carrington’s method, set forth in his ‘Observations of Solar Spots,’ was exactly
followed. A centre of each group was chosen which appeared to give the most
trustworthy result for diurnal motion. But every member of each group had pre-
viously been put down in its true heliographic position on a set of charts, one to
each solar rotation. The positions were determined from the original drawings by
means of a series of accurate heliographic projections. The Table gives the
results from the measurements.

Mean Daily Angular Motion
| Latitude Number of Groups Pabules'Granps Spot Gonzi
(Stonyhurst) (Carrington)
| |
| re) | ° °
+ 7 1 14°5 14:3
+ 5 ul 14:3 14:7
— 2 1 14:5 13°9
/ — 3 | 1 14-4 14:2
| — 8 4 14:8 14:3
- 9 3 14°4 14-4
—24 | 1 14:0 13°8
—26 | if 13°9 13:7

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 545

The Table shows that, at least in the cases discussed, there is a real drift in
longitude with reduction of latitude. This is especially noticeable in the cases
between —26°and —8°. The diagrams in which the faculz are set down in position
at successive periods show the drift in a most striking and convincing manner.
An apparent lagging of facule behind the leading spot of a group is accounted
for by the disappearance of the following members of the spot groups, and not by
a retrograde drift of the facule.

5. On an Exceptional Case in the determination of the Constants of a
Photographic Plate from known Stars. By Professor H. H. Turner,
FERS.

At the University Observatory, Oxford, the places of stars on about 800
photographic plates, each 2° x 2°, have already been measured ; the whole number
of plates to be measured as the share of this observatory in the International
Astrographic Survey being 1,180. Each plate contains on an average about 350
stars, but the number varies considerably (from 100 to 2,000). Of these a certain
number (from 10 to 30 per cent.) have already been observed on the meridian, so
that their places are known; and from these known places the ‘plate constants’
are determined (scale value, orientation, &c.), so that the places of the remaining
stars in the sky can be inferred from the measures of the plate. The constants
are found by two sets of linear equations, one set from measures of the w
coordinates, another from ¥; and the correctness of the solution is checked (a) by
the agreement of the results from the two sets, which are solved independently ;
(6) by the accordance of the residuals for the known stars with those found from
other plates.

The equations are solved, not by the method of least squares, but by a
process in many ways equivalent to it. To avoid the heavy work of squaring and
multiplying numerous coefficients, the stars are grouped so that by mere addition
we can form three equations presenting the chief features of the normal equations
which arise in the work by least syuares, viz., that the coefficient of each
unknown quantity should be relatively large in one equation. In almost all cases
hitherto this process, which is comparatively simple and expeditious has been
found quite satisfactory.

A plate with centre 13" 0”, + 27°, taken on 1899 May 5, presents a curious
exception. There are only fifteen ‘known’ stars on it, and these are so arranged
(all near the line «=y) that the usual method of grouping failed to give a solution
at all. A deliberate regrouping was then made with special attention to the
characteristics of the plate, but the solution obtained was unsatisfactory when
judged by either of the criterions («) and (b) above mentioned.

The machinery of ‘ least squares’ was then set in motion, with the result that a
satisfactory solution was obtained. It seems worthy of note that this machinery
does practically give satisfactory results in cases where simpler methods fail.

This instance is of some importance as representing an extreme case out of 800
tried.

6. On the Position of a Planet beyond Neptune. By G. Forsus, RS.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The Section was divided into two Departments.

DEPARTMENT [,.—MatrHEMATICS.

A joint Discussion with Section L on the Teaching of Mathematics, opened
by Professor Joun Perry, /.R.S.

544. REPORT—1901.

Department II.—Puysics.
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on Radiation in a Magnetic Field.—See Reports, p. 39.

2. Note on a Method of determining Specific Heats of Metals at Low
Temperatures. By 'T. G. Beprorp, J/.A., and C. F. Green, UA.

The specific heats of solids at temperatures below 0° C, have hitherto generally
been determined by an obvious slight modification of the method of mixtures as
generally used for temperatures between 0° and 100° C,

It was suggested to us by Mr. E. H. Griffiths that better results might be
obtained by adopting a method which can be regarded as analogous with one
which bas already been used with success for the 0° C. to 100° C. range, viz., that
of Joly’s steam calorimeter, The metal, whose specific heat is required, having
been previonsly weighed in water kept at 0° C., is cooled to a low temperature and
then again immersed in the ice-cold water. The metal, with the coating of ice
thus formed on it, is again weighed in the water. From the difference in the two
weights the mass of ice formed is calculated, the density of ice being known, and
thence the specific heat of the metal is obtained in terms of the latent heat of
ice,

The experiments have been merely of a preliminary character, but they have
served to suggest the following as an appropriate form of apparatus.

The metal to be investigated should be enclosed in a cylindrical box, and
experiments performed first with the box empty and then when it contains the
metal, Then if the walls of the box be of sufficient thickness, this differential
method would eliminate to a great extent corrections for the suspension wire,
for the gain of heat by the metal and the deposition of hoar-frost upon it during its
transit through the air, &c. The essential feature of such a box is that its volume
should not be altered by opening and closing it.

The ‘cooler’ used by us consisted of three coaxial cylinders. The metal
experimented upon was suspended in the inner of the three chambers thus formed,
the middle chamber contained the cooling agent and the outer chamber formed an
air-jacket.

Tt appeared that the best method of determining the temperature of the box
would be to bring it into direct metallic connexion with the thick walls of the
inner part of the cooler and to insert a platinum resistance thermometer in the
walls.

In the method briefly sketched above, the accurate determination of the rise in
temperature of the water in a calorimeter in experiments by the method of
mixtures is replaced by two weighings. These weighings must, however, be
performed with great accuracy, since the difference in the observed weights caused
by the formation of ice is only ~th of the weight of ice formed.

The chief difficulties of the method are :—

(1) Uncertainty as to the density of the ice owing to the presence of air in the
water.

(2) The fact that the water cannot be stirred during the process of weighing,
and that therefore its temperature begins to rise above 0° C, and the ice gradually
melts.

3. A New Gauge for Small Pressures.
Ly Professor Epwarp W. Moriuy and Cuaries F. Brusu.

The paper describes two forms of gauge for the measurement of small pressures
of a gas. It was especially devised in order to measure the pressure of aqueous
vapour. For this purpose McLeod’s gauge cannot easily be employed, owing

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 545

chiefly to the fact that the amount of absorption by the walls of the gauge
changes slowly when the volume of the vapour is changed by the compression
utilised in that instrument.

In both forms of our gauges, a mercurial siphon gauge, having tubes of five
centimetres diameter, is mounted on an instrument like a level-trier, and differ-
ences of level in the two sides are measured by determining the inclination of the
whole gauge which is required to bring the two surfaces to coincide with two
fiducial points in the axes of the two arms of the gauge. From the measured
inclination, together with the known linear distance of the two fiducial points, is
computed the difference of level of the two surfaces of mercury.

This principle (due to M.) has been carried out in two ways. In the first, the
siphon gauge is carried on a kind of bridge, supported at one end by two points
which rest on a horizontal plate on a solid pier; and, at the other, by the point of
a micrometer screw, which itself rests on the same horizontal plate. In the axes
of the two limbs of this gauge are two platinum points, at the same level. The
amount of mercury in the gauge can be changed by a fine adjustment.

When the pressures in the two arms of the gauge are the same, we determine
the zero reading. The amount of mercury in the gauge is altered till one fiducial
point barely touches the mercury, while the other creates a depression. Then the
inclination of the bridge is changed till the two depressions become equal. Mer-
cury is now removed from the gauge, when one depression will commonly disap-
pear before the other. The adjustment is repeated iill both depressions disappear
together, or till both are apparently equal when made as small as can be seen. The
reading of the micrometer screw now is the zero reading, and marks when the two
points are in the same horizontal plane.

If now the pressures in the two parts of the gauge become unequal, their
difference can be measured by determining what new inclination must be given
to the bridge and gauge in order to bring the two fiducial points into coincidence
with the mercury surfaces again. Knowing the linear distance between the
fiducial points, we can compute their difference of level in their new position, and
so measure the difference of pressure between the two sides of the gauge.

No optical appliances are needed in the use of this form of gauge. The ob-
server, moving his eye up and down, causes the image of a window bar to move
across the depression in the mercury made by the fiducial points. From the ap-
pearance of this image, he can, even without the aid of a magnifying glass, equalise
the depressions with a mean error less than the five-thousandth part of a milli-
metre; after some practice, of course. But an observation requires two, three, or
four minutes.

We have therefore constructed two gauges of a second form, employing the
same general principle, but also utilising an optical appliance (due to B.) by which
a reading is made as speedily as is an ordinary micrometric reading, while the
accuracy attained is even increased. Between the two arms of the siphon gauge
with its wide tubes is placed a pair of mirrors, so adjusted that the two fiducial
points, as well as the two images of these in the mercury, are seen side by side in
the field of a microscope carried on the apparatus and moving with the tubes and
mirrors. The surface of the mercury is not seen; the two pairs of images of the
points, one belonging to the right arm of the gauge, and one to the left, are par-
tially superposed, so that the extreme ends of the points are perhaps a tenth of a
millimetre apart. If now the two real points are equidistant from the surfaces of
the mercury, the two pairs of images will seem equidistant ; if not, the inclination
of the whole system of gauge, mirrors, and microscope is changed till the distance
between the lert-hand pair seems equal to that between the right-hand pair. This
is as easy as the bisection of a point with the wire of a micrometer.

Mendeléef found it necessary to grind and polish the external and internal sur-
faces of the glass tubes of his gauges, in order to eliminate errors due to irregular
refraction through irregular surfaces. In our apparatus the points of the tube
through which the fiducial points are viewed are always rigorously the same. We
therefore need only to secure an area in each tube through which we can get suffi-
ciently good definition ; it is easy to select such an area in the tube which is about

546 REPORT—1901. ;

to be worked at the lamp, and then to secure that the selected area shall occupy
the desired position in the completed apparatus.

To secure precision many precautions were taken. The construction and
mounting of the instrument is much like that of an astronomical instrument. A
massive cast-iron standard, designed so as not to be distorted by changes of tem-
perature, rests on an isolated stone pier; on it, moving on trunnions in \-shaped
supports like those of a transit instrument, is carried the plate on which siphon
gauge, mirrors, and microscope are fixed. The free surface of the mercury in each
arm of the gauge is five centimetres in diameter. The tube connecting them is two
centimetres in diameter, and is but two centimetres below the free surface ; so that
the temperature of the two columns of mercury shall be equalised rapidly. Good
illumination is provided, with care to minimise the access of heat to the mercury.
‘The pair of mirrors is provided with every motion required to bring the two fidu-
cial points into focus at once, and to give the images of the points any desirable
position in the field of the microscope. The ends of the points are wrought into
small hemispheres. With all these precautions, as well as many others, we have
been able to make measurements in which the mean error of asingle reading is not
very much greater than a ten-thousandth of a millimetre.

4. The Transmission of Heat through Water Vapour.
By Cuaries F. Brusi and Professor Epwarp W. Mortry.

In the discussion which was elicited by the paper of Mr. Brush on a new gas
whose power of transmitting heat is vastly greater than that of hydrogen, Sir
William Crookes suggested that the observed phenomena might perhaps be due to
water vapour, and described experiments which seemed to ‘show that, at high
vacua, water-gas is a better conductor of heat than either air or hydrogen at similar
pressures.’

Being able now to measure small pressures directly, we have determined the
rate of transmission of heat through water vapour at pressures from that of satura-
tion at 0° to less than a millionth of an atmosphere. The three gauges described
before have been used in three series of experiments with three different apparatus.

At low pressures, water vapour transmits heat more rapidly than air, but not
so rapidly as hydrogen. The superiority over air is a maximum at twenty or thirty
millionths of an atmosphere, and is not far from 30 per cent. At sixty or
eighty millionths, air and water vapour transmit heat at the same rate; at higher
pressures, water vapour transmits heat less rapidly than air at the same pressures.
Statements more precise than these cannot now be made, because the form and
dimensions of the apparatus used modify slightly the curves which represent the
relations between pressure and rate of transmitting heat, and the place of intersec-
tion of the curves is therefore uncertain.

5. Comparison of the Constant Volume and Constant Pressure Scales for
Hydrogen between 0° C. and —190° C. By Morris W. Travers, D.Sc.,
and GEoRGE SENTER, B.Sc.

The authors describe a modified form of constant volume gas thermometer in
which the average temperature of the stem—the part connecting the bulb with
the so-called ‘dead space ’—is determined from the readings of a secondary gas
thermometer the bulb of which lies side by side with the stem of the main
thermometer. The relation between the two scales was deduced from the expan-
sion of hydrogen at constant pressure between —190° C. and 0° C. The arrange-
ments used to determine this expansion were as follows:—The bulb of the
constant volume thermometer was immersed in liquid air side by side with
another bulb, which we may call the constant pressure bulb, filled with hydrogen
at a known pressure, the temperature being deduced from the readings of the
constant yolume thermometer. The gas in the constant pressure bulb was then

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A 547

pumped off and measured in a constant volume burette at a known temperature
near that of the atmosphere, the relative volumes of bulb and burette being such
that the pressure on the gas in the constant volume burette was as nearly as
possible that under which the gas was confined in the constant pressure bulb at
the lower temperature. By the above arrangement errors due to uncertainty in
the temperature of connections, &c., are elimimated.

The results are as follows :—

j
Pressure on | x, }
Volume of bulb | Volume coefficient ,

Temperatures from constant é
ilaeie thermometer SBS bulb of of constant of H between
constant pres- as aA
sure apparatus pr paste ap- - 190° C. and
H scale Cent. scale in millimetres | P2®7#tus in c.c. GG,
83:50 —189'54 | 642-85 16140 | 0036690
83°15 —189°89 683°70 12:990 -0036710
83°:00 —190°04 | 719°70 12:990 -0036714 |
83:07 —189:97 790°85 16140 | ‘0036730 |
86°85 —186:19 794°55 13°908 ‘0036730

These results indicate that the volume coefficient varies with the pressure on
the gas at the lower temperature, and if these values are plotted it will be seen
that the value of the coefficient approaches ‘003660 when the pressure becomes
small. This result is in agreement with theory. The value of the coefficient at
normal pressure is ‘003667, and if we apply this result to the calculation of
corresponding temperatures on the two scales we find :—

Temperature on constant volume scale : = - —190°C.
Temperature on constant pressure scale. 5 « —190°5C.

6. Note on the Variation of the Specific Heat of Water. By Professor
H. L. Cauuenpar, /.4.S.—See Reports, p. 34.

7. The Laws of Electrolysis of Alkali Salt Vapours. By Haroun A.
Witson, D.Sc, MSc. B.A. Clerk-Maaxwell Student, Cambridge
University.

The method employed in the experiments described in this paper was the
following:—A current of air, containing a small amount of salt solution in
suspension in the form of spray, was passed between two concentric cylinders of
platinum heated ina gas furnace. These cylinders were maintained at a large
difference of potential by means of a storage battery, and the current between
them through the stream of air and salt vapour was measured at various tempera-
tures and with different E.M.F.’s.

It was found that above 1300° C. and with more than 800 volts P.D. the
current through the salt vapour became ‘saturated,’ that is, it was not increased
appreciably either by raising the temperature or increasing the E.M.F. applied.

This saturation current was measured for a number of different alkali metal
salts. The table on the next page contains the results obtained.

It will be seen from the above results that the product KC is approximately a
constant for solutions of the same concentration. Also EC is ten times greater
with solutions of 10 grams in a litre than with solutions of 1 gram in a litre.

It follows therefore that the saturation current through an alkali salt vapour
is (1) proportional to the amount of any one salt passing between the electrodes,
and (2) inversely proportional to the electrochemical equivalent of the sali
sprayed.

These results are exactly analogous to Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis for

548 ' REPORT—1901.

Liquid Electrolytes, and consequently they establish the analogy between con-
duction of electricity by salt solutions and that by salt vapours.

| 4 Electro- ‘ ah
Salt in the comet chemical | raat |
Solution Gens, per geipelent | digavved EC

sprayed litre) a t (C)

a |
CsCl ae beoites ieee Tel 3¢ 1Oner 254x107" |
RoI 10 212 Eis ere po RG He |
KI 10 166 Loa FS Varn as
Nal 10 | "1150 164, 246 ,,

CsCl 1 168 161 ,, 270x107”
Cs,CO, 1 163 161. ,, 262 5,
RbI 1 212 25 e 5, 2°65 ,,
RbCl 1 ergo 224 ,, ot x
Rb,CO, 1 115 244 ,, 2:30 ,,

ere 1 166 1:66 ,, 275 4
KBr 1 119 213 ,, 2-53 ,,
KF 1 58 442 ,, 2°67 ,,
K,CO, 1 69 4:00 ,, 276 4,
Nal 1 150 1:82 ,, 2°73 4,
NaBr 1 103 2°44 ,, ZD2) ss
NaCl 1 59 4°73 ,, Ziges
Na,CO, 1 53 Ae bess eit) [A SS
Lil 1 134 2:03, PIB
LiBr 1 87 Sls, 2°72 ,,
LiCl 1 43 Obed: 269) a5
Li,CO, 1 37 748 OC, DA (eee

| Mean 2.67

8. Preliminary Note on the Theory of the Lippmann Electrometer and
related Phenomena. By F. G. Corrretu,

In the paper it is pointed out that in the determinations of single potential
differences between metals and solutions of their salts by means of either the
capillary electrometer or dropping electrodes the assumption has up to the
present been made that the presence of a large amount of ‘indifferent’ and goo¢
conducting electrolyte in uniform concentration throughout effectually prevents
the differences of concentration of the metallic ions within the solution from
producing any measurable electromotive forces, This is shown to be the case
only—

a When the total quantity of depolarising agent (usually a mercury salt) in
the dilute portion of the solution (layer next the mercury in the capillary) is large
in comparison to that used up at the electrode during the measurements; or
(2) when the depolarising agent can diffuse from: the concentrated to the dilute
portion in a practically undissociated state.

In none of the forms of capillary electrometer or dropping electrode as yet
employed for quantitative measurement is the first of these alternatives satisfied
for such electrolytes as dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acids or potassium
chloride. It is, however, for those (such as certain strengths of alkaline sulphide
or cyanide solutions) in which the unpolarised mercury is already at its maximum
surface tension. The second alternative is also not satisfied by solutions of the
strong mineral acids or their salts, but probably is by cyanides, and to some

Pa

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. AY

extent by iodides. Whether the sulphides also belong here is harder to say, but
is not unlikely.

Tt has long been admitted as one of the most vulnerable points in the theories
of dissociation and the capillary electric phenomena that the values computed for
such cells as Hg | KCl | Na,S | Hg by the use of these methods for the terminal
E.M.F.’s and Planck's equations for the liquid contact (KCl | Na,S) do not agree
with the values obtained by direct measurement of the cell as a whole. The
tendency seems to have been to regard the contact Na,S | Hg as the disturb-
ing element; but the views here presented point to the discrepancy really lying
in the determination of the value for Hg | KCl. This, of course, has a direct and
important bearing on the value for the standard electrodes now in common use.

The same considerations serve to clear up some of the discrepancies between
theory and experiment in the phenomena of galvanic polarisation in general.

The present paper is merely intended to indicate the line of reasoning which
has led up to, and act as a preliminary notice for, a series of experiments aimed at
a clearer separation and measurement of the individual components of these
phenomena which the author has at present in hand, and expects soon to bring
forward as basis for a more thorough and conclusive treatment of the whole
subject.

9. Effect of Non-Electrolytes on the Lippmann Electrometer Curve.
By J. A. Craw.

10. Determination of the Surface Tension of Mercury by the
Method of Ripples. By J. A. Craw.

11, The Potential Differences of Allotropic Silver.
By J. A. Craw.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16,

The Section was divided into two Departments.

DEPARTMENT I.—MATHEMATICS,

The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on Tables of certain Mathematical Functions.
See Reports, p. 54.

2. A Criterion for the Recognition of the Irregular Points of Analytic
Functions. By Professor Mirrac-Lerrier, Foreign Member R.S.

Let ¢,+¢,(w—a) +¢,(v—a)?+... be a lower series, and let us make the
analytical continuation of this series along the line L, which starts from a. The
paper dealt with the problem of finding a criterion which will determine the
first singular point 2 upon L, which is found on proceeding from a towards
infinity.

The condition found was as follows :—

Denote by ¢ and 6 two positive quantities less than unity, and by

(@m ay (7)
rig) ad Ts Koa ghey

1901. | oo

550 REPORT—1901. :

constants defined by the formula
AAD 005 Atna—L Hart yA st on MUA

n—1
Then the necessary and sufficient condition that « be the first singular point on
L as we go from a to infinity is that the inequality

' \2 n n
v—a v=—a t v—a l—-e
1) ) 91, — Posies n!o,(=—") | n1(
| li K-11 log} ta + Kk) 9 log * % log? > la

holds independently of a, however small « may be, for an infinite number of values
of n ; while the inequality

n (w—a)(1—8)> es) (v— a)(1—6) 2
| et ree Tog =a +2! aaa - log! — Bh eet

nie, (ape-” i | = Ne een

holds for all sufficiently large values of » where we take a first and then e
sufficiently small.

3. Poincare’s Pear-shaped Figure of Equilibrium of Rotating Liquid.
by G. H, Darwin, FURS.

Ellipsoidal harmonic analysis has usually been presented in such a form as to
make numerical calculation almost impossible, but the author believes that he has
succeeded in removing this defect in a paper for the ‘ Philosophical Transactions,’
now in the press. By aid of the methods of that paper the limit of stability
of Jacobi’s ellipsoid becomes calculable. According to the principles established
by M. Poincaré, stability ceases when we arrive at a stage where a coefficient of
stability vanishes, and where there is interchange of stabilities between two
coalescent series of figures. The figure which coalesces with the Jacobian at
this point is the pear-shaped figure sketched by Poincaré. No attempt is made
in this paper to indicate the methods pursued, but results will merely he given.'

If » denotes the angular velocity of an ellipsoid of liquid, and p the density, it

is well known that bifurcation of the Maclaurin ellipsoid occurs when? Oley (le
<7p

and when a number p to which the moment of momentum is proportional is
*30375.7

One of the equatorial axes then begins to elongate, and the other to shorten, ag
the angular velocity diminishes and the moment of momentum increases. These
ellipsoidal figures with three unequal axes are the Jacobian ellipsoids.

The problem to be solved is to find when a coefficient of stability in the
Jacobian series first vanishes, and to determine the nature of the figure which
coalesces with the Jacobian.

If the phraseology of spherical harmonic analysis be adopted, it is found con-
venient to take as the principal axis of quasi-symmetry for the ellipsoidai
harmonics the longest axis of the Jacobian ellipsoid. Then it appears that the
first to vanish of the coefficients of stability is that corresponding to the third
zonal harmonic.

The following short table gives the leading facts concerning the Jacobian
ellipsoids as far as just beyond their instability. The last line in the table gives
the corresponding facts as to the critical Jacobian, which is a figure of bifurcation.
The axes of the ellipsoids a, 0, c are given in such a form that their product abc is

1 A paper giving the details of the investigation was presented to the Royal
Society in October 1901.
2 See Proc. R.S., vol. xli. p. 319.

= a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 551

equal to unity. The function » was referred to above, and exhibits the increase of
moment of momentum, whilst the angular velocity falls.

| w

a b | ¢ | mp | i
“6977 | 1:1972 1:1972 ‘1871 *30375 |
“696 1:123 1:279 186 | 306
6916 1:0454 | 13831 1812 3134
“6765 9235 | 1:6007 "1659 "3407
6494 S1LL 1:899 71409 *3920

| “65066 *81498 1:88583 14200 | “38957

In the figure the dotted line shows the three principal sections of the critical
Jacobian and the full line shows the pear-shaped figure, the amount of departure
from the ellipsoid being, of course, drawn on an arbitrary scale.

The reader who compares the figure of the critical Jacobian defined in the
last line of the table and shown in the figure with Poincaré’s sketch will perceive
that it is considerably longer than he had supposed. The resemblance of the new
figure to a pear is also much less remarkable than in the conjectural sketch,

Cc “t ° a” Cc

OA = 65066, OB =:81498, OC = 1:88583;

OM_, ON.
‘oc 775808; Ga = 78899

o” ='14200
mp

2

4. The Simple Pendulum without Approximation.
By Professor A. G. GREENHILL, /.R.S,

5. Spherical Trigonometry.
_ By Professor A. G. GreenuiLt, /.2.S., and C. Vernon Boys, 7.R.S.

6. On the Partition of Series each Term of which is a Product oy
Quantics. By Major P. A. MacManon, F.R.S.

002

552 REPORT—1901.

7. On Idoneal Numbers.
By Lt.-Col, Autan Cunninenam, &.2., and the Rev. J. Cutten, S.J.

About the year 1778 Euler discovered the existence of a class of positive
numbers (mz), such that if an odd number N be expressible in only one way in the
form (ma? + ny) [with ma prime to ny] or (2° + many’) [with x prime to mny],
then N iseither a prime or the square of a prime. These numbers he styled numeri
idonei from their special fitness to aid in the detection of high primes. He gave
rules for their discovery, and actually discovered sixty-five of them, the largest
being 1848, and stated that there are no more > 1,848 but_< 10,000. The joint
authors have recently extended their search up to 101,220 by a sort of graphic
process of solving simultaneous linear congruences (invented by the Rev. J. Cullen),
with the result that no more such numbers exist > 1,848, but < 101,220. (The
whole of the work ending in this result has been done independently by each of
the joint authors.)

As to the forms (ma® ~ ny”), (2? ~ mny”) mere automorphs of the same form,
t.e., products of the form by its unit-form r* — mnv* = 1, are not to be considered
as distinct forms. With this proviso it is found that negative idoneals (— mz)
are very numerous. Gauss’s tables show that, excluding squares, all but thirty-
five of the numbers < 328 yield negative idoneals. Also the authors find that all
the known positive idoneals (except 37) are also negative idoneals.

Several new theorems on quadratic forms whose determinant is an idoneal
were announced.

As an application all the odd numbers of form (2? + 1848y*), wherein 2 is
prime to 1848y, from 10,000,000 to 10,100,000, have been examined; the 189
numbers shown below were found to be expressible in only one way in that form,
and (squares having been excluded) are therefore all Primes.

[This work was done by two computers independently under Colonel Cunning-

ham’s supervision. ]

10,00 10,01 10,02 10,08 10,04 10,05 10,06 10,07 10,08 10,09

0,873 | 0,113 | 0,817 | 0,057 | 0,809 | 0,049 | 0,009 | 0,377 | 1,633 | 0,369
1,209 | 0,401 | 2,497 | 0,777 | 0,881 | 0,217 | 0,537 | 0,449 | 1,681 | 0,441
1,401 | 1,457 | 3,049 | 1,113 | 1,529 | 0,769 | 0,801 | 1,097 | 1,801 | 0,609
4,017.| 1,961 | 3,073 | 1,233 | 1,817 | 1,441 | 1,041 | 2,713 | 1,953
5,241 | 4,097 | 3,553 | 2,793 | 2,321 | 1,801 1,269 | 1,601 | 2,857 | 2,457
5,361 | 4,481 | 4,249 | 3,321 | 2,993 | 2,953 | 1,353 | 1,889 | 3,049 | 3,561
5,601 | 4,673 | 4,393 | 3,753 | 3,713 | 3,289 | 1,473 | 2,129 | 3,217 | 4,137
6,417 | 4,937 | 5,233 | 4,161 | 6,689 | 3,481 | 1,881 | 2,297 | 4,369 | 4,473
8,553 | 5,009 | 5,569 | 4,809 | 7,073 | 3,649 | 2,193 | 2,393 | 4,537 | 5,409
8,769 | 5,657 | 6,097 | 4,929 | 7,577 | 3,913 | 2,361 | 2,561 | 4,561 | 5,457
9,609 | 6,329 | 6,193 | 5,169 | 8,273 | 3,961 | 2,889 | 2,969 | 4,897 | 5,649
9,729 | 6,521 | 6,241 | 5,601 | 9,449 | 5,329 | 4,569 | 3,281 | 5,161 | 6,417

6,953 | 7,081 | 7,449 | 9,593 | 5,497 | 56,553 | 3,449 | 5,329 | 6,969
7,529 | 7,249 | 8,337 | 9,713 | 6,337 | 5,841 | 3,737 | 6,217 | 7,497
7,841 | 8,041 | 8,697 | 9,953} 6,601 | 5,889 | 4,241 | 6,913 | 8,169

lon
i
ow
ow

8,033 | 8,209 | 9,177 6,841 | 6,081 | 4,409 | 7,009 | 8,201
ne 8,297 | 8,881 | 9,297 7,513 | 6,681 | 5,129 | 7,177 | 8,313
8,633 9,969 7,777 | 6,753 | 5,297 | 8,017 | 8,438
8,969 9,193 | 8,193 | 5,657 | 8,761 | 9,163
9.689 9,537 | 5,921 | 9,073 | 9,321
7,433 9,681

7,937

8,489

8,513

8,993

9,353

9,833

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 553

8. Determination of Successive High Primes. (Second Paper) —
By Lt.-Col. Attan Cunnineuan, &.£., and H. J. Woopatt, A.2.C.Se.

A general method was previously explained of determining, in a compendious
manner, the whole of the primes within a given range. Tables have now been
repared showing the lowest factors (>5) of a// the numbers between (2* + 1020),
2.e., between 33,553,412 and 33,555,452, thus bringing them a// within the power
of the existing large factor-tables. Hereby are detected the whole of the High
Primes (128 in number) within that range, and also the whole of the Secondary
High Primes (45 in number) contained as factors of the numbers within that
range. [The whole of the work required has been done by each of the joint
authors independently. |
There is a long sequence of 73 composite numbers between 33,554,393 and
33,554,467, and one of 51 composites between 11,184,889 and 11,184,941.

38,553, ... | 33,554, ... 33,555, . «

— | 511 | 651 | 771 | 009 | 201 | 383 | 593 | 839 | 019 | 167 | 287 | 421
— | 517 | 657 | 787 | O11 | 221 | 393 | 639 | 849 | 0387 | 191 289 | 439
— | 519 | 661 | 799 | 021 | 239 |. 467 | G41 | 867 | O61 199 | 293 | 449
— | 637 | 679 | 837 | 051 | 249 | 473 693 | 891 | 073 | 209 | 317 —
— | 547 | 693 | 879 077 | 267 | 501 | 699 | 903 | O77 | 217 | 341 —
— | 549 | 697 | 901 | 083 | 273 | 503 | 737 | 929 | O79 | 241 | 373 | —
— | 577 | 727 | 909 | 093 | 291 | 509 | 743 | 951 | 089 | 251 | 377 —
417 | 607 | 739 | 967 | 123 | 317 | 519 | 761 | 959 | 101 | 259 | 883 | —
451 | 613 | 747 | 969 | 137 | 341 | 527 | 771'| 971 131 ZL | e39Lii\e —
463 | 633 | 759 | 991 | -159 | 347 | 579 | 789 | 977 | 149 | 281 |
489 | 649 | 769 | 999 | 167 | 371 | 581 | 831 | 993 | 163 | 283 | 419 —

oo
co
a
|

List of 45 High Primes between 4 (2% + 1080).

!
Tigi? |; PRAISE, oS 3

= 497 | 553 | 611 | 671 | 737 | 799 | 869 | 941 | OVL | 037 | 147
451 | 527 | 557 | 617 | 683 | 743 | 829 | 871 | 959 | OO7 | 049 | 157
469 | 529 | 577 | 659 | 703 | 757 | 839 | 883 | 967 | O19 | O81 | —
479 | 539 | 581 | 661 | 713 | 791 | 857 | 889 | 991 | 033 | 103 | —-

9. The Equation of Secular Inequalities.
By T. J. VA. Bromwicu, St. John’s College, Cambridge.

The theory of the mean motion of the perihelion and node of a planet’s orbit
was proved by Laplace to depend on a certain determinantal equation of degree
equal to the number of planets considered. A paper has recently been published
by C. V. L. Charlier (‘ Ofversigt af kong]. Vet.-Akad. Férhandlingar,’ Stockholm,
1900, p. 1083) in which he considers the question of equal roots in this equation ;
the case of equal roots was regarded by Laplace as unstable. Charlier remarks
that Weierstrass had proved (‘ Berliner Monatsberichte,’ 1858, p. 207, or ‘ Ges.
Werke,’ Bd. i. p. 233) that the equation (of the same form) which appears in the
theory of small oscillations about a position of equilibrium does not lead to
instability if equal roots are present; but apparently he regards Weierstrass’s
investigation as not sufficient to apply in the more general problem of astronomy.
Charlier then considers the astronomical case, in Weierstrass’s way, supposing that
equal roots do appear in Laplace’s equation; but the astronomical case may be

554 REPORT—1901.

considered as covered by Routh’s' and Weierstrass’s? investigations as to the
stability of a state of steady motion.

Amongst other results, Charlier finds a method for reducing the disturbing
function to a canonical form. As I have recently indicated? a process for the
reduction in the more general case of any steady motion, it may be worth while to
show how my method is simplified in Charlier’s case. Using the notation of my
own paper, Charlier’s disturbing function is given by writing 6,,;=0, ¢ =d,,
so that

Hy = 33ys 0 Us + FES yy Er Es (8 = 1h scr say: 72)
where
G,=0
and the equations of motion are
dz, OH, dé. .0H,

She pests LS
dt 0&,’ dt Ox,
Then the determinant which I employ is
Cit} Gypytet wag (Qin Sap, tO}: 20, 0 0)
Lain. Ugnnhern wey tlin, COW, Spe, te; OFAT|
Cnyy Gna, + + sy Anny 0, 0, Cale} Z6el
By 0, ney 0, yyy @yn5 6 5 sy Bin
O, By ey Oy Aaqy Gag, + + 09 Me |
| 0, 0, ee ey My any Anos «0 ey Onn |
which is readily reduced to the form
\ age a Fix vue “> Jan (=0
| Jes Eyer creeeemerns
Jip Snag xg Sen eA
Where fis = Gy1@y5+ Apylg + . . +» +A 80 that f= f. It follows by a

theorem due to Frobenius * that the values of ” are equal to those of —A?, where
A is a root of the equation

a,,—A, D0, » An |=0
@oyy Foy — Ny » Gan
Any) Anas eee Ann—A

By another theorem due to Frobenius, the invariant factors of the equation
in # are linear, as a consequence of the linearity of those of the equation in 2.
That the latter are linear was proved by Weierstrass (/.c.) (‘ Berliner Monats-
berichte,’ 1858, p. 215; 1868, p. 336). It follows that if A=a,, Gy). . ») Gn are
the (real) roots of the equation in A; then p= +ia,, +%a,,..., +a, are the
roots of the equation in » (of which any number may be equal); and so the
method of § 3 of my paper already quoted can be applied to bring H, to the form

Way E,’ (=I, Qysaiye o5y2)

the canonical equations of motion being unaltered, In this form the reality of

* Adams Prize Essay, 1877, Stability of Motion; of. Thomson and Tait, Vatural —
Philosophy, art 343 m.

* Berliner Monatsberichte, 1879, p. 430.

* Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., vol. xxxii. 1900, p- 197 (see also p. 325).

< ‘ ayant" Journal f. d. Math., Bd. 1xxxiy. 1878, p. 1 (see p. 11, Sats iii. and p. 25,
atz v.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. DOO

the results is not easily seen, and so we may use the equivalent form (given on
p. 216 of my paper)
pod, (245 + Ae)

which is Charlier’s form. It is perhaps worth while to remark that Jordan's
method‘ can be applied in this case, and without the use of imaginary quan-
tities,

10. The Puiseux Diagram and Differential Equations.”
By RK. W. H. T. Hupson, B.A, Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

The paper is concerned with the approximate solution of ordinary differential
equations in the neighbourhood of stngular points, and commences with a brief
description of the method of using a diagram of unit points (squared paper)
similar to that introduced by Puiseux for the case of algebraic functions. This
method, which was first applied to differential equations by Briot and Bouquet,
and extended by Fine, is shown to be capable of supplying information as to the
existence of infinitudes of non-regular integrals which are usually obtained by
purely analytical processes. The essential thing to notice is that a first approxi-
mation to a solution may be obtained, not only froma side of the ‘ polygon,’ but also
from a corner, provided that the corner arise as a marked point from two or more
terms in the differential equation, and two inequalities be satisfied, expressing a cer-
tain geometrical condition. The case of a differential equation of the first order
and a point on the discriminant locus at which the integral curves have zot a cusp
is a good example, and shows the existence of a naud may be predicted from an
inspection of the diagram. The case of solutions in series which at some stage
introduce logarithms is shown also to depend on corner points arising from more
than one term,

1l. The Fourier Problem of the Steady Temperatures in a thin Rod.
By James W. Peck.

The solution »= V exp ( —a WPA Ee is considered from the point of view of the
bs

isothermals and tubes of flow. The result so got appears to contradict the initial
hypothesis of lateral radiation; and it is pointed out that the difficulty cannot be
evaded by considering the radiation negligible, for this nullifies the initially chosen
equation of heat-flow. Explanation is found in the approximate nature of the
solution, and two necessary conditions of the approximation are worked out as
follows: defining the ratio e : k as the thermal length modulus (L)—also
specified physically—and taking «@ as the radius and / the length of the rod, we

must have (i.) the ratio E : L small ; (ii.) the ratio RY om : small. For experi-

mental purposes the first ratio should not exceed ,35, but the second need only
be smaller than about 4. Illustrations of the neglect of these conditions are
drawn from the experiments of Despretz and of Wiedemann and Franz. Numerical
values of L are given for a range of substances, and the limits between which the
Fourier result is applicable are pointed out. A solution haying a higher degree
of approximation than the Fourier result is then derived from the Bessel function

solution, viz.
27 WX & ho2r2 Bre ee N22
v=a 8 [r% Age (1 = a) —),%¢ Ay ( - oa ) ]

" Liouville’s Journal de Math. (2), t. xix. 1874, p. 35 ($§ 5-8). References
to Kronecker’s methods of reduction and to other methods will be found in my paper
already quoted.

c The paper is published in the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society,
vol, xxxiy.

556 REPORT—1901.

and it is shown that the isothermals may in certain defined cases be taken as the
axial paraboloids of revolution

r= —24/2La e+ / M log. 4L2|(4L + «)V}

and the lines of flow as the logarithmic curves
y= Ae! )/2La

Drawings of the curves and numerical examples are given in illustration of
these results.

12. Note on the Potential of a Surface Distribution.
By T. J. VA. Bromwicu, St. John’s College, Cambridge.

The problem is the determination of the discontinuities (at the surface) of the
second differential coefficients of the potential; the results are familiar, but the
method seems.easier than any other I am acquainted with. The same method
has been used by Weingarten (‘ Acta Mathematica,’ Bd. x. 1887, p. 808; ‘ Archiv
d. Math. u. Phys.’ (3), Bd. i. 1901, p. 27) to find the discontinuities in the second
differential coefficients of the potential of an attracting mass at the boundary of
the space which it occupies; also for some kinematical conclusions in connection
with vortex motion.

Take the origin on the surface at an ordinary point of the surface and let the
axis of = be normal to the surface. If the surface is closed the positive direction
of = will be from the inside towards the outside of the surface; if the surface is
not closed the direction of z can be taken arbitrarily. The side for which = is
positive will be denoted by the suffix 0, the other side by the suffix 1. The
equation to the surface then takes the form (near the origin)

2=4(ax? + Qhay + by*) +

Let o be the surface density at (2. y, =), supposed to be finite, continuous, and
differentiable, and let s be the value of o at the origin, s,, s,, s. being the first
differential coefficients there. Then we may write

O =S+ U8, + YSy +28. + er

2

where P=a=vryr +e

and « may be made as small as we please by sufficiently diminishing 7.
The potentials on the two sides of the surface are denoted by V,, Vi, and we
write
OV, OVo OV, &V OV, ov
by = ee Mee = — 4 y= =e .
Ba OR: at el? Oey eee
ba the values of the differential coefficients are to be taken at tke origin.
us
ore - oe = Ug, + Ue + YUry + les + Eyl", KCe

where the quantities e’ may be made as small as we please by sufficiently dimi-
nishing 7.
But at points on the given surface
s=4(aa? + 2hay +by*)+ ...
and so we may write

OV, _OVo

ses * Wins = = . me. "
o=S4+ U8, + Y8, +e 7, ee Dp te ea eT ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 557

Now, by the theory of the potential of a surface density, as given in the ordinary

books on potential,
pa _ is =4rol, 0 ai - me =4rom, AE - zat =4ron,
where /, m, n are the direction cosines of the normal to the surface (drawn from
the side z<0 towards the side z>0).
Here we may write
l= —(arthy)+e7, m= —(hev+by)ter, n=1+e.r,
and so we have
Uy + LUyy + Yllry + € 1 = Ans + vs, + ys, +P) — (ar t hy) + 27°]
Uy + WUzy + YUyy + €)'7 = An(S +25, + Ys, + €’r)[ — (ha + by) + yr]
Ws + UU zz + YUy: + €!'Y = Aer (8+ ase + ysy ter) Lt ery

As these hold for a/d values of «, y, for which 7 is less than some assignable
quantity, we have the results

Ur, = — 4rras > Ur: =4r8z
Uy, = —4rbs » Uy; =A,
U:,= +4r(atb)s , Uy= —4rhs

where the value of z.. is determined by the fact that
Ure + Uyy + Uz: =(V?V,—-V°V ) at the origin

Since a+b= 1 enol

Pt) fiP2
where p,, p, are the principal radii of curvature of the surface, it follows that

Uz, =4rs ie + = )

Pi Pe
is independent of the directions of the axes of x, y,as might be expected. A
special case of this, when the surface is an equipotential, was given first by Green,
(‘ Essay,’ § 8). These results agree with those given by Korn (‘Lehrbuch der
Potentialtheorie,’ Bd.i. p. 50), and Poincaré (‘Potentiel Newtonien,’ p. 251), when
allowance is made for the simplification introduced by using the axes selected
above.

13. The Applications of Fourier’s Series to Mathematical Physics.
By H. 8. Carstaw, D.Se.

In the problem of conduction of heat when the solution is given by the
infinite series
v = 3a, sin nve~Krt |

where

2 (7 ry ot rae
Oh ee =a Ff (2”) sin n2"d2’,
Ty Jo

the presence of the factor e~*"** preserves the convergency of the series when
differentiated term by term.
_ In_the problems of transverse vibrations of strings where the solution is
given by
uv = Sa, sin nx cos nat

558 REPORT—1901.

this convergency factor is not present. The paper called attention to two matters
connected with this solution :—

(1) The series which are used—when the string starts from a position of rest
with sharp corners—is not capable of differentiation twice with regard to x and ¢.

2) The equation = Se ad being obtained on the assumption that the
q dt” da” eS P

string forms a curve without sharp corners, cannot without discussion be applied
to these cases.

Department II.—Puysics.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report on Underground Temperature.—See Reports, p. 64.

2. Report on Seismological Investigation.—See Reports, p. 40.

3. On the Seasonal Variation of the Atmospheric Temperature of the
British Isles and its Relation to Wind-direction. By W. N. Suaw,
M.A., F.RS., and R. Watuy Couen, B.A}

If the twenty-five-year means of temperature for each day of the year at the
four principal stations of the British Meteorological Office be plotted the curves
do not exhibit a smooth run, but show a number of irregularities—often of con-
siderable magnitude, It is thus difficult to assign any specific number as the
normal mean temperature for a particular day, and the immediate object of the
work described below was to obtain a smooth curve to which the actual observed
temperature of any day might be referred and to study its characteristics. The
curves of actual daily means were first compared with simple harmonic curves
having an annual period, a maximum about July 21, and the same area as the
irregular curves. The comparison at once disclosed a lag of spring and an
acceleration of autumn, and a corresponding exaggeration of the summer
maximum and moderation of the winter minimum. These features, being
essentially characteristic of the combination of a first and second order sine
curve with a maximum at the same epoch, suggested the idea of combining
two such curves to obtain a normal curve of reference. These combined curves
give very satisfactory smoothed curves for the whole year for each station, and
show that the periodic variations of atmospheric temperature at Kew may be
very approximately represented by the summation of two effects, one of which
corresponds to a sine curve with an annual period and an amplitude of 12°-04 F.
and the other to a sine curve with a semi-annual period and an amplitude of
1°4 EF. Similar statements with similar numerical magnitudes are true of the
other stations. This result has been confirmed analytically.

The curves of daily mean atmospheric temperature have been harmonically
analysed for each of the stations, and the values of the harmonic coefficients
have been determined in the Meteorological Office by means of Sir R. Strachey’s
formula.* In each case there is a second order curve whose amplitude is about
one-eighth of that of the first order, and the amplitudes of the curves of higher
order are so small as to be negligible. The first order curve has a maximum at a
date which varies at the four stations from July 23 to August 1, and the second
order curve has maxima which vary from January 28 to February 8, and July 30

1 See Proc. Royal Soc.
* Proc. Royal Soc., vol. xlii. pp. 61-79.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 559

to August 5 respectively, and minima about the end of April and October
respectively.

Assuming the first order curve to represent the primary solar effect, the
purpose of this investigation has been to ascertain the nature and cause of the
second order effect.

Analysis of the temperature at Vienna shows that it does not exist there either
to the same extent or at the same epoch. At Agra there is a second order effect
of considerable magnitude, but at an entirely different epoch, and hence inno way
analogous to the effect in the British Isles. The effect is thus shown to be
meteorological and not planetary.

The effect was first studied for Kew. Its cause was sought in the effects and
relative frequency of occurrence of cyclonic and anticyclonic weather. For this
purpose the mean temperatures of cyclonic days for each month throughout the
year during the five years 1876-1880, and of anticyclonic days during the same
period, were separately calculated, and curves were plotted whose ordinates are
proportional to the difference between these values and the mean of the ordinates
of the first order curve for each month. Both these curves show the main
characteristics of the second order curve, and the curve of difference of tempera-
ture between cyclonic and anticyclonic weather shows no sign of it. Moreover,
by multiplying the percentage of difference of frequency of cyclonic and
anticyclonic weather for each month by the difference in temperature, the total
effect of type of weather on temperature is obtained, and its curve shows that it
does not in any respect resemble the second order effect. It is concluded that
although the second order effect has a meteorological origin the type of the weather
plays no part in causing it.

The effect of wind direction was next examined for the nine-year period
1876-1884. The mean temperatures of the air during the prevalence of barometric
gradients towards each of eight points of the compass in each month were
separately calculated, and curves of divergence from the first harmonic component
were drawn for each wind (taken as being at right angles to the gradient) in the
same way as for the cyclonic and anticyclonic curves. Each of these curves shows
at least some characteristic of the second order curve; but on summing them all
together a curve is obtained which differs somewhat from the total curve of
divergence from first order curve values.

The effect is largely accounted for as the combined effect of the seasonal
variations in temperature of the several winds, and when this part is eliminated
the remainder must be attributed to the relative frequency of winds of different
temperature. ‘To show this more clearly the winds were grouped together. The
mean temperature divergence of east winds is —3°1 F.; of north-east winds
—4°-0 F.; and of north winds —3°5 F. These winds were grouped as ‘cold’
winds. Similarly the north-west and south-east winds, whose mean diver-
gences are only —0°6 F. and —0°7 F. respectively, were grouped as ‘ temperate’
winds, and the west, south-west, and south winds, whose mean divergences are
+1°7 F., +2°2F., and +2°5 F. respectively, were grouped as ‘ warm’ winds.
Temperature curves were drawn for each of these groups analogous to the curves
for the separate winds. Hach curve again shows a general resemblance to the
second order curve, but it is noticeable that the October-November minimum is
especially prominent in the curve for the temperate winds. The mean frequencies
of occurrence of these groups in each month during the nine years were also
calculated and expressed as a percentage of the total number of days; the results
were plotted on curves whose ordinaies are proportional to these percentage
frequencies.

The frequency curve for ‘cold’ winds shows a very remarkable maximum
frequency in May and a small maximum in November.

The frequency curve for warm winds shows minima at these times and
maxima in February and August, and the frequency curve for temperate winds,
which become distinctly colder in October-November, shows a very high maximum
at the end of October. At that time the temperature of these winds is much below
the average relative value, and thus the small maximum of the curve of the cold

560 REPORT—1901.

winds at that time is reinforced by the seasonal coldness of the more prevalent
winds.

As an example of the results derived from the inquiry it may, be mentioned
that the minimum of the second order effect at the end of April may be attributed
to the relative frequency of ‘cold’ winds and the relative coldness of all winds at
that period, while the corresponding minimum at the end of October must be
assigned to the relative frequency of ‘temperate’ winds and the comparative
coldness of those winds at that time of the year.

The second order ettect is apparent in a single year’s observations, and has, with
few exceptions, a larger amplitude in the analysis of the temperature curve of a
single year than in that of a mean curve of a number of years. The amplitude for
a single year may be as much as 3°, or a quarter of the amplitude of the whole
annual variation.

A similar effect is found in the variation of magnitude of the barometric
gradient between London and Valencia, and London and Aberdeen. It is
probable that this periodic variation in pressure plays some part in causing the
similar variation in temperature.

A similar effect is also found in the temperature variation of the sea water at
stations surrounding these islands, and the atmospheric effect is probably con-
nected with this.

4. On the Effect of Sea Temperature upon the Seasonal Variation of Air
Temperature of the British Isles. By W. N. Suaw, IA., F.RS

The paper describes an attempt to utilise the mode of geometrical composition
and resolution of sine curves of the same period to resolve the principal seasonal
variations of temperature at a station into constituents, which may be called the
primary solar constituent, and the constituent due to the surroundings of land
and sea respectively.

The analysis of atmospheric temperature shows that there is a considerable
lag in the occurrence of the seasonal variations of temperature at coast stations as
compared with inland stations, and a still greater lag in the variations of
temperature in the sea itself.

The variation in sea temperature is regarded as a periodic cause of variation
of atmospheric temperature at coast stations, the effect of which is periodic in the
same period, and may be compounded with the primary solar effect to give the
resultant seasonal variation.

The effects of these curves of equal period may be represented in magnitude by
the numerical value of the amplitudes of the first order curves of the respective
temperature variations, and they may be compounded geometrically by means of a
triangle whose sides are proportional to these amplitudes, and are inclined at angles
corresponding to the relative epochs of the curves. Insuch a triangle the following
elements are known :—

1. A side proportional to the observed amplitude at the station.

2. The difference in epoch between the primary solar cause and the resultant,
7.e., the angle between the sides proportional to the amplitudes of the primary
solar and of the resultant effects.

3. The angle between the sides proportional to the marine and the primary
solar effect.

By assuming the primary solar effect to be the same for places in the same
latitude it would thus be possible to analyse seasonal variation of temperature
at any place into its elements, and an example is given of this analysis in the case
of Kew. A point of some interest arising out of this is the lag in the seasons at
sea-coast stations, showing that not only the autumn and winter are late at the
sea-coast, but also the spring, so that an early spring is to be sought inland.

' See Proc. Royal Soc.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 561

Another point of interest is the effect of the sea, which is not, as is generally
supposed, actually to decrease the amplitude of annual temperature oscillation,
but to increase it, although to a less extent than a corresponding surrounding area
of land. Thus at Nertchinski-Zavod, in Siberia, the effect (calculated as above) of
the secondary cause, 7.e., the surrounding land, on annual temperature variation
has an amplitude of 55° F,; whilst at Kew, in the same latitude, the effect of the
surrounding land and sea has only an amplitude of 8°°3 F. The figures for sea
temperature are inadequate for effective numerical analysis, but they suggest a
possibility of arriving on these lines at a definite comparison of inland and marine
climates,

5. A New Point of View about Gravitation, and a proposed Experiment.
By Dr. V. CrEmieEv,

We know perfectly well the quantitative law of gravitation, but we have no
idea of the mechanism of the attraction.

Several attempts have been made to explain gravitation by the presence of a
medium, but, I believe, all without success. Some learned men, too, had the
idea of finding by experiment whether the propagation of attraction was in-
stantaneous or not; but, as far as I know, no physical experiment was ever tried.

Whenever a system is in equilibrium every attempt to disturb that equi-
librium will introduce new forces into the system, which will act against this
disturbance of equilibrium.

There are many examples: heating of gases by compression, increase of
resistance of metals with temperature, and consequently, when they are sub-
mitted to an electromotive force ; and, moreover, the law of Lenz in induction,

I thought that gravitation must very likely follow that universal law.

If, for instance, we consider the two bodies A and B in equilibrium, we can
imagine that there is a ‘flux of attraction’ between them. Let us move A very
quickly : this motion will produce a sudden variation in that flux, and a reaction
will take place in the system at that moment which will work against the motion
communicated to A.

A few months ago I described in the ‘Comptes Rendus’ a new very sensitive
kind of balance which gives us an easy and direct way of verifying that idea.

This balance is made in the following manner: a very light tube of aluminium
is horizontally suspended by a silk thread, the two bent parts of which form an
angle of about 120°.

At one end of this tube is fixed a small sphere of platinum weighing about
three grammes. At the other end is a permanent magnet suspended by a silk
thread ; the weight of this magnet is three or four milligrammes lighter than that
of the sphere.

A coil is fixed on the support of the apparatus, and the silk thread bearing
the permanent magnet coincides with the axis of that coil.

On sending a current through it in the proper direction a repulsion between
the fixed coil and the permanent magnet will be established. That is the repulsion
which will be used instead of weights.

I have constructed several of these balances for use as galvanometers or
electrometers. The measured accuracy of one was as follows:

It gives, at a distance of two metres, a deviation of 12 millimetres for a
current of 10-° amperes, which corresponds on the movable magnet to a force
of 3 x 10-> dynes. This is the maximum obtained as yet. But I can easily
obtain the 10-‘of a dyne; and I hope, with the long arm constructed for
my gravitation experiment, to each about the 10~° of a dyne.

Now, with a convenient current, let us produce equilibrium between the
magnet and the sphere. We will record it by the position of a spot of light
reflected by a mirror. If, then, we bring near to the sphere a heavy sphere
of lead, there will be an attraction between them; we can equilibrate it by
increasing conveniently the current in the eoil.

562 REPORT-—1901.

If now we drop the heavy sphere of lead we shall have the sudden variation
required for the experiment. ; ieee

If my idea is right we shall observe at that same moment an impulsion of the
spot of light on the scale in the direction of the motion—that is to say, in a direc-
tion contrary to that which wouid be observed if the assumed effect does not exist.

The apparatus for making the experiment is now ready, and I hope to obtain
results before long. J {

I will point out that astronomical observations cannot answer this ques-
tion because in the motions of the planets there are only very small changes
of the ‘ flux of gravitation’; and, besides, the distances are enormous. Moreover,
as these changes would be always reversed in the course of a complete
revolution, their very small effects would neutralise one another.

6. A Discussion on the proposed New Unit of Pressure, opened by a Paper
by Dr, C. E, Guittaume.—For Dr. Guillaume’s Paper see Reports,
pi dds

7. The Michelson-Morley Effect. By W. M. Hicks, F.R.S,

In the theory of this experiment, as usually presented, no account is taken of
the alteration in wave length produced by reflection from a moving surface, nor
of the alteration in the direction of incidence as the drift alters, when the source
of light is fixed to the apparatus. When this is done it follows that the pheno-
mena to be expected are not precisely the same as those usually supposed, and in
certain cases the displacement of the fringes is subject to a quite different law.
The two sets of interfering waves, when there is drift, have not the same wave
length in space, although their apparent frequencies at any point moving with the
apparatus are equal, Consequently interference fringes are produced on a screen
which is fixed to the apparatus, and these fringes are displaced a certain number of
bands when the apparatus drifts. Usually, however, the fringe is observed by an
optical apparatus which produces an image on the retina. But the two inter-
fering pencils from any point of the actual fringe, when they arrive at the retina,
have a different phase-difference from that at the original point. Consequently
the image of the central bright line will not itself be a bright line. The central bright
band on the retina will be the optical image of another point on the original, and
the fringe-image shows the original one displaced by a certain amount which
alters with the drift. The observed displacement is therefore the resultant of
two others, one of which may in certain circumstances quite mask the other.
Supposing the drift of the apparatus to be comparable with that of the earth’s
orbital motion—say 10-* times that of light—it was shown to be possible that
in Michelson’s actual experiment the arrangements were such that the effect he
expected was quite masked by the other.

8. The Law of Radiation. By Dr. J. Larmor, /.R.S.

9, Radiation of Heat and Light from a Heated Solid Body.
By Dr. J.'T. Bortomury, F.R.S.

In this paper an account is given of recent experiments on radiation of
heat and light from a heated solid body commencing with the very lowest
temperature at which a heated body becomes visible and proceeding to tem-
peratures approaching white heat. The experiments were made on pairs of
platinum strips specially prepared for the author by Messrs. Johnson & Matthey.
The strips were 15 mm. broad, and extremely thin. One of each pair was
highly polished, and the other was coated with lampblack. ‘The pairs of strips

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 563

were contained in similar glass tubes, which were connected together by end
tubes, one of which was connected to a Sprengel pump, and by means Of the
Sprengel pump a very high vacuum was obtained, so that the energy lost was
entirely due to radiation; the amount of heat lost by convection being negligible.
The lowest temperature at which the strip becomes visible in a darkened chamber
to an observer who has remained in the dark for some time in order that his eyes
may attain perfect sensitiveness is about 400°C. At this temperature the
blackened strip loses nearly seven times as much energy as the polished strip.
As the temperature rises the ratio seems to fall, while the light given off
passes to dull red, then to cherry red, and finally to bright red approaching white
heat.

Experiments are also referred to, of an older date, in which pairs of wires,
one polished and the other sooted, were compared at the same temperature
(inferred from the resistance of the wires). -

It is concluded from all these experiments that the production of light is
vastly more economical when the surface of the light-giving body is bright and
highly polished than when it is dull or coated with lampblack.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 1i.

The Section was divided into two Departments.

DrpaRTMENT I,.—Pnysics.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Clustering of Gravitational Matter in any part of the Universe.
By Lord Ketvin, G.C.V.0., FBS.

Gravitational matter, according to our ideas of universal gravitation, would be
all matter. Now, is there any matter which is not subject to the law of gravita-
tion? I think I may say with absolute decision that there is. We are all
convinced, with our President, that ether is matter, but we are forced to say that
the properties of molar matter are not to be looked for in ether as generally
known to us by action resulting from force between atoms and matter, ether and
ether, and atoms of matter and ether. Here I am illogical when I say between
matter and ether, as if ether were not matter. It is to avoid an illogical phraseo-
logy that I use the title ‘gravitational matter.’ Many years ago I gave strong
reason to feel certain that ether was outside the law of gravitation. We need
not absolutely exclude, as an idea, the possibility of there being a portion of space
occupied by ether beyond which there is absolute vacuum—no ether and no
matter. We admit that that is something that one could think of; but I do
not believe any living scientific man considers it in the slightest degree probable
that there is a boundary around our universe beyond which there is no ether
and no matter. Well, if ether extends through all space, then it is certain
that ether cannot be subject to the law of mutual gravitation between its
parts, because if it were subject to mutual attraction between its parts its equi-
librium would be unstable, unless it were infinitely incompressible, But here,
again, I am reminded of the critical character of the ground on which we stand in
speaking of properties of matter beyond what we see or feel by experiment.
I am afraid I must here express a view different from that which Professor
Riicker announced in his Address, when he said that continuity of matter implied
absolute resistance to condensation. We have no right to bar condensation as
a property of ether. While admitting ether not to have any atomic struc-
ture, it is postulated as a material which performs functions of which we know
something, and which may have properties allowing it to perform other functions

564, REPORT— 1901.

of which we are not yet cognisant. If we consider ether to be matter, we
postulate that it has rigidity enough for the vibrations of light, but we have no
right to say that it is absolutely incompressible. We must admit that sufficiently
great pressure all round could condense the ether in a given space, allowing the
ether in surrounding space to come in towards the ideal shrinking surface. When
I say that ether must be outside the law of gravitation, I assume that it is not
infinitely incompressible. I admit that if it were infinitely incompressible,
it might be subject to the law of mutual gravitation between its parts; but to
my mind it seems infinitely improbable that ether is infinitely incompressible,
and it appears more consistent with the analogies of the known properties of molar
matter, which should be our guides, to suppose that ether has not the quality
of exerting an infinitely great force against compressing action of gravitation.
Hence, if we assume that it extends through all space, ether must be outside
the law of gravitation—that is to say, truly imponderable. I remember the
self-complacent compassion with which sixty years ago—I myself, I am afraid—
and most of the teachers of that time looked upon the ideas of the elderly
people who went before us, who spoke of ‘the imponderables.’ I fear that in
this, as in a great many other things in science, we have to hark back to the
dark ages of fifty, sixty, or a hundred years ago, and that we must admit there
is something which we cannot refuse to call matter, but which is not subject
to the Newtonian law of gravitation. That the sun, stars, planets, and meteoric
stones are all of them ponderable matter is true, but the title of my paper implies
that there is something else. Ether is not any part of the subject of this paper ;
what we are concerned with is gravitational matter, ponderable matter. Ether
we relegate, not to a limbo of imponderables, but to distinct species of matter
which have inertia, rigidity, elasticity, compressibility, but not heaviness. Ina
paper I have already published I gave strong reasons for limiting to a definite
amount the quantity of matter in space known to astronomers. I can scarcely avoid
using the word ‘universe,’ but I mean our universe, which may be a very small
affair after all, occupying a very small portion of all the space in which there is
ponderable matter.

Supposing a sphere of radius 3:09.10!" kilometres (being the distance at which
a star must be to have parallax 0001) to have within it, uniformly distributed
through it, a quantity of matter equal to one thousand million times the sun’s
mass, the velocity acquired by a body placed originally at rest at the surface
would, in five million years, be about 20 kilometres per second, and in twenty-five
million years would be 108 kilometres per second (if the acceleration remained
sensibly constant for so long atime). Hence, if the thousand million suns had
been given at rest twenty-five million years ago, uniformly distributed throughout
the supposed sphere, many of them would now have velocities of 20 or 30 kilo-
metres per second, while some would have less and some probably greater velo-
cities than 108 kilometres per second; or, if they had been given thousands of
million years ago at rest so distributed that now they were equally spaced
throughout the supposed sphere, their mean velocity would now be about 50 kilo-
metres per second,' This is not unlike the measured velocities of stars, and hence
it seems probable that there might be as much matter as one thousand million
suns within the distance 3:09.10'° kilometres. The same reasoning shows that ten
thousand million suns in the same sphere would produce velocities far greater than
the known star velocities, and hence there is probably much less than ten thousand
million times the sun’s mass in the sphere considered. A general theorem dis-
covered by Green seventy-three years ago regarding force at a surface of any
shape, due to matter (gravitational, or ideal electric, or ideal magnetic) acting
according to the Newtonian law of the inverse square of the distance, shows that
a non-uniform distribution of the same total quantity of matter would give
greater velocities than would the uniform distribution. Hence we cannot, by any
non-uniform distribution of matter within the supposed sphere of 3-09.10" kilo-
metres radius, escape from the conclusion limiting the total amount of the matter
within it to something like one thousand million times the sun’s mass.

1 Phil. Mag., August 1901, pp. 169, 170.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A... 565

If we compare the sunlight with the light from the thousand million
stars, each being supposed to be of the same size and brightness as our sun, we
find that the ratio of the apparent brightness of the star-lit sky to the bright-
ness of our sun’s disc would be 3°87.10-'%. This ratio! varies directly with
the radius of the containing sphere, the number of equal globes per equal volume
being supposed constant ; and hence to make the sum of the apparent area of discs
3°87 per cent. of the whole sky, the radius must be 3:09.10* kilometres. With
this radius light would take 34.10" years to travel from the outlying stars to
the centre. Irrefragable dynamics proves that the life of our sun as a luminary
is probably between fifty and 100 million years; but to be liberal, suppose each of
our stars to have a life of 100 million years asa luminary, and it is found that
the time taken by light to travel from the outlying stars to the centre of the
sphere is three and a quarter million times the life of a star. Hence it follows
that to make the whole sky aglow with the light of all the stars at the same time
the commencements of the stars must be timed earlier and earlier for the more and
more distant ones, so that the time of the arrival of the light of every one of
them at the earth may fall within the durations of the lights of all the others at
the earth. My supposition as to uniform density is quite arbitrary; but never-
theless I think it highly improbable that there can be enough of stars (bright or
dark) to make a total of star-disc area more than 10—'* or 10 of the whole sky.

To help to understand the density of the supposed distribuzion of 1,000 million
suns in a sphere of 3:09.10'° kilometres radius, imagine them arranged exactly in
cubic order, and the volume per sun is found to be 123:5.10%° cubic kilometres,
and the distance from one star to any one of its six nearest neighbours would be
4-98,10'° kilometres. The sun seen at this distance would probably be seen as a
star of between the first and second magnitude; but supposing our 1,000 million
suns to be all of such brightness as to be stars of the first magnitude at distance
corresponding to parallax 1’"0, the brightness at distance 3:09.10" kilometres
would be one one-millionth of this; and the most distant of our stars would be
seen through powerful telescopes as stars of the sixteenth magnitude. Newcomb
estimated from thirty to fifty million as the number of stars visible in modern
telescopes. Young estimated at 100 million the number visible through the Lick
telescope. This larger estimate is only one tenth of our assumed 1,000 million
masses equal to the sun, of which, however, 900 million might be either non-
luminous, or, though luminous, too distant to be seen by us at their actual
distances from the earth. Remark, also, that it is only for facility of counting
that we have reckoned our universe as 1,000 million suns; and that the meaning
of our reckoning is that the total amount of matter within a sphere of 3:09.10"
kilometres radius is 1,000 million times the sun’s mass. The sun’s mass is
1:99.10°" metric tons, or 1:99.10*' grammes. Hence our reckoning of our sup-
posed spherical universe is that the ponderable part of it amounts to 1:99.10%
grammes, or that its average density is 1°61.10—* of the density of water.

Let us now return to the question of sum of apparent areas. The ratio of
this sum to 47, the total apparent area of the sky viewed in all directions, is given

by the formula!: a = = (2) provided its amount is so small a fraction of

unity that its diminution by eclipses, total or partial, may be neglected. In
this formula, N is a number of globes of radius @ uniformly distributed within a
spherical surface of radius 7. For the same quantity of matter in N’ globes of the
same density, uniformly distributed through the same sphere of radius r, we have

N’=(@)° and therefore 2 =%. With N=10°, r=3-09.10" kil
wi=(e) and therefore = abs ith N=10°, 7=3:09,.10'" kilometres; and
a (the sun's radius) =7.10° kilometres; we had a=8'87.10-. Hence
_@ =7 kilometres gives a’ =3'87.10-°; and @’’=1 centimetre gives a” =1/36-9.
Hence if the whole mass of our supposed universe were reduced to globules of
density 1:4 (being the sun’s mean density), and of 2 centimetres diameter, dis-

tributed uniformly through a sphere of 3°09,10'° kilometres radius, an eye at the

1 Phil. Mag., August 1901, p. 175,
1901. PP

566 REPORT—1901.

centre of this sphere would lose only 1/36-9 of the light of a luminary outside it !
The smallness of this loss is easily understood when we consider that there is only
one globule of 2 centimetres diameter per 360,000,000 cubic kilometres of space, in
our supposed universe reduced to globules of 2 centimetres diameter. Contrast with
the total eclipse of the sun by a natural cloud of water spherules, or by the cloud
of smoke from the funnel of a steamer.

Let now all the matter in our supposed universe be reduced to atoms (literally
brought back to its probable earliest condition). Through a sphere of radius r let
atoms be distributed uniformly in respect to gravitational quality. It is to be
understood that the condition ‘ uniformly ’ is fulfilled if equivoluminal globular or
cubic portions, small in comparison with the whole sphere, but large enough to
contain large numbers of the atoms, contain equal total masses, reckoned gravita-
tionally, whether the atoms themselves are of equal or unequal masses, or of
similar or dissimilar chemical qualities. As long as this condition is fulfilled, each
atom experiences very approximately the same force as if the whole matter were
infinitely fine-grained, that is to say, utterly homogeneous.

Let us therefore begin with a uniform sphere of matter of density p, gravita-
tional reckoning, with no mutual forces except gravitation between its parts, given
with every part at rest at the initial instant; and let it be required to find the
subsequent motion. Imagining the whole divided into infinitely thin concentric
spherical shells, we see that every one of them falls inwards, as if attracted by the
whole mass within it collected at the centre. Hence our problem is reduced to
the well-known students’ exercise of finding the rectilinear motion of a particle
attracted according to the inverse square of the distance from a fixed point. Let

2, be the initial distance, = x,° the attracting mass, v and x the velocity and

distance from the centre at time ¢. The solution of the problem for the time
during which the particle is falling towards the centre is

by an (574 + asin 20) =3q/ be *)]

and

where 6 denotes the acute angle whose sine is ni "This shows that the time
ay

of falling through any proportion of the initial distance is the same whatever be
the initial distance ; and that the time (which we shall denote by T) of falling to

iad
. vo . - .
the centre is ina/ es Hence in our problem of homogeneous gravitational
mp

matter given at rest within a spherical surface and left to fall inwards, the
augmenting density remains homogeneous, and the time of shrinkage to any
stated proportion of the initial radius is inversely as the square root of the
density.

To. apply this result to the supposed spherical universe of radius 3:09.10"
kilometres, and mass equal to a thousand million times the mass of our sun, we
find the gravitational attraction on a body at its surface gives acceleration of
1:37.1C—* kilometres per second per second. This therefore is the value of
cet ie
aa ans
aistance; and we find T=52°8.10" seconds=16°8 million years. Thus our
formulas become

with one second as the unit of time and one kilometre as the unit of

$o?=1°37.10 a,( fo 1)

0=528.10- / x,(%-1)

giving

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 567

and

a 528.10" 1 ~ ot 1 Za )]

whence, when sin @ is very small,

Let now, for example, 2,=8'09.10"" kilometres, and “o=10'; and, therefore,

Lu
sind=6=316.10- ; whence, v=291,000 kilometres per second, and
t = T—7,080 seconds = T—2 hours approximately.

By these results it is most interesting to know that our supposed sphere of
perfectly compressible fluid, beginning at rest with density 1:61.10—-* of that of
water, and of any magnitude large or small, and left unclogged by ether to shrink
under the influence of mutual gravitation of its parts, would take nearly seventeen
million years to reach ‘0161 of the density of water, and about two hours longer
to shrink to infinite density at its centre. It is interesting also to know that if
the initial radius is 3°09.10'° kilometres, the inward velocity of the surface is
291,000 kilometres per second at the instant when its radius is 3:09.10 and its
density ‘0161 of that of water. If now, instead of an ideal compressible fluid, we
go back to atoms of ordinary matter of all kinds as the primitive occupants of
our sphere of 3:09.10" kilometres radius, all these conclusions, provided all the
velocities are less than the velocity of light, would still hold, notwithstanding the
ether occupying the space through which the atoms move. This would, I believe,’
exercise no resistance whatever to uniform motion of an atom through it; but it
would certainly add quasi-inertia to the intrinsic Newtonian inertia of the atom
itself moving through ideal space void of ether; which, according to the New-
tonian law, would be exactly in proportion to the amount of its gravitational
quality, The additional quasi-inertia must be exceedingly small in comparison
with the Newtonian inertia, as is demonstrated by the Newtonian proofs, includ-
ing that founded on Kepler's laws for the groups of atoms constituting the planets,
and movable bodies experimented on at the earth’s surface.

In one thousand seconds of time after the density ‘0161 of the density of water
is reached, the inward surface velocity would be 305,000 kilometres per second,
or greater than the velocity of light ; and the whole surface of our condensing
globe of gas or vapour or crowd of atoms would begin to glow, shedding light
inwards and outwards. All this is absolutely realistic, except the assumption of
uniform distribution through a sphere of the enormous radius of 3-09.10" kilo-
metres, which we adopted temporarily for illustrational purpose. The enormously
great velocity (291,000 kilometres per second) and rate of acceleration (13:7 kilo-
metres per second per second) of the boundary inwards, which we found at the
instant of density 0161 of that of water, are due to greatness of the primitive
radius, and the uniformity of density in the primitive distribution.

To come to reality, according to the most probable judgment present know-
ledge allows us to form, suppose at many millions, or thousands of millions, or
millions of millions of years ago, all the matter in the universe to have been
atoms very nearly at rest” or quite at rest; more densely distributed in some
places than in others, of infinitely small average density through the whole of
infinite space. In regions where the density was then greater than in neighbour-
ing regions, the density would become greater still; in places of less density, the

1 ¢Qn the Motion produced in an Infinite Elastic Solid by the Motion through
the Space occupied by it of a Body acting on it only by Attraction or Repulsion,’
Cong. International de Physique, Paris, Volume of Reports (Phil. Mag., August 1900).

*<Qn Mechanical Antecedents of Motion, Heat, and Light,’ Brit, Assoc. Rep.,
Part 2, 1854; Edin. New Phil. Jour, vol. i. 1855; Comptes Rendus, vol. xl. 1855;
Kelvin’s Collected Math. and Phys. Papers, vol. ii. art, 1xix.

PP2

568 REPORT—1901.

density will become less; and large regions will quickly become void or nearly
void of atoms. These large void regions would extend so as to completely sur-
round regions of greater density. In some part or parts of each cluster of atoms
thus isolated, condensation would go on by motions in all directions not generally
convergent to points, and with no perceptible mutual influence between the atoms
until the density becomes something like 10—' of our ordinary atmospheric density,
when mutual influence by collisions would begin to become practically effective.
Each collision would give rise to a train of waves in ether. These waves would
carry away energy, spreading it out through the void ether of infinite space. The
loss of energy, thus taken away from the atcms, would reduce large condensing
clusters to the condition of gas in equilibrium! under the influence of its own
gravity only, or rotating like our sun or moving at moderate speeds as in spiral
nebulas, &c. Gravitational condensation would at first produce rise of tempera-
ture, followed later by cooling and ultimately freezing, giving solid bodies;
collisions between which will produce meteoric stones such as we see them. We
cannot regard as probable that these lumps of broken-looking solid matter (some-
thing like the broken stones used on our macadamised roads) are primitive forms
in which matter was created. Hence we are forced, in this twentieth century, to
views regarding’ the atomic origin of all things closely resembling those presented
by Democritus, Epicurus, and their majestic Roman poetic expositor, Lucretius.

2. A Discussion on Glass used for Scientific Purposes.
Opened by a Paper by Dr. R,. T. Guazesrook, /.R.S,

3. The Brush Grating and the Law of its Optical Action.
By Joun Kerr, LL.D., LBS,

Pure water is rendered slightly hazy by holding in suspension a small quantity
of chemically precipitated and invisibly fine particles of Fe,O,; this liquid placed
in a uniform and moderately strong magnetic field gives the best known example
of the Brush grating. The water is understood to be traversed throughout its
mass by a set of invisibly fine filaments of solid particles, all straight and parallel.
When this medium is examined in the polariscope the vibrations transmitted are
always perpendicular to the filaments.

The action of the Brush grating comes out in experiment as twofold: (1) a
negative double refraction with filament for optic axis; (2) a selective absorption
of the extraordinary ray. The phenomena are quite regular, and as pure as any
that are given by good crystals, but upon a comparatively small scale of intensity.
The simplest statement of the law of the action is that when light passes through
the Brush grating the Fresnel vibrations parallel to the filaments are the most
absorbed, and those perpendicular to the filaments the most retarded.

It is interesting, and may be useful, to compare the new medium with the
numerous media known in optics as the coloured birefringent crystals; and also

with Hertz’s grating of parallel wires, used as a transmitter and absorber of
electric waves.

4. The Effect of Errors in Ruling on the Appearance of a Diffraction
Grating. By H. 8, Auuen, IA., B.Sc.

If a spectroscope is adjusted to view a single spectral line, and the eye-piece of
the observing telescope is removed, the diffraction grating is seen illuminated by
monochromatic light; but in general the image is crossed by a number of dark
bands parallel to the rulings on the grating. The bands may be better studied by
focussing the observing telescope on the surface of the grating instead of on the

* Homer Lane, American Journal of Science, 1870, p. 57; Sir W. Thomson,
Phil. Mag., March 1887, p. 287.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 569

slit of the collimator. The object of the paper is to explain the mode of formation
of these bands.

In an absolutely perfect grating all the light going to form the spectral line
of any particular order is brought to a single focus by the objective of the telescope,
and the emergent cone of light is bounded by the image of the grating formed by
the objective (the distance between the grating and the objective being greater
than the focal length). In the case of a grating containing two rulings differing
by a small amount the light from each portion will be brought to its own
appropriate focus, and the two emergent cones of light will be bounded by the
corresponding parts of the image of the grating. A screen placed in the position
of this image would be uniformly iliuminated, but if it were moved nearer to the
lens the boundary between the two yulings would receive light from doth the cones
or from zeither of them, according to the relative positions of the foci. If the
sereen were moved further from the lens the effect would be exactly reversed, sq
that a light band in one case becomes a dark band in the other.

The theoretical results, which have been verified by observation, may be
summarised as follows :—

Orders on the right of the central image (the observer is supposed to be facing
the grating).—Case 1. In passing from a wide to a narrow ruling in going from
left to right. Focus in, light band. Focus out, dark band,

Case 2. In passing from a narrow to a wide ruling in going from left to right,
Focus in, dark band. Focus out, light band.

Orders on the left of the central image.—The results just given must be
reversed.

The bands disappear when the telescope is focussed exactly on the grating.

5. On a new Electromagnet and an Echelon Spectroscope for Magneto-optic
Observations. By Professor A. Gray, /.R.S., and Dr. W. Stewart.

6. On Resolving Power in the Microscope and Telescope.
By Professor J. D. Evererr, /.2.S.

The author maintains, in opposition to the view put forward in standard books
on the microscope, that resolving power, whether in the microscope or the tele-
scope, depends simply on keeping down the size of the disc which, owing to
diffraction, is the image formed by the objective of a luminous point of the object.
The illumination of the disc diminishes trom the centre outwards according to a
well-known law, first worked out by Airy, becoming zero at a definite distance ;
but for a considerable distance within this limit the illumination is too faint to be
spreeesable, and the visible size of the disc therefore increases with the brightness
of the luminous point which is imaged. The radius of the disc, reckoned up to
the theoretical limit of zero illumination, is directly as the wave-length of the
light employed, and inversely as the sine of the semivertical angle of the cone of
rays which emerges from the objective. The effect of large aperture in the tele-
scope, or of large N.A. in the microscope, is to increase the sine of this angle, and
in the same proportion to increase the fineness of representation.

Dawes’ results for the closeness of double stars which can be just separated by
a given objective lead to the conclusion that the two discs, corresponding to the
two nearly equal components of the star, can be just recognised as two when the
illumination due to one at the centre of the other is about 34, of the central
illumination; and Abbe’s determinations of the resolving powers of microscopical
objectives, as dependent on N.A., lead to exactly the same conclusion for the
microscope, an agreement which seems to have hitherto escaped attention.

Abbe’s own view, as stated in the concluding sentence of his Paper to the
Royal Microscopical Society (vol. i. 1881, p. 423), is:—

‘The very first step of every understanding of the microscope is to abandon

570 REPORT—1901.

the gratuitous assumption of our ancestors that microscopical vision is an imitation

of macroseopical, and to become familiar with the idea that it is a thing sui
eneris,’

% This view has since been somewhat toned down; but he still maintains that,

in the case of such an object as a diatom, there is practically a superposition of

two images, one depicting the coarse outlines and the other the fine details.!

It is of course legitimate to mentally divide phenomena into two classes for
convenience of treatment; but Huygens’ principle applies equally to the fine and
the coarse parts of an object; and there is no way of obtaining true representation
of fine details; except by giving smallness to the discs which are the images of
points, seeing that the whole image, coarse and fine parts alike, is built up of these
discs.

An important point, which is merely presented as an empirical fact in books on
the microscope, is the enormous benefit derived, in fine work, from employing a
sub-stage condenser of high quality to throw upon the object the sharpest possible
achromatic image of a limited portion of the source of illumination, an iris dia-
phragm, close to the condenser, being employed to assist in the limitation. The
reason of the benefit is that the influence of large aperture in reducing the size of
the discs which build up the image depends on the capability of mutual inter-
ference between all points of a wave-surface sent by a point of the object to the
focus, Two distant portions of the surface cannot interfere, if they are derived
from distinctly different parts of the source of illumination. For purposes of
resolution, aperture counts only so far as it receives illumination from one and
the same source. If the four quadrants of an aperture are illuminated by four
separate sources, they will give, instead of a single small round spot, four larger
spots partially overlapping.

A subsidiary benefit conferred by accurate focussing of the source on the
object is the prevention of the spurious patterns which are formed by the inter-
spencer of light sent from a single point of the source to different markings on an
object.

7. On the Interference of Light from Independent Sources,
Ly G. Jounstonr Stoney, IfA., D.Se., F.R.S.

In the course of an inquiry into the distribution of light by visible objects the
fact has emerged that lights from independent sources can be made to interfere,
whatever be their phases and states of polarisation.

The present abstract is in reference to this point. To make it sufficiently brief,
it is limited to explaining the method of proof and giving one application to a
case which is easily dealt with, and where the result can be verified experimentally.

The investigation starts from the admitted fact that in a transparent isotropic
medium the undulation spreading outwards from each punctum, or visible point, is
a train of waves of alternating electro-magnetic stresses of which the wave-fronts are
surfaces that are nearly spheres, or portions of spheres, concentric with the
punetum, and enlarging with the speed of light in the medium.

Electro-magnetic stresses require an expenditure of energy to produce them or
to alter them, and in other respects there are analogies between the electrical
events with which we shall have to deal and dynamical events. Accordingly, as
we have a fuller nomenclature of dynamical than of electrical events it will be
convenient to speak of changes of electro-magnetic stress as motions in the medium,
of the cause of an alteration of the rate of change as a force, and so on, for this
purpose employing these and other dynamical terms in a sufficiently generalised
sense.

We shall also have to assume that it is legitimate to apply the principle of
reversal to electrical as to dynamical events.

Let us take a definite case, and suppose that P, a punctum or small source of
light, is situated at a point f in the open ether, from which it radiates light of wave

’ Carpenter on the Microscope, 8th edition, p. 64.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 571

length A in some or in all directions. P probably acts somewhat like a Hertzian
vibrator ; but whatever be its modus operand? it is an agent which makesa disturbance
in the ether and sets up what we may call turmoil in its immediate neighbour-
hood. This turmoil is of a special kind, its action on the wether beyond adding
wave after wave to an undulation of regular waves, which advances outwards.

It is this undulation of regular waves beyond the region of turmoil that is the
light radiated from P.

The zther is competent to propagate these waves forward without external aid
and by reason of forces developed within itself when strained ; but the turmoil in
the vicinity of P requires that forces supplied by P shall co-operate with the forces
developed in the medium to keep it going. If P ceased to maintain it, the
turmoil would quickly disappear after expending whatever energy had been stored
up in it in adding a few additional waves to the inner fringe of the great undula-
tion travelling outwards.

Let us draw round f a tiny sphere with radius p, which we may call sphere p,
just sufficiently large to include the region of turmoil. In the case of light, one or
two wave lengths is a sufficient radius for this sphere, since beyond that short
distance the events in the ether do not differ sensibly from regular waye-motion.

P, which emits the light, is a portion of the non-ether. It is a ‘source’
through which energy is transferred from the non-zether to the ether. By reason
of its presence the zther is not a ‘self-contained system’ of the kind which is
necessary to justify an application to it of the principle of reversal. But we can
bring about this requisite state of isolation by supposing that P, after having
emitted light for a definite time, say for one minute, not only ceases to emit light,
but ceases to exist. This total suppression of P cuts off the communication
between the «ther and the non-ether, and thenceforward the <ther is a self-
contained system in which we may investigate the further progress of events by
employing the principle of reversal. It will be convenient to divide time into
equal intervals—say into minutes—and the definite supposition we shall make is
that P emits light of wave length \ from the epoch ¢=0 till the epoch t=one
minute, and that at the close of this period all the contents of the sphere p, including
P and the disturbed zether near it, are suddenly annihilated, and quiescent sther
put in their place.

By the end of the first minute, when these events are supposed to take place,
the undulation beyond sphere p has extended to a distance from f, which is about
forty-seven times the distance from the earth to the moon. After those events
take place, the undulation continues to advance outwards; and we may now
employ upon it the principle of reversal, with the advantage of being at liberty
to confine the reversal to the reversal of motions in the ether. This provides us
with the means of investigating events after the first minute.

‘We may also include the events of the first minute by introducing two
reversals; since by this contrivance we can succeed in reproducing under the new
conditions, 7.e., within a.self-contained sether, precisely the same undulation as
existed during the first minute while P was emitting light. To this end let us
imagine the undulation to continue its outward journey for any convenient period
—say for two minutes after the annihilation of the contents of sphere p. This
brings us to the epoch ¢=three minutes. At this instant let reversal of all
motions in the sether take place. The outflowing waves then retrace their steps,
so that after the reversal the undulation becomes light converging towards the
focus f. When the time ¢= eight minutes arrives the undulation has not only con-
verged upon f, but after passing that focus it has become an undulation of
divergent spherical waves, each part of the undulation when passing the focus
having crossed to the opposite side of f. At the instant ¢=eight minutes let a
second reversal of all motions in the xther take place. The light which, im-
mediately before this second reversal, was diverging from f again becomes
convergent, and within the period from ¢=ten minutes to ¢=eleven minutes
each spherical wave for the second time passes the focus and becomes divergent,
and each of these divergent waves now finds itself under such circumstances that
so soon as it gets beyond little sphere p it becomes for all future time an exact,

572 REPORT—1901.

repetition of what the corresponding actual wave emitted by P in the first

minute was, and what it would have continued to be if neither reversal had taken
lace.

4 Hitherto we have only dealt with the undulation as an undulation of spherical

waves. Let us now go again over the same ground, and avail ourselves of its

being legitimate to resolve the light into wavelets by Huygens’s theorem.

In addition to little sphere p, let us draw round f two other spheres with

radii 7 and R, 7 being some moderate length such as a metre, and Ra much
greater length, such as two or three metro-tens.'_ We shall find it convenient to
imagine other spheres to be also described round f, viz., the series with radii
M, 2M, 3M, &c., where M isthe length of the journey which light describes
each minute, which in the open ether is a distance of 1'8 metro-tens. Let us
now make it our special aim to consider in what way the process we are going to
apply will resolve the part of the undulation of spherical waves which lies within
sphere r.
‘ As before, let P for the first minute emit light of wave length A. This light
consists of the spherical waves which travel outwards through the space beyond
sphere p. At the close of the first minute the foremost wave has reached
sphere M. Throughout almost the whole of this minute a portion of the
undulation has been within sphere 7, which (if 7 is a metre) is large enough to
include from 13 to 25 hundred thousand (according to the colour) of the expanding
light waves.

At the end of the minute P and the rest of the contents of sphere p are to
be annihilated, and quiescent zether is to be substituted for them within that
little sphere.

Two minutes latter, z7.c., when ¢ = 3 minutes, the immense undulation of
spherical waves has got beyond the great sphere R, and has advanced into the
spherical shell between spheres 2M and 3M, leaving quiescent eether behind it.

At this instant—z.e., when ¢ = 3 minutes—the first reversal is to take place,
whereupon the waves that have been hitherto outward bound become inflowing.

Let them pursue their new course after this first reversal until the time
t = 8 minutes. By that time the undulation has converged upon the focus, has
passed it, and has again become divergent light, each part of the undulation
having crossed to the opposite side of # When the epoch ¢ = 8 minutes
arrives the undulation of spherical waves is travelling outwards, and has reached
the space between spheres 2M and 3M, and sphere R lies in the quiescent space
within the undulation.

At this instant—z.e., when ¢ = 8 minutes—let the second reversal take place,
The undulation for the second time travels inwards, and on their inward journey
the spherical waves come successively to coincide with sphere R. Accordingly
if we divide the surface of sphere R into its elements do,, do, &c., then by
Huygens’s theorem we may substitute undulations of hemispherical wavelets
radiating inwards from the innumerable centres do, do., &c., to take the place of
the further progress of the inward-bound undulation of spherical waves. Ags
these innumerable undulations of wavelets advance, they sweep over the space
occupied by sphere 7, which is two metres across, and within the limits of that
space the wavelets differ but very little from wavelets that are accurately flat and
accurately uniform, In this way the converging spherical waves within sphere 7
succeeded by the same waves diverging after they pass the centre of the sphere,
produce identically the same motion within sphere 7» as would develop itself if
the innumerable undulations of nearly plane wavelets described above were
made to sweep across it simultaneously. It can further be proved that the
equation of energy is fulfilled in this resolution, and that in every respect the
resolution is a true physical resolution.

The next step is an easy one. It is legitimate by an application of the methed
of limits to make the wavelets where they cross sphere 7 accurately plane wavelets

1 A metro-ten is the tenth of the metros or decimal multiples of the metre,
Tn other words, it is 10'? metres,

73

ur

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

and accurately uniform, and at the same time to increase the size of sphere >
to any desired extent. When this has been done we obtain the following im-
portant theorem :—

THEOREM I.

The undulation of spherical waves emitted by a luminous punctum P situated
at a point f of a transparent isotropic medium, together with that preceding
system of waves converging upon jf, which would have been followed by this
same radiation from f/ if P had been absent—z.c., the complete undulation of
spherical waves which embraces an entire past history as well as the entire
future history of the undulation—can be completely resolved into undulations
of plane wavelets, each wavelet being of unlimited extent in its own plane, and
uniform throughout that extent. And this resolution is a true physical resolution
and not merely kinematical.

An adequate conception of these plane-wavelet components can perhaps be
best acquired by making temporary use of the hypothesis that the light emitted
by P consists of rays, of the kind with which we are familiar when the useful
_ hypothesis that light consists of rays is made the basis of the science of
geometrical optics. Here, however, we are to obliterate these hypothetical rays
and to substitute for each hypothetical ray a real undulation of plane wavelets,
each wavelet having its wave-front perpendicular to the ray, and being of
unlimited extent in the plane of the wavelet as well as uniform throughout that
extent. To complete the picture the intensity of each undulation (@e., the
square of the transversal of each of its wavelets) is to be proportional to the
intensity which we have to attribute to the corresponding hypothetical ray of
geometrical optics. As the number of rays is unlimited, so is the number of the
undulations of plane wavelets that take their place.

The investigation requires one other fundamental thereom, of which, as it is
a well-known theorem, we need only give the enunciation, premising that the
direction in which an undulation of plane waves travels is in an isotropic medium
perpendicular to the wave fronts,

Tueorem II.

Any number of undulations of uniform plane waves, of waye length A,
advancing in the same direction in an isotropic medium, may be united into a
single resultant undulation of uniform plane waves travelling in that direction.
(If the undulations to be combined are variously polarised, the resultant undu-
lation will in general be elliptically polarised.)

ae these fundamental theorems several useful inferences may be drawn;
such as—

TuEoReEM III,

The whole of the light of wave length » emitted by any visible object,
whether self-luminous or requiring incident light to render it visible, may be
resolved into undulations of uniform plane wavelets, of which there need be only
one such undulation provided for each direction towards which light is propa-
gated from the visible object.

This is an immediate corollary from Theorems I. and LI.

THEOREM LV,

The light of wave length \ traversing any portion of space may be resolved
into undulations of uniform plane wavelets sweeping over that space, of which
there needs only one such undulation in each direction,

This also is a corollary upon Theorems I. and JJ,

574 REPORT—1901.

THEOREM V.

The light of wave length A which reaches the image of an object formed by
an optical instrument may be resolved into undulations of uniform plane wave-
lets, of which only one undulation need be provided for each of the directions
along which light reaches the image.

This theorem is a particular case of Theorem IV.

Light may be resolved into wavelets in innumerable ways. Amongst these
the analysis into undulations of uniform plane wavelets possesses the unique
advantage that as each undulation advances through space neither it nor any of
its parts undergoes change. Hence

THEOREM VI.

To estimate the effect produced within a closed space or by the light that has
reached a given image, it will suffice to draw cylinders enveloping this space or
image, in all the directions from which light comes to it, and to confine our
attention to the portion of each undulation of uniform plane wavelets which lies
within that one of the cylinders which is perpendicular to its wave fronts,

From this group of theorems others of much interest follow; but to describe
the method by which they are derived would necessitate entering upon new ground, *
and would unduly prolong the present abstract. It must therefore suffice to say
that by some of these further propositions a beam or pencil of light is resolved into.
its plane-wavelet components, each of indefinite extent laterally; and that this;
resolution renders possible a study of the phenomena of diffraction gratings when.
the portions of light that reach the individual reflecting strips come from inde~
pendent sources.

Some oF THE RESULTS OBTAINED,

These theorems have made it possible to investigate the distribution of the light
which is thrown off by visible objects, and they explain the experimental effects
seen by Professor Abbe when light was incident upon microscopical objects under
various limitations as to direction. In the course of the inquiry the total light
incident on an object, or else the total light which emerges from it, has to be
resolved into its plane-wavelet components; and it appears on applying this
method of analysis, either to the incident or to the emergent light, that the por-
tions of light thrown off by different parts of the object are capable of interfering,
whether those portions of light had reached the object from the same or from
independent sources.

VERIFICATION BY EXPERIMENT.

After confirming these results by a repetition of Abbe's observations and by a
large range of other experiments with the microscope, it appeared to the writer to
be desirable to contrive a test experiment which could be carried out with more
precision than is possible when employing the microscope.

A ruling of parallel equidistant lines seems from the theoretical point of view
to be the simplest kind of visible object with detail upon it to be seen. Accord-
ingly the object chosen for experiment was a Rowland’s diffraction grating with
a ruling a little more than 4} centimetres long, and containing about 26,000
reflecting strips.

The theoretical investigation indicated that the light thrown off by the grating
should be in the same directions and have the same intensities, whether the
incident light which has reached the several reflecting strips have come from the
same or from different sources, provided that, if they come from different sources,
equal intensity of light has reached the several strips.

To test this Miss E. A. Stoney proposed to bring light from independent sources
to the variqus parts of the grating by throwing an image of the sun upon it;

ro

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 575

and the experiment which resulted has most satisfactorily confirmed the prediction
of theory.

The Tight from the sun was reflected from a heliostat furnished with a 4-inch
optically flat mirror, worked by Sir Howard Grubb, F.R.S. The mirror is silyered
on the front, and may be relied on to furnish reflected light capable of forming a
good image. The reflected beam was received by a horizontal telescope furnished
with a 2-inch objective by Cook and an eyepiece by Watson. By this apparatus
an image of the sun was formed in a vertical plane at a distance of a little more
than a metre from the telescope, and of a size somewhat larger than the Rowland
grating. Whenever there happened to be minute spots on the sun at the time of
observation, the image was good enough to show them satisfactorily.

The surface of the grating was made to coincide with this image, so that the
light reaching different parts of the grating came from different parts of the sun.
At the same time, in consequence of the arrangements described above, all light
reached the grating from nearly! the same direction, viz., from the direction in
which the eye-stop of the telescope was seen from the grating.

When the apparatus was set up in this way, the same full series of bright
impure spectra were produced as are seen when the portions of light reaching the
several reflecting strips come from identical sources.

Still further to test the predicted result, a spectroscope slit was placed near
the telescope, in the position of the eye-stop of the telescope. This reduced the
light forming the image of the sun and impaired its definition, but still left the
image good enough to ensure that the light reaching reflecting strips of the
grating which are somewhat distant from one another came from different
parts of the sun. The spectrum of the second order on one side was then
viewed through the telescope of the spectrometer, when the Fraunhofer lines
were well seen in large numbers, The E group in the green was carefully
examined, and the definition was so good that all but one” of the 30 lines in
Rowland’s great map were seen. The closest doubles that were observed to be
resolyed were at 5265°8 in the E group, and the corona line with the iron line
adjoining it at 5316°9. The spacing of these doubles is about 4 of an Angstrom
unit, which in that part of the spectrum would, according to Lord Rayleigh’s
formula (A/SA=2n), require a grating of 16,000 lines to resolve them in the
second spectrum if the grating and the adjustments were perfect.

The performance as seen was regarded as good, considering the impossibility in
some respects, and the difficulty in others, of getting the adjustments more than
approximately made: 16,000 lines occupy 28 mm. on the grating, which is more
than an inch. It therefore extended over a considerable part of the image of the
sun which illuminated the grating. Moreover, having regard to the fact that
the brightness of the light reaching the different reflecting strips was not quite the
same, and to the other shortcomings mentioned above, it seems not unlikely that
the whole of the 26,000 reflecting strips of the grating were actually in operation
to produce such definition as was observed. If so, light was made use of from
parts of the image of the sun as far asunder as 12 inch.

[Note added October 1901.—The experiment is very much improved by
introducing a collimating lens between the slit and the grating. The lensemployed
is a lens of 73 cm. focus, and was set up at a distance of about 12 cm. in front of
the grating. It does not sensibly impair the image of the sun formed on the
grating, and it enables the adjustments to be fwlly made which had to be left
imperfect before. When the adjustments were carefully made the spectrum of
the sun in the second spectrum did not appreciably fall short in either definition,

‘ The light reaches all parts of the grating from exactly, and not only nearly, the
same directions when the collimating lens described in Note above is added to the
apparatus.

? The line not seen is the faint chromium line of wave length 5275°34 and of
intensity 00 on Rowland’s scale. It is between two stronger lines, the nearer of
which is of intensity 1 and at a distance of about a fifteenth of an Angstrom unit.
This is too close for resolution by a grating of 26,000 lines in its second spectrum.
The pair are, however, widely separated by the grating that was used in its fifth
spectrum.

576 REPORT—1901.

resolving power, or purity of the best spectrum that can be obtained when the
spectrometer is employed in its usual way, 7.e., with the image of the sun thrown
on the slit. No doubt, the light being now derived from a large extent of the
sun’s disc, sharp lines must have been fringed with faint and narrow wings owing
to the rotation of the sun; but the wings were too faint and too narrow to be
visible in the second spectrum. |

On the whole, the verification of the effect predicted by the new analysis
appears to be satisfactory.

A modification of the experiment can be made in the absence of sunshine by
throwing the image of a flat sodium flame upon the grating, when the D lines will
be seen beautifully defined, and may be reversed if suitable arrangements are made in
the flame. But a sodium flame cannot be made truly flat or truly steady so as to
furnish an image the purity of which may be relied on like that of the sun. The
solar arrangement for making the experiment is therefore to be preferred when
sunshine and sufficiently good apparatus are available,

8. A Long Period Solar Variation! By Wiuu1am J. 8S. Lockyer.

This paper consists of a discussion of the observations of the measurement of
sunspot areas made since the year 1833, this year being the epoch when Schwabe
commenced his series of sunspot observations on a systematic basis. The actual
dates of the epochs of maxima and minima of sunspot area used in this investi-
gation were those given by Dr. Wolf and Dr. Wolfer. As a check on the work
the important results of Mr. William Ellis’ discussion of the Greenwich
Observations of the Magnetic Elements were utilised, as he has shown that the
curves representing the magnetic elements are in almost exact accord with that
representing the solar spotted area.

. In dealing with the sunspot curve the first result of the investigation was
to indicate that the intervals between a minimum and a following maximum
varied regularly, the length of this period of variation amounting to a little more
than three eleven-year periods, or about thirty-five years. The magnetic curves
examined in the same way indicated precisely a similar variation.

An inquiry into the amount of spotted area included in each interval between
consecutive sunspot minima indicated also a regular variation, the period being
similar to that mentioned above—namely, about thirty-five years.

Further, it was found that the interval in time between consecutive minima
was not constant but varied, as far as could be judged, regularly, the length of
the period increasing and decreasing in alternate eleven-year periods from a mean
value.

The paper then indicated that as the sun may be considered as a ‘ variable’
star, it may be likened to the well-known variable » Aquila, the light of which
changes rather similarly—7.e., the interval between a minimum and a following
maximum has a short-period variability, and the period from minimum to minimum
alters,

In conclusion the author referred to the important work of Professor Ed.
Brickner, who had indicated that the changes of climate were periodical, and
that the mean length of the period was about thirty-five years; to Mr. Charles
Egeson’s investigations on territorial meteorology for South Australia; and to
Professor Ed. Richter’s results on his researches on the movements of glaciers.

All these investigations indicated clearly a periodical change in the meteorology
of the earth’s atmosphere, which were the result of this thirty-five yearly solar
period, as shown by the correspondence of the respective epochs.

The paper then indicated that the next ‘ great’ maximum of sunspots, similar
to that of 1870 and 1835, should occur at the approaching maximum, and it
would ke interesting to see whether all the solar, meteorological, and magnetic
phenomena of those two periods were repeated.

' See Proc. Royal Soc. vol. \xviii. p, 285.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 577

The conclusions drawn from the whole investigation were as follows :—

1. There is an alternate increase and decrease in the length of a sunspot period,
teckoning from minimum to minimum.

2. The epoch of maximum varies regularly with respect to the preceding
minimum,

The amplitude of this variation about the mean position is about
+ 0°'8 year. :
The cycle of this variation is about thirty-five years.

3. The total spotted area included between any two consecutive minima
varies regularly.

The cycle of this variation is about thirty-five years.
4. There is no indication of the fifty-five-year period as suggested by Dr. Wolf.
5. The climate variations indicated by Professor Briickner are generally in
accordance with the thirty-five-year period.
6. The frequency of aurorze and magnetic storms shows indications of a secular
period of thirty-five years.

Department II.—Metroronoey.
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1, Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.
See Reports, p. 54.

2. The Seismograph as a Sensitiwe Barometer.
By ¥. Napier Denison, Meteorological Office, Victoria, B.C.

Since the installation of a ‘ Milne’ Seismograph in connection with the Meteoro-
logical Office at Victoria, B.C., in September 1898, the author has taken up the
study of the various movements of the horizontal pendulum apart from those
caused by earthquakes.

In order to make a thorough investigation of this phenomenon, the author has
taken the photographic records from this instrument for the years 1899 and 1900,
amounting to over 3,000 feet of paper, and with a millimetre and time scale has
measured the amounts and times of occurrence of all changes, including the diurnal
and longer period deflections. These observations have been entered in a specially
designed register, and as these observations are often of sufficient amplitude to
necessitate the resetting of the boom by altering the levelling adjustment, it has
been necessary to correct the above readings in order that the true and continuous
movement be obtained during these years.

By studying these corrected observations in conjunction with the Victoria
Synoptic Weather Charts, the author became convinced that most of these move-
ments were due to meteorological causes. In order therefore to be able to pursue
this study further, he has plotted these observations upon ‘1 inch squared paper:
the time scale used was 24 inches per day, and ‘i inch to equal one millimetre.
Above this curve for each month was plotted the Victoria barometer from the tri-
daily observations, and surmounting this was entered the tri-daily record of the

direction and velocity of the winds and precipitation.
; The results from the plottings for the year 1899 when studied in conjunction
with the corresponding weather charts proved so interesting that a brief paper
upon this subject was read before the last meeting of the Royal Meteorological
Society. Since then the author has completed the plottings for 1900, and, in order
to increase their value, has added the Victoria tidal curve also,

578 REPORT —1901.

The following notes have been deduced from these observations :—

(1) The crust of the earth is depressed under areas of high barometric pressure,
and elevated under areas of low pressure.

(2) When the barometer is high over the Pacific slope from British Columbia
to California and low over the adjacent ocean, the horizontal pendulum is deflected
towards the east.

(8) When the barometer is high off the coast and low over the Pacific slope,
the horizontal pendulum is deflected towards the west.

(4) The horizontal pendulum tends to move east during the winter months and
west throughout the summer.

(5) The total westerly movement (signifying a depression of the coast) ex-
ceeds the easterly swing for the year 1899 by 54:9 millimetres and by 20°7 for
1900.

(6) When an extensive ocean storm area is approaching the coast of Van-
couver Island, while the barometer is high over the Pacific slope, the pendulum will
steadily travel eastward before the coast barometers begin to fall, or its presence
is noticeable upon the synoptic weather chart.

(7) Should such a storm he followed by an extensive high pressure area, the
pendulum will turn and move steadily toward the westward, some time before the
local barometer begins to rise and before the winds have shifted to the westward.

(8) Should an important storm area moye down the coast from Alaska and
be followed by an extensive one of high pressure and a cold wave extending from
the Yukon south-eastward, the pendulum swings to the westward, usually before the
storm has reached this latitude. These are termed abnormal winter movements,
and cause the few cold days experienced in this vicinity.

(9) The greatest monthly range occurs during the stormy winter months, and
the smallest range takes place during the summer type of almost continuous fine
weather.

(10) The diurnal range is most pronounced during the summer months, when
the greatest amount of sunshine is recorded, and the least amount of rain.

(11) Fine weather is usually preceded by a westerly movement of the pendu-
Jum, due to an approaching ocean high area which spreads inland over the province,
while further south the barometer is comparatively low.

(12) A careful perusal of the two years’ plottings proves that during the
normal type of summer and winter barometric distribution the barometer and
pendulum curves tend to come together as areas of low pressure approach the coast,
and diverge when high areas follow the same course.

The above brief and incomplete summary of deductions derived from these two
years’ observations is respectfully submitted with a strovg desire that this investi~
gation be taken up by a special committee, and if this study of the pendulum’s
warnings tends to aid the forecasting of ocean storms upon this distant seaboard of
the empire, may not a similar study at home lead to the adoption of simple
seismographs throughout the kingdom to be used as sensitive barometers, as an aid
in warning the advent of the great Atlantic storms before they reach the western

coast P

3. On Meteorological Phenomena in Relation to Changes im the Vertical.
By Professor J. Mitnn, /’.RWS,

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on the Determination of Magnetic Force on Board Ship.
See Reports, p. 29.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 579

2, On a New Form of Instrument for Observing the Magnetic Dip and
Intensity on Board Ship at Sea. By Captain E, W. Croan, C.B.,
L.RS. See Reports, p. 29.

3. Note on some Results obtained with the Self-recording Instruments
Jor the Antarctic Expedition. By Dr. R. T. Guazesroox, /’.R.S.

4. On a Determination by a Thermal Method of the Variation of the
Critical Velocity of Water with Temperature. By H. T. Barnzs,
M.A.Sc., D.Sc., Lecturer in Physics, and E. G. Coker, WA., D.Sc.,
Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, McGill University,
Montreal.

The critical velocity, or point at which the flow of water through a pipe
changes from stream-line to eddy motion, has been the subject of a series of
experiments by Osborne Reynolds from the philosophical as well as the practical
aspect. Two methods, which are too well known to require description, were
adopted in his experiments—the method of colour bands and the determination of
the law of resistance governing the flow at velocities above and below the critical
velocity. From the results of his work Reynolds was able to verify certain mathe-
matical deductions as to the effect of viscosity and diameter, which led to exceed-
ingly simple expressions for determining the change in the flow. The effect of
temperature was, however, less completely verified. In so far as the critical
velocity is dependent on the viscosity, the temperature coefficient of the viscosity
was taken as representing this temperature change. General experimental results
indicated, at least approximately, that the law of Poiseuille for the flow through
capillary tubes held for the critical velocity between 4° and 22°C. It was deemed
desirable by the authors, on account of the large effect produced by temperature,
to determine this coefficient directly by a new method, and more especially as the
law of Poiseuille itself was deduced from experiments ranging only as high as
45° C.

In the present paper a new thermal method of measurement is described, and
also experiments by this method with a brass pipe 0°414 inch in diameter at
different temperatures between 15° and 86° C., together with the general results
so far as it is yet possible to communicate them, showing the reformation under
perfectly steady and uniform conditions of the stream-line flow at velocities very
much above the critical point measured by Reynolds.

Thermal Method of Measuring Critical Velocity.

If water be heated while flowing through tubes in stream-line motion, the distri-
bution of heat throughout the water column is not uniform. In the case where the
heat is applied at the outside of the tube, as in the experiments of L. Graetz, only
‘the few layers which are almost stationary in direct contact with the tube will be
heated, while the inflow water, which passes directly through the central portion
‘ata much greater velocity, will remain almost entirely unheated. In the case
where the heat is received from a central wire, the heat is carried off by the
quickly moving water in a cloak as it were around the wire, leaving the sides of
the tube unheated, At and beyond the point where eddies make their appearance
in the flow, the entire column of water is mixed and stirred, and the temperature
distribution becomes uniform. The point of change, or the critical velocity, may
be then very clearly defined by observing the sudden increase in the temperature
of the flowing water. In some of the first experiments this change of tempera-
‘ture was observed by noting the increase in resistance of a platinum wire threaded
through the centre of the tube heated on the outside, and the preliminary resulis
showed that the presence of a wire of 6 mils’ thickness in a tube of about 4 inch

580 REPORT—1901.

in diameter had apparently no measurable influence in causing an earlier breaking
up of the stream-line flow. Although the electrothermal method of measurement
was quite satisfactory, it was found that the point of change was determined more
simply by placing the bulb of a sensitive mercury thermometer in the path of the
water as it emerged from the tube, and this had also the additional advantage of
showing the true temperature of the water. A glass prolongation, of slightly
greater diameter and connected carefully to the brass pipe by a specially con-
structed cone or adapter, enabled the reading of the thermometer to be observed.
It was a matter of considerable surprise to the authors to see the very sudden way in
which the reading of the thermometer indicated the point of change in the character
of the flow by an almost instantaneous change of reading. That the change in
the reading indicates the critical point was shown by introducing a colour band in
the ordinary way, in which case the band disappeared at the same moment the jump
in the thermometer thread took place.

Since in the experiments the tube was heated on the outside, it might at first
sight appear that the temperature difference between the layers of water in direct
contact and the central column might produce a disturbing action on the flow, but
as this temperature difference was always small, the total jump in the thermometer
being seldom over a few tenths of a degree, the disturbance, if any, was reduced
toa minimum. Moreover, special experiments were repeatedly made to determine
a possible disturbing effect by maintaining the temperature of the walls of the
tube at different points above and below the water in the tube, but none could be
detected.

It was necessary to have only a few degrees difference in temperature between
the walls of the tube and inflow water to obtain a measurable reading.

Description of the Apparatus.

We were fortunate in having at our disposal, through the kindness of Dean
Bovey, the facilities afforded by the hydraulic laboratory, where the large experi-
mental tank, 20 feet high and 25 square feet in area, served admirably for a
reservoir. The tank stood on the bed rock, and was therefore free from vibration
or disturbance, and after the eddies had died out, occasioned by filling, the water
was in as completely quiet a state as possible. - The water used for the experi-
ments was supplied from the Montreal mains, and was quite clear. It would not
have been possible to use distilled water owing to the large quantity required, but
every precaution was taken in the way of repeated cleaning to have the water

ure,
The rest of the apparatus was designed, and for the most part constructed, in
the laboratory, and served admirably for fulfilling the required conditions for
carrying out the experiments. Subsequently it was found that by a few simple
alterations the method of colour bands could be used as well for the experiments
with the large pipes.

Each of the metal pipes studied was fitted with a metal trumpet flare to direct
the flow as it entered, the point of junction being very carefully smoothed so as to
produce no disturbing action. The walls of these pipes were maintained at a con-
stant temperature, above or below the temperature of the water flowing through,
by means of a jacket, through which water was circulated by a centrifugal pump.
A graduated valve regulated the flow, which was caught and measured in an
accurately calibrated copper measure.

Experimental Results.

Two tables are given, the first showing the effect produced by increasing the
head of water in slightly increasing the critical velocity; and the second, the
effect of temperature between 15° and 86°C. These experiments were made with
the 0:414-inch brass pipe.

Two other tables are given, one showing the agreement of the observations of
Reynolds by the method of colour bands with those of the duthors, when reduced

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 581

to a size of pipe equal to theirs, and the other showing that the observations of
Reynolds between 4° and 22° C. give a closer agreement with the authors’ temper-
ature formula than with the formula of Poiseuille.

The law showing the dependence of the critical velocity on the temperature
obtained by the authors may be stated thus:—

P =f (T) =(1+-0300T + 000704?) ~'
between 15° and 86° C.; while the law of Poiseuille reads :—
(1 + :03368T + *00221T?) — *
between 0° and 45° C,

Experiments on Stream-line Flow at High Velocities.

It was found further that the unusually steady conditions obtained in the large
tank conduced to some interesting results in regard to stream-line flow at high
velocities. For certain sizes of pipes, over half an inch to as large as the authors
have yet used, z.e., 24 inches, the flow re-formed again to stream-line above the
critical point of Reynolds, and persisted apparently as the stable flow to velocities
ranging from 12 to 20 feet per second. Beyond these velocities they were unable
to go, but in some instances no sign of breaking down occurred at these points.

Two experiments were tried, which illustrate clearly that water flowing with
a perfectly smooth, unruffled surface is in stream-line motion. A circular orifice
was inserted in the side of the tank, which gave a clear rod-like jet of water that
issued horizontally under a high head and curved in a parabolic arc under gravity.
After all initial disturbances had died out in the tank a colour band was intro-
duced by bringing the colour tube to within about 3 inches of the centre of
the orifice. A clearly defined and sharp line of colour threaded its way through
the jet of water, shifting slowly from centre to side and back to centre again,
affected probably by slight movements in the tank. This thread of colour was
distinctly visible down to the point where the jet of water impinged against the
waste weir, a distance of 15 feet. By introducing an excess of colour a similar
phenomenon to the breaking down of the stream-line flow in a tube was noted,
and the jet became suffused with colour, broken, and unsteady up to within a foot
or two of the orifice. On reducing the quantity of colour the stream-lines
re-formed and the water became smooth, clear, and steady, threaded by the sharp
line of colour as before. Two sharp-edged orifices were tried, 2 and 2} inches
diameter respectively, with coefficients of discharge equal to 0-970, With the
heads used the highest velocity reached by the outflowing water, calculated in
the usual way from the formula

V=0:970,./29h

was 30 feet per second.

5. The Interference and Polarisation of Electric Waves.
By Professor G. Quincke.—See Reports, p. 39.

6. On the Effects of Magnetisation on the Electrical Conductivity of Lron
and Nickel. By Guy Bartow, B.Sc.

The object of the experiments was to determine whether any simple relation
exists between the change of electrical resistance and the intensity of magnetisaticn
in iron and nickel wire when magnetised longitudinally. The effects of hysteresis
as shown by the magnetic change of resistance were also examined.

The Wheatstone Bridge method was employed, with a bridge wire of low
resistance. The experimental wire was wound longitudinally on a thin rod of

1901. QQ

582 REPORT—1901.

wood, the ‘comparison’ coil being of copper, and wound close to it on the same
bobbin. These coils were enclosed in a glass tube and placed within the
magnetising coil which was provided with a water-jacket.

Auxiliary coils of German silver were connected in the other two arms of the
bridge so as to increase the sensibility of the arrangement. The magnetisation
was determined by the ballistic method. Wires of iron, steel, and nickel were
examined. The curves of ‘ascending reversals’ were obtained for the change of
resistance and for the magnetisation. A comparison of these curves shows the
manner in which the change of resistance depends on the magnetisation. The
results obtained by this method showed that the change of resistance is not
proportional to any single power of the magnetisation, but can be represented by a
function of the type al’ + 61* + cl®.

Hysteresis loops were also obtained showing the effect of cyclic variations
of field on the change of resistance and on the magnetisation in the same
specimens, These curves show that the change of resistance vanishes in the cycle
when the magnetisation vanishes, but the change of resistance shows considerable
hysteresis with regard to the magnetisation.

7. Lhe Influence of a Magnetic Field on the Viscosity of Magnetisable
Liquids. By Professor A. Gray, /.2.S.

8. Lhe Influence of a Magnetic Vield on the Viscosity of Magnetisable
Solids. By Professor A. Gray, 1.4.8.

9. Magnetisation of Electrolytic Nickel.
By James W. Peck and Roperr A, Housroun.

An account is given of experiments in progress to determine the magnetic
quality of electrolytically deposited nickel. The method of deposition is described,
and the difficulty of getting adherent deposits of sufficient thickness is pointed
out, Magnetic measurements (by the ballistic step-by-step method) made upon
the nickel are given, and for purposes of comparison similar measurements for
specially pure nickel wires are made. These wires contained only from 0°25 per
cent. to 0°42 per cent. of impurity (chiefly iron). Values for H, I, B, k, » are
given ; and hysteresis cycles and permeability curves are drawn out. A moving
coil galvanometer (as recommended by Ewing) is used for many of the ballistic
measurements, and is found to be very convenient.

10. A New Form of Permeameter. By Professor F. G. Bairy, ILA.

The apparatus depends on the measurement of the ratio of B to H in the
sample. A complete magnetic circuit is formed by two lengths of the sample
joined by short iron blocks at the ends. Magnetising coils are placed round the
sample. In one of the blocks is a narrow gap perpendicular to the direction of the
lines of force. Above this is pivoted a pair of astatic magnets. The lower
magnet is influenced by the ditterence of magnetic potential between the two sides
of the gap, the force being proportional tc B. Round the upper magnet is placed
a small coil in series with the main magnetising coils, which acts on the magnet
with a force proportional to H. Using the principle of the sine galvanometer, the
oil is rotated until the two forces are balanced, the position of the magnet system

being along the line of the gap. Then p= : = f(6). The coil is shaped to give

an almost uniform scale through some 80° of arc, and the permeability is read
directly on the scale,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 583

The scale is calibrated for a standard size of specimen, and the value for any
other size is obtained by multiplying by the ratio. A wide range is obtained by
using only a part of the magnetising coils when the permeability is high.

The magnetising force is read on a separate instrument, such as a suitable
amperemeter. Regulating resistances, a reversing switch for demagnetising, and
a switch for altering the range are added.

las Note on the Coherer. By Professor James Burytu, I.A., LL.D.

The object of this note is to draw attention to some experimental results con~
nected with the ordinary filings-coherer, which I can hardly think are new, but
which I have not seen specially noticed.

‘When a coherer is placed in circuit with a battery, and when no current
passes through it, it is obvious that its terminals must correspond to the charged
plates of a condenser, and that the P.D. between them
must be equal to the E.M.F. of the battery. Let AB E
be the coherer and C the battery, then the P.D. between
A and Bisequal to the E.M.F. of C. Ifnow A andB be
connected for an instant by a circuit containing a coil E
having self-induction, the coherer AB will be found to A B
have assumed the conducting instead of the insulating
condition. This can be tested by switching a galvano-
meter into the battery circuit and observing the deflec-
tion. If, however, the coherer AB be short-circuited
for an instant by a coil having the same resistance as E,
but wound so as to have no self-induction, the coherer
‘does not become a conductor. C

This would seem to show that the discharge of the
condenser-coherer must be of a distinctly oscillatory nature before the well-known
effect: of coherence is produced.

The next result I have to refer to depends essentially on the same cause.

Let two coherers AB and CD be included in the same circuit with a
battery F and a galvanometer or bell G. Also let a Voss machine be placed
near AB so as to produce an
oscillatory spark near AB, but F G
let CD be placed so far away
‘as to be beyond the direct
“action of the spark; then in
‘general it will be found that
when AB becomes a conductor
suddenly the jerk given to CD
is sufficient to make it also a
conductor, and the galvanometer will deflect or the bell ring. If CD be now

tapped, the bell stops, although AB has been left untouched. This shows that
if one coherer in a circuit suddenly assumes the conducting condition all other
coherers in the same circuit tend to do the same.

Q9Q2

584 REPORT—1901.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SuctiIoN—-Professor Percy F. Franxianp, Ph.D., F.R.S,

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The President delivered the following Address :—

The Position of British Chemistry at the Dawn of the Twentieth Century.

Two circumstances unite in rendering this year especially appropriate for the
survey and valuation of all departments of British life and organisation—the
dawn of a new century, the close of the Victorian era. It is a moment when not
only the nation as a whole, but every group of persons drawn together by what-
ever bond, and indeed each individual for himself, must involuntarily ask the
question, Are we progressing or receding, or are we standing still? Upon us,
then, who are bound together by the common interest which we have in that
science to which this Section is devoted there forces itself the question, What is
the position of British Chemistry at the present moment, how does this present
bear comparison with the past, and what are the prospects for the future ?

To bring before you some considerations with respect to the answer which
should be given to this question, or rather series of questions, will be my
endeayour in responding to the honour which has been conferred on me of
inaugurating the work of our Section at this Meeting of the Association.

It is with no light heart that I undertake this task, for there are present here-
to-day those whose much longer experience and far more intimate connection with
the progress of our science render it presumption on my part to address them on
this subject at all.

It is well known that the history of British Chemistry, as indeed that ot
British Science in general, is a very remarkable one: it is almost entirely made up
of achievements which are the result of private initiative; and the persons who
have taken part in the making of this history have, with some notable exceptions,
not been servants of the State, and have thus differed from the makers of scientific
history in almost every other country in the world. Thus the opportunities for
the investigations which are recorded in the ‘Transactions’ of our Chemical
Society have, for the most part, not been provided out of the public purse, but
by private individuals or by institutions which have heen created by private
benetaction.

‘This unique condition of things is well illustrated by taking up a volume of
the ‘ Chemical Society’s Journal’ and glancing at the table of contents.

Thus in the volume for 1881, taken at random, we find that, out of the seventy-
five original communications which it contains, only thirteen emanate from
Government laboratories, whilst what will surely not a little surprise the scientific
historian of some centuries hence is the circumstance that there are only four
communications from the so-called ‘ancient seats of learning’ of the United
Kingdom, no fewer than three of which are by one and the same investigator.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 5985

Again, most noteworthy is the fact that as many as five contributions are from
distinguished amateurs. We have been told, on what many persons regard as
high authority, that England is suffering from amateurism in all departments of
life; and however true this may be as a general proposition, the amateurs of
British Science, like Gladstone, Schunck, and Perkin amongst living chemists, are
assuredly some of the most valued possessions of this country.
, On looking back a quarter of a century into the past it is at once apparent
how greatly during that short period of time—less than a generation of men—
have the opportunities for higher chemical training been extended and multiplied
in our midst. I think I shall not be far wrong in saying that until twenty-five
years ago practically the only public laboratories in which the higher study of
chemistry could be pursued were those of the Royal College of Chemistry, the
Royal Institution, of University and King’s Colleges, London, the University
laboratories of England, Scotland, and Ireland, as well as those of the Queen’s
Colleges and of the Royal College of Science in the sister island: to which must
be added the laboratories of two institutions of a somewhat different type, viz.,
Owens College, Manchester, and Anderson’s College, in this great city of the
north. It is the rapid multiplication of institutions of the Owens College type
that constitutes probably the most important feature in the higher intellectual
development of the population of this country during the past quarter of a
century ; indeed, it may very possibly be found in the future that this constitutes
the most striking landmark in the history of British intellectual progress during
recent times. A glance at the following table will show the remarkably rapid
growth of these institutions during the last quarter of the nineteenth century :—

Opening of University Colleges.

University College, London . . 1828 | University College, Nottingham . 1877
King’s College, London bs . 1831 | Firth College, Sheffield ; . 1879
Owens College, Manchester . . 1851 | Mason College, Birminghain - 1880
Durham College of Science, New- University College, Liverpool . 1882
castle : : : ‘ . 1871 | University College, Dundee. . 1882
University College, Aberystwith . 1872 | University College, Cardiff . . 1883
Yorkshire College, Leeds. . 1875 | University College, Bangor . . 1884
University College, Bristol . . 1876
Finsbury Technical College | ,. : 1883
Central Institution ; } CRG age ae: : * 1 1885

Thus the opening of the greater number of these institutions falls within the
decade 1875-1884.

The benefits arising from the creation of these numerous institutions have
not, however, been by any means limited to those persons who have actually taken
advantage of their instruction, for their existence has stimulated the establish-
ment of many other institutions, some of which, like the two Colleges founded
and maintained out of the resources of the City and Guilds of London, although
more limited in their scope, afford equal or even greater opportunities for higher
scientific training in the particular branches which are represented.

The foundation of these University Colleges and of other institutions for
higher education by private initiative, and without a particle of assistance from
the public exchequer, is quite in keeping with the history of a country in which
it is recognised that the Government does not lead, but only follows where it is
drawn or propelled.

It would certainly be anticipated that such a large addition to the machinery
for higher scientific training as is represented by the creation of these numerous
local colleges during the past twenty-five years would have had a marked
influence on the output of scientific discovery in this country. We will endeavour
to ascertain whether such a result is discernible in the case of chemical science.
Turning to the ‘Transactions of the Chemical Society,’ I have compiled the
following table in the hope of obtaining some information on this point ;

586 REPORT—1901.

Original Communications in the Transactions of the Chemical Society.

1875 . = On eS *. .

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Lamas 98 0) ggeae.t Ml eRh 4 A8TE Yast Pups eh ggg: Od “Daa
aepiiomdy, yee it Peggeans 0%, “(eked peggiee ogolgenh aggo-ocehit
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[°BHPQe so0 22 «| 1866e 91, 47) 191879 & Io aorB4uple 1892 » aol ge
| 1854.) 2B) 18676) 49 | BBO T5y | 1898. 204
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BEAGco0) {94K tld 860i ope ci BFor le 18820. jon sinBR TpaOe . qansnlle
1857 occiktodt A8Be ai ariSSorJIbSaidoy viaSidt seas ale
BSB es frie! 80> shor BTL tenott 28 Uy A88t.cpcne hile LAO Gimics ele
SBS ey cD TO ier Sk |e BES... | epre le ete a ee
TSBOr 49:4, 2bs ks Lav Sbac can BOUL LESH, op oc toms iae lech tee ae
(Petaplt. se” az age odes RRy Sea eat meee reeeeog
| | |

The information furnished by these figures is also presented in a graphic form
by means of the lower curve in the diagram facing p. 593.

The activity displayed in chemical research, as measured by the number of
original communications to the Chemical Society, is, however, best followed by a
consideration of the aggregate number of papers contributed during. the three
following decades :—

Total Number of Papers in

Decade ‘Transactions of Chemical Society’
1855-1864. : : . ; : - 352
1865-1874. ; : ¢ ° ; : 422
1875-1884. . ; : 3 5 ‘ 641
1885-1894 ° : : : : : 847

From these figures it is manifest, even without the application of any of those
mathematical processes in which modern chemists are becoming so expert, that
the most remarkable increase in the number of original investigations is indeed
coincident with that decade, 1875-1884, in which the great majority of the
institutions to which I have referred began to throw their prismatic rays of
knowledge on many thousands who until then were sitting in shadow or even in
darkness. :

That these new institutions should have so immediately borne fruit in the
manner I have indicated cannot fail to be surprising to those who have been
associated with the early years of almost any of these colleges, for when a faithful
record of the experiences of their first professors is written the extraordinary
obstacles which these pioneers had to encounter, and which in so many cases they
successfully overcame, should afford material for a most remarkable, instructive,
and even amusing volume. The worthy founders and their executors or trustees
appear in general to have supposed that it was only necessary to provide a
spacious building, and then appoint a staff of professors who were to do the rest,
whilst the necessity of funds for annual upkeep, for libraries, and for assistants
was almost overlooked.

It has indeed been learnt by bitter experience that the cost of efficiently
maintaining institutions of this most ambitious character is enormously greater
than was supposed in this country twenty-five years ago, and that founding a
college, far from resembling the inauguration of a remunerative business, is very
like entrance into the bond of matrimony, with its attendant annually increasing
demand upon the pecuniary resources of the paterfamilias.

It would not indeed be surprising if some of these modern colleges had been
long debarred from contributing directly to the progress of scientific investigation
in this country, for this was often assuredly considered amongst the least of the
many arduous duties imposed upon their first professors. Ascertained capacity to
enrich science was in some cases almost a presumptive disqualification for their

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 587

chairs, or at any rate took a back seat beside enthusiasm for evening classes and
faith in the efficacy of that mysterious panacea ‘technical instruction.’ It is
indeed lamentable to think of the valuable years of productive work lost to the
country through so much of the energy of these early professors having heen
sacrificed to these veritable fetishes of our would-be educational reformers,

Notwithstanding the unfavourable conditions under which most of these
university colleges had in the first instance to carry on work, it was not long
before they showed that they were to become, even during the tenure of office of
their first professors, important centres for the prosecution of research—at least
as far as chemical science was concerned. Owens College had indeed already
led the way in this matter before the period with which I am more especially
concerned to-day, for there the first professor of chemistry had pursued his
memorable investigations on the organo-metallic compounds, and had, within the
first five years after the foundation of the College, enunciated that generalisation
which was subsequently extended into the law of valency ; whilst under his suc-
cessors, Sir Henry Roscoe, Schorlemmer, Harold Dixon, and Perkin, jun., the Owens
College has become perhaps the largest and best equipped school of scientific
chemistry in the British Islands.

From the Yorkshire College, Leeds, opened in 1875, there proceeded imme-
diately in rapid succession that whole series of careful investigations relating
more especially to specific volume and other physical constants which we associate
with its first chemical professor, Thorpe, and his coadjutors.

In the west of England, where the University College of Bristol was opened
in 1876, the chair of chemistry was first occupied by the man who has so recently
once more proved to the world that there are discoveries made in these islands
which for striking originality aud independence are unsurpassed and hardly
equalled elsewhere. It was during his tenure of the chair at Bristol that
Ramsay, assisted by his able fellow-worker and suecessor Sidney Young, carried
out those important and most laborious investigations on vapour pressure and
the thermal properties of liquids which not only displayed his extraordinary
fertility and resource as an experimenter, but also revealed that exceptional
freshness of mind which has enabled him to discern new methods of attacking

roblems that have already engaged the attention of many able men before

Turning from the west of England to the Midlands, where, in 1880, there was
founded, through the private munificence of the late Sir Josiah Mason, a college
bearing his name, which, before even attaining its majority, was transformed at
the psychological moment, as by the wand of the magician, into the University of
Birmingham. The first professor of chemistry at the Mason College, my dis-
tinguished predecessor, Tilden, soon made opportunity there to continue those
early researches on the terpenes with which his name will always be associated.
We find him also further elaborating: the important uses as a reagent of nitrosyl
chloride, which he had a number of years previously shown how to prepare in a
state of purity, and which has played a somewhat similar part in the exploration
of the terpene hydrocarbons that phenylhydrazine has done in the elucidation of
the sugar-group. In addition to these investigations we find Tilden at Birming-
ham also turning his attention to some of the phenomena attending the solution of
salts. The younger men attached to the Mason College also found there the oppor-
tunity of enriching chemical science with the results of notable investigations; for
do we not all remember Thomas Turner's valuable contributions to our know-
ledge of the influence of chemical composition on the physical and mechanical
properties of cast iron? Whilst early amongst those detailed investigations on
the phenomena of solution, which in recent years have had such far-reaching
effects on the development of our science, must be mentioned Dr. Nicol’s experi-
ments on the volume changes attending the mixture of salt solutions, and on
the molecular volume, the boiling-point, and expansion of such solutions.

In the bleak north-east of our island, at Dundee, where a college was founded
in 1882 with an extremely handsome endowment by members of the Baxter
family, the first professor of chemistry, Carnelley, fired by that restless and almost

588 REPORT—1901.

perfervid energy which doubtless hastened his untimely end, soon found oppor-
tunity to interrogate Nature in various directions, notwithstanding the arduous
teaching duties which his insatiable love of work had imposed upon himself. Thus,
already in 1884, we find him, in his quest for material which should throw light
on the periodic relationship of the elements, continuing his laborious work on
melting-points and publishing those two ponderous quarto volumes in which every
known melting-point was recorded, and forming truly one of the most remarkable
compilations ever attempted in our science. Of these volumes he might indeed
have said, ‘Exegi monumentum re perennius,’ for they will assuredly prove a
record of the boundless energy which characterised the man, more imperishable
even than the memorial tablet erected by his admiring students and friends in
the entrance hall of the Dundee laboratory, which he built and loved so well.

Yet another chemist, whose untimely death we have had to lament during the
past twenty years, laboured with marked zeal in one of these new colleges, for it
was at Aberystwith that Humpidge, regardless of his delicate health and in spite
of the altogether unreasonable burden of teaching duties imposed upon him by the
terms of his appointment, contributed to our knowledge of the atomic weight of
beryllium, and participated in establishing the position occupied by that metal in
the natural classification of the elements.

Time does not permit me to further dilate upon the great activity displayed by
many of the first occupants of the chairs of chemistry in these provincial University
Colleges, It is also unnecessary for me to do more than remind you of the work
accomplished by the two Colleges of the City and Guilds of London, the chemical
laboratories of which have from their very inception been under the stimulating
influences of Dr. Armstrong and Professor Meldola, foci of research from which
a number of young chemists of distinction have already emanated.

In recent years we have witnessed the genesis of another class of institution,
less ambitious in their aspirations than the University Colleges, but indirectly also
of much importance in their bearing upon the nurture of scientific chemistry in
this country. I refer to the so-called Polytechnics which have sprung up in several
parts of the Metropolis, and to some other institutions of similar scope in different
parts of the country. If research in the University Colleges has been the product
of their professors rather than of the environment which they afford, assuredly
this is even far more so in the case of these Polytechnics, which are primarily
evening schools for the benefit of those who have other occupations during the
day. That the young lecturers on chemistry at these places should find time and
opportunity for original research, and that sometimes of a very high order, is
indeed a brilliant testimonial to their indomitable energy and resourcefulness.
Overburdened with large classes until late hours at night, often in those remote
and hideous parts of London which suggest to most of us only Slumland and the
philanthropic efforts of Toynbee Hall or of Dr. Barnardo, these young chemists
awake in the morning only to return as rapidly as possible to those laboratories
which exercise on them a fascination as subtle and magnetic as that which draws
the commonplace Englishman to the golf-links, the cricket-field, or the racecourse.
It was in the laboratory of such a technical school, the Heriot Watt College, at
Edinburgh, that my distinguished predecessor in this chair, my friend Professor
Perkin, created his opportunities for devising and carrying out those now classical
methods of building up carbon rings which are the admiration of all organic
chemists throughout the world; methods which he has recently brought to such
a pitch of perfection that he is not only able to forge these rings in great variety,
but to ‘bridge’ them with links of carbon atoms. It was at the Heriot Watt
College also that his work on berberin was performed, and it was here that he
contracted that fertile alliance with Dr. Kipping, his able coadjutor in so many
valuable investigations.

At the London Polytechnics, again, more recently, we have had similar
examples of fertility, for are we not all familiar with the masterly work of Mr.
W. J. Pope, who by his investigations at the Goldsmiths’ Institute has extended
our knowledge of asymmetric atoms, and has shown that optical activity, which
hitherto had only been associated with carbon, and somewhat doubtfully with

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 589

nitrogen, can certainly be produced, not only by asymmetric pentad nitrogen, but
also by tetravalent tin and sulphur? Dr. Hewitt, again, whom I am proud to
number among my former students, has shown that the laboratory of the People’s
Palace, Whitechapel, may be made a centre in which abstruse investigations on
the aromatic compounds can be carried on.

There is, however, perhaps nothing which testifies more strongly to the zeal
for original investigation amongst British chemists than the manner in which
some of the science masters at our schools have participated in the advancement of
chemical knowledge. Some of these schools have, indeed, from time to time secured
the services of men whose names are indelibly engraved on the records of scientific
chemistry, and it is from the laboratories of these schools that in some cases
perhaps their best work has emanated. Of the chemical investigators who have
laboured in school laboratories there occur to me, amongst the living, Debus and
Clowes at Queenwood, Tilden and Shenstone at Clifton, Purdie at Newcastle-
under-Lyme, Brereton Baker at Dulwich, Charles Baker at Shrewsbury. To these
names might be added many more; indeed an examiration of the list of Fellows
of the Chemical Society shows at what a number of schools throughout the
country the chemical teaching is now imparted by men who have themselves
advanced the science which they profess.

From the conspicuous instances which I have brought before you—and they
might, did time allow, be greatly multiplied—it must be obvious that if a chemist
only possesses the necessary enthusiasm and qualifications he will, no matter how
inauspicious his surroundings, succeed in doing something to extend the
boundaries of his science, and I think I may go further and say without fear of
contradiction that in this devotion to research the chemist in this country usually
throws into the shade the representatives of other branches of science. How is
this pre-eminent zeal of the British chemist to be explained? I believe that
there are two principal causes in operation which have brought about this result.
Firstly, the great majority of the higher chemical teachers in this country have
been trained in Germany, or have been trained by men who were themselves
trained there ; and secondly, they have only in exceptional cases been educated at
the ancient seats of learning. ‘heir inspiration and enthusiasm are almost in-
variably directly or indirectly traceable to a German origin, and this fire is kept
alive by their remaining in constant touch with German chemical literature.

It is being continually impressed upon us in the newspapers and dinned into
our ears from every platform that it is imperative for this country to approximate
more to German ideas and methods, and in general to cast away our insular pre-
judices, obstinacy, and self-satisfaction. We chemists have already done these
things; we have emancipated ourselves from the mischievous illusions which have
a tendency to thrive in a country enjoying an isolated geographical position. For,
during the last half century the academic springs of Germany have been visited
by a stream of young English chemists, a stream which, for the perennial regularity
of its flow, reminds ore indeed of the pilgrimage made by our fashionable invalids
to the same country in the hope of correcting the effects of high living by the
waters of Homburg, Kissingen, and Wiesbaden. There must indeed be few
chemists who return from the German temples of science without bringing back
at least a spark of the sacred fire to be kindled on an altar at home; and although
at times it may be stifled by the island fog, or burn low through the scarcity of
fuel, it generally smoulders long before going out altogether.

The chemist, again, is generally, as I have said, unfettered by an English uni-
versity record : he stands or falls by the work of his life, and not, as so many others
do, by the reputation which they have made in three short years of adolescence at
one of the ancient seats of learning.

The spirit of research, which was formerly but a sporadic manifestation within
the walls of these venerable institutions, has, however, now become endemic there
also, and for a number of years past chemical literature has received a continuous
stream of original communications from Oxford and Cambridge, as well as from
the Universities of Scotland and Ireland. Instead of those occasional contribu-
tions which were customary in the past, we have now evidence that these centres

590 REPORT—1901,

in several cases yield to none in the energy and success with which chemical in-
vestigation is being pursued, and that the work of the chemical staff is being
shared in by advanced pupils trained at these universities themselves. In this
connection it is quite unnecessary for me to remind you of the contributions to
British chemistry within recent years by Crum Brown and his pupils at Edinburgh,
by Japp at Aberdeen, by Purdie and James Walker at the duplex university
now working so harmoniously north and south of the Tay, by Emerson Reynolds
at Dublin, and by Harcourt and Harold Dixon, Liveing and Dewar, Ruhemann,
Heycock and Neville, Fenton, Sell, Marsh, and others, who have brought our
science into such living prominence on the banks of the Cam and the Isis.

It is, however, not at home only that British chemists have displayed their
devotion to research, for with the world-wide relations of the empire it has
naturally fallen to the lot of some of our number to carry the science to the utter-
most parts of the earth, but it is surely a matter of which we may be justly proud
that some of these missionaries, like Mallett, Liversidge, Pedler and Rennie, have
in these distant lands carried out a number of most important scientific investiga-
tions; whilst to one of them, Dr. Divers, belongs the great distinction, not only
of having carried chemistry to the Far Kast, but of having reared a most active
school of chemical research in that fascinating island empire of the rising sun and
the chrysanthemum which has won the unfeigned admiration of the West.

The annals of British Chemistry are, however, by no means an exclusive record
of the exploits of those engaged in the teaching of our science. I have already
referred to the importance of the contributions made by men of leisure, but an
equally noteworthy feature of British Chemistry is that its progress has been so
often furthered by men who have snatched the time for investigation out of a busy
professional or industrial life. Belonging to this category the names of a long line
of distinguished chemists of our own time suggest themselves: Warren de la Rue,
Hugo Miller, Sir John Lawes, Sir William Crookes, Sir Wiliam Abney, Peter
Griess, Newlands, O’Sullivan, Horace and Adrian Brown, Harris Morris,
Cross, and Bevan. To this group of chemists belongs also Dr. Ludwig Mond,
whose technical researches have been of such great value to industrial chemistry,
whilst his devotion to the pure science is attested by his interesting discovery and
investigation of the metallic carbonyl compounds, and by his conception and muni-
ficent endowment of the Davy-Faraday Laboratory, in which such unique oppor-
tunities for research have been provided by him.

This would appear to be the most fitting moment also to refer to certain other
institutions intended for purposes of research which have been established during
the past twenty-five years. Of these the first is the Rothamsted Laboratory, so
celebrated during the last half-century for the memorable investigations of Lawes,
Gilbert, Pugh, and Warington, but which has more recently, through the generosity
of the late Sir John Lawes, been rendered a permanent home for the elucidation of
agricultural problems both by laboratory experiments and by trials in the field.
Secondly, there is the Research Laboratory which the Pharmaceutical Society
has established with the view of raising to a higher level the chemical education
of its most promising future members. ‘This laboratory has furnished the
opportunity for the valuable investigations of its first director, Professor Dun-
stan, and of his successor, Dr. Collie. Still more recently a chemical research
laboratory has been established in the Imperial Institute. That noble building
has within the last few years undergone a process of transverse subdivision, one-
half having assumed an independent existence as the nucleus of that still crystal-
lising body, the University of London ; whilst in the remaining half the work of the
Institute is now carried on in such silence that we have almost forgotten its exist-
ence. For where is the florid music with which on summer nights the air of
South Kensington was wont to reverberate? Gone. Gone also are the tea-tables,
the gardens with their million fairy lights, and the promenading crowds in gay
attire. But if the Institute, founded by public subscription to watch over and
advance the prosperity of the British dominions, has been impoverished by the
discontinuance of these revels, it has become enriched and has gained in dignity by
the creation within its wallsof a Research Laboratory in which Professor Dunstan and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 591

his assistants are busily investigating the chemical nature of numerous interesting
products obtained from all parts of Greater Britain,

There can, in my opinion, be no doubt that this much extended cultivation of
scientific chemistry in this country, which is suck a noticeable feature of the con-
cluding years of the nineteenth century, has been greatly assisted by a most fortu-
nate, and more or less accidental, circumstance, without which the energy and
enthusiasm of our chemical teachers would have been seriously restricted in their
influence. I refer to the very substantial surplus, producing an income of 6,000J.
to 7,000/. a year, of which the Commissioners of the 1851 Exhibition found them-
selves possessed, and its utilisation on the advice of the late Lord Playfair for
the purpose of the Research Scholarships which have for some ten years past been
so highly prized by all the educational institutions permitted to participate in
them. ‘The good wrought by these scholarships has been very far-reaching, and it
would be difficult to praise too highly the wisdom displayed by the Commissioners
in drawing up the conditions on which they are awarded. Firstly, by not limiting
them to any one science, they have stimulated a wholesome rivalry between
departments to bring on their promising students to the level of scientific investi-
gation. Secondly, they have compelled the governing bodies of educational insti-
tutions to recognise and make provision for research as part of the regular pro-
gramme of these places. Thirdly, they have encouraged talented students to
devote an additional year, or even more, to their education in the hope of securing
one of these prizes; and these students have thus provided their teachers with the
personnel necessary for carrying on scientific work. Fourthly, the scholars them-
selves have had the inestimable advantage of extending their horizon, and of
coming in contact with other teachers, other schools of thought, and other views
of life. Fifthly, these scholars on their return, and before they have obtained
definite employment, are welcomed as supernumeraries in English colleges, where
they have an opportunity of continuing their researches, and. where they assist in
imbuing the students with the spirit which they have themselvesimbibed. Lastly,
these and other scholarships of a similar character are providing the country with a
body of highly trained men whose value to the nation is annually becoming more
appreciated, and whose work will continue to bear fruit directly or indirectly for an
indefinite period of time. These Exhibition scholarships have now been awarded
since 1891, and already no fewer than sixty-five chemists, including three women,
have enjoyed the enormous privilege of extending their education for a period of
two, and in special cases even three, years under the most favourable sur-
roundings. ;

Bearing in mind the rooted objection which pervades the people of this country
to expend any public money on higher education, it is marvellous that it should
have co possible to employ this fund, which after all is of a quasi-public character,
for what may be described as educational use at a high potential, instead of its being
dissipated in the manner so dear to Englishmen, by benefiting to an infinitesimal
extent a much larger number of persons. Indeed, but for the vertebrate cha-
racter of the Commissioners in 1877, the fund would have been thus frittered away,
for in that year they were waited upon by a deputation of influential persons who
urged that the money should be distributed in grants to provincial museums.
Had that been done what would have been the result? The masses would
have had a few more glass cases to gaze at on wet days and bank holidays!

There can, I think, be little doubt that in this matter of the allocation of
funds intended for the public good we have reached a turning-point in the road
which we have been so long pursuing. Until recently it has been the feeling of a
very powerful majority in this country that public money should only be spent in
such a way as to directly benefit very large numbers; and in the case of educa-
tional funds, therefore, it was only their utilisation for the benefit of the masses
that could be entertained. Now, whilst it is indubitable that the improvement of

our primary education was for many years a crying necessity, it has long been
obvious to a minority that this policy is systematically starving that higher edu-
cation in which we are lagging more and more behind those other countries in
which greater elasticity prevails, and in which the immediate and obvious wants

592 : REPORT—1901.

of the community receive prompt attention without regard to the traditions and
doctrinaire principles of a past generation. In the matter of higher scientific
education, at any rate, it is becoming more and more widely recognised that its
starvation through attention being exclusively directed to the low-level education
of the masses is defeating the very ends which this policy has in view. Indeed,
some practical men, and even a few statesmen, realise that the many are beginning
to suffer from the results which this policy has had on our manufactures and com-
merce, without which the multitude can have no existence at all.

The more than princely patronage of higher education by that Scotsman who has
not forgotten the land of his birth during fifty years spent in a gountry which has
afforded the necessary scope for his genius and energies illustrates the change in
the wind of opinion amongst practical men; for Mr. Andrew Carnegie’s handsome
contribution to the funds of the University of Birmingham, and his endowment of
the universities of Scotland on a scale which is altogether without precedent,
clearly show which, in his opinion, are the rungs in the educational ladder of this
country that require strengthening in the interest of those very masses which it is
his earnest desire to benefit. The still more recent response of the City Council
of Birmingham to Mr. Chamberlain’s suggestion that a rate should be levied in
aid of the university of that city is further evidence that Mr. Carnegie’s practically
expressed opinion is shared by the enlightened rulers of that great municipality to
which I have the privilege of belonging.

These, ladies and gentlemen, are, I believe, no mere sporadic manifestations, but
unquestionably signs of the times. The opening of the new century is in reality
a year of very serious awakening to those Englishmen who are not deaf to the
voices in the air aroundthem. It is rapidly dawning upon many that ‘the
greatest empire which the world has ever seen’ cannot be maintained unless we
cast off insular prejudices and traditions, and make a careful study of those points
in which other nations are our superiors, with a view to the intelligent adaptation
and development, as distinguished from mere imitation, of their methods to our
own particular needs,

The survey of the British chemical world at the dawn of the twentieth century
affords, however, scope for satisfaction in many ways. Not only have the places
in which higher chemical work can be and actually is carried on been greatly
multiplied, but the number of workers has been largely increased; and although
the enthusiasm of these workers cannot well be greator than that of those who
laboured so successfully twenty years and more ago, it has not become diminished,
and is certainly diffused more widely amongst the personnel of our colleges and
universities. In this connection I need only remind you of the large number of
active and independent investigators who are to be found amongst the members
of the junior staff at almost every college in the country, and which is altogether
without parallel in the past.

There are hardly any of the great problems now exercising the minds of
chemists throughout the world which are not being worked at by some of our
number; whilst that some chapters in the recent progress of chemical science are
more or less specifically British, I would only remind you of the isolated labours of
Dr, Perkin in the field of magnetic rotatory power; of Sir William Crookes’s explo-
ration of the phenomena occurring in high vacua; of the researches of Abney,
Russell, and Hartley on the absorption spectra of organic compounds; of the
investigations by Harold Dixon and Brereton Baker of the behaviour of substances
in the complete absence of moisture; of the extension by Pope and Smiles of
our knowledge of asymmetric atoms; of the near approach to the absolute zero
of temperature by Dewar; and of those marvellous discoveries of Raleigh and
Ramsay which have not only introduced us to five new aérial elements, but have
revealed the existence of a hitherto unknown type of matter, which is apparently
incapable of entering into chemical combination at all.

But whilst we may thus congratulate ourselves on this increased activity in
chemical investigation, and upon the maintenauce of a high standard of quality by
the exceptional brilliancy of the researches of some of our number, we must now
carefully consider how we stand with regard to the absolute quantity of our output.

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TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 595

I have called your attention to the evidence of activity in the British chemical
world which is furnished by the number of original investigations communicated
to the Chemical Society of London. Let me now ask you to turn to the corre-
sponding picture, which is furnished by the statistics of the much younger
Chemical Society of Berlin.

Original Communications to the Chemical Society of Berlin.

1868.. Sa Ei Movie . 568 1886 . . 696 1895 . . 636
1869 . . 252 1878 . . 602 1887 . . 708 1896. . 566
1870 . . 277 1879 . . 604 1888 . . 658 1897 . . 560
1871:. . 288 1880. . . 563 1889 . . 601 1898 . . 555
1872. . 303 1881 . . 495 1890 . . 630 1899 . . 549
1873 . . 420 1882 . . 541 1891 . #627 1900 . . 636
1874 . . 516 1883 . . 535 1892 . . 553
1875. . 488 1884 . - 646 1893 . . 587
1876. . 517 1885 . . 686 1894 . . 653

A comparison between these figures and those of the London Chemical Society
is best effected by means of the diagram, which speaks for itself, and shows that
chemical science occupies an entirely different place in Germany from that which
it even now does in this country. The curves in the diagram bear, indeed, some-
what the same relationship to each other as do the homely elevations of the
Grampians to the snow-clad peaks of the Andes.

Is this state of affairs to continue throughout the twentieth century? Are
intellectual ambitions to be for ever subordinated to the extension of territory, to
the acquisition of that metal which has had its atomic weight so accurately
determined by Thorpe and Laurie, and to those other problems which fill the
political horizon? Even the most recent awakening of interest in higher scientific
education is not altogether of the breed to satisfy us as men of science; for the
interest is assuredly not in the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, but is
aroused by the desire to secure those material advantages which it is beginning
to be realised must inevitably result from the steadfast prosecution of scientific
research. This is indeed a very different spirit from that which has led to the
proud position occupied by science and learning of all kinds in Germany.

Schiller has truly said—

‘ Knowledge is to one a goddess, to another only an excellent cow.’

J fear there can be no doubt that here it is the cow, and not the goddess, that is in
request. Thus, whilst in Germany the love and reverence for knowledge preceded
the esteem of knowledge for the material benefits which it confers, we must hope
that in our country the eagerness to secure the material advantages will perhaps
lead to a love and reverence for that which confers them, so that in the course of
time, perhaps, the useful cow will be allotted a stall on Olympus, or be at least
pastured on the grass of Parnassus.

From whatever motive, whether utilitarian or otherwise, we wish to see the
position of science in this country raised, and the qualitative and quantitative
output of scientific work increased, I imagine that the methods to be immediately
pursued for attaining this end must be very similar.

If the higher teaching of science is to be really encouraged the first necessity
is that this higher teaching shall offer a sufliciently attractive career to the man of
ambition as well as to the enthusiast. We all know that the supply of enthusiasts
of intellectual power combined with capacity to perform is extremely limited and
wholly inadequate for carrying out the important work of the world, and that the
greater part of such work is actually done by men of ambition.

In order that the academic world may attract the ablest men of ambition as
well as that rara avis, the able enthusiast, it is necessary that the highest prizes
for academic distinction should carry similar so¢ial prestige, similar remuneration,

594, REPORT—1901.

and similar opportunities of exerting public influence as are enjoyed by the leaders
of other professional callings: they should be at least equal to those of the
Archbishop of Canterbury or of the Lord Chancellor. It is not by any means
necessary that such prizes should be numerous, as is abundantly demonstrated by
the volume of able ambition which is drawn into the Church and to the Bar by the
comparatively few opportunities for great success in those professions. The
enthusiasts already find their way into the academic world; and, although they
maintain the quality of British scientific work, they are unable, by virtue of
their scarcity, to maintain the quantity which is essential for the luxuriant growth
of science in our midst, whilst the absence of such tangible rewards as are
bestowed in other spheres of intellectual activity prevent the importance of science
being recognised by a public which has no appreciation of the inward and spiritual
grace unless guided by the outward and visible sign.

Precisely the opposite policy, as far as remuneration is concerned, has, however,
been pursued in the academic world during recent years, the few very moderate
prizes which formerly existed having been deliberately commandeered to more
nearly equalise the value of the chairs in all departments,

The principle of equalising the remuneration of different chairs is as inequitable
as it is utterly unsound from a business point of view. The principle is unsound
because equal salaries will not secure men of similar standing in different subjects,
it is inequitable because the amount of work attaching to the chairs of different
subjects is necessarily very unequal, as is the order of intellect required for the
successful discharge of their duties.

Again, the system which is gaining ground in this country of allocating a
certain stipend to a chair is unbusinesslike and mischievous. It is as irrational to
fix the remuneration of a particular chair as it would be to fix the price to be paid
for one’s portrait, irrespectively of whether it were taken by a photographer or
painted by a Royal Academician. If we really want the best man for any
particular professional service, whether it be to treat us for a disease, to plead our
cause in a court of law, or to perform on some musical instrument for our delecta-
tion, we know that we must make up our minds to pay the price which the best
man commands in his particular profession, and it is absurd to suppose that the
same principle does not hold good in the matter of securing the best man for an
academic appointment. This, again, is intimately connected with the desirability
of providing a sufficient number of steps in the academic ladder, so that it shail
not be possible for the ‘young man of promise’ to be rushed into a first-class
appointment from which he has no ambition to move for the remainder of his
days.

Another matter, again, requires consideration: if we are really in earnest in
the attempt to bring our universities abreast of those in other countries, our chairs
must be systematically thrown open to the whole world, and the best men
obtainable secured, irrespectively of their nationality. Not only have small
nations adopted this plan, but even the nation which is pre-eminent for its
academic strength is by no means blind to the importance of drawing into its
service from the outside men of commanding brilliance and power. I need not
remind you that England has also exhibited a wise and liberal spirit in this
mutter in the past, and that, as far as our science is concerned, this policy has beer
most fully justified. J*or, consider only what the English Chemistry of the latter
half of the nineteenth century owes to the genius and magnetic influence of the
imported Hofmann. I can imagine the electors to British chairs suggesting that
there might be linguistic difficulties in the way of carrying out such a policy, in
answer to which 1 would appeal to the pupils of Hofmann to say whether his
stimulating discourse lost anything of its vigour and inspiration through the
strong Hessian accent with which every word of it was saturated. It is to be
hoped that no narrow and short-sighted policy, disguised under that too often mis-
used word ‘ patriotism,’ will seek to close the doors of our universities to the genius
and ability of other nationalities.

I believe, however, that one of the most urgent and pressing of University

‘reforms is that greater facilities should -be afforded for the migration of students

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 595

from ohe university to another, without prejudice to their acquisition of a degree.
It is the present system, which practically chains an undergraduate with links
of steel to the university at which he matriculates, that is at the root of many of
the evils under which our higher education is labouring.

The university at which a youth matriculates is often determined by the
fatuous, although pathetic, wish of the father that his son should spend his time,
I will not say work, amidst the surroundings which awaken such pleasant
memories in himself; and the youth once within the magic portals has little or no
opportunity of rectifying the possible mistake of his fond parent, who has probably
for a quarter of a century been quite out of touch with university matters, or even
divorced from the intellectual world altogether.

This foolish sentiment of loyalty to a university or even college is sometimes
kept up for generations, and I have met persons who have told me that their
family had always been Balliol or Trinity men, with the same sort of pride that
they would doubtless have informed me, had they been able, that their ancestors
came over with the Conqueror or had charged with the Cavaliers at Naseby.

The prevalence of such a sentiment shows that our universities are principally
valued for their social attractions, as well as for their past history and ancient
traditions, in which connection it is always well to remember that a living dog is
better than a dead lion.

The possibility of students dissociating themselves from the university of their
matriculation and freely migrating from one school to another would, in my
opinion, not only be of immense advantage to the students themselves, enabling
them to obtain the best instruction in each particular subject and greatly
extending their horizon and knowledge of the world, but it would operate most
favourably on the universities themselves, minimising the tendency to stagnation,
and compelling those who hold the purse-strings to provide for the strengthening
of weak departments. Nor should the possibilities of migration be limited to the
Universities of the United Kingdom or even of the British Empire, but the prospect
should be kept in view of ultimately effecting an arrangement whereby students
could enjoy the advantage of visiting the universities of other countries.

Such migration is, of course, closely connected with the duration of the period
of university study, and in this matter reform is most urgently needed. The
traditional three years devoted to the acquisition of a degree is hopelessly
inadequate for the higher purposes of university training, especially when the very
immature age at which English students generally begin their university career
is taken into consideration. The period of academic study should be forthwith
extended to five years, as it is only in this way that the university can be effec-

tively made a centre of research. Without a course of study of such duration,
and of which research forms a part, it is quite impossible that the highly trained
men who are now so urgently needed for practical avocations should be
produced.

In this connection, again, we all know that much mischief has been going on
in recent years. Instead of the terms on which degrees are at present obtainable
being regarded as too lenient and easy, proposals are actually being put forward
in some quarters to enable persons attending evening classes to thereby qualify for
university degrees. Now, whilst it is of the utmost importance to provide
abundant opportunities for the talented poor to obtain a university education by
reducing the fees and by instituting a sufficient number of bursaries, it is impera-
tive that those who are to be stamped with the distinctive mark of a university
‘should have devoted their whole and undivided attention, over a certain period of
time, to the courses of study prescribed. Let us beware of introducing the half-
time system into the university, a system which we know to be a deplorable
makeshift even in the elementary school.

In this matter of the aspirations, scope, and functions of a university we have
not merely to contend with the ignorance and apathy of the average Philistine,
but we are wrestling against principalities, against powers, and against darkness in
high places. Thus only four months ago one of our most prominent statesmen,
whose oracular and sporadic utterances inspire amongst millions almost the

596 REPORT—1901.

awe and respect which is felt for the supernatural, is reported in the columns
of the daily papers to have said at one of the most important educational
gatherings of this first year of the new century:—‘ You, Mr. Vice-Chancellor,
spoke of the stigma that would rest on the University if it did not annually
produce some work of original research. I, from another point of view, am
contented if you do nothing of the kind. I am satisfied to think that in a
large and increasing degree you will train men and women fit for the manifold
requirements of this Empire.’ This statesman, who it is not surprising to find was
educated at Eton and Oxford, is thus of the opinion to-day, unless, indeed, his
views have changed in the interim, that it is possible to train men and women fit
for the manifold requirements of this Empire without bringing, at any rate, some
of them into contact with the living spirit of research—that spirit which, operating
through the ages, has enabled man to transform the wilderness in which he was
placed by his Creator into the garden of material and intellectual enjoyments in
which that statesman was himself born.

I would ask you to contrast with the views of the distinguished alwmnus of
Eton and Oxford the utterance of another statesman who, unhampered by such
educational antecedents, has formulated the following ideal for the guidance of
that university which he has himself created :—

‘The third feature to which I should call attention, and which, I am inclined
to say, is of all the most important, is that a university should be a place where
knowledge is increased, and where the limits of learning are extended. Original
research, the addition of something to the total sum of human knowledge, must
always be an essential part of our proposals,’

Lastly, we have to consider whether this university work, in which we hope
for such great developments in the twentieth century, is still to be carried on by
what is virtually private enterprise and private endowment, or whether it is to be
provided for by taxation.

If the reforms and developments which are being preached from so many
platforms are to be really carried out, if even our higher scientific training alone is
to be brought into line with that which is provided in many other countries, it is
indubitable that expenditure will have to be enormously increased, Now,
profoundly as we all admire the enlightened public spirit of the men and women
who have in the past endeavoured out of their private resources to help forward
the great movement of higher education, it is, I believe, the firm conviction
of all who have any real knowledge of what this higher education means,
and a clear conception of what must be done in order to put it on a proper
footing in this country, that on private benefaction alone this work cannot be
accomplished. But even if private endowment could raise this great edifice
in our midst, it is obvious that we should have to wait indefinitely for its
realisation. Voluntary contributions cannot be made to come at the bidding of
those who stand in need, nor directed into the channels where they will produce
the most good ; they bave to be patiently waited for, with the result that valuable
time is lost and opportunities pass by never to return. Private benefaction,
moreover, is almost always retrospective: a hospital is not founded by the chari-
table until the sick. are dying unattended; almshouses and orphanages are not
thought of until the widow and the fatherless are either starving in the streets
or begging on the doorstep. -What we so forcibly recognise in this matter,
however, is that we have not only to make up for leeway in the past, but that we
must now exercise prevision to prevent similar disastrous lapses in the future.
The state of affairs to which we have been reduced must not be allowed to occur
again; the warnings of those possessing special knowledge in these matters must
not be disregarded in the future as they have been in the past, for it is no
exaggeration that the whole of the learned societies and academic bodies of this
country put together have at present a smaller corporate share of political
influence than a Temperance League or a Trades Union. To what has this state of
things reduced us? The humiliating spectacle of ‘the greatest empire the world
has ever seen’ at the beginning of the twentieth century without a teaching

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 597

university in its Metropolis, and engaged upon the task of tardily patching one
together out of those heterogeneous elements of uncertain valency which are to
hand. Is the completion of this structure, on a scale challenging comparison with
the universities which are to be found in the other great capitals of Europe, to be
delayed until a millionaire, or rather series of millionaires, can be induced to
finance it? To this work, and to other works like it, is it not fitting that every
inhabitant of this country should contribute? For these are works which
assuredly benefit all classes, not only of this generation, but of those which are to
come—at least as much as the acquisition of territory at a distance of 8,000 miles
from home, and for which purpose the nation is apparently willing to pay at
the rate of one and a quarter million sterling per week for an indefinite period of
time.

It is sometimes urged that this higher education does not benefit the masses;
but could any contention be more erroneous? The poor have really a far greater
stake in the prosperity of our home industries and commerce than the rich; for
whilst the decay of our producing power will remove the very means of subsist-
ence from the poor, it matters very little to many of the rich whether their
dividends are derived from home-enterprises or from those of a Billion Dollar
Combine or some similar transatlantic Trust or Corporation.

Higher education and true universities are also amongst the most potent factors
in breaking down the hereditary stratification of society and in minimising the
advantages depending upon the accident of birth, so that, with the greatly
enhanced facilities which must be provided for students without means, they
should afford in the future, even more than they have done in the past, an avenue
for the humblest boy of talent to that position which he is by natural endowment
and by his own exertion best fitted to fill in the interests of the State.

Is this great work of raising up a worthy system of national higher education,
and of creating a living interest and widely diffused enthusiasm for knowledge and
for the increase of knowledge in all its branches, going to be accomplished during
the century of which we have but crossed the threshold? Even the most sanguine
among us dare not unhesitatingly say Yes; but assuredly upon the answer, which
is hidden by the veil of the inscrutable future, depends in the very highest degree,
not only the material and intellectual welfare of the rising generations, but also
the good name and reputation of the Empire in our own time and the gratitude
which, above all things, we should strive to earn from that immortal part of us
which we call Posterity.

The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. Duty-free Alcohol for Chemical Research. By W.T. Lawrence.

‘ The present occasion seems opportune to direct attention to the fact that one of
the most familiar, most readily procurable, and most cheaply produced of all organic
material is placed beyond the reach of many students by the heavy duty levied upon it.
May I, in the name of teachers of organic chemistry, appeal to the Board of Inland
Revenue, on behalf of scientific and technical education, to provide institutions for
higher education in science with a limited quantity of pure alcohol free of duty,
thereby placing schools of chemistry in this country in the same position as those
on the Continent ?’—Dr. JULIUS B, COHEN, ‘ Practical Organic Chemistry,’ Introduc-
tion, p. vi.

The remarkable success attained by the Baden Soda and Aniline Factory
in the modification and commercial adaptation of laboratory syntheses, a
success which has lately resulted, after some nine years of experimental work, in
the manufacture of indigo, &c., has demonstrated that organic research work,
which possessed at the time a merely theoretical interest, may ultimately find
valuable application in the chemical industry. English manufacturers have
gradually awakened to an appreciation of the value of research, and the chemist
who has published a considerable amount of original work will command a high

1901. RR

598 REPORT—1901.

salary and, having demonstrated his ability to tackle intricate problems, will be
consulted when difficulties arise.

To give an example, a large firm of manufacturers in the north of England,
finding that certain of their comestibles products lost their colour on keeping,
instead of communicating with a firm of analysts, consulted an organic chemist,
who possessed little or no experience of commercial organic analysis, but whose
experiments and researches showed that he would consider the question with an
innate knowledge of the subject, unfettered by rule of thumb. The decision of the
manufacturers proved a wise one.

The majority of young men engaged in organic research possess restricted
incomes—£100-150 shows a fair average—consequently the expense of materials
falls heavily on them. Such research frequently demands the use of large
quantities of dutiable articles—absolute ethyl and methyl] alcohols, methyl iodide,
&e. Now the duty on alcohol is a consumption tax the objective of which is
tersely put in the following sentence from the official Customs tariff, ‘including
naphtha or methylic alcohol purified so as to be potable’; but it was certainly
never the wish of any administration to tax experimental science and the
industries which result from these experiments.

A good instance of the absurd Jength to which the Customs authorities are
prepared to go appeared a few weeks since in the papers. A collection of
crustaceans preserved in spirit was sent from India to Mr. Beddard, the eminent
F.R.S, ; the Custom House wished to charge Mr. Beddard 25s. duty because the
spirit in which these crabs and crayfish were preserved had not been methylated,
and was consequently, we can only suppose, considered potable. I am glad to say
the alcohol was poured away, and consequently the duty was not paid.

The following figures from the Owens College Chemical Laboratory show the
amount of duty paid in the course of one year on methyl and ethyl alcohol alone :—

Dury eid tea ee ee ee ee
allie i Re Rs ncaa eae phe Dirk
AOE ROD ee et ae oe aE

The duty represents about 2°15 times the original value of the alcohol.

Practically the whole of the alcohol purchased by the laboratory used by three
or four chemists engaged in orgsnic research: thus the ledger debits from
October to April 1900-01 three chemists with 117. 8s., 62. 18s., 5. respectively for
alcohol ; we may therefore consider that these three chemists pay roughly 50/. a
year for alcohol, of which sum about 16/. 10s. is the actual value of the alcohol,
and the rest is made up by the duty,

The distinct disadvantage at which the English chemist works, as compared to
his Continenta! colleagues, is shown by the following statement kindly supplied —
by the Commercial Intelligence Department of the Board of Trade :—

‘So far as the information in the possession of this branch goes, there would
appear to be no free admission of alcohol from abroad for industrial purposes in
either of the countries‘ named. There are internal taxes in both countries from
which alcohol is, under certain circumstances, exempt; but it does not appear that
the exemptions affect the imported article, unless possibly in one instance, as will
appear later.

‘In France the internal tax of 220 fr. per hectolitre of pure alcohol is a
consumption tax from which alcohol used for industrial purposes is exempt, being
subject only to a statistical tax of 25 centimes per hectolitre of pure alcohol.

‘On imported articles, in which alcohol exists, the consumption tax is levied
{in addition to Customs duty) on the amount of pure alcohol which exists ina
state of simple mixture or chemical combination, and it is not absolutely clear
whether if such articles are to be used for industrial purposes they would be
exempt from this tax. The statistical tax on articles in which the alcohol has
been entirely transformed, eliminated, or.evaporated (e.g., ether), plus 80 centimes
per hectolitre, to compensate for the expenses of surveillance, &c., incurred by

! France and!Germany.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 599

French manufacturers, is, however, levied on the amount of alcohol calculated to
have been used in their production. In Germany alcohol used for industrial or
medicinal purposes is exempt from the tax on the production of spirits
(Brantweinstener),’

The above remarks apply equally to alcohol used in chemical research.

One of the objections which will possibly be raised by the Treasury in refusing
to move in this matter is that though a great proportion of the cost of organic
research in this country is due to the high cost of duty-paid alcohol and ether, yet
they (the Treasury) pay back to chemical science far more than they receive from
chemistry as duty. It has been suggested that the organic chemistry department
of the Owens College has been peculiarly favoured in the administration of the
Treasury grant. Here arethe facts. In the year 1898 the chemical department of
the Owens College received 175/., and in the year 1899 125/. in Treasury grants;
against these items we find that the College in the year 1899-1900, though
suffering severely from the financial depression, paid 4277. 15s. 10d. for apparatus
and chemicals used in research, the result being that 20 per cent. of the transac-
tions of the Chemical Society for 1899 are occupied by contributions from the
College laboratories. It is well here to point out that the tax falls most heavily
on students who, having just taken their degrees, are engaged in their first
researches. Such students, as a rule, receive no pecuniary assistance.

Does not the Treasury grasp the elementary principle that the advance of
knowledge, leading, as it does, to the creation of new industries and to the perfec.
tion of the old, becomes a valuable, if indirect, source of increased income ?

The Board of Inland Revenue are understood to object that the administration
of a remission of the duty in alcohol would be both complicated and costly.

Is this difficulty really so insuperable? In France, as has been shown, the
cost of administration is met by a statistical tax. In this country a precedent has
been set in the permission of responsible persons to use and recover methylated
spirit.

‘A person desirous of using methylated spirit must make written application
to the Commissioners, stating the situation of the premises, the particular purpose
or purposes to which the spirits are to be applied, the quantity likely to be.
required in the course of a year, and if the quantity to be used in a year exceeds
fifty gallons, or there is a still on the premises, or means are adopted for the
recovery of the spirits after use. He must furnish the name of one or more house-
holders or of a guarantee society to join him in a bond for the proper use of the
spirits.

In America and Canada colleges and institutions are permitted to use aleohol
free of duty on a signed requisition from the head of the college or department.
Should this suggestion be adopted or not?

A modification of the following scheme might be found workable. Institu-
tions and laboratories desirious of using pure alcohol for scientific purposes might
apply to the Board of Inland Revenue for a licence (for which, say, a charge of
5s. to 10s. could be made); the manufacturer or retailer supplying the alcohol in
this country would with the delivery note send a form which could be filled up
and signed by the director of the institution or laboratory, and the manufacturer
or retailer would ultimately obtain remission of duty from the Inland Revenue
Board on presentation of these forms as bona fides. In the case of alcohol coming
from foreign countries the usual Customs note would be so modified that the con-
signee would be able to apply direct for rebate. If the Board of Inland Revenue
consider supervision of such institution and laboratories necessary, it surely would
not entail much extra work on those officials who now control the use of methy-
lated spirit.

‘What steps can be taken to obtain this object? It is first necessary to ascer-
tain whether to effect such a change would be within the statutory powers of the
Board of Inland Revenue, or whether it would be necessary to introduce a Bill
into Parliament.

In the first case it seems to me that an influential deputation might waif on
the First Lord of the Treasury or the Chancellor of the Exchequer and represent

RR2

600 REPORT—1901.

to him the facts of the case. In the second case the question becomes more
complicated.

My view—a view shared by many eminent chemists present at this meeting—
is that it would be highly advantageous to appoint a small committee to consider
the question and to report on it.

The intention of this article kas been to again call attention to a subject which,
though frequently the object of fruitless endeavours, yet by its very reasonable-
ness deserves success. Organic chemists will find that they will have to present a
very strong case, influentially backed, before they can persuade such officials of
the Treasury and Board of Inland Revenue as do not possess the scientific mind
to recognise the importance of the subject; yet the time is coming when

‘the thoughts of men are widen’d with the process of the suns,’

2. The Coal Tar Industry.
By Dr. A. G. GrEEN.—See Reports, p. 252.

3, Report on a New Series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra
of the Elements.—See Reports, p. 79.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Enzyme Action. By Avrian J. Brown.

The author has already shown! that in alcoholic fermentation a constant
weight of sugar is decomposed in unit time by a constant amount of yeast in solu-
tions containing different amounts of sugar, and has called attention to the fact
that in this respect the action of fermentation differs essentially from that of inver-
sion, which, according to C. O’Sullivan and Tompson, follows the law of mass
action.”

So long as the phenomenon of fermentation was believed to be a life function
inseparable from the living yeast cell, it did not appear remarkable that the order
of progression of its action should differ from that of inversion ; but since Buchner
has shown that fermentation, like inversion, is an enzyme action, this point of
difference required further investigation. ;

The author has examined the action of invertase on cane sugar experimentally,
and demonstrates that the action as usually studied does not follow the law of
mass action, but resembles that of fermentation.

The curve of action of invertase found by C. O’Sullivan and Tompson does not
instance mass action, but, as suggested by Duclaux,’ its form is due to the arresting
influence of inversion products. J. O’Sullivan’s experiments* on the power of
inversion of living yeast cells are referred to, and it is shown that the results of
his experiments also confirm the author's conclusion.

But although the action of inversion as studied by C. O’Sullivan and Tompson,
J. O'Sullivan, and the author does not follow the law of mass action, the author
does not regard the action, however produced, as independent of mass influence,
and considers that the influence of mass in inversion changes as it has hitherto
been studied is restricted by some other influence. This influence he believes
exists in the time factor of molecular change.

§.J. Chem. Soc., 61, 1892, 380. 2 Thid., 57, 1890, 865.
* Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 1698. * J. Chem, Soc., 61, 1892, 926.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 601

In any simple chemical change the influence of mass regulates the number of
molecular contacts between acting and reacting molecules in unit time; but if a
time factor enters into the molecular reaction, there must be a point beyond which
the number of molecular changes cannot increase owing to the restriction of time
in the action, and this point will be determined by the relative frequency of
molecular contact and the length of the time interval of molecular change.

There is good reason to believe that during inversion of cane sugar the sugar
enters into molecular combination with invertase previous to change, which pre-
supposes a time factor of some magnitude. Under these conditions it therefore
appears the more probable that this factor limits the effect of mass action in
inversion changes as observed in solutions of ordinary concentration. But if this
is so, there must be a point of dilution in cane sugar solutions when invertase,
acting in the dilute solutions, exhibits an order of changein conformity with mass
action. The author shows by direct experiment that this point is reached in a
solution containing about 1 per cent. of cane sugar, so far confirming his conclusion
that the time factor of molecular change limits the action of inversion in all but
very dilute solutions of cane sugar.

As the character of the action of fermentation has been shown to resemble
that of inversion, it appears very probable that in this enzyme change also the
time factor of molecular change limits its action; and possibly the influence may
be evidenced in all enzyme change, and so play an important part in the complex
functions of living organisms which depend on enzyme action.

2. Radiwm, Dy Professor W. Marckwa.p.

The Section was then divided into two Departments,

DEPARTMENT I.

The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on the Relation between the Absorption Spectra and Chemical
Constitution of Organic Substances.—See Reports, p. 208.

2. On the Chemical and Biological Changes occurring during the Treat-
ment of Sewage by the so-called Bacteria Beds. By Professor Lerts,
D.Se., Ph.D., and R. F. Buaxg, F.C.8., F.I.C.

It is generally assumed that the so-called ‘bacteria beds’ act as oxidising
agencies, absorbing oxygen from the air during their periods of rest and subse-
quently transferring it to the constituents of the sewage when the beds are filled
with this latter, the transfer being effected by micro-organisms which have esta=
blished themselves on the surface of the material with which the beds are filled.

It also appears to be generally taken for granted that the micro-organisnis
mainly concerned in the purification process are the nitrifying organisms. Hence
if these views are correct, the effluent from the bacteria beds should contain
nitrates and nitrites equivalent in amount to the unoxidised nitrogen which disap-~

ears during the treatment. But on examining the results obtained by chemists
in investigations on sewage purification it will be found that comparatively small
amounts of nitrate and nitrite are produced in relation to the unoxidised nitrogen
disappearing.

The following figures are taken (or have been calculated) partly from results
given in the Manchester Report of the Rivers Committee, January 22, 1900,

602 REPORT—1901.

Table 1, the Leeds Report on Sewage Disposal, December 1898, Table 1, and
partly from the table (p. 68) given in Dibdin’s book on the ‘ Purification of Sew-
age and Water.’

|
Nitrogen
disappearing as | Nitrogen found in the Effluent
‘Free’ and as Nitrate and Nitrite after double
§ Albuminoid’ contact with the Bacteria Beds
ids! Ammonia
Percentage on
Grains per Gallon | Grains per Gallon Nitrogen
disappearing
Manchester ; : 3 1634 | 0°636 39
Sutton Z i : é 7185 | 1-100 15
Leeds : < . * 1-528 0-11 if

It is quite evident, therefore, that a considerable portion, and in most cases the
greater part, of the unoxidised nitrogen which disappears must be got rid of in
some other form, and the question arises as to how this may occur. In all prob-

ability there are two—and only two—alternative ways in which the nitrogen can
be lost, viz. —

(1) It may escape in the gaseous state as free nitrogen, or possibly as oxides
of nitrogen.

(2) It may pass into the tissues of animals or vegetables, the former of which
may escape from the bacteria beds, and the latter (and possibly the former also)
may remain permanently in the beds.

In other words there may be either a chemical or a biological explanation, or
both together.

Chemical Explanation.—In an investigation on the effects of double contact
with bacteria beds on screened and settled sewage the authors made analyses of
the dissolved gases present, both in the original sewage and in the effluent from
both beds, the samples being collected in such a manner that they did not come
into contact with the air.

The general results of these analyses were as follows:—(1) Practically no
oxygen was present, either in the sewage or effluents. (2) The effluent from
first contact always contained considerably more carbonic anhydride than the
original sewage, and with two exceptions the effluent from second contact also
contained an excess of that gas. (8) In eleven out of twelve series of analyses the
quantity of nitrogen in the effluent was in excess of that present in the original
sewage, and generally speaking it was in larger excess in the effluent from double
contact than in that from single contact.

As the first six series of analyses only were made under exactly the same con-
ditions, the authors find that, taking them as the basis of calculation, on the average
the excess of nitrogen in the effluent from second contact over that present in the
sewage amounted in weight to 0:272 part per 100,000, while the loss of un-
oxidised nitrogen which had occurred in the sewage (by Kjeldahl’s process)
amounted to 2*2 parts, or that 12 per cent. of the nitrogen lost from the sewage
during purification was thus accounted for, while in one particular case it amounted
to 31 per cent.

In all probability only a fraction of the free nitrogen actually evolved would
be retained by the effluent, the rest escaping into the air.

Biological Explanation.—As regards the possibility that nitrogen is lost bio-
logically, z.e., is absorbed into the tissues of animals or plants which feed on the
sewage, there can be no doubt that a portion does escape in that way. The bacteria
beds at Belfast and elsewhere swarm with minute insects (Podura aquatica).
These, escaping in myriads, often form a thick layer on the surface of the effluent,

‘which looks like soot, There can be no question that in thus escaping these

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 603

animals carry with them some of the nitrogenous constitutents of the sewage which
they have devoured, but as yet the authors have formed no estimate of the quan-
tity so removed. There are also species of worms always present in the bacteria
beds in considerable numbers which no doubt also feed on the sewage.

3. Humus and the Irreducible Residue in the Bacterial Treatment
of Sewage. By Dr. 8. Ripeat.

4. Sulphuric Acid as a Typhoid Disinfectant. By Dr. 8. Rivet.

5. On the Inverse Relation of Chlorine to Rainfall.
By Wiuu1am Acxkroypb, FI.C.

Rainfalls of various dates when compared among themselves appear so erratic
in their quantitative composition that observers have generally been satisfied with
monthly or half-yearly averages. When the periods of observation are shortened
to daily estimations, say of the chlorine, it clearly appears that minimum amounts
of rainfall are marked by maxima of chlorine contents, and vice versa, Thus in a
daily comparison where the resnlts are plotted for tenths of an inch of rainfall and
parts per 100,000 of chlorine the respective curves interlock and each chlorine peak
has its corresponding rainfall hollow. This will be seen on following the plotted
observations in the diagram for Halifax, November 12, 1900, to March 7, 1901.
It is also apparent in the diagrams for country rainfall which illustrate my paper
‘On the Distribution of Chlorine in Yorkshire, Part II.,’ and where the observa-
tions are weekly. Marked parallelism of chlorine curves, where several are com-
pared, is regarded as being due to common causes.

6. On the Distribution of Chlorine in Yorkshire, Part II,
Sy Wi11am Ackroypb, £.1.C.

All figures refer to parts of chlorine per 100,000 of water.

As the result of many observations of minima, the chlorine is found to increase
from *7—1 in the west and north-west, where the rivers originate, to 1:7-2 in the
east and south-east, where, in the Chalk Wolds, the upturned edges of the chalk
drink in and store up a vast amount of rain water, which is utilised by many of
the East Riding communities. Beyond this there is a south-eastern area of high
chlorine figures formed by the triangular tract of drift ending with Spurn Head.

Normal chlorine is affected by, manufacturing centres. From observations ex-
tending over three months, it is shown that in a manufacturing town like Halifax
the atmospheric contribution through the rain is ‘01 part of chlorine per 288
people per square mile, and that the total contribution for ground as well as air is
‘Ol part of chlorine per 53 of the population.

Attention is also drawn to a disturbing influence in the prevalence of high
winds from the sea, which send up the chlorine figures for the rainfall.

DEPARTMENT II.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Hydration of Tin, including the Action of Light.
By Dr. J. H. Guapstone, F.2.S., and GEORGE GLADSTONE.

The authors described a tin trade mark which had been standing in the minera-
logical cabinet of Mr. George Gladstone for twenty-seven years, exposed on the front

604 REPORT—1901.

to diffused daylight. The whole of the exposed surface was very dark in colour,
especially where the exposure was most complete. On examining it under the
microscope it was found to be covered with little granules varying in colour from
yellow todark reddish-brown, Where the dark granules were thickest there were
found small yellow lumps that Lad all the appearance of colloidal matter. Some
of this was removed and treated with water. The microscope revealed a quantity
of light-coloured translucent films; the edges of the drop of water on evaporation
showed imperfect colourless crystals resembling closely those obtained from other
se of tin colloid, together with gelatinous matter. It was evident that
there had been a slow chemical change, greatly due to the action of light, as
the back of the trade mark, which was practically in the dark, showed very little
discoloration. In order to see whether this could be repeated within a short time,
three experiments were made on freshly cut surfaces of tin. The first was kept in
the dark for six weeks, and sometimes subjected to a temperature of 100°C.:
under the microscope it showed no clear sign of any action. The second was
exposed for the same time to diffused daylight: it showed slight but unmistakable
signs of granular formation. The third was exposed to direct sunlight: it was’
distinctly spotted over with dark-coloured granules.

2. Transitional Forms between Colloids and Crystalloids.
By Dr. J. H. Guapstony, £.R.S., and Watter Hissert, 7.1.0.

The investigation of the crust formed on the tin trade mark referred to in the
previous paper induced the authors to carry the inquiry further. Among the
remains of the ancient British village near Glastonbury, which had been
submerged in the marsh for 2,000 years, were the rod and weights of tin described
in the British Association Report for 1899, p. 595; and an examination of the
crust formed on these objects showed the gradual formation of yellow, amber, and

reddish-brown hydrates, together with minute egg-like bodies, which, when

broken, were found to contain gelatinous matter soluble in water, and giving on
evaporation crystals having curved edges. The crystals are very definite in form,
but are generally colourless and hygroscopic. A specimen of native cassiterite
gave similar results; and so did colloidal tin hydrate formed from stannic chloride
by dialysis. Colloidal hydrate of titanium gave intermediate bodies closely
resembling those of tin. The same was found to be the case with aluminium and
palladium colloids. No similar forms have yet been obtained from silica; but it is
well known that quartz crystals, diamonds, and ice are apt to exhibit curved edges
and conchoidal fracture. 1 ;

The authors regard these semi-crystalline bodies as intermediate forms
betweeen the gelatinous colloids, whether pectised or not, and the ordinary
crystallised metallic hydrates. They look upon them as consisting of the hydrate
combined with many molecules of water, and think that the various kinds-of
crystals (crosses, fishes, rhombs, &c.) are due to different amounts of combined
water, as they show different degrees of solubility and of diffusibility. The
isomorphism between these hydrates of tin, titanium, and aluminium is worthy of
notice.

The secular changes that take place in these gelatinous hydrates, and the
formation of the insoluble films, are the subject of investigation at the present time.

3. Report on the Nature of Alloys.—See Reports, p. 75.

4. The Minute Structure of Metals. By G. T. Brtuey.

Q Microscopic examination of metallic surfaces produced by breaking, tearing, or
filing, by rolling, drawing, hammering, or polishing, has shown that the metals as
they are ordinarily met with appear in two forms :—

(a) As minute granules or scales.
(6) As a transparent, glass-like substance.

i.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 605

These two forms of ‘ metal substance’ occur in all of the metals examined, and
taken together they do not appear to depend in any way on the particular thermal
or mechanical treatment to which the metal has been subjected, nor on the greater
or less mass of the particular piece of metal examined. Their existence is
therefore to a great extent independent of the conditions which determine the
particular crystalline structure of metals and alloys.

In form (a) the granules or scales do not vary much in size in the different
metals examined, which include among their number representatives of most of
the great groups. The diameter of the scales is estimated to range from 3$, to
xh, of a millimetre. Their thickness has not yet been measured, but they can be
seen by reflected light when their thickness is certainly less than ;5455 of a milli-
metre.

Form (6) is seen as a transparent glass-like film on metal surfaces, which have
been exposed to certain forms of pressure. In the transparent form the metals
have their characteristic colours by transmitted light; for instance, gold is green,
iron and platinum are blue, copper is red, nickel is olive green.

The scale form (a) passes into the transparent form (4) when the metal is pressed
or hammered upon a hard polished surface. The same effect takes place when a
mirror-like polish is produced by ordinary methods. Files or cutting tools in
passing over the surface or through the substance of metals leave the cut or
scraped surface covered with a more or less continuous film of transparent metal.
By suitable treatment a coating of transparent metal can be formed of varying
degrees of thickness, so that by reflected light scales can be seen more or less deeply
imbedded in the transparent coating. The light from the deeper scales shows the
characteristic colour of the metal. In some cases the colour of the coating
appears so dense—as seen by the microscope—that no reflected light reaches the
surface.

Attempts have been made to measure the thickness of the transparent film by
focussing for its upper and Jower surfaces, or for the upper surface, and for scales
embedded in the film, and measuring the movement of the microscope between
the two points. As these measurements appear to give rather exaggerated results
their publication is held over for the meantime.

The transparent metal (>) passes back into the scale form (a) under certain
kinds of mechanical or chemical treatment.

The metals already examined include gold, silver, platinum, cobalt, nickel,
chromium, iron, copper, lead, bismuth, antimony, tin, cadmium, magnesium,
aluminium, zinc.

The highly crystalline metals, such as antimony, bismuth, and zinc, exhibit the
same features as the softer and more malleable metals. The crystalline faces and
cleavage planes are covered with a film of transparent metal, while scales are dis-
tinctly seen in fractures at right angles to the cleavage planes.

Galena shows similar appearances.

The zinc and tin alloys of copper show the same minute structure and appear-
ances.

The persistence of these minute scales under all kinds of mechanical and
thermal treatment, the remarkable uniformity of their size and appearance in
metals of all of the leading groups, their disappearance into the transparent form
and their reappearance again apparently unchanged in size or otherwise—all this
seems to afford fair ground for the conjecture that they are in some way definite
units in the structure of metals.

5. On the Action of Ammonia on Metals at High Temperatures.
By G. G. Henperson, D.Sc., and G. T. Bemsy.

Platinum, gold, silver, copper, iron, nickel, and cobalt have been exposed to
the’action of ammonia at temperatures ranging from 600° to 900°. In every case
the physical effect of the treatment was to disintegrate the metal completely, while
a large proportion of the ammonia was resolved into its elements.

The fracture of metals which have been exposed to this action has been

606 REPORT—1901.
described by earlier observers as ‘crystalline.’ This is not the case: it is spongy
or cellular, and appears under the microscope as if it had been suddenly cooled
while in a state of active effervescence.

The penetration of the ammonia molecule into the metal is remarkably quick.
Iron and copper rods a quarter of an inch in diameter were completely penetrated
to the centre in thirty minutes. But disintegration goes on almost indefinitely
thereafter. Copper exposed for seven days to this action at a temperature of
800° became reduced to a fine spongy powder. The prolonged action on platinum
produces very fine deposits of platinum black on the surface of the more massive
metal.

The authors believe that the physical effects which result from this action are
explained by the alternate formation and dissociation of the nitrides of the metals
taking place between certain narrow limits of temperature, the reaction being
turned in either one direction or the other according as ammonia or hydrogen
molecules preponderate in the gases which are in contact with the molecules of
metal at and below the surface.

It is suggested that the formation of spongy deposits on the outside of
platinum crucibles heated by Bunsen burners, as well as the disintegration of the
platinum wires of pyrometers exposed to furnace gases, may be accounted for by
the presence of traces of ammonia in the combustion gases.

The absorption of small quantities of nitrogen by pure iron renders it hard
and brittle like steel. Malleable iron tubes exposed for seven days to the action
of ammonia at a temperature of 800° became so brittle that they could be broken
like porcelain by a blow from a hammer.

It is suggested that some of the effects on the structure and properties of iron
and steel which are at present attributed to other elements may be due to the
presence of traces of nitrogen.

6. Aluminiwm-Tin Alloys. By W. Carrick AnprErson, .A., D.Sc.,
and GrtorGE Lean, B.Sc.

This investigation was undertaken to ascertain, with some definiteness, the general
properties of the alloys of aluminium and tin, and particularly the cause of the
peculiarity, first pointed out by Riche,' that the alloy containing 25 per cent.
aluminium evolves hydrogen freely when placed in water. This property was
found to belong, not only to the particular alloy in question, but to the whole
series, whether cast or annealed.

From the determinations of the cooling curves it is shown that tin dissolves in
aluminium, but that in the case of alloys containing more than 10 per cent. tin a
second break in the cooling curve takes place at 232° C., indicating an excess of tin.”
Micro-photography was also employed to show the structure of the alloys in the cast
and annealed condition. The amounts of hydrogen evolved from the several alloys,
cast and annealed, were found to stand in no simple relation either to the weights
of the constituent metals present, or to the depression in the aluminium melting
point.

From microscopic examination of water-corroded plates the conclusion is
arrived at that contact action between the tin and the stanniferous aluminium is
mainly responsible for this spontaneous oxidation.

7. Aluminium-Antimony Alloys. By W. CAMPBELL.

8. Aluminiwm-Copper Alloys. By W. CAMPBELL.

1 Riche, Jr. Pharm. Chem., 1895, I. v.
? H. Gautier, Comptes Rendus, 123 [1896], p. 109.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 607

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. On the Three Stereomeric Cinnamic Acids.
By Professor A. MicHAEL.

2. On the Genesis of Matter. By Professor A. MicHakEL.

3. On the Process of Substitution. By Professor A. MicHAkEL.

4. On the Synthetical Formation of Bridged-rings.
By Professor W. H. Perkin, £2.58.

5. The Condensation of Benzil with Dibenzyl Ketone.
By G. G. Henperson, D.Sc., and R. H. Corsrorpuine, B.Sc.

Benzil condenses readily with dibenzyl ketone in presence of aqueous caustic
potash, and tetraphenylcyclopentenolone is produced according to the equation

Ph.CO Ph.CH, Ph.C=C.Ph
| + \co=H,0O+ | ‘co
Ph.CO Ph.CH,% Ph . (OH). CH Ph~

The new compound crystallises in colourless lustrous needles, m.p. 208°. It is
readily soluble in benzene, but only sparingly in alcohol. It yields an oa%me which
erystallises in small colourless prisms, m.p. 167°, and when heated in alcoholic
solution with parabromphenylhydrazine it gives a crystalline hydrazone, m.p. 169°.
The acetyl derivative was obtained in prisms of a dark purple colour, from which
the colouring matter could not be removed by recrystallisation: it melts at 218°.
Tetraphenylcyclopentenolone readily decolorises permanganate, yet it does not
combine additively with bromine, as might be expected from its constitution, but
is slowly converted into an unstable bromine derivative, which was not obtained in
a state of purity. It also reacts with phosphorus pentachloride and with alcoholic
hydrogen chloride, but the product, which contained chlorine, was too unstable to
admit of purification. When cautiously oxidised with chromic anhydride dis-
solved in glacial acetic acid it gives benzoic acid and a neutral compound of the
formula C,.H,,G,, which occurs in colourless crystals, m.p. 164°. When boiled under
a reflux condenser with hydriodic acid and red phosphorus, tetraphenylcyclopente-

| » cHor
Ph.CH. CHPh

is obtained. This substance crystallises in shining colourless needles, m.p. 162°.
It is readily soluble in benzene, but very sparingly in alcohol, and it reduces
permanganate. It does not react either with hydroxylamine or with phenylhydra-
zine, but it yields an acetyl derivative, which crystallises in colourless tablets,
m.p. 182°. It does not form an addition product with bromine, but is converted
into a bromine derivative, C,,H,,Br .OH, which crystallises in colourless needles,

nolone is partially reduced and tetraphenyleyclopentenol

608 REPORT—1901.

m.p. 215°, and by the action of phosphorus pentachloride or of alcoholic hydrogen
chloride it yields a chlorotetraphenylcyclopentene, O,,H,,Cl, in the form of colour-
less prisms, m.p. 181°. By heating at 180° in a sealed tube with hydriodic
acid and red phosphorus, tetraphenylcyclopentenol is reduced, and yields a
mixture of two hydrocarbons, C,H, and C,,H.,,,, which can be separated by means
of ether, in which the former is readily and the latter sparingly soluble. C,H,
separates from ether as a crystalline powder, which melts with decomposition

Ph.C=CPh
over 300°. It is no doubt tetraphenylcyclopentene | \ OH,. The
Ph. CH-ONPh~
other hydrocarbon separates in the crystalline state from alcohol. It melts at

80°5-81°, and is identical with the

PhOH —CHPh
|
PhCH —CHPh*

apparently tetraphenylcyclopentene

CH.,, already prepared, in a different manner, by Wislicenus.

6. Some Relations between Physical Constants and Constitution in
Benzenoid Amines. Part III. By W. R. Hopekinson and
L. Limpacu.

In the ‘ Proc. Chem. Soc.,’ 1893, 9, 41, we drew attention to some relationships
between melting-points and constitution in some amines, and a further contribu-
tion by Gordan and one of us on the same subject appears in ‘Trans. Chem. Soc.,’
1901, 79, 1080.

Since then a considerable number of amines, their formyl and acetyl, and other
derivatives have been prepared, it is believed, in as pure a state as possible, and
their melting-points redetermined.

The first point noticeable is that the difference between the melting-points of
the formyl and acetyl derivatives of bases of the same constitution is the same or
very nearly so.

If in any base a methyl group be replaced by ethyl or oxymethyl (OCH,) the
melting-points of the formyl and acetyl compounds change, but the differences
between them appear to be the same as between the formyl and acetyl derivatives
of the methyl compounds,

The following will serve as instances :—

Melting-points
— Constitution ! Pamayl. Keele Difference
compound | compound |
CH, CH, CH,
Pseudo Cumidine . 2 Shae) 121° 164° | 43
CH, C,H, CH,
Ethyl-¢-Cumidine ° 2 3. CS 103 146 42
CH, CH,
Para-xylidine . ° i t 116°5 139 22°5
OCH, CH,
Oxymethyl-p-xylidine . 1 4 86 109 23
CH, CH, CH,
Cumidine 1 2 4 98 126 28
OCH, CH, CH,
| Oxymethyl Cumidine . 1 Pa Se 68 96 28

1 The constitution is expressed as in parts I. and II. on the plan

nah:
C3
\

9
4

5

| -

> NHCHO

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 609

The tetra-methyl bases exhibit some other peculiarities. As far as the
melting-points of their formyl and acetyl derivatives are indications, they would

appear to be composed of two xylidines less the melting-point of formo-anilide
(46°).

Thus
I NHCHO em ani Ay si
x,
CH, a 1\CH, composed tr »CHs on, PC
Formyl
derivative
CH,J4 2/CH, 4 li CH,}4
3 rae
M.P. [163°] [104°°5]’ hi 5]
1045 + 104-5 — 46 = 163°.
2s NHCHO NHCHO NHCH:
CH, Z\ cu, composed of on. ES CH,
Formyl
derivative
4 2
3
M.P. [183°] [164°]
164 + 65 — 46 = 183.
3. NHCHO HCHO NHCHO
56 WWCH, composed me nCH; + 1
Formyl
derivative
CH,j4 2)|CH, 4 2 CH,J4 2\CH,
3 Ke 3
CH, CH,
M.P. [144°] [113°5] [76:5]

113°5 + 76:5—46 = 144,

The foregoing are merely a few examples. A much more extended list and
an attempt at a discussion of these relations we hope to give shortly.

7. The Existence of Certain Semicarbazides in more than one Modification.
By Grorce Youne, Ph.D.

In 1887 Michaelis and Schmidt made benzoylphenylsemicarbazide by the
addition of cyanic acid to as-benzoylphenylhydrazine

O,H,.N.NH, + HONO = C,H,.N.NH.CO.NH,
|
CO.C,H, CO.C,H,

and found the product to melt at 202-203°. Six years later (1893) Widman
obtained benzoylphenylsemicarbazide by boiling phenylsemicarbazide, suspended

610 REPORT—1901.

in benzene, with benzoic chloride, but found the melting-point of the product to
be 210-211°.

C,H, .NH.NH.CO.NH, + C,H,.COCI = C,H,.N(COC,H,).NH.CO.NH, + HCl.

Widman then repeated the preparation, making use of the Michaelis-Schmidt
method, and again obtained a product melting at 210-211°. From this it might
have been inferred that the lower melting-point obtained by Michaelis and
Schmidt was probably due to insufficient purification.

Towards the end of 1896 I had occasion to prepare benzoylphenylsemicarb-
azide, and made use of Widman’s method. The product obtained melted at
202-203°, and the melting-point was not altered by repeated recrystallisations. I
had thus obtained the Michaelis-Schmidt product by means of Widman’s method
of preparation, and at the same time confirmed the Michaelis-Schmidt melting-
point. These results having been published in the ‘Transactions of the Chemical
Society,’ Dr. Widman kindly sent to me a sample of his benzoylphenylsemi-
carbazide, which I found by my thermometer to melt at 210-212°, so that the
thermometers were not to blame for the discrepancy.

A comparison of the two substances showed that the one which melted at
202-203° was distinctly more soluble than the higher melting one in the
ordinary solvents, such as benzene, ether, alcohol, or water.

The first interesting observation was that on boiling a small quantity of
Widman’s substance with water: it went into solution very slowly, and on
cooling separated in crystals, which melted at about 200°, and, after tecrystallisa-
tion from dilute alcohol, at 202-203°.

The Widman form of benzoylphenylsemicarbazide had been transformed into
the Michaelis-Schmidt form.

The reverse transformation was not so easy, partly because it takes place, even
under the best conditions, very slowly; partly because it leads under varying
conditions, not only to Widman’s benzoylphenylsemicarbazide, but also to a third
modification.

This third form of benzoylphenylsemicarbazide melts at 205-206°. It is
produced from the lowest melting form by boiling with benzene in a reflux
apparatus on the water-bath. The change took place with 2g. substance in
about fifteen hours, and further similar treatment was without effect.

This benzoylphenylsemicarbazide, which melts at 205-206°, can be re-
erystallised unaltered from benzene, ethylic acetate, acetone, or alcohol. Boiling
water and, more slowly, dilute aleohol convert it into the lowest melting form.

If the Michaelis-Schmidt product be boiled with benzene in a reflux. apparatus
on a sand-tray, instead of on a water-bath, the result is different. The change
here again, is slow. After some fifteen hours’ boiling the product softens at
about 205°, and is completely melted at 210°. Further boiling is without effect.
This product can be separated, by washing with cold ethylic acetate, into
Widman’s benzoylphenylsemicarbazide, which remains undissolved, and the
third modification which dissolves in the ester.

By this method of boiling with benzene on a sand-tray the form melting at
205-206° can be converted partially, but never completely, into Widman’s
modification.

The process of lowering the melting-point from 211-212° to 205-206° is best
carried out by boiling with acetone.

The difference in effect produced by exchanging the water-bath for a sand-tray
in boiling with benzene suggested what is probably the reason why, although
making use of apparently exactly the same method as Dr. Widman in preparing
the benzoylphenylsemicarbazide, I obtained, not his product, but that of Michaelis
and Schmidt.

In the preparation phenylsemicarbazide and benzoic chloride are boiled in
benzene in a reflux apparatus. I had carried out the boiling on a water-bath, and
obtained benzoylphenylsemicarbazide of melting-point 202-203°, mixed, as was
found later, with a small quantity of the form which melts at 205-206°. On

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 611

repeating the preparation in exactly the same manner, with the exception that
the water-bath was replaced by a sand-tray, I obtained Widman’s results.

These three modifications of benzoylphenylsemicarbazide are not only different
in regard to their melting-points and solubilities in various solvents, but they can
be distinguished from one another by their appearance under the microscope.

That one of them is not simply a mixture of the other two is shown by the
fact that when any two are ground together in a mortar the melting-point of the
mixture is no longer sharp, and the two modifications can be separated again by
the use of a suitable solvent. A mixture of equal parts of the modifications
melting at 205-206° and 211-212° began to soften at 204° and finished melting at
209° ; the whole of the lower melting modification could be removed by washing
with cold ethylic acetate.

A mixture of equal parts of the modifications melting at 202-208° and
211-212° began to shrink at about 200° and was not entirely melted until 208°.
The lower melting substance could be removed by washing with warm benzene.

The property of existing in three such modifications is not confined to benzoyl-
phenylsemicarbazide. I have obtained by similar means, that is, the action of
various solvents at different temperatures, three modifications of phenylsemicarbazide,
the ordinary form melting at 172°, which in its properties corresponds with the
Michaelis-Schmidt benzoyl derivative, and two lower melting forms melting at
164° and 151°, of which the one which melts at 151° corresponds in its insolubility
and its stability in benzene with Widman’s benzoylphenylsemicarbazide.

o-Tolylsemicarbazide, p-tolylsemicarbazide, and benzoyl-p-tolylsemicarb-
azide have each been found capable of existence in three modifications, and
from indications obtained with other semicarbazides it seems probable this would
be the case with all those of the general form R.R’.NH.NH.CO.NH, where
R is a benzenoid radical and R’ is hydrogen or benzoyl.

As to the relation of these modifications to each other, the semicarbazides in
question may be trimorphous, or we may have to deal with some form of stereo-
isomerism. Unfortunately, although we have tried a number of reactions, we
have not been able as yet to find one which showed a difference in the chemical
behaviour of the three modifications, and we might therefore accept the theory of
trimorphism were it not for two facts.

The first is that it is possible to recrystallise two and sometimes all three
modifications from the same solvent, and even in presence of one another, without
conversion of one into another. That seems to me to dispose of trimorphism.

The second fact is that with certain semicarbazides, diphenylsemicarbazide
(C,H,),.N.H.CO.NH,, hydrazodicarbamide NH,.CO.NH.NH.CO.NH,, and benzal-
semicarbazone C,H,.CH.N.NH.CO.NH., I have been unable to obtain even a
suggestion of a second form.

. That seems to point to the property of existing in these different forms being
dependent on the nature of the groups in position 1.

NH,.NH.CO.NH,,.
a) @) @) 4)

At present, however, we have not sufficient evidence on which to base any
theoretical explanation.

8. Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives—See Reports, p. 152.

9. Report on Isomorphous Derivatives of Benzene.—See Reports, p. 78.

612 REPORT—1901.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Some Points in Chemical Education. By Jost Saxurat, LL.D.,
Professor of Chemistry in the Imperial University of Tokyo, Japan.

The marvellous and wonderfully rapid progress which chemistry has made within
the last fifteen years is characterised by the fact that not only experimental means
of investigation have been extended, enriched, and made accurate, but also a number
of comprehensive and fertile idess have been developed one after another, and
deductive methods of inquiry made possible and found to be exceptionally
fruitful; chemistry has, in fact, thrown off much of its empirical character, and
established itself to be a truly rational science. The educational value, which it
has thus acquired, is enormous, a student of modern chemistry having ample oppor-
tunities of cultivating the power of observation and the faculty of reasoning at the
same time—a two-sided advantage which is possessed neither by an essentially
descriptive science nor by an essentially abstract science.

The teaching of chemistry from the point of view attained by the recent
development is not only important for those who would become pure chemists, but
also for those who would have to apply the knowledge of that science in special
directions, such as physiology and chemical technology, inasmuch as its con-
ceptions are exceedingly comprehensive and fertile, their applications in these
directions having already led to some important practical results. It is also no
less- important for the education of boys in secondary schools, as it puts the
fundamental facts of chemistry in a clear, intelligent, and rational form, supplying
requisite food for the healthy development of their brain.

Notwithstanding these evident and exceptional advantages which the teaching
of modern chemistry affords, it is still taught, to a great extent, in the same dry
and merely descriptive way as in old days, explanations which are in direct
opposition to;well-established facts being, moreover, not unfrequently given; and
for the interest of our science and profession this state of things should be speedily
remedied.

One of the remedies would be to remove certain misconceptions which seem to
prevail pretty freely. Now the name ‘physical chemistry,’ which has come into
general use, has apparently given to many an idea that it is a special branch of
chemistry, whilst, in fact, it pervades the whole domain of our science and treats
of specially important and fundamental chemical questions. Exclusive use of the
name ‘general chemistry,’ in its stead, would have the effect of removing this
misconception and of accelerating a more free introduction of modern views into
the teaching of chemistry. Another misconception, which seems to have
crept into the minds of many, relates to the use of mathematics, It is often
stated that, as the treatment of general chemistry requires higher mathematics,
it is neither possible nor desirable to introduce it into elementary teaching, but in
this opinion there is a confusion of ideas. It is true that, for a detailed study and
cultivation of general chemistry, a fair knowledge of higher mathematics is both
desirable and necessary. This fact should, indeed, be clearly and generally
recognised, and students of chemistry should be encouraged to acquire this
knowledge. But the teachings of general chemistry can be introduced into
elementary text-books without any mathematics, and yet in a concise, useful, and
interesting form; moreover, simple and appropriate lecture experiments, illus-
trating the laws of chemical dynamics, the theory of solutions, &c., can be easily
contrived.

A very effective remedy would be to diffuse the knowledge of, and to increase
the interest in, modern views among the teachers in secondary schools. For this
purpose courses of lectures, in which general chemistry is amalgamated with
descriptive matter, should be given to them, say during summer vacations; also
writing of elementary text-books on the same plan should be encouraged.

The objection, which might be raised, that the attempt to give a fair training

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 613

in general chemistry over and beyond what it has been customary to teach takes
too much time is met by the consideration of the fact that some portion of the
descriptive matter usually given in lectures may be cut off, not with inconvenience,
but rather with advantage, inasmuch as in the class-room the attention of
students should be more directed to points of general interest and importance,
whilst the time usually devoted to analytical work in the laboratory may also be
conveniently shortened, what the student should learn from it being rather
principles and methods of analysis than mere practical skill.

2. On the Detection and Estimation of Arsenic in Beer and Articles
of Food. By W. Tuomson, /.R.S.E.

3. On the Nomenclature of the Ions.
By Professor James WALKER, J’.R.S.

4, On the Equilibrium Law as applied to Salt Separation and to the
Formation of Oceanic Salt Deposits. By Dr. E. Frankuanp Arm-
STRONG.—See Reports, p. 262,

5, Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—See Reports, p. 155.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Electrolytic Conductivity of Halogen Acid Solutions.
By Dr. J. Gipson.

2. On the Flame Coloration and Spectrum of Nickel Compounds.
By P. J. Harroe,

It was shown that when nickel acetate is brought into a Bunsen flame together
with hydrochloric acid two kinds of coloration may be produced: (1) a temporary
purple coloration which flashes out and disappears; (2) a more permanent deep-
red coloration. The temporary coloration is so evanescent that the spectrum of
bright lines to which it gives rise could not be mapped by the eye. It is hoped
to record it photographically. The deep-red coloration gives with a single prism
spectroscope two bands—a red band, extending from wave length 6292 to 6126,
and a green band, extending from 5328 to 5290. It was shown by spraying a
10 per cent. solution of nickel acetate into a Smithells separator that the colora-
tion is produced in the inner cone. ‘The solution must be either mixed with
hydrochloric acid or chloroform vapour must be introduced into the flame in the
manner used by Smithells in his researches on flame coloration. Nickel chloride
introduced into the flame gives only a slight red coloration. Cobalt acetate was
found to yield no flame coloration.

The theory of flame coloration is still obscure, despite the researches of
Pringsheim and Smithells; but these experiments lend support to the view that
chemical action is necessary for the production of colour in the flame. It was
pointed out that in the case of manganese the flame coloration (green) said to be
‘sometimes’ produced can always be produced with the acetate,

1901. ss

614 REPORT—1901.

3. The Methods of Determining the Hydrolytic Dissociation of Salts.
By Dr. R. C. Farmer.—See Reports, p. 240.

4. The Influence of Solvents on the Rotation of Optically Active
Compounds. By Dr. T. 8. Parrmrson,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 615

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SecTION—JoHN Horng, F.RS., F.R.S.E., F.G.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The President delivered the following Address :—

Recent Advances in Scottish Geology.

A quarter of a century has elapsed since the British Association met in this
great industrial centre, when Professor Young, in his presidential address to this
Section, pointed out some of the difficulties which, as a teacher, he experienced in
summarising the principles of geology for his students. At that meeting, also, the
late Duke of Argyll, whose interest in geological questions never faded, gave an
address ‘On the Physical Structure of the Highlands in connection with their
Geological History’ The return of the Association to the second city of the
empire, which since 1876 has undergone remarkable development, due in no small
measure to the mineral wealth of the surrounding district, suggests the question,
Has Scottish geology made important advances during this interval of time ?
Have we now more definite knowledge of the geological systems represented in
Scotland, of their structural relations, of the principles of mountain-building, of
the zonal distribution of organic remains, of the volcanic, plutonic, and meta-
morphic rocks so largely developed within its borders? It is true that many
problems still await solution, but anyone acquainted with the history of geological
research must answer these questions without hesitation in the affirmative. In
the three great divisions of geological investigation—in stratigraphical geology, in
paleontology, in petrology—the progress has indeed been remarkable. The details
of these researches are doubtless familiar to many who have taken an active share
in the work, but it may serve a useful purpose, and perhaps be helpful as a land-
mark to give now an outline of some of the permanent advances in the solid
geology of Scotland during the last quarter of a century.

The belt of Archean gneisses and schists, which may be said to form the
foundation stones of Scotland, have been mapped in great detail by the Geological
Survey since 1883 along the western part of the mainland in the counties of
Sutherland and Ross. In that region they occupy a well-defined position, being
demonstrably older than the great sedimentary formation of Torridon Sandstone
and overlying Cambrian strata. The mapping of this belt by the survey staff and
the detailed study of the rocks both in the field and with the microscope by Mr.
Teall have revealed the complexity of the structural relations of these crystalline
masses, and have likewise thrown considerable light on their history. These
yesearches indicate that, in the North-west Highlands, the Lewisian (Archean)
gneiss may be resolved into (1) a fundamental complex, composed mainly of
gneisses that have affinities with plutonic igneous products, and to a limited extent
of crystalline schists which may without doubt be regarded as of sedimentary

$22

616 REPORT—1901.

origin ; (2) a great series of igneous rocks intrusive in the fundamental complex in
the form of dykes and sills."

The rocks of the fundamental complex which have affinities with plutonic
igneous products occupy the greater part of the tract between Cape Wrath and
Skye. Mr. Teall has shown that they are essentially composed of minerals that
enter into the composition of peridotites, gabbros, diorites, and granites; as, for
example, olivine, hypersthene, augite (including diallage), hornblende, biotite,
plagioclase, orthoclase, microcline, and quartz. In 1894 he advanced a classifica-
tion of these rocks, based mainly on their mineralogical composition and partly
on their structure, which has the great merit of being clear, comprehensive, and
independent of theoretical views as to the history of the rock masses. Stated
broadly, the principle forming the basis of classification of three of the groups is
the nature of the dominant ferro-magnesian constituent, viz., pyroxene, horn-
blende, or biotite, while the members of the fourth group are composed of ferro-
magnesian minerals without felspar or quartz * The detailed mapping of the
region has shown that these rock-groups have a more or less definite geographical
distribution. Hence the belt of Lewisian gneiss has been divided into three dis-
tricts; the first extending from Cape Wrath to Loch Laxford; the second, from
near Scourie to beyond Lochinver, and the third from Gruinard Bay to the island
ot Raasay. In the central area (Scourie to Lochinver) pyroxene gneisses and
ultrabasic rocks (pyroxenites and hornblendites) are specially developed, while the
granular hornblende rocks (hornblende gneiss proper) and the biotite gneisses are
characteristic of the northern and southern tracts. These are the facts, whatever
theory he adopted to explain them.

In those areas where the original structures of the Lewisian gneiss have not
been effaced by later mechanical stresses it is possible to trace knots, bands, and
lenticles of unfoliated, ultrabasic, and basic rocks to note the imperfect separation
of the ferro-magnesian from the quarizo-felspathic constituents, to observe the
gradual development of mineral banding and the net-like ramification of acid
veins in the massive gneisses. Many of these rocks cannot be appropriately
described as gneiss. Indeed, Mr. Teall has called attention to the close analogy
between these structures and those of plutonic masses of younger date.

In the Report on Survey Work in the North-west Highlands, published in
1888, the parallel banding, or first foliation, as it was then termed, of these original
gneisses was ascribed to mechanical movement.’ But the paper on ‘ Banded
Structure of Tertiary Gabbros in Skye,’ by Sir A. Geikie and Mr. Teall,‘ throws
fresh light on this question. In that region the gabbro displays the alternation of
acid and basic folia, the crumpling and folding of the bands like the massive
gneisses of the Lewisian complex. Obviously in the Skye gabbro the structures
cannot be due to subsequent earth movements and deformation. The authors
maintain that they are original structures of the molten magma, and, consequently,
that much of the mineral banding of the Lewisian gneisses, as distinguished from
foliation, may be due to the conditions under which the igneous magma was
erupted and consolidated. Whatever theory be adopted to explain the original
mineral banding of the Lewisian gneisses, it is certain that they possessed this
banding, and were thrown into gentle folds before the uprise of the later intrusive
dykes.

: The crystalline schists that have affinities with rocks of sedimentary
origin occupy limited areas north of Loch Maree and near Gairloch. The pro-
minent members of this series are quartz schists, mica schists, graphitic schists,

1 Report on the Recent Work of the Geological Survey in the North-west High-
lands of Scotland based on the Field-notes and Maps of Messrs. B. N. Peach,
J. Horne, W. Gunn, C. T. Clough, L. W. Hinxman, and H. M. Cadell, Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc., vol. xliv. p. 387; and Annual Report of the Geological Survey for 1894,
p. 280, and 1895, p. 17.

2 Annual Report of the Geologieal Survey for 1894, p. 280.

? Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xliv. p. 400.

4 Tbid., vol. 1. p. 645.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 617

limestones and dolomites with tremolite, garnet and ep'dote.' They are there
associated with a massive sill of epidiorite and hornblende schist. The relations
which these altered sediments bear to the gneisses that have affinities with
plutonic igneous products have not been satisfactorily determined. But the
detailed mapping has proved that north of Loch Maree they rest on a platform of
Lewisian gneiss, and are visibly overlain by gneiss with basic dykes (Meall
Riabhach), and that both the gneiss complex and altered sediments have been
affected by a common system of folds. In the field, bands of mylonised rock have
been traced near the base of the overlying cake of gneiss, and the microscopic
examination of the latter by Mr. Teall has revealed cataclastic structures due to
dynamic movement. It is obvious, therefore, that, whatever may have been the
original relations of the altered sediments to the gneiss complex, these have been
obscured by subsequent earth-stresses.

The great series of later igneous rocks which pierce the fundamental complex
in the form of dykes and sills is one of the remarkable features in the history of
the Lewisian gneiss. In 1895 Mr. ‘feall advanced a classitication of them,’ but
his recent researches show that they are of a much more varied character. For
our present purpose we may omit the dykes of peculiar composition and refer to
the dominant types. These comprise: (1) ultrabasic rocks (peridotite), (2) basic
(dolerite and epidiorite), and (8) acid (granite and pegmatite). The evidence in
the field points to the conclusion that the ultrabasic rocks cut the basic, and that
the granite dykes were intruded into the gneisses after the eruption of the basic
dykes, The greater number of these dykes consists of basic materials. It is
important to note that the basic rocks best preserve their normal dyke-like
features in the central tract between Scourie and Lochinver, where they traverse
the pyroxene gneisses. But southwards and northwards of that tract, in districts
where they have been subjected to great dynamic movement, they appear as
bands of hornblende schist, which are difficult to separate from the fundamental
complex. ‘The acid intrusions are largely developed in the northern tract between
Laxtord and Durness; indeed, at certain localities in that region the massive and
foliated granite and pegmatite are as conspicuous as the biotite gneisses and horn-
blende gneisses with which they are associated.

After the eruption of the various intrusive dykes the whole area was
subjected to enormous terrestrial stresses which profoundly affected the funda-
meutal complex and the dykes which traverse it. These lines of movement
traverse the Lewisian plateau in various directions, producing planes of disruption,
molecular rearrangement of the minerals and the development of foliation. It
seems to be a general law that the new planes of foliation both in the gneiss and
dykes are more or less parallel with the planes of movement or disruption. If
the latter be vertical or nearly horizontal the inclination of the foliation planes is
found to vary accordingly.

Close to the well-defined disruption-planes, like those between Scourie and
Kylesku, the gneiss loses its low angle, is thrown into sharp folds, the axes of
which are parallel with the planes of movement. The folia are attenuated, there
is a molecular rearrangement of the minerals, and the resultant rock is a granulitic
gneiss. Indeed, the evidence in the tield, which has been confirmed by the micro-
scopic examination of the rocks by Mr. Teall, seems to show that granulitic biotite
and hornblende gneisses are characteristic of the zones of secondary shear. A
further result of these earth-stresses is the plication of the original gneisses in
sharp folds, trending N.W. and S.E. and E. and W.; and the partial or complete
recrystallisation of the rocks along the old planes of mineral banding.

_ in like manner, when the basic dykes are obliquely traversed by lines of
disruption, they are deflected, attenuated, and within the shear zones appear
frequently as phacoidal masses amid the reconstructed gneiss. These phenomena
are accompanied by the recrystallisation of the rock and its metamorphosis into
hornblende schist. Similar results are observable when the lines of movement

' Annual Report of the Geological Survey for 1895, p. 17.
2 Thid., p. 18.

6158 REPORT—1901.

are parallel with the course of the dykes. All the stages of change from the
massive to the schistose rock can be traced—the replacement of pyroxene by
hornblende, the conversion of the felspar and the development of granulitic
structure with foliation. Here we have an example of the phenomena developed
on a larger scale by the post-Cambrian movements, viz., the production of common
planes of schistosity in rocks separated by a vast interval of time, quite irrespec-
tive of their original relations. For both gneiss and dykes have common planes
of foliation, resulting from earth-stresses in pre-Torridonian time.

It is important to note also that linear foliation is developed in the basic dykes
where there has been differential movement of the constituents in folded areas. In
the case of the anticline mapped by Mr. Clough, near Poolewe in Ross-shire, he
has showr that the linear foliation is parallel with the pitch of the folds, All
these phenomena tend to confirm the conclusions arrived at by Mr. Teall, and pub-
lished in his well-known paper ‘On the Metamorphosis of Dolerite into Hornbiende
Schist.’ }

The ultrabasic and acid rocks likewise occur in the schistose form, for the
peridotites pass into taleose schists and the granite becomes gneissose.

In connection with the development of schistosity in these later intrusive rocks
it is interesting to observe that where the basic dykes merge completely into horn-
blende schist, and seem to become an integral part of the fundamental complex,
biotite gneisses and granular hornblende gneisses prevail. Whatever be the
explanation, the relationship is suggestive.

The unconformability between the Lewisian gneiss and the overlying Torridon
Sandstone, which was noted by Macculloch and confirmed by later observers, must
represent a vast lapse of time. When tracing this base-line southwards through the
counties of Sutherland and Ross, striking evidence was obtained by the Geological
Survey of the denudation of that old land surface. in the mountainous region
between Loch Maree and Loch Broom it has been carved into a series of deep
narrow valleys with mountains rising to a height of 2,000 feet. In that region it
is possible to trace the orientation of that buried mountain chain and the direction
of some of the old river courses. This remnant of Archean topography must be
regarded as one of the remarkable features of that interesting region.

In 1893 the various divisions of the Torridon Sandstone, as developed between
Cape Wrath and Skye, were tabulated by the Geological Survey, which may here
be briefly summarised. They form three groups: a lower, composed of epidotic
grits and conglomerates, dark and grey shales with calcareous bands, red sand-
stones, and grits; a middle, consisting of a great succession of false-bedded grits
and sandstones; an upper, comprising chocolate-coloured sandstones, micaceous
flags with dark shales and calcareous bands, The total thickness of this great pile
of sedimentary deposits must be upwards of 10,000 feet, and if Mr. Clough’s
estimate of the development of the lower group in Skye be correct, this amount
must be considerably increased. Of special interest is the evidence bearing on the
stratigraphical variation of the Torridon Sandstone when traced southwards across
the counties of Sutherland and Ross. The lower group is not represented in the
northern area, but southwards, in Ross-shire, it appears, and between Loch
Maree and Sleat varies from 500 to several thousand feet in thickness. These
divisions of the Torridon Sandstone are of importance in view of the correlation of
certain sediments in Islay with the middle and lower Torridonian groups which
there rest unconformably on a platform of Lewisian gneiss.

In continuation of the researches of Dr. Hicks, published in his paper ‘On Pre-
Cambrian Rocks occurring as Fragments in the Cambrian Conglomerates in Britain,’?
Mr. Teall has specially investigated the pebbles found in the Torridon Sandstone.
The local basement breccias of that formation have doubtless been derived from the
platform of Lewisian gneiss on which they rest, but the pebbles found in the coarse
arkose tell a different storys He has found that they comprise quartzites showing

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xli. p. 133.
? Geol. Mag., 1890, p. 516.
* Annual Report of the Geological Survey for 1895, p. 20.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 619

-contact alteration, black and yellow cherts, jaspers with spherulitic structures
which indicate that they have been formed by the silification of liparites of the
‘Lea-rock’ type and spherulitic felsites that bear a striking resemblance to those
of Uriconian age in Shropshire. These interesting relics have been derived from
formations which do not now occur anywhere in the western part of tae counties
of Sutherland and Ross, and they furnish impressive testimony of the denudation
of the Archzean plateau in pre-Torridonian time.

These Torridonian sediments, like the sandstones of younger date, contain lines
of heavy minerals, such as magnetite, ilmenite, zircon, and rutile! The dominant
felspar of the arkose group is microcline, that of the basal group oligoclase. In
the calcareous sediments of the upper and lower groups fcssils might naturally be
expected, but the search so far has not been very successful. Certain phosphatic
nodules have been found in dark micaceous shales of the upper group which have
been examined by Mr. Teall. From their chemical composition these nodules
might be regarded as of organic origin; but he has found that they contain
spherical cells with brown-coloured fibres, which appear to he débris of organisms.”

Early in last century the ‘l'orridonian deposits were referred by Macculloch *
and Hay Cunningham‘ to the ‘ Primary Red Sandstone,’ and by Murchison,’
Sedgwick, and Hugh Miller to the Old Red Sandstone. The structural relations
of the Torridon Sandstone to the overlying series of quartzites and limestones
were first clearly shown by Professor Nicol,’ who traced the unconformability
that separates them for 100 miles across the counties of Sutherland and Ross.
When Salter pointed out the Silurian facies of the fossils found in the Durness
limestone by Mr. Charles Peach, the Torridonian formation was correlated with
the Cambrian rocks of Wales by Murchison.’ The discovery of the Olenellus
fauna, indicating the lowest division of the Cambrian system, in the quartzite-
limestone series by the Geological Survey in 1891 * demonstrated the pre-Cambrian
age of the Torridon Sandstone. In view of that discovery, which proves the
great antiquity of the Torridonian sediments, it is impossible to climb those
picturesque mountains in Assynt or Applecross without being impressed with
the unaltered character of these deposits. Yet it can be shown that under the
lad of post-Cambrian movements they approach the type of crystalline
sehists.

Before proceeding to the consideration of the Durness series of quartzites and
limestones and their relations to the Eastern Schists, brief reference must be
a to the controversy between Murchison and Nicol regarding the sequence of
the strata.

The detailed mapping of the belt between Eriboll and Skye by the Geological
Survey has completely confirmed Nicol’s conclusions (1) that the limestone is
the highest member of the Durness series; (2) that the so-called ‘Upper Quartzite’
and ‘ Upper Limestone’ of Murchison’s sections are merely the repetition of the
lower quartzite and limestone due to faults or folds; (3) that there is no con-
formable sequence from the quartzites and limestones into the overlying schists
and gneiss; (4) that the line of junction isa line of fault indicated by proofs of
fracture and contortion of the strata. It is true that in the course of his investi-
gations Nicol’s views underwent a process of evolution, and that even in the form
in which he ultimately presented them he did not grasp the whole truth. We
now know that he was in error when he regarded portions of the Archean gneiss,

1 dnnual Report of the Geological Survey for 1893, p. 263.

? Tbid., 1899, p. 185.

2 Trans. Geol. Soc., ser. 1, vol. ii. p. 450; The Western Isles of Scotland, vol. ii.
p. 89.
( 4 Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, vol. xiii.

1839).

5 Trans. Geol. Soc., ser. 2, vol. iii. p. 155.

% Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xiii. p. 17.

? [hbid., vol. xv. p. 353.

8 Ibid., vol. xlviii. p, 227.

620 REPORT—1901.

occurring in the displaced masses, as igneous rocks intruded during the earth-
movements, and that he failed to realise the evidence bearing on dynamic meta-
morphism resulting from these movements. But I do not doubt that the verdict
of the impartial historian will be that Nicol displayed the qualities of a great
atratigraphist in grappling with the tectonics of one of the most complicated
mountain chains in Europe.

The period now under review embraces the reopening of that controversy in
1878 by Dr. Hicks, and its close in 1884 after the publication of the ‘ Report on
the Geology of the North-west of Sutherland,’ by the Geological Survey. The
Survey work has confirmed Professor Bonney’s identification of the Lewisian
gneiss and Torridon Sandstone in Glen Logan, Kinlochewe,’ brought into that
position by a reversed fault; and Dr. Callaway’s conclusions regarding overthrust
faulting at Loch Broom, in Assynt and in Glencoul.? Special reference must be
made to the remarkable series of papers by Professor Lapworth on ‘The Secret
of the Highlands, in which he demonstrated the accuracy of Nicol’s main con-
clusions, and pointed out that the stratigraphical phenomena are but the counter-
part of those in the Alps, as described by Heim.* His researches, moreover, led
him to a departure from Professor Nicol’s views regarding the age, composition,
and mode of formation of the Eastern Schists, for in the paper which he com-
municated to the Geologists’ Association in 1884 he announced that their present
foliated and mineralogical characters had been developed by the crust-movements
which operated in that region since the time of the Durness quartzites and lime-
stones.” Allusion must be made also to his great paper ‘On the Discovery of
the Olenellus Fauna in the Lower Cambrian Rocks of Britain,’ in which he not
only chronicled the finding of this fauna at the top of the basal quartzite in
Shropshire, but suggested the correlation of the Durness quartzites and limestones
with the Cambrian rocks elsewhere.® That suggestion was strikingly confirmed
within three years afterwards by the discovery of the Olenellus fauna in Ross-
shire.

The detailed mapping of the belt of Cambrian strata has proved the striking
uniformity of the rock sequence. There is little variation in the lithological
characters or thicknesses of the yarious zones. Basal quartzites, pipe-rock, Fucoid-
beds, Serpulite (Salterella) grit, limestone, and dolomite form the invariable
sequence, for a distance of a hundred miles, to the west of the line of earth-move-
ments. This feature is also characteristic of the fossiliferous zones, for the sub-
zones of the pipe-rock, the Olenelius fauna in the Fucoid-beds, and the Salterella
limestone have been traced from Eriboll to Skye. Owing to the interruption of
the sequence by reversed faults or thrusts, the higher fossiliferous limestone zones
are never met with between Eriboll and Kishorn, but they occur in Skye, where
they were first detected by Sir A. Geikie.’

Regarding the palzeontological divisions of the system, my colleague, Mr.
Peach, concludes ‘ that the presence of three species of Olenedlus in the Fucoid-
beds and Serpulite-grit of the North-west Highlands, nearly allied to the American
form Olenellus Thomsoni—the type species of the genus— together with Hyolithes,
Sailterella, and other organisms found with it, prove that these beds represent the
Georgian terrane of America, which, as shown by Walcott, underlies the Para-
doaides zone.’ Hence he infers that there can be no doubt of the Lower Cambrian
age of the beds yielding the Olenellus fauna in the North-west Highlands. Mr.
Peach further confirms Salter’s opinion as to the American facies of the fossils
obtained from the higher fossiliferous zones of the Durness dolomite and limestone.
He states that ‘ the latter fauna is so similar to, if not identical with, that occurring
in Newfoundland, Mingan Islands, and Point Levis, beneath strata yielding the

1 Nature, vol. xxxi. p. 29, November 1884.

? Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxvi. p. 93. 3 Thid., vol. xxxix. p. 416.
* Geol. Mag., Dec. 2, vol. x. pp. 120, 193, 337.

* Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. viii. p. 438; Geol. Mag., Dec. 3, vol. ii. 1885, p. 97.

° Geol. Mag., Dec. 3, vol. v. pp. 484-487.

™ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xliv. p. 62.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ©. 621

Phyliograptus fauna of Arenig age, that the beds must be regarded as belonging
to the higher divisions of the Cambrian formation,’

The intrusive igneous rocks of the Assynt region, of later date than Cambrian
time, and yet older than the post-Cambrian movements, have been specially studied
by Mr. Teall, who has obtained results of special importance from a petrological
point of view. This petrographical province embraces the plutonic complex of
Cnoc na Sroine and Loch Borolan, and the numerous sills and dykes that traverse
the Cambrian and Torridonian sediments, and even the underlying platform of
Lewisian gneiss. He infers that the plutonic rocks have been formed by the con-
solidation of alkaline magmas rich in soda. At the one end of the series is the
quartz-syenite of Cnoc na Sroine, and at the other the basic augite-syenite,
nepheline-syenite, aud borolanite, The basic varieties occur on the margin, and
the acid varieties in the centre. The sills and dykes comprise two well-marked
types, camptonites or vogesites, and felsites with alkali felspar and egirine, which
he believes to represent the dyke form of the magmas that gave rise to the plutonic
mass.'

The striking feature in the geology of the North-west Highlands is the evidence
relating to those terrestrial movements that affected that region in post-Cambrian
times, which are without a parallel in Britain. The geological structures produced
by these displacements are extremely complicated, but the vast amount of evidence
obtained in the course of the survey of that belt clearly proves that, though the
sections vary indefinitely along the line of complication, they have certain features
in common which throw much light on the tectonics of that mountain chain,
Some of these features may thus be briefly summarised.

1. By means of lateral compression or earth-creep the strata are thrown into
a series of inverted folds which culminate in reversed faults or thrusts.

2. Without incipient folding, the strata are repeated by a series of minor
thrusts or reversed faults which lie at an oblique angle to the major thrust-
planes and dip in the direction from which the pressure came, that is, from the
east.

3. By means of major thrusts of varying magnitude the following structures
are produced: (a) the piled-up Cambrian strata are driven westwards along
planes formed by the underlying undisturbed materials; (0) masses of Lewisian
gneiss, Torridon Sandstone, and Cambrian rocks are made to override the under-
lying piled-up strata; (c) the Eastern Schists are driven westwards and, in some
cases, overlap all major and minor thrusts till they rest directly on the undisturbed
Cambrian strata.

When to these features are added the effects of normal faulting and prolonged
denudation, it is possible to form some conception of the evolution of those extra-
ordinary structures which are met with in that region. Some of the features just
described occur in other mountain chains affected by terrestrial movement, as in
the Alps and in Provence; but there is one which appears to be peculiar to the
North-west Highlands. It is the remarkable overlap of the Moine 'Thrust-plane—
the most easterly of the great lines of displacement. Along the southern confines
of the wild and complicated region of Assynt, that plane can be traced westwards
for a distance of six miles to the Knockan clitt, where the micaceous flagstones rest
on the Cambrian limestone. In Durness we find an outlier of the Eastern Schists
reposing on Cambrian limestone, there preserved by normal faults, at a distance of
about ten miles from the mass of similar schists east of Loch Eriboll, with which
it was originally continuous.

Though many of these structures appear incredible at first, it is worthy of note
that some have been reproduced experimentally by Mr. Cadall.2 He took layers
of sand, loam, clay, and plaster of Paris, and after the materials had set into hard
brittle lamin, in imitation of sedimentary strata, he applied horizontal pressure
under varying conditions. The results, some of which may here be given, were
remarkable.

* Geol. Mag., December 4, vol. vii. p. 385 (1900).
* Lrans. Royal Soc, Edinburgh, vol. xxxv. p. 337.

622 REPORT—1901.

1. The compressed mass tends to find relief along a series of gently inclined
thrust-planes, which dip towards the side from which pressure is exerted.

2. After a certain amount of heaping up along a series of minor thrust-planes,
the heaped-up mass tends to rise and ride forward bodily along major thrust-
planes,

3. The front portion of a mass being pushed along a thrust-plane tends to bend
over and curve under the back portion.

4. A thrust-plane below may pass into an anticline above ; and a major thrust-
plane above may and probably always does originate in a fold below.

Now these important experiments confirm the conclusion reached by the
Geological Survey from a study of the phenomena in the field, viz., that under
the influence of horizontal compression or earth-creep the rocks in that region
behaved like brittle rigid bodies which snapped across, were piled up and driven
westwards in successive slices. But, further, these displacements were accompanied
by differential movement of the materials which resulted in the development of
new structures. These phenomena culminate along the belt of rocks in immediate
association with the Moine Thrust, where the outcrop of that thrust lies to the
east of a broad belt of displaced materials. There, Lewisian gneiss, Torridon
Sandstone, and Cambrian quartzite are sheared and rolled out, presenting new
divisional planes parallel with that of the Moine Thrust. The Lewisian gneiss
shades into flaser gneiss and schist, and ultimately passes intoa banded rock like a
platy schist. The pegmatites show fluxion structure with felspar ‘ eyes’ like
that of the rhyolites. At intervals in these zones of highly sheared rocks, pha-
coidal masses of Lewisian gneiss appear, in which the pre-Torridonian structures
are not wholly effaced. The sills of camptonite and felsite intrusive in the Cam-
brian rocks become schistose and together with the sediments in which they occur
appear in a lenticular form. All these mylonised rocks show a characteristic
striping on the divisional planes, due to orientation of the constituents in the
direction of movement.

Still more important evidence in relation to the question of regional metamor-
phism is furnished by the Torridon Sandstone. In the case of the basal con-
glomerate the pebbles have been flattened and elongated, and a fine wavy structure
has been developed in the matrix. In the district of Ben More, Assynt planes of
schistosity, more or less parallel with the planes of the Ben More Thrust, pass
downwards from the Torridon conglomerate into the underlying gneiss, Both
have a common foliation irrespective of the unconformability between them.
Again, along the great inversion south of Stromeferry, foliation has been developed
in the Torridon conglomerate and overlying Lewisian gneiss, parallel to the plane
of the Moine Thrust. The Torridon grits and sandstones south of Kinlochewe
and between Kishorn and Loch Alsh are similarly affected by the post-Cambrian
movements. Mr, Teall has shown that the quartz grains have been drawn out
into lenticles and into thin folia that wind round ‘eyes’ of felspar. A secondary
crypto-crystalline material has been produced, sericitic mica appears in the divi-
sional planes, and in some instances biotite is developed. In short, he concludes
that in these deformed Torridonian sediments there is an approximation to the
crystalline schists of the Moine type. The stratigraphical horizon of these rocks
can be clearly proved. The subdivisions of the Torridon Sandstone have been
recognised in those displaced masses which lie to the east of the Kishorn Thrust
and to the west of the Moine Thrust. It is worthy of note also that in the belt
of highly sheared gneiss south of Stromeferry that comes between the Torridonian
inversion in the west and the Moine Thrust on the east Mr. Peach has found
folded and faulted inliers of the basal division of the Torridon Sandstone that have
a striking resemblance to typical Moine schists.

Regarding the age of these post-Cambrian movements, it is obvious that they
must be later than the Cambrian limestone and older than the Old Red Sandstone,
for the basal conglomerates of the latter rest unconformably on the eastern schists
and contain pebbles of basal quartzite, pipe-rock, limestone, and dolomite derived
from the Cambrian rocks of the North-west Highlands.

East of the Moine Thrust or great line of displacement extending from Eriboll

ETRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 623

to Skye, we enter the wide domain of the metamorphic rocks of the Highlands, a
region now under investigation, and which presents difficult problems for solution.
Two prominent types of crystalline schists (Caledonian series, Callaway, and Moine
schists of the Geological Survey) have been traced over wide areas in the counties
of Sutherland, Ross, and Inverness, and across the Great Glen to the northern
slopes of the Grampians. Consisting of granulitic quartzose schists and muscovite-
biotite schist or gneiss, they appear to be of sedimentary origin, though crystalline.
They are associated with recognisable masses of Lewisian gneiss covering many
square miles of ground and presenting many of the structures so characteristic of
that complex in the undisturbed areas already described. Within the belt of
Lewisian gneiss at Glenelg Mr. Clough has mapped a series of rocks presumably of
sedimentary origin, including graphitic schists, mica schists, and limestones, but the
gneiss with which they are associated possesses granulitic structure like that of the
adjoining Moine schists.!_ Further, in the east of Sutherland, and also in the
county of Ross, foliated and massive granites appear which are interleaved in the
* adjoining Moine schists, forming injection gneisses and producing contact meta-
morphism.’

In the Eastern Highlands the Moine series disappears and is replaced by a
broad development of schists, admittedly of sedimentary origin, which have been
termed the Dalradian series by Sir A. Geikie. Within recent years it has been
divided into certain rock-groups which have been traced by the Geological
Survey from the counties of Banff and Aberdeen to Kintyre. It has been found
that, though highly crystalline in certain areas, they pass along the strike into
comparatively unaltered sediments, as proved by Mr. Hill in the neighbourhood of
Loch Awe.’ Before the planes of schistosity were developed in these Dalradian
schists they were pierced by sills of basic rock (gabbro and epidiorite) and acid
material (granite), both of which must have shared in the movements that affected
the schists, as they merge respectively into hornblende schists and foliated granite
or biotite gneiss. Both seem to have developed contact metamorphism ; indeed,
Mr. Barrow‘ contends that the regional metamorphism so prominent in the south-
east Highlands is mainly, if not wholly, due to the intrusion of an early granite
magma, now exposed at the surface in the form of local bosses of granite and
isolated veins of pegmatite.

The age of the Dalradian schists has not been determined. Though there
seems to be an apparent order of superposition, in this series it is still uncertain
whether that implies the original sequence of deposition. Since Sir A, Geikie
applied the term Dalradian to the Eastern Highland schists in 1891,’ evidence has
been obtained ® that suggests the correlation of certain rocks along the Highland
border with the Arenig and younger Silurian strata of the Southern Uplands.
Consisting of epidiorite, chlorite schist, radiolarian cherts, black shales, grits, and
limestone, they have been traced at intervals from Arran to Kincardineshire. In
the latter region Mr. Barrow contends that they are separated by a line of dis-
ruption from the Highland schists to the north ; but no such discordance has been
detected in the Callander district or in Arran. Though these rocks of the High-
land border have been much deformed, yet their occurrence in the same order of
succession in that rezion and in the Southern Uplands is presumptive evidence for
their correlation.

In view of this evidence it is not improbable that the Dalradian series may
contain rock-groups belonging to different geological systems. Indeed, the result
of recent Survey work in Islay tends to support this view. For in the south-west

1 Summary of Progress of the Geological Survey for 1897, p. 37.
' 2 On Foliated Granites and their Relations to the Crystalline Schists in Eastern
Sutherland, Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc., vol. lii. p. 633.

3 Annual Report of the Geological Survey for 1893, p. 265.

4 ‘Intrusion of Muscovite-biotite Gneiss in the South-east Highlands and its
accompanying Metamorphism,’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlix, p. 330.

5 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlvii. p. 72.
Sa sehen Report of the Geological Survey for 1893, p. 266 for 1895, p. 25; for

iP. a0.

624 REPORT—1901.

part of that island there is a mass of Lewisian gneiss overlaid unconformably by
sedimentary strata which have been correlated with the lower and middle divisions
of the Torridon Sandstone. Unfortunately the sequence ends here, as both the
gneiss and overlying sediments are separated by a line of disruption or thrust-
plane from the strata in the eastern part of the island. And yet, notwith-
standing this break, the evidence obtained in the latter district is remarkable,
whatever theory be adopted to explain it. There the Islay limestone and black
slates appear to be covered unconformably by the Islay quartzite containing
Annelid tubes and followed in ascending sequence by Fucoidal shales and
dolomites, suggestive of the Cambrian succession in Sutherland and Ross. The
Islay quartzite passes into Jura, thence to the mainland, and it may eventually
prove to be the Perthshire quartzite, while the Islay limestone and black slate are
supposed to be the prolongations of the limestone and slate of the Loch Awe
series in Argyllshire.!

From the foregoing data it will be seen that much uncertainty prevails
regarding the age and structural relations of the metamorphic rocks of the High-
lands, but the difficulties that here confront the observer are common to all areas
affected by regional metamorphism. ‘

A prominent feature in the geology of the Eastern Highlands is the great
development of later plutonic rocks chiefly in the form of granite ranging along
the Grampian chain from Aberdeenshire to Argyllshire. In connection with one
of these masses a remarkable paper appeared in 1892 which in my opinion has
profoundly influenced petrological inquiry in Scotland from the light which it
threw on the relations of a connected series of petrographical types in a plutonic
complex. I refer to the paper on the ‘ Plutonic Rocks of Garabal Hill and Meall
Breac,’ by Mr. Teall and Mr. Dakyns.”

The authors showed that this plutonic mass comprises granite, tonalite, augite-
diorite, picrites, serpentine, and other compounds. Mr. Teall regards the members of
this sequence as products of one original magma by a process of differentiation, the
peridotites being the oldest rocks, because the minerals of which they are composed
are the first to form in a plutonic magma. As the process of consolidation
advances, rocks of a varied composition arise, in the order of increasing acidity,
viz., diorites, tonalites, and granites. The most acid rock consists of quartz and
orthoclase, which may represent the mother liquor after the other constituents
had separated out. Mr. Teall concludes that progressive consolidation of one
reservoir gives rise to the formation of magmas of increasing acidity, and hence
that basic rocks should precede the acid rocks. This theory of magmatic differen-
tiation—so strenuously advocated by Broégger, Vogt, Rosenbusch, Iddings, Teall,
and others—was first applied to the interpretation of varied types of plutonic
masses in Scotland by Mr. Teall in the paper referred to. Since then he has
extended its application to the granite masses in the Silurian tableland of the
south of Scotland, which include rocks, ranging from hyperites at the one end to
granitite with microcline, and aplite veins at the other.* Many of the phenomena
presented by the newer granite masses of the Eastern Highlands seem to lend
support to this theory. These views, indeed, have permeated the petrological
descriptions of the granitic protrusions in the counties of Aberdeen and Argyll
which have been given by Messrs. Barrow, Hill, Kynaston, and Craig * in recent

ears.
z One of the remarkable advances in Scottish geology during the period under
review is the solution of the order of succession and tectonic relations of the
Silurian rocks of the south of Scotland by Professor Lapworth. ‘The history of
research relating to that tableland, and of all his contributions to the problems

Summary of Progress for 1899, p. 66.
Quart Jowrn, Geol. Soc., vol. xivili. p. 104.
Annual Report of the Geological Survey for 1896, p. 40; see also ‘ The Silurian
Rocks of Scotland,’ Geological Survey Memoir, 1899, p. 607.

4 Annual Report of the Geological Survey for 1897, p. 87; for 1898, pp. 25-28 ; see
also paper on ‘ Kentallenite and its Relations to other Igneous Rocks in Argyllshire,’
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lvi. p. 531.

1
2
3

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 625

connected with it, has been given in detail in the recent volume of the Geological
Survey on that formation. At present it will be sufficient to refer to his three
classic papers, which, in my opinion, record one of the great achievements in
British geology. The first, on ‘The Moffat Series,’ ' demonstrated, by means of
the vertical distribution of the graptolites, the order of succession in those fine
deposits (black shales and mudstones), which were laid down near the verge of
sedimentation, and are now exposed in anticlinal folds in the central belt. The
second, on ‘ The Girvan Succession,’* showed how certain graptolite zones of the
Moffat shales are interleaved, in the Girvan region, with conglomerates, grits,
sandstones, flagstones, mudstones, shales, and limestones, charged with all the
varied forms of life found in shallow seas or near shore. In the third, on ‘The
Ballantrae Rocks of the South of Scotland and their Place in the Upland
Sequence,’* he indicated the distribution and variation of the Moffat terrane
(Upper Llandeilo to Upper Llandovery) and of the Gala terrane (Tarannon),
which form the greater part of the uplands. He further pointed out how the
rocks and the fossils vary across the uplands according to the conditions of
deposition. Finally he proved that the complicated tectonics of the Silurian
tableland, its endless overfolds, its endoclinal and exoclinal structures, can be
unravelled by means of the graptolite zones. These researches disposed of the
order of succession based on Barrande’s doctrine of Colonies, and established the
zonal value of graptolites as an index of stratigraphical horizons. So complete
was the zonal method of mapping adopted by Professor Lapworth, and so accurate
were his generalisations, that few modifications have been made in his work.

In the course of the re-examination of the Silurian tableland by the Geological
Survey some important additions were made to our knowledge of the Silurian
system as there developed. Underlying all the sediments of the uplands there is
a series of volcanic and plutonic rocks of Arenig age, the largest development of
which occurs at Ballantrae in Ayrshire, where their igneous character was recog-
nised by Professor Bonney. But they appear in the cores of numerous anticlines
over an area of about 1,500 square miles, forming one of the most extensive
volcanic areas of Paleozoic age in the British Isles. These voleanic rocks are
overlain by a band of cherts and mudstones, succeeded by black shales yielding
Glenkiln graptolites of Upper Llandeilo age. The cherts, which are abundantly
charged with Radiolaria, implying oceanic conditions of deposition, are about
70 feet thick, and have been traced over an area of about 2,000 square miles.
The deposition of the Radiolarian ooze must have occupied a long lapse of time.
Indeed the cherts and mudstones represent the strata which, in other regions, form
the Upper Arenig and Lower Llandeilo divisions of the Silurian system. They
furnish interesting evidence of the oceanic conditions which here prevailed in
early Silurian time, and form a natural sequel to Professor Lapworth’s researches
bearing on the graptolitic deposits of the Upper Llandeilo period, which must have
been laid down on the sea-floor near the limit of the land-derived sediment.

Of special interest is the new fish fauna found by the Geological Survey in the
Ludlow and Downtonian rocks between Lesmahagow and Muirkirk, which the
researches of Dr. Traquair have shown to be of great biological and paleonto-
logical value. This discovery has enabled him to give a new classification of the
Ostracodermi, to enlarge the order of the Heterostract, which now includes four
families, instead of the Pteraspide alone. He has further shown that the
Celolepide*were not Cestraciont sharks to which the Onchus spines belonged, but
Heterostraci, though probably of Elasmobranch origin, judging from the shagreen-
like scales. The Celolepide are common fishes in the Ludlow and Downtonian
rocks of Lanarkshire. The genus, Thelodus, first described by Agassiz from
detached scales in the Ludlow bone-bed, and subsequently figured and described
by Pander and Rohon from scales in the Upper Silurian rocks of Oesel, is here
represented for the first time by nearly complete forms. But it is remarkable that
no Onchus spines, nor any Pteraspide, nor Cephalaspide have been found in the

1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxiv. p. 240. 2 Tbid., vol. xxxviii. p. 537.
8 Geol, Mag., Dec. 3, vol. vi. p. 20. ‘4 Trans, Roy, Soc. Edin., vol. xxxix. p. 827,

626 REPORT—1901.

Lanarkshire strata, the nearest related genus to Cephalaspis being Ateleaspis,
which, however, represents a distinct family.

The group of sandstones, conglomerates, shales, and mudstones that form the
passage-beds between the Ludlow rocks and the Lower Old Red Sandstone in
Lanarkshire are now regarded as the equivalents of the Downtonian strata in
Shropshire, and are linked with the Silurian system. The mudstones of this
group, containing the new fish fauna, likewise yield ostracods, phyllocarid crus-
taceans, and eurypterids—forms which connect these beds with the underlying
Ludlow rocks. The band of greywacke-conglomerate, that extends from the
Pentland Hills into Ayrshire, composed largely of pebbles derived from the
Silurian tableland, is now taken as the base line of the Lower Old Red Sandstone
on the south side of the great midland valley of Scotland.

The period under review has been marked by important additions to our know-
ledge of the Old Red Sandstone formation. In 1878 appeared a valuable mono-
graph by Sir Archibald Geikie on ‘The Old Red Sandstone of Western Europe,’ ?
by far the most important treatise on this subject since the publication of Hugh
Miller’s classic work published in 1841. Following up the view maintained by
Fleming, Godwin-Austen, and Ramsay, that the deposits of this formation were
laid down in lakes or inland seas, he detined the geographical areas of the various
basins in the British area, giving to each a local name. He gave an outline of the
development of the rocks north of the Grampians, in Caithness, Orkney, and
Shetland. He advanced an ingenious argument in favour of correlating the
Caithness flagstone series (middle division, Murchison) with the Lower Old Red
Sandstone south of the Grampians. He contended that ‘ the admitted paleeonto-
logical distinctions between the two areas are probably not greater than the
striking lithological differences between the strata would account for, or than the
contrast between the ichthyic faunas of adjacent but disconnected water basins at
the present time.’ Sir A. Geikie further gave a table showing the vertical range
of the known fossils of the Caithness series from data partly supplied by the late
Mr. C, Peach.

During the last quarter of a century Dr. Traquair has made a special study of
the ichthyology of the Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous strata of Scotland,
which has enabled him to throw much light on the distribution of fossil fishes in
these rocks and on their value for the purpose of correlation. His researches
show that the fish fauna of the formation south of the Grampians resembles that
of the Lower Oid Red Sandstone of the West of England and adjoining part of
Wales in the abundance of specimens of Cephalaspis, the common species in
Forfarshire (C. Lyell, Ag.) being also indistinguishable from that in the Hereford-
shire ‘beds. Pteraspis occurs in both regions, though of different species. Of
Acanthodians Parerus recurvus, Ag., occurs in both, together with Climatius
(C. ornatus, Ag.). The abundance of Cephalaspis (C. Campbelltonensis, Whit.,
C. Jexi, Traq.) and of Climattus spines is characteristic of the Lower Devonian
rocks of Canada.

The Old Red Sandstone of Lorne has recently yielded organic remains, akin to
those found in Forfarshire, south of the Grampians, viz., Cephalaspis Lornensis
(Traq.), two species of myriapods (Campecaris Forfarensis and a species of
Archidesmus).”

In the deposits of Lake Orcadie, north of the Grampians, quite a different fish
fauna from that of Forfarshire appears. Dr. Traquair has noted that there are no
species common to the two areas, and only two genera, viz., Mesacanthus and
Cephalaspis. The latter genus is, however, represented in Caithness only by a
single specimen of a species (C. magnifica, Traq.) different from any found else-
where. It might here be observed that Cephalaspis is represented also in the
Upper Devonian rocks of Canada by a single specimen of a peculiar species
(C. laticeps, Traq.), and hence Dr. Traquair has shown that, though Cephalaspis is
most abundant in the Lower Devonian, it extends also into the upper division of

1 Trans. Roy. Soc., Hdin., vol. xxviii. p. 345.
2 Summary of Progress,| Geological Survey, 1897, p. 83.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ©, 627

that system. It further appears that Osteolepide (Osteolepis, Diplopterus),

‘Rhizodontide _(Tristichopterus, Gyroptychius), Holoptychiide (Gilytolepis),
Asterolepide (Pterichthys, Microbrachius), Ctenodontide (Dipterus) are abundant
in the Oreadian fauna, none of which has occurred in the Lower Old Red Sand-
stone of Forfarshire, the West of England, or in the Lower Devonian rocks of
Canada. Dr. Traquair recognised, however, the identity of the fishes from the
well-known fish band in the basin of the Moray Firth with those brought from the
west part of Orkney, though these forms did not quite agree with the fossils from
the Thurso district. He subsequently found that the fish fauna from the Oreadian
beds in the Moray Firth basin is represented in Caithness by that of Achanarras ;
and, further, that two other faunas occur in the Caithness area—that of Thurso
and that of John o’ Groats as given below :—

; | Tristichopterus alatus, Egert.

John 0’ Groats y 3 ‘ 1 Microbrachius Dichi, Traq.

f Coccosteus minor, H. Miller,
Thurso . . . P - 4 Lhursius pholidotus, Traq.

| Osteolepis microlepidotus, Pander.

f Pterichthys, 3 species.
Achanarras . . ; . 4 Cheirolepis Trailli, Ag.

i Osteolepis macrolepidotus, Ag.

In 1898 appeared an important paper by Dr. Flett on ‘The Old Red Sandstone
of the Orkneys,’ in which he described the results of his detailed examination of
the islands. He proved the existence there of three fish faunas, and their
correspondence with those identified in Caithness by Dr. Traquair. From the
evidence in the field he adopted the following order of succession and correlation
of the strata :—

3. Eday Sandstones and John o’ Groats beds.
2. Rousay and Thurso beds.
J. Stromness, Achanarras, and Cromarty beds.

A further important result of Dr. Flett’s researches in the Old Red Sandstone
of these northern isles was communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh this
year. He has found in the Shetland beds, which had previously yielded no fossils
save plants, fragments, identified by Dr. Traquair as Holonema, a fish new to
Britain, but occurring in the Chemung group of North America, the subdivision
of the Upper Devonian that immediately underlies the Catskill red sandstones,
with remains of Holoptychius. Dr. Traquair has also recognised in Dr. Flett’s
collection fragments of Asterolepis, a genus characteristic of the Upper Old Red
Sandstone, and which, as proved by Dr. Flett, occurs in the ‘ Thurso beds’ of the
Orkneys. The interest attaching to this discovery is very great, for Dr. Flett
contends that it indicates a fourth life-zone in the Orcadian series, and, further,
that it tends to span the break between the Orcadian division and Upper Old Red
Sandstone.

In the Upper Old Red Sandstone on the south side of the Moray Firth, Dr.
Traquair recognised two life-zones, and subsequently, with the assistance of
Mr. Taylor, Lhanbryde, a third ; in the following order. The lowest is that of the
Nairn sandstones with Asterolepis maxima (Ag.); the second, that of Alves and
Scaat Craig with Bothriolepis major (Ag.), Psammosteus Taylori (Traq.) ; and the
highest that of Rosebrae, the fauna of which, according to Dr. Traquair, has a
striking resemblance to the assemblage in the Dura Den Sandstones in Fife.

Before 1876 all the Carboniferous areas in the great midland valley of Scotland
had been mapped by the Geological Survey. The extent and structural relations
of the various coal-fields were determined according to the information then
available, and shown in the published maps. But the rapid development of certain
fields in the east of Scotland necessitated a revision of them which has lately been
done, The Fife coal-field has been re-examined by Sir A, Geikie, Mr. Peach, and

1 Trans, Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxix, p. 383,

628 REPORT—1901.

Mr. Wilson, and the oil-shale fields in the Lothians have been mapped by
Mr. Cadell. An important memoir by Sir A. Geikie on ‘The Geology of Central
and Western Fife and Kinross’ has just been issued by the Geological Survey, in
which the structure of these coal-fields is described. Mr. Cadell lately gave an
account of the geological structure of the oil-shale fields in his presidential address
to the Edinburgh Geological Society.

Within the period under review detailed researches of great importance on the
fossil flora of British Carboniferous rocks have been carried out by Mr. Kidston,
to which reference ought to be made. The results are of the highest value for
correlating the strata in different areas.' By means of the plants he arranges the
Carboniferous rocks of Scotland in two great divisions: a lower, comprising the
Calciferous Sandstone and Carboniferous Limestone series ; and an upper, including
the Millstone Grit and the Coal-measures, there being a marked paleontological
break at the base of the Millstone Grit. He shows that the upper and lower
divisions of the system, not only in Scotland but in Britain, are characterised by a
different series of plants, not one species passing from the lower division—save in
the case of Stigmaria—into the upper. From his researches it appears that, among
ferns, Neuropteris is all but unknown in the lower division, whereas in the upper
it is very abundant. The Sphenopterids are proportionately common in both
divisions; but those of the lower are usually characterised by cuneate segments,
while those of the upper have generally rounded pinnuies. <Alethopteris, so
common throughout the whole of the upper series, is entirely absent from the
lower. The genus Calamites, which is extremely plentiful in the upper, is almost
entirely absent from the lower division, where its place is taken by Asterocalamites,
The Cordaitee are also rare below the Millstone Grit, though very plentiful above
that horizon. Sigillaria, so rare in the Lower Carboniferous rocks, is extremely
abundant in the upper division, and particularly in the middle Coal-measures. In
short, Mr. Kidston concludes that the floras of the two main divisions of the
Carboniferous system, though belonging to the same types, are absolutely distinct
in species, and in the relative importance of the genera.

By means of the fossil plants Mr. Kidston correlates the Coal-measures of
Scotland underlying the red sandstones with the lower division of the Coal-
measures of England, and the overlying red sandstones of Fife with the middle
division of the English Coal-measures.

It is remarkable that the evidence supplied by the fossil fishes has led
Dr. Traquair independently to a similar conclusion. He holds that fossil ichthyo-
logy proves the existence of only two great: life-zones in the Carboniferous rocks
of Central Scotland—an upper and a lower—the boundary line between the two
being drawn at the base of the Millstone Grit. ‘The Scottish Carboniferous rocks,
being mostly estuarine, give an opportunity of comparing the estuarine fishes of
both divisions. He finds the Coal-measure fishes of Scotland to be the same as
those in the English Coal-measures, while those occurring below the Millstone
Grit in Scotland are mostly different in species, and often, too, in genera, from the
forms above that horizon.

Of special interest as bearing on the former extension of this system in Scot-
land is the discovery made by Professor Judd* in 1877 of a patch of Carboniferous
sandstones and shales, with well-preserved plant remains in Morven. Another
small outlier of this formation has recently been found in the Pass of Brander by
the Geological Survey.”

The reptiles from the Elgin sandstones, recently described by Mr. E. T. Newton,*
add fresh interest to the study of these rocks. The structural relations of these
sandstones have been fully treated by Professor Judd in his great paper on the
Secondary Rocks on the east of Scotland,’ and again in his presidential address

1 «On the Various Divisions of British Carboniferous Rocks as determined by their
Fossil Flora,’ Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., vol. xii. p. 183 (1893).

2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. Xxxiv. p. 685.

3 Summary of Progress, Geological Survey, 1898, p. 129.

4 Phil. Trans., vol. clxxxiv. p. 431 (1893) ; ibid., vol. clxxxv. p. 573 (1894).

5 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxix. p. 98.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 629

to this Section at Aberdeen,! who confirmed Huxley’s well-known correlation of
these beds with the Trias, The Dicynodont skull, identified by Professor Judd
and Dr. Traquair at the Aberdeen meeting of the British Association in 1885, and
other remains found in the reptilian sandstones in Cutties Hillock Quarry, where
they rest on Upper Old Red Sandstone with Holoptychius, have been described by
Mr. Newton. He confirmed their affinity with Dicynodonts, though they were
referred to the gonera Gordonia and Geikta. But the most remarkable specimen
was the skull named by Mr. Newton Elginia mirabilis. This extraordinary
creature, with a pair of horns projecting like those of a short-horned ox, and with
smaller spines and bosses, numbering thirty-nine, is related to the great Pareia-
saurus from the Karoo beds of South Africa. Two other reptiles are described by
Mr. Newton from this quarry, namely, a small crocodile-like animal, Erpetosuchus
Granti—apparently nearly allied to Stagonolepis—and Ornithosuchus Wood-
wardi, which is probably a small Dinosaurian.

Mr. Newton has raised an interesting point in connection with his researches,
He calls attention to the fact that the reptilian remains from the Cutties Hillock
Quarry differ from those found at other localities in the Elgin district. For
example, the Lossiemouth sandstones have yielded Stagonolepis, Hyperodapedon,
and Telerpeton; and the Cutties Hillock sandstones, the Dicynodonts (Gordonia
and Getkia), the horned reptile (E/gznza), the small crocodile-like Erpetosuchus,
and the little Dinosaurian Ornithosuchus. Does this distribution indicate
different stratigraphical horizons? is virtually the point raised by Mr. Newton.
In connection with this inquiry he cites the evidence obtained in other
countries. Thus, in the Gondwana beds of India, the series of reptiles similar to
those of Elgin occur at diferent localities and ou different stratigraphical
horizons; Dicynodonts and Labyrinthodonts being found in the lower Panchet
rocks, while Hyperodapedon and Parasuchus (allied to Stagonolepis) are met with
in the higher Kota-Maleri beds. Again in the Karoo beds of South Africa the
Dicynodonts and the great Pareiasawrus—the latter being the nearest known ally
of the horned reptile (Elginia mirabilis) from Cutties Hillock, Elgin—occur low
down in that formation. Further light is thrown on the question by the interest-
ing discoveries of Amalitzky in Northern Russia, where a number of reptilian
remains have been found closely allied to Pareiasaurus, Elginia, and Dicynodon, in
beds, which are referred to the Permian formation and accompanied by plants and
mollusca which seemingly confirm this reference.”

In view of these foreign discoveries Mr. Newton concludes that the Elgin
sandstones may probably represent more than one reptilian horizon, and that we
are confronted with the possibility of their being of Permian age.

The difficulty of drawing a boundary line between the Trias and the Upper
Old Red Sandstone of Elgin, which impressed the mind of the late Dr. Gordon, has
had to be faced elsewhere in Scotland. In Arran, my colleague Mr. Gunn has
shown that the Trias there rests on the Upper Old Red Sandstone, both forma-
tions having a similar inclination. Even he, with his ripe experience, has had
great difficulty in drawing a boundary between them on the west side of the
island ; but when the base line of the Trias is traced eastwards to Brodick it passes
transgressively on to Carboniferous rocks.

Of special importance is the recent discovery in Arran of the fossils of the
Avicula contorta zone* by Mr. Macconochie, of the Geological Survey, to whose
skill as a fossil collector Scottish geology owes much. With these, occur
Lower Liassic fossils, in sediments which are not now found ia place in the island.
These fossiliferous patches are associated with fragmental volcanic materials
filling a great vent, the age of which will be referred to presently. This dis-
covery has fixed the Triassic age of the red sandstones and marls in the south of
Arran. The detailed mapping of the island by Mr. Gunn has demonstrated that

_| Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1885, p. 994.
7 Y. Amalitzky, Sur les fouilles de 1899 de débris de vertébrés dans les dépéts
Permiens de la Russie du nord. Varsovie, 1900.
* Summary of Progress, Geological Survey, 1899, p. 133.

1901. TT

630 REPORT—1901.

the Triassic sandstones rest partly on the Old Red Sandstone, partly on the Car-
boniferous Limestone Series and partly on the Coal-measures,

In 1878 appeared the third of Professor Judd’s great papers on the Secondary
Rocks of Scotland, wherein he unravelled the history of these strata as developed
in the east of Scotland and in the West Highlands. His admirable researches, in
continuation of the work done by Bryce, Tate, and others embraced the identifica:
tion of the life-zones, their correlation with those of other regions, the history of
the physical conditions which prevailed in Scotland during Mesozoic time, and the
working out of the structural relations of the strata.1 He showed that their
preservation on the east of Scotland was due to the existence of great faults, and
those in the West Highlands to the copious outpouring of the Tertiary lavas. He
was the first to detect the occurrence of Cretaceous rocks in the West Highlands
and to show the marked unconformability which separates them from the Jurassic
strata. His main life-zones and his main conclusions regarding the Secondary
Rocks of Scotland have so far been confirmed by the detailed mapping of the
Geological Survey. An interesting addition to our knowledge of these rocks was
made by my colleague, Mr. Woodward, in the course of his field work, who found
the oolitic iron ore in the Middle Lias of Raasay, the position of which corresponds
approximately with that of the Cleveland ironstone.*

The extensive plateau of Tertiary volcanic rocks in the Inner Hebrides has been
a favourite field of research ever since the time of Macculloch, the great pioneer
in West Highland geology. During the period under review much work has been
done in that domain. According to Professor Judd, that region contains the
relics of five great extinct volcanoes and several minor cones, indicating three
periods of igneous activity. The first was characterised by the discharge of acid
lavas and ashes, the molten material consolidating down below as granite; the
second by the outburst of basic lavas, now forming the basaltic plateau, connected
with deep-seated masses that appear now as gabbro and dolerite ; the third by the
appearance of sporadic cones, from which issued minor streams of lava.”

In 1888 Sir A. Geikie communicated his elaborate monograph on the history
of Tertiary volcanic action in Britain to the Royal Society of Ndinburgh,* which
has been incorporated, with fuller details, in his recent work on ‘The Ancient
Volcanoes of Great Britain.’ His main conclusions may thus be briefly stated:
1. The great basaltic plateaux did not emanate from central volcanoes, but are
probably due to fissure eruptions; 2, the basaltic lavas were subsequently
pierced by laccolitic masses of gabbro, which produced a certain amount of contact
alteration on the previously erupted lavas ; 3, the protrusion of masses of grano-
phyre and other acid materials by means of which the basic rocks were disrupted.

During the last six years Mr. Harker has been engaged in mapping the central
part of the isle of Skye, and in the petrographical study of the rocks, the results
of which have been summarised in the annual reports of the Geological Survey. As
regards the basaltic lavas, he finds that while they have been of vast extent the
individual flows have been of feeble volume, and show no evident relation to
definite centres of eruption. There were two local episodes, however, which took
the form of central eruptions: one represented by a number of explosive outbursts
at certain points ; the other, in the basalt succession, gave rise to rhyolitic rocks,

Mr. Harker further finds that the succeeding plutonic phase of activity, confined
in Skye to what is now the central mountain tract, is represented by three groups
of plutonic intrusions, in the following order: peridotites, gabbros, and granites.
The metamorphism set up in the basaltic lavas near the large plutonic masses pre-
sents points of interest, especially the widespread formation of new lime-soda-
felspars from the zeolites in the lavas.

After the intrusion of the granite of the Red Hills, Mr. Harker finds that
igneous activity took the form of intrusions of smaller volume, but in some cases

1 Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soe., vol. xix. p. 97, vol. xxxiv. p. 660.
2 Geol. Maq., Dec. 3, vol. x. p. 493 (1893).

3 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. Xxx. p. 220.

! Trans, Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. XXxv., part 2, p. 23.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 631

of wide distribution. The great group of dolerite sills belongs to this period. An
enormous number of acid and basic dykes followed, of several distinct epochs. A
set of minor basic intrusions of quite late date is found in the gabbro district of the
Cuillins, the most interesting of which takes the form of sheets of dolerite, parallel
at any given locality, but always dipping towards the centre of the gabbro area.
Mr. Harker considers that this remarkable system of injections presents a new
problem in the mechanics of igneous intrusion. The latest phase of vulcanicity in
the Cuillin district is a radial group of peridotite dykes. As regards the local
group of rock in Central Skye Mr. Harker finds that the order of increasing
acidity which ruled in the plutonic phase was reversed for the minor intrusions
which followed.

In connection with the great development of volcanic activity in the West of
Scotland in Tertiary time reference must be made to the remarkable volcanic vent
in Arran the recognition of which is due to the suggestion of my friend
Mr. Peach. This volcanic centre covers an area of about eight square miles, and
lies to the south of the granite area of the island.| The vent is now filled with
volcanic agglomerate and large masses of sedimentary material, some of which
have yielded the Rhztic and Lower Lias fossils already referred to, the whole
being pierced by acid and basic igneous rocks. One of the interesting features
connected with it is the occurrence of fragments of limestone with the agglomerate,
which has yielded fossils of the age of the chalk, thus proving that the vent is
post-Cretaceous. There is thus strong evidence for referring the granite mass in
the north of the island and most of the intrusive, acid, and basic igneous rocks to
the Tertiary period. It furnishes remarkable proof of the suggestion of the
Tertiary age of the Arran granite made by Sir A. Geikie in 1873.7. The story
unfolded by this discovery is like a geological romance. The former extension of
Rhetic and Lower Lias strata and of the chalk in the basin of the Clyde, and the
evidence of extensive denudation in the south of Scotland, appeal vividly to the
imagination. ‘

This outline of the researches in the solid geology of Scotland would be
incomplete without reference to the publication of Sir A. Geikie’s great work on
‘The Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain ’ (1897), in which the history is given of
volcanic action in Scotland from the earliest geological periods down to Tertiary
time. To investigators it has proved invaluable for reference. Nor can I omit to
mention the new edition of his volume on ‘The Scenery of Scotland, wherein he
depicts the evolution of the topography of the country with increasing force and
fascination. In this domain it may be said of the author, ‘ Nihil tetigit, quod non
ornavit.

From the brief and imperfect sketch which I have tried to give of recent
advances in the solid geology of Scotland it will be admitted that restless activity
and progress have been characteristic of the last quarter of a century. But we
may expect that the conclusions accepted now will be rigorously tested by our
successors, probably in the light of new discoveries and with more perfect methods
of research. It is well that it should be so, for thereby our branch of science
advances. Meanwhile, as we look back on the phalanx of geologists that Scotland
has produced—to Hutton and Hall, Murchison and Lyell, Hugh Miller and Fleming,
Nicol and Ramsay—and reflect on the services which they rendered to geology, we
may hope that this record of progress may prove a fitting sequel to the labours of
these illustrious men.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Recent Discoveries in Arran Geology.
By Wituiam Gunn, of A.M. Geological Survey of Scotland.

In the last ten years very important additions have been made to our know-
ee of the geology of Arran both in the aqueous and in the igneous rocks of the
island,

: ' Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. vii. p. 226 (1901).
* Trans. Geol. Soc. Edin., vol. ii. p. 305.

TT2

632 REPORT—1901.

Among the older rocks a series of dark schists and cherts has been discovered
in North Glen Sannox. They are probably of Arenig age, though no organic
remains have been found in them, are closely related to the rocks of Ballantrae in
Ayrshire, and similar beds occur in various places along the Highland border
where they have been described by Messrs. Barrow and Clough. In the isle of
Arran these rocks are intimately connected with the Highland schists.

The Old Red Sandstone of Arran has been found to comprise two subdivisions,
and in North Glen Sannox the upper division is unconformable on the lower.
This formation is not confined to the ground north of the String road as generally
supposed, but extends in places threz miles to the south of that road, being well
developed in the Clachan Glen, where it is much metamorphosed by intrusive
igneous rocks. No fossils have been found in the Old Red Sandstone of Arran
except Psilophyton princeps, specimens of which have been obtained from the
lower division in Glen Shurig.

The Carboniferous formation, fine sections of which occur on the shore at
Corrie and at Laggan, is now known to occupy but a small portion of the area of
the island. Near Brodick Castle and in Glen Shurig its width of outcrop is not
much more than 200 yards, and it does not reach the western shore, being over-
lapped in the interior by unconformable beds cf New Red Sandstone. Beds
probably of Coal Measure age with characteristic Upper Carboniferous fossils have
been recognised at Sliddery Water Head, Corrie, ‘he Cock, and in various other
places, but these have no great thickness and contain no seams of coal, They
represent apparently the basement beds of the Coal Measures.

The stratified rocks of the southern part of the island, consisting of red sand-
stones, conglomerates, and marls, have been proved to repose unconformably on the
Carboniferous formation and in places they contain derived pebbles with Carboni-
ferous fossils, All the evidence points to their being of Triassic age, and they may
easily be divided into two series, the lower of which probably represents the Bunter
sandstone, and the upper the Keuper marls. These Triassic rocks occupy the
whole of the coast from Corrie southwards, around the south end of the island, and
the west coast up to Machrie Bay, where they appear to lie conformably on the
Old Red Sandstone. They also form a small area in the north-eastern part of the
island near The Cock.

That still more recent formations once existed in the island, whence they have
been removed by denudation, is proved by the presence of fragments of. Rhetic,
Liassic, and Cretaceous rocks in a large volcanic vent which is probably of
Tertiary age. These fragments occur on the western side of the island in the
district of Shisken, on the slopes of Ard Bheinn, and they have yielded a con-
siderable number of characteristic fossils which have been examined and deter-
mined by Mr. E. T. Newton.

Some of the most important of the discoveries are those connected with the
old volcanic rocks of the island.

A series of interbedded lavas and tuffsis found in North Glen Sannox associated
with the schists and cherts previously mentioned. Like them they are probably
of Arenig age and closely related to similar rocks at Ballantrae in Ayrshire.

Two distinct volcanic platforms have been found in the Old Red Sandstone
of. the island. One set of basic lavas is intercalated in the lower division on the
west side of the island, and another occurs in the upper division of North Glen
Sannox. :

In addition to the volcanic series previously known in the Lower Carboniferous
rocks two others have been discovered in the upper part of the formation.

That the island was the seat of volcanic activity in times still more recent is |
proved by the recognition of a large volcanic vent in the Shiskin district, which
must be of post-Cretaceous age, as shown by some of the fragments it includes,

From these facts we conclude that the island has been the scene of volcanic
action at no less than seven different periods.

Much has also been learned with regard to the distribution and age of the
various intrusive igneous rocks, Two masses of a somewhat intermediate
character found in Glen Rosie and in Glen Sannox are probably of Old Red Sand-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 638

stone age, but nearly the whole of the varied igneous rocks of the island must
now be assigned to the Tertiary period, not excepting the well-known granite mass
of the northern part of the island. The finer granite which occupies the interior
of the nucleus has a tortuous boundary. It is clearly intrusive in the coarse
granite which surrounds it, but both belong practically to the same period, as they
have one and the same system of jointirg.

The ring of granite, granophyre, and quartz diorite which surrounds the large
voleanic vent was previously little known, and the other numerous and varied
intrusive masses, both acid and basic, which occur in the island were but poorly
represented on existing maps.

2, On Variation in the Strata in the Eastern Highlands.
By Grorce Barrow, H.M. Geological Survey.

{Communicated by permission of the Director of the Geological Survey. ]

In mapping the group of rocks associated with the well-known Quartzite and
Limestone in the Eastern Highlands, it has been found that there is an incessant
variation in the lithological characters of the group, which is sometimes abrupt.
Detailed examination has shown that throughout that belt the same type of
section or succession reappears after passing a number of variations.

The phenomena are supposed by the author to be due to the strata having
been deposited by numerous branches of a large river flowing through a delta,
Each branch, by a natural process of fanning, deposits sand near its mouth, and
finer mud further seawards. Where the fans of sand are far apart, the fine mud
deposited between them will assume a fairly constant composition, because all
the streams tap a common source of material before the river divides into branches
in the delta.

The recurrence of one particular type of section, which is easily recognised in
the field, may be explained by the supposition that the materials of which the
strata are composed were laid down as mud or other fine sediment, which may
be readily detected by means of the special minerals present, when the rocks are
metamorphosed. The abruptness of the changes seen in the sections may be due
to the intense folding of the Highland rocks; for materials originally some little
distance apart are brought into close proximity, and the transition which once
existed is cut out at the surface by the folding.

3. On the Crystalline Schists of the Southern Highlands. Their Physical

Structure and its Probable Manner of Development, By PrtER
Macnair.

The area under notice is defined as that lying immediately to the north-west.
of the great boundary fault which crosses Scotland from the Firth of Clyde to
Stonehaven, An account is then given of the various opinions that have been
held concerning the structure of this region since the time of Macculloch up to
the present day. The author then proceeds to show that the schist zones traverse
this region in roughly parallel bands, and described a series of sections at right
angles to the strike ot the principal foliation of the area. The following is a
summary of his conclusions regarding the stratigraphy, physical structure, and the
manner of its development in this part of the Scottish Highlands :—

1. The sedimentary schists of the Highlands proceeding from the margin
inwards may be divided into the following zones:—Lower Argillaceous zone,
Lower Arenaceous zone, Loch Tay Limestone zone, Garnetiferous Schist zone,
Upper Argillaceous zone, Upper Arenaceous zone. Associated with these are
schists of igneous origin. It is probable that these zones are capable of still
further subdivision, but this is not attempted yet.

2, From an examination of the relationships of these different zones, the order

634. REPORT—1901.

as given above appears to be an ascending one, proceeding from the margin
inwards, the well-marked zone known as the Loch Tay Limestone forming a sort
of datum line, from which one can recognise the positions of the lower and upper
schists.

3. It is supposed that the movements which plicated the rocks of the Highlands
were directed from the centre outwards, or from the N.W. towards the 8.E. This
is shown by the fact that where the bedding can be traced the overfolding is
generally towards the S.E. Also the foliation, where it has been folded, faces in
the same direction.

4, In the eastern part of the region we suppose that the bedding has been
folded into a series of isoclines facing the south-east, and that a foliation has been
developed roughly parallel to the axes of the folds in the bedding, thus making
the foliation appear to be roughly coincident with the original planes of stratifica-
tion. At Comrie, in Perthshire, the axes of the isoclines in the bedding are nearly
vertical, but with a slight hade towards the N.W. The axes of the isoclines get
gradually lower and lower as we proceed towards Loch Tay. In the same way
the foliation planes are nearly vertical along the frontier, but get flatter and flatter
as we proceed northwards,

5. In tracing these rocks towards the south-west an increasing crumpling and
folding of the foliation planes, accompanied by more intense metamorphism, is seen
to take place: this is made evident in approaching the shores of Loch Katrine and
Loch Lomond, but it seems to have reached its maximum in Cowal.

S, In Cowal, along the Firth of Clyde, the position of the foliation planes has
heen reversed, now dipping towards the south-east. Between the Firth of Clyde
and Loch Fyne the foliation planes have been much crumpled, and still later
divisional planes have been developed in them, this being a region of the most
intense metamorphism.

4. The Granite of Tulloch Burn, Ayrshire.
By Professor James Geixtn, /.2.S., ond Joun S. Friett, IA., D.Sc.

The granite of Tulloch Burn, Ayrshire, is a small mass occupying an area of
three or four square miles on the headwaters of the Irvine and the Avon. Much
of the outcrop is covered with drift and peat, but good exposures of the granite and
the contact altered rocks can be obtained in the Tulloch Burn, a tributary of the
frvine and on the Avon. The prevalent type is a flesh-coloured biotite-granite,
which often contains hornblende and sometimes decomposed augite. This passes
at its margins into rocks of intermediate or basic composition, which include
various types of diorite, hyperite, and gabbro. The evidence points to the origin
of these rocks by a process of differentiation, and both in this respect and in the
rock species which have been developed the resemblance to the granites of the
Soutnern Uplands is very close. The material microscopically examined
includes:—Graphic Granite and Granophyric Granite (in segregation veins) ;
Biotite Granite, Biotite Hornblende Granite, Biotite Augite Granite; Tonalite
(intermediate between Hornblende Biotite Granite and Diorite); Quartz Horn-
blende Diorite, Quartz Augite Biotite Diorite, Quartz Hypersthene Diorite ;
a Augite Diorite, Hornblende Diorite, Hypersthene Diorite; Hyperite and

abbro,

This mass is intrusive into the Lower Old Red Sandstone, which at Lanfine, a
little west of this, has yielded Cephalaspis Lyelli. The Old Red Sandstone is
indurated and often hornfelsed to a varying distance from the margin. The new
minerals developed are Augite, Hornblende, Biotite, Magnetite, Tourmaline,
Spinel, and possibly Sillimanite ; Calcite, Chlorite, and Epidote are often present,
but appear to be secondary after some of those mentioned.

Many dykes penetrate the sandstones, and most of these are undoubtedly
apophyses of the Granite. They are mostly Diorite Porphyrites or Quartz Diorite
Forphyrites, which may contain Biotite, Augite, Hornblende, or Hypersthene.
Syenite Porphyries also occur, and occasionally small veins of more acid character,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 635

which may be considered coarse-grained Granophyres. In addition to these there
are several dykes of Olivine Dolerite and Andesitic Basalt, but these are not known
to be genetically connected with the Granite.

5. On Crystals dredged from the Clyde near Helensburgh, with Analyses
by Dr. W. Pottarp. By J. 8. Fuert, IZA., DSe.

6. Note on a Phosphatic Layer at the Base of the Inferior Oolite in Skye
By Horace B. Woopwarp, F.R.S., of the Geological Survey.

[Communioated by permission of the Director of the Geological Survey. |

At the southern end of the great cliffs of Ben Tianavaig, south of Portree, in
Skye, the basement beds of the Inferior Oolite, which contain large dogger-like
masses of calcareous sandstone, rest in a hollow of the Upper Lias Shales, owing
to local and to a certain extent contemporaneous erosion. Lining this hollow
there is an irregular and nodular band, two or three inches thick, of dark brown
colitic and phosphatic rock; a fact of interest, as instances of local erosion are often
attended by the accumulation of phosphatic matter in beds, nodules, and derived
fossils.

Mr. George Barrow, who made a rough analysis of the rock, estimated the
amount of phosphate of lime at about 50 per cent.; and Mr. Teall, who examined
a section under the microscope, noted, in addition to the oolite grains, fragments of
molluacan shells and echinoderms, and foraminifera, in a finely granular matrix
formed of calcite. He observed that the central portions of some of the oolite
grains were formed of a nearly isotropic brown substance in which the typical
concentric structure of the oolite grains was well-preserved. Thissubstance was
no doubt phosphatic.

7. Lurther Note on the Westleton Beds.
By Horace B. Woopwarp, F.2&.S.

In a paper read before the British Association in 1882 (printed in full in
‘Geol. Mag.’ for 1882, p. 452) evidence was brought forward for regarding the
Westleton Beds of Westleton as part of the Middle Glacial division of
S. V. Wood, jun. Sections examined during the present year at Pakefield,
Kirkley, and Oulton, near Lowestoft, support the author’s contention, Thus
beneath the Grand Hotel at Kirkley the cliff shows a mass of shingle (identical
in character with the Westleton Beds) dovetailing into the undisputed Middle
Glacial sands, which a little further south are overlaid by the Chalky Boulder
Clay. Evidence of a like character is to be obtained near Halesworth, where
the shingle-beds seen south-east of the railway station would be grouped un-
guestionably with the Westleton Beds, and also (in the author’s opinion) with
the shingly beds in the Middle Glacial sands east of Oulton station and at
Kirkley.

‘Attention is drawn to sections where a newer gravel is so welded on to the
Middle Glacial gravel as to appear in places quite conformable. Similar pheno-
mena observed at the junction of Cretaceous and Kocene clays in Kgypt have
been aptly referred to by Mr. H. J. L. Beadnell as ‘ wnconformable passage-beds.

8. Report on the Collection and Preservation of Photographs of Geological
Interest.—See Reports, p. 339.

636 REPORT—1901.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Time Intervals in the Volcanic History of the Inner Hebrides.
By Sir ArcuwatD Geixisz, D.C.L., FBS.

2. The Sequence of the Tertiary Igneous Eruptions in Skye.
By AuFRED Harker, J1.A., FG.

As regards the sequence of the varied succession of Tertiary igneous eruptions,
the isle of Skye may probably be taken as a type of the whole British area.
Igneous activity passed successively through three phases: the volcanic, the
plutonic, and the phase of minor intrusions. It is important further to recognise
two parallel series of events, the 7egzonal and the Jocal; the former of very wide
extension, the latter connected with certain definite foci, one of which was situated
in Central Skye. The groups of rocks having a regional distribution are all of
basic composition, but the local groups exhibit much greater diversity. During
the plutonic phase, when regional activity was in abeyance, the successive groups
of intrusions at the Skye centre followed an order of increasing acidity (ultrabasic,
basic, acid); but for the local groups of the succeeding phase of minor intrusions
this order was reversed.

3. On the Relations of the Old Red Sandstone of North-west Ireland to
the adjacent Metamorphic Rocks, and its similarity to the Torridon
Rocks of Sutherland. By Avex. McHenry and Jas. R. Ki.roe.

The Old Red Sandstone of North-west Ireland has been affected by earth
stresses in pre-Carboniferous times, resulting in a system of reverse faults and
thrust-planes. This system strikes north north-eastward, and if continued, as is
probable, should be represented in the region of Sutherland and Ross. We sug-
gest it is found in the great system of thrusts which affects the structure of the
North-west Highlands.

Tke long-recognised resemblance of the Torridon Rocks in Sutherland to the
Old Red Sandstone, especially, as we hold, to the Old Red of Donegal, Tyrone,
and Mayo—both as regards its general lithological characters, contained pebbles
and relations to the underlying metamorphic rocks, the disposition of the strata,
their striking horizontality in places, and strong resemblance of physical
features—is fairly suggestive of the contemporaneity of the two groups, a view
rendered quite possible by the above-mentioned system of N.N.E. thrust-planes.

Our post-Old Red thrust-planes are in places lined with broken-up débris, in
some cases strongly resembling conglomerates of deposition, and giving to the
older rocks a pseudo base, apparently derived from the newer rocks, or newer and
older mingled. This, we suggest, may be the case with the base of the Durness
series, and the comparatively friable nature of the sandstone and conglomerates
would admit of easy movement en masse of the lower members of the Durness
series in overriding the Torridon when once a thrust-plane became initiated.

4. On the Relation of the Silurian and Ordovician Rocks of North-west
Ireland to the Great Metamorphic Series. By Jas. R. Kitroe and
ALEX, McHenry.

Upper Silurian rocks, as high as Wenlock, have been metamorphosed along
the Croagh Patrick range, which led to their inclusion in the great metamorphic

‘ Published in full in the Geological Magazine, November 1901, pp, 506-509,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 637

group when the ground was originally mapped. The corresponding rocks of
Wenlock age on the south margin of the Mayo and Galway Silurian basin, near
Killary Harbour, are not metamorphosed, and rest unconformably upon the meta-
morphic group.

This stratigraphical break has for many years been supposed to form an
insuperable objection to the acceptance of Murchison’s conjecture that the meta-
morphic rocks of Galway, Mayo, &c., are altered representatives of the Lower
Silurian or Ordovician rocks. This, however, is not an obstacle, for a break,
accompanied by overfolding and possibly metamorphism of Lower Silurian strata,
has been proved to have occurred in Llandovery times, which admitted of Wenlock
or possibly Tarannon beds being unconformable to unmetamorphosed Lower
Silurian, as well as to the metamorphic group. All this happened prior to a
second violent disturbance and overfolding which accompanied the metamorphism
of Wenlock strata already mentioned, and which occurred in Ludlow times.

A comparison of the Lower Silurian series in the west of Ireland with the
metamorphic group of the same region and Donegal shows so strong a resemblance
between them—as regards the lithological characters of individual members in
their original form, their order of succession, and certain peculiar coincidences of
associated sedimentary components, described in detail in the paper—that it
forms a creditable prima facie argument for their correlation.

One instance may here be mentioned. At Westport and Achill Beg thick
bands of fine conglomerate, associated with black slate, occur as an integral part
of the metamorphic group, while on the south shore of Clew Bay thick bands of
fine conglomerate—very simiiar in character to those in Achill Beg—occur in
association with black slate, which, though sufficiently crushed to justify their
inclusion by the original surveyors in the metamorphic ground, are now known
to be of Lower Silurian age, identical with rocks of this age in Clare Island.

The chief objection to ascribing the metamorphic rocks of Mayo and Galway
to the Lower Silurian age has been the present difference of condition between
them and the fossil-bearing Lower Silurians of the adjoining area. This differ-
ence seems to us explicable by conceiving that the great dislocation which occurred
in Llandovery times, and occasioned an inversion of strata by overfolding at
Salrock between the Killaries, carried unmetamorphosed Lower Silurian rocks
about Leenane against and over rocks of, say, the same age, near Leenane, which
had undergone metamorphism in connection with granitic intrusions. These may
be seen in the vicinity of Kylemore. Unfortunately the great zone of break is
now concealed by newer strata, and further is obscured and complicated by post-
Ludlow faults.

5. Notes on the Irish Primary Rocks, with their associated Granitic and
Metamorphic Rocks. By G. H. Kinanan, I2.1A.

In this communication the writer points out that in previous writings he has
insisted that in Ireland there were no Laurentiang, because no Irishrocksas a Terrane
were similar to the original Laurentians. Now, however, he has learned that the late
Dr. G. M. Dawson and other American geologists class the questionable Grenville
series, although in part evidently clastic and volcanic, as Laurentian. Conse-
quently, if this is allowed, there are also Laurentians in Ireland and Scotland.

A short review of the American pre-Palzozoic rocks and a table of the classi-
fications adopted in the United States and in the Dominion are given with Dawson's
reasons for his objection to the former, as in it the Animikie and Huronian
are classed together under one title, Algonkian, although there is a profound break
between them. Dawson seems to believe the Animikie and the Keweenawan are
more allied to the Palzozoic than to the Archean: in the latter he would only
include the Huronian and the Laurentian.

A table of the Paleozoic rocks, similar to that in the ‘ Economic Geology of
Ireland,’ isgiven and short descriptions of the different strata. This is succeeded by
a general description of the different areas of the Irish pre-Paleeozoic rocks, more
especially those of Donegal and Galway. These two areas are subsequently tabled

638 REPORT— 1901.
as below, and the paper is concluded with a short discussion on the right to call
any of the American, Scottish, or Irish rocks the great complex.

In a paper, ‘A New Reading of the Donegal Rocks ’ (see ‘ Proc. R.D.S., vol. vii.
(n.s.), part 9, p. 14 et seg.) and in the ‘Manual of the Geology of Treland,’ lists
of the Donegal and Galway and Mayo strata are given: the first we may copy; the
second has to be modified to come up to our present knowledge. These lists may

be tabulated for comparison.

Donegat.
TERRANE No. I. (Laurentian ?)

Granitic gneisses, micalitic quartzose
gneiss, and subordinate Jimestone.—This
Terrane was invaded by an albitic granite,
and it and other granites are solely ad-
juncts of the area not penetrating the
overlying basement great quartzite of
the Terrane No. III.

Base not visible.

TERRANE No. II. (Huronians or a new
Terrane.)

1. Gneiss, schists, many hornblendes,
with limestone zones, quartzitic gneiss,
and garnetiferous limestones. This
Terrane was invaded by the typical
porphyritic oligoclase Donegal granite
with its adjunct the foliated granite or
granitic gneiss, latter by other granites,
all older than the overlying basement
quartzites of Terrane No. III.

Base not exposed.

2. Gregory Hill schist series, a series
of various schists with below them beds
of hornblende rocks and one or two
limestones. In one place a fine gneiss
that seems to be metamorphosed felstone.

Base not exposed.

Profound unconformability.
TERRANE No. III. (Keweenawan?)

1. The basement strata are the great
quartzite with, under it in places, an
agglomerate but more often a greenish
rock, often quartzitic, in which are
scattered widely disseminated rounded
pieces of granite and gneiss from the
Terrane that may be under it (No. I. or
II.). Limestones or dolomites are also
found, but only in a few places. The
dolomites are associated with the
agglomerates, and may be methalosis
igneous rocks.

2. Cranford limestone, dolomite, and
sericitic series.

3. Lough Keel or Millford schist
series.

4, Killygarvan volcanic series.

5. Killygarvan quartzitic grit series.

6. Lubber volcanic and limestone
series.

7. Barn Hill grit series,

Galway and Mayo.
(Laurentian ?)

Various gneisses, schist in places;
zones of hornblendite. Large and long
intrudes of hornblende rocks, some ex-
cessively developed. These were in-
vaded by the Galway type granite and
its accompanying granitic gneiss.

Base not visible.

Over these a profound unconform-
ability.

(Huronians or a newer Terrane.)

The unconformable basement rock
is a conglomerate exceedingly altered,
various gneisses, schists, and quart-
zitic gneisses, with a few subordinate
limestones. In it are long intrudes of
hornblende rock, sometimes tremolite
rock, ophite, and elelagite. This Terrane
was invaded by the Omylite granite,
which usually is not accompanied by
granitic gneiss, but some of the outlying
long intrudes are, and in them is
immolated the basement conglomerate.
On the rocks of this Terrane are found
the basement great quartzites of
Terrane No. III.

Profound unconformability.

1. The basement stratum is a schistose
conglomerate under the great quartzite,
with which the conglomerate limestone
in places seems to be associated.

2. Limestone, ophiolite, dolomite,
with schist underneath.

3. Quartzite and micalite series.

4, Streamtown limestone and ophio-
lite series.
5. Micalite series.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 639

Donegal.

Profound unconformadility.
TERRANE No. IV. (Ordovician.)

1. Basement stratum mullaghsaw-

Galway and Mayo.

Probable unconformability concealed
under the Killary and pantry Silurians.

1. Basement beds unknown.

nite, a firm conglomerate, in part arkose.

2. Raphoe limestones and shales. 2. Shales, slates, and grits with, in

places, Ordovician fossils.
3. Slates with irregular masses and 3. Massive grits.
beds of sandstones, partly arkose. hese
sandstones, sometimes pebbly, have re-
gular oblique systems of joining. Usually
these joints are so close together as to
give the rocks the appearance of piles

of huge books.
4, Shales like those in No. 1, but

sub-metamorphosed.

5. Shot conglomerate.

6. Sandstones withirregular thin beds
and pantry of a friable pebbly rock.

7. Dark slate.

The Lough Keel series, No. 3, Terrane [IL., is the upper portion of the Millford
series, pushed into its present position by an overthrust: it is separated from the
Killygarvan volcanic series by a master fault. Between the series 4 and 5,
Terrane IV, (Galway and Mayo), there may be an unconformability, and the shot
conglomerate may be the equivalent.of the mullaghsawnite of the co. Donegal; a
break here, however, was not proved. The only series in the Terranes in both
columns, the age of which has been proved by their fossils, are those numbered
2, 3, and 4 in the counties Galway and Mayo: these are the equivalents of the
Ordovician.

Dawson in his address to the Geological Section at Toronto states his disbelief
in the basement complex. A. C. Lawson, in his paper ‘On Internal Relation and
Taxonomy of the Archean of Central Canada‘ (1890), seems to be of a similar
opinion ; while Van Hise in his writings only gives a half-hearted consent ; the
writer finds it hard to believe in it. The section of the Laurentians shown in the
cliffs of the Saguenay Fiord is said to be a typical one; and here, between the
river St. Lawrence and the Labradorian of St. John, there are various changes—
foliated granite, granitic gneiss, felspathic varieties, and quartzitic varieties—that
would seem to suggest that the rocks were not one basement complex, but that
they had been supplied from zones of distinct magmas as long ago suggested by
Delesse. Then we come to the Labradorians of St. John. These in aspect are most
ancient, the foliation being extraordinary, so as not to be believed in except seen,
some of the measured leaves of quartz and felspar being from 9 to 12 ft. and
more long. Yet on examination this rock in its present position is younger than
the Laurentians, being mtruded and sending apophyses into it; but in its original
place it must be older. If the Laurentian is the basement complex, what is the
age of the Norian, and what is its genesis? Similarly in Scotland and Ireland.
If the Lewisan or fundamental gneiss is Laurentian or basement complex, what is
the age of the granites and granitic gneiss with their apophyses? Then there is
the ‘Old Bay’ of Scotland, called hornblende rocks in Ireland: what is its age and
genesis P Some, at least, of the Scotsmen say that the Lewisan gneiss is the torn-
up ‘Old Bay.* If so, how did it exist to be torn up into the basement complex: ?
Then there are the quartzitic and highly felspathic varieties of the Lewisan that
are said to have their origin in masses of those classes of rocks. These are com-
plications that some people may understand, but others do not see their way
to believe that FUNDAMENTAL ROCKS HAD THEIR ORIGIN IN PREFUNDAMENTAL
ANCESTORS.

} There is a vein of humour in this Scotch sobriquet. The rock is the ‘ Old Bay,’
and yet it is to be torn up for the making of the oldest rocks on the face of creation.

640 REPORT—1901.
6. Some Irish Laccolithic Hills. By G. H. Kinanan, 48.1.4.

The author begins by pointing out that laccoliths are not usually classed
among the elevators of hills. Of late years Professors Gilbert and Cross, of the
U.S.A. Survey—although not the pioneers—have brought this prominently
forward. A short list of writers on the subject is given. The south-east of
Treland—Wicklow, Wexford, and Waterford—is mentioned as the portion of the
country in which they are conspicuous. Most of those in Wicklow and Wexford
were carefully mapped and described.

Gilbert’s definition of a laccolith, copied from a letter, is given. It partially
differs from his original, as in this he points out that fragments torn from
the conduit-pipe are usually found in the laccolith. This statement was made in
a reply to a query of the writer, who in his description of the laccoliths
of South-east Ireland had specially mentioned them.

A few very characteristic laccoliths are particularly mentioned, such as the
range of the Wicklow and Wexford granite hills, this line of upheavals being
explained by diagrams illustrating that the granite had come up in pipes through
the undermost Oldhamians (Archean) and lifted up the superior then horizontal
Ordovicians; so that now, as a general rule, the Ordovicians, not the Oldhamians,
are in contact with the granite. A few remarkable laccolithic hills in other
parts of Ireland are also mentioned.

7, The Geological Distribution of Fishes in the Carboniferous Rocks of
Scotland. By Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.R.S.

8. The Geological Distribution of Fishes in the Old Red Sandstone of
Scotland. By Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.2.S.

9. Perim Island and its Relations to the Area of the Red Sea.
By CatuerinE A. Raisin, D.Sc.

This paper describes briefly rock specimens from Perim Island collected and
placed at the disposal of the authoress by Mr. J. A. Rupert Jones (sub-
lieutenant R.N.R.), now stationed at Aden.

The island, as shown in the Admiralty chart, has somewhat of a horse-shoe
shape, enclosing a harbour opening to the south. Low plains, less than 12 feet
above sea-level, extend in from the coast, especially at the north, and consist of
raised beaches, but most of the southern and eastern parts are hilly, reaching
249 feet at the highest point.

The specimens received are all from volcanic rocks. The surface, according to
Mr. Rupert Jones, is composed mostly, to a depth of about 7 feet, of loose
blocks (4 feet or less in diameter), often imbedded in calcareous sand or mud, The
underlying rock is exposed in cliffs and in quarries, and occurs generally in roughly
horizontal layers. One mass in situ (near Balfe Point) is a not very basic basalt
(almost an andesite) crowded with felspar microliths with marked fluidal orienta-
tion, and is probably a lava flow. Another reddish rock with scattered rounded
vesicles (from a cliff north-east of the harbour) approaches a microcrystalline
basalt in character, and consists of much plagioclase, clear gum-like augite, some
red brown ferruginous olivine or pyroxene, and a little black speckled glassy base.
In another spot (near Balfe Point) a whitish tuff or fine agglomerate is quarried,
and consists largely of fragments of pumice with some broken felspar, augite, and
other crystals.

The surface blocks in one or two examples consist of fragmental rocks. One
is a red more basic tuff, containing thin black streaks, apparently of a spherulitic
glass. The blocks, however, are mostly scoriaceous and vesicular, petrologically

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 641

generally basaltic, and similar to the underlying rocks described above, but with
some variation, as if they might represent a broken lava crust. They are crossed
by veins of calcite, and the ashy materials and other fragments are often cemented
by calcareous deposits.

The history of Perim Island belorgs mainly to the Tertiary era. We may
infer that the Red Sea, from its general contours and the steep descent of the bed
towards a central depression, forms part of the Great Rift Valley, extending from
Lake Tanganyika to the Jordan, along which at so many places volcanic outbursts
on a large scale have occurred. Both in Arabia and in Abyssinia extensive tracts of
volcanic rocks are found of more than one period. The rocks of Perim belong
probably to the later or so-called Aden group. The raised beaches of the island
are an evidence of oscillations of level, which are proved by upraised and submerged
coral reefs to have affected other parts of the Red Sea. Denudation and weathering
of the surface took place, and calcareous sediment was deposited, while at different
times coral reefs became established in the adjacent shailow seas.

10. Artesran Water in the State of Queensland, Australia.
By R. Logan Jack, LL.D., F.GS.

The western interior of Queensland is endowed with rich grasses, but has an
insufficient rainfall. This defect, however, has been to some extent compensated
by the success in boring for artesian water, which was commenced in 1885. It is
estimated that artesian or sub-artesian water is to be found beneath an area of
over 264600 square miles.

The greater part of the western interior of Queensland is composed of soft
strata of Lower Cretaceous age, consisting of clay-shales, limestones, and sand-
stones. These strata are so disposed that the lower members of the series crop
out on the western flanks of the coast range, where not only is the elevation of the
surface greater than in the downs to the west, but the rainfall is also com-
paratively abundant.

Along the eastern margin of the Cretaceous area there is a porous sandstone of
great thickness, the ‘ Blythesdale Braystone,’ and owing to the low dip the outcrop
of this permeable stratum occupies a belt from five to twenty-five miles wide ; but
the Braystone finally disappears beneath the argillaceous and calcareous upper
members of the series which forms the surface of the downs to the west. Several
rivers disappear while crossing the outcrop of the Braystone, and the water must
be carried in it beneath the clay-shales ot the pastoral downs.

It is believed that the subterranean water leaks into the Great Australian
Bight between the 124th and 134th meridians of east longitude, and perhaps partly
into the Gulf of Carpentaria, as the pressures in the wells decrease with their
distance from the elevated outcrop of the Braystone. Mr. J. B. Henderson,
hydraulic engineer, has constructed a map showing lines of equal pressure, which
enable intending borers to judge whether ot not, when they strike water, it will
rise to the surface,

The following statistics are from Mr. Henderson’s report for the year ending
June 30, 1900:—

Aggregate depth of bores : ‘ - 185 miles,

Number of bores. ‘ : : - 839,

Number of flowing bores . : : . 515.

Deepest bore . 5 . i p . 5040 feet.

Highest temperature : : Z . 196° F.

Largest flow of a single bore . a - 6000000 gallons per day.

Total output of the 515 flowing bores . 117403574585 gallons per annum:

The 515 wells would fill a canal 100 feet wide and 20 feet deep, 1779 miles
long, in twelve months; or fill Loch Katrine in a year and a half,

642 REPORT—1901.

MONDAY. SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. The Cambrian Fossils of the North-west Highlands.
By B. N. Peacu, B.S.

[Communicated by permission of the Director of the Geological Survey.]

The Cambrian rocks of the north-west of Seotland occur within a narrow
belt of country, less than ten miles wide, stretching from Durness and Hireboll to
Skye, a distance of 120 miles.

The lowest member consists of quartzite 500 feet thick, the under half of
which is false bedded and devoid of organic remains, and the upper part of which
is finer grained and more evenly bedded and pierced by worm pipes, ‘ Scolithus
linearis, by means of different forms of which it can be divided up into five
sub-zones. The succeeding ‘ fucoid beds,’ consisting of fifty to eighty feet of green
mudstones, dolomites, &c., have yielded three species of Olenellus, nearly allied to
Olenellus Thomsoni. The serpulite grit, from ten to thirty feet thick, usually
crowded with Salterellas, has also yielded a species of Olenellus. It is overlaid
by a vast column of dolomite, limestone, and subsidiary beds of chert, amounting
in all to 1,200 or 1,500 feet in thickness. The first thirty feet of the limestone
has yielded two species of Salterella, and the beds up to that point are looked
upon as the equivalents of the Olenellus or Georgian Terrane of North America,
the whole facies of the fauna being exceedingly like that of America,

The overlying column of dolomite, &c., has been divided into seven sub-
zones, varying in thickness from 100 to 400 feet, the three uppermost zones of which
have yielded a fauna almost identical with that described by Billings and others
from rocks which in Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence region of Canada
underlie black shales at Cow Head and Point Levis, yielding a long suite of
graptolites characteristic of the Phyllograptus or Arenig zone. The Durness
dolomite must therefore represent the Middle and Upper Cambrian horizons, and
perhaps the base of the Arenig of America and Europe.

As regards the conditions under which these deposits were laid down, the
author considers that the basal quartzites show proximity to a low shelving shore
line continuous across what is now the Atlantic to America, more or less
parallel to the shores of what is now Western Scotland, and a little to the north
of the present area; that owing to more or less continuous depression of the area,
the ‘pipe rock’ was deported further from shore, the ‘ fucoid beds’ representing
the period when the ‘mud line’ or limit of sedimentation was reached, while
the vast pile of the Durness dolomite represents the débris of the ‘ Plankton’
that fell on the bottom of a clear though not necessarily a deep ocean. Solution
of great part of the calcareous ooze while exposed to the action of sea water,
and perhaps substitution of magnesian salts for calcareous ones, changed the
calcareous oozes into dolomites, while the chert beds represent the reassorted
remains of the silicious organisms.

The author pointed out that in Arenig times the sea over what is now the
northern part of the southern uplands of Scotland was also a clear one, free from
terrigenous sediments, and in which a radiolarian deposit accumulated. If the
rocks along the Highland border described by Messrs. Barrow, Clough, and
Gunn be the northern continuation of these southern upland rocks, then it is
rendered highly probable that in late Cambrian and early Silurian times a clear
sea lay across what are now the Highlands of Scotland, which was probably the
barrier which divided the Cambrian faunas of America and North-west Scotland
on the one side from those of Wales, Bohemia, and the Baltic region of Murope
on the other. j

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 643

2. The Investigation of Fossil Remains by Serial Sections.
By Professor W. J. Soxuas, D.Sc., FBS.

It is now becoming increasingly recognised that the key to the evolution of
the animal kingdom is not the exclusive possession of ontogeny alone, but is shared
at least equally by the sister science paleontology. The information afforded by
the latter study is far less than might be justly expected, owing to the insuf-
ficiency of its methods. The method of fossil sections has worked a revolution
in zoology since its first introduction some few decades ago. Could it be applied
to fossils no less far-reaching results would naturally follow in paleontology.
Serial thin sections for examination by transmitted light are, however, in
most cases out of the question, since they cannot be obtained in a sufficiently
elose succession. The same objection, however, does not apply to polished
surfaces intended for observation under the microscope by reflected light.

These can be obtained to almost any desired degree of proximity, and a
grinding machine designed for the author by the Rev. Gervase Smith, and
constructed with the aid of a grant from the Royal Society, furnishes a series
of parallel plane surfaces at regular intervals of from 01 to 0°03 mm. In the
case of fairly well preserved specimens these may be studied under powers of from
1 inch to 4 inch, and all the details of their anatomy ascertained.

Drawings under the camera lucida or photographs may be obtained from
them, and trom a series of such drawings the fossil may be reconstructed on an
enlarged scale. Already several species of fossils have been treated in this way
with complete success. Supplemented by a few thin transparent sections it
affords a means for ascertaining the anatomy of fossils in fulness and with
precision.

The so-called Ophiura Egertont, which the author has studied in conjunction
with Miss F. Wright, displays under the method of grinding all those minute
characters on which zoologists depend for the determination of recent species,
including the tentacle scales, teeth, buccal papille, and the granulations on the
buccal plates. The details of the anatomy of Lapworthura Miltoni are also clearly
revealed, and in both cases the anatomy of the jaws is so exactly indicated that
from these fossil remains alone the homology of these organs can be ascertained.

Models were exhibited prepared from serial sections of Paleospondylus Gunni,
Traquair, taken in longitudinal, transverse, and facial directions. ‘hese were
obtained and studied by Miss Igerna Sollas and the author. They appear to
reveal the existence of a dorsal shield, a maxillary arch, a palatine element, and
a suspensorium, as well as gill arches. A lower jaw is indicated. While pointing
in some directions to the Cyclostomes the more important characters of the
fossil suggest aflinities with the Amphibia and Dipnoi.

Models in wax have also been prepared of Monograptus priodon, and were
exhibited before the Section.

3. Notes on some Fossil Plants from Berwickshire. By R. Kinston.

4. Report on Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks,
See Reports, p. 288.

5. Geology regarded in its Economic Application to Agriculture by Means
of Soil Maps. By J. R. Kiros.

It is proposed to consider the means by which geological information can best
be applied to agriculture, the utility of the application being assumed to be univer-
sally admitted.

Amongst the objects to be aimed at should be the furnishing of reasons and
suggestions for the profitable localisation of certain branches of the industry, viz.,

644 REPORT—1901.

Stock-breeding, Dairying, and Tillage, the last viewed in detail as regards the
most economical and profitable application of manures, and the selection of soils
most appropriate to different kinds of crops.

Viewed in a more general way, the utility of Geology may be considered, as
regards the valuation of land, the development of estates, and schemes of irrigation
and drainage.

We may omit the special case in which soils may be regarded as mere recep-
tacles of manures (in places within easy reach of ready markets, in which case
high profits are often realised); and proceed to note that in general farming, not
only have facilities for drainage and percolation to be considered, as well as the
conditions of retentiveness, capillarity, and absorptiveness, or the quality of re-
tentiveness for fertilisers—all of which are determined by geological circumstances—
but the nature and abundance or scarcity of crude fertilising substances naturally
present in soils, to be operated on and rendered available for plant use by acidulated
waters in the ground, have a very important bearing upon the quality of land, and
are equally determined by geological considerations.

In virtue of differences in the amounts of the leading fertilising constituents in
soils, and differences in the degree of facility with which they are rendered avail-
able, a great range of intrinsic soil-values is observable in Ireland, where according
to Sir R. Griffith some land is to be met with capable of putting upwards of 3 cwt.
of flesh per Irish acre (or 24 cwt. per statute acre) upon grass-fed animals each
season.

Chemical analyses of soils, as means of discriminating as to their resources or
deficiencies, of determining the amounts of fertilisers immediately available accord-
ing to Dr. Dyer’s method, or the amounts soluble in aqua regia according to that
adopted by M. de Gasparin, or the bulk amounts present in any sample, can never,
on account of the expense and number which would be requisite, come to be
regarded as a practicable feature of economic farming procedure, unless indeed
analyses be applied in connection with some ready and fairly reliable means of
comparing soil with soil in different localities. Such means would be afforded by
soil maps upon a geological basis.

Agricultural maps (cartes agronomiques) have been advocated by such autho-
rities as De Caumont and Delesse on the Continent. Risler, head of the first
Agricultural College of France, not only values the aid which geology supplies,
but considers that detailed geological maps would suffice for agricultural purposes,
such maps in that country fairly suggesting, not only the character of soils
resulting from the decay of immediately underlying strata, as regards their physical
qualities, whether as sand, loam, clay, and intermediate varieties, but the degree
and nature of their endowment also, with fertilising substances.

In the British Isles north of the Thames, Drifts supervene to a great extent,
masking or obliterating the characters proper to soils, which otherwise would cover
each formation or igneous mass. Hence ordinary geological maps do not here
suffice for agricultural purposes in these countries.

The Drift maps published by the Geological Survey, so highly serviceable
economically, in thickly populated areas, for purposes of drainage, water supply
on a small scale, and in connection with the brick-making industry, seem to me to
come short of agricultural requiremeuts in this, that they do not give prominence
to information bearing upon the natural endowments of soils as regards fertilisers
—not even as much so as ordinary maps showing the solid geology.

I should therefore propose a scheme of soil maps which, while keeping in
view the elements upon which the physical qualities of soils depend, gives pro-
minence to information bearing upon the soil resources.

To do this I should use, somewhat as on our original Irish drifted maps,
close, wide, and medium stippling, to distinguish sands and gravels, boulder clay,
and intermediate varieties respectively—the boundaries of which in the field are
exceedingly ill-defined in many places. Over this I should apply a light wash of
colour appropriate to one of the following groups of rocks, to represent the soil,
whether drift-soil or soil directly formed over rock, according to the prevailing
character of débris present in the uppermost layer, the soil and subsoil, reserving

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 645

the darker tints of colour for the places where the rock is actually to be seen,
Other details are described in the paper.

I should arrange strata and igneous masses in much fewer groups than those
represented on geological maps, and retain the system of colours on these maps
in so far as they prove ordinarily suggestive of the rocks referred to, viz. —

Limestone (Chalk, &c.) . Blue.
Sandstone and Shale Slate colour.
Grits and Slate - a
Quartzite and Schist

.
e
. .
.

«@ @.0¢ @ ¢

Coal Measures. Dark grey.
Basic Rocks . - ° . Burnt carmine.
Acid Rocks , ° ’ 3 . Carmine.

ee oy ae Yea ner

Peat Bogs . : : ‘ 7 = : Sepia.
Gravelly and Coarse Pebbly Alluvial deposits . Burnt sienna,
Loamy and Peaty Alluvium . ° . e - Green.

Such a system would tend to meet the strong prejudice existing in farmers’
minds against geological technicalities, while keeping the essential points of
information concerning soils in the forefront.

The addition of contour lines, even if only approximately drawn from the
levels given on the Ordnance maps, would be a valuable addition to these indus-
trial maps in consideration of difference of climatic conditions attendant upon
differences of elevation,

6. Plants and Coleoptera from a Deposit of Pleistocene Age at Wolvercote,
Oxfordshire. By A. M. Butt, MA., LG.

Plant remains of Pleistocene time are of great rarity in England. The two
most important series which have been described are from Hoxne, in Suffolk, ob-
tained by Mr. Clement Reid, F.R.S,, and Mr. H. N. Ridley (‘ Geol. Mag.,’ 1888,
p. 441), and from North London by Mr. Worthington G, Smith.

There is in these remains a singular difference. Of twenty-eight plants obtained
at Hoxne three are arctic (Salix polaris, S. myrsinites, Betula nana); seventeen
range to the Arctie Circle.

At Stoke Newington, on the contrary, Mr, W. J. Smith obtained the elm, the
chestnut, clematis, and perhaps the vine. Only three out of eleven plants reach
the Arctic Circle. The pine, the alder, birch, and yew, with the royal fern, were
more in harmony with the present and the past floras.

In the author’s opinion the Stoke Newington flora represents a much later age of
Pleistocene time than the Hoxne flora. The conditions were continental, and the
flora of the south was gaining, while the arctic flora was disappearing.

The plants as yet identified, by the kindness of Mr. Clement Reid, from
Wolvercote resemble those found at Stoke Newington more than those of Hoxne.
This is in harmony with the writer’s view that the Wolvercote deposit is of late
Pleistocene age, nearer to the Stoke Newington than to the Hoxne deposit.

Eighteen plants obtained by the author are given. All of them are found
in Oxfordshire to-day. Hight only have an extension to the Arctic Circle. Four
mosses have been obtained, one of which is certainly recent. A considerable
number of the wing-cases of beetles have also been found. These are difficult
to identify, but the genus of one, remarkable by its rows of hairs, has been
named by Mr. Waterhouse, of the Natural History Department of the British
Museum, Only one of the genus now is found in England, and that is different;
from the Wolvercote species. On the other hand the genus is common on the
Continent.

These facts, coupled with those from Stoke Newington, tend to the conclusion
that in late Pleistocene time the climate of the Thames Valley was more conti-
nental than it is at present.

1901, Uv

646 REPORT—1901.

7, Report on the Terrestrial Surface Waves and Wave-like Surfaces.
See Reports, p. 398,

8, Report on the Exploration of Keish Caves, Co. Sligo.
See Reports, p. 282.

‘ scan
9. Evidences of Ancient Glacier-dammed Lakes in the Cheviots.

By Percy F. Kenpaut, £.G.S., and Hersert B. Murr, B.A., 7.G.S.

It is uncertain whether the Cheviot ,itself was overridden by extraneous ice,
but strize on Thirl Moor and Baker Crag recorded by the Geological Survey
probably indicate that this portion of the watershed was overridden by ice from
the Tweed Valley, and Prof. Geilkie. mentions till and striated stones on the tops of
the Cheviot Hills at 1,500 ft. The transport of erratics shows movement along
poth sides of the axis of the range from 8.W. to N.E. at some stage of the
glaciation. Across the northern end and for at least ten miles down the eastern
side, however, a distribution of rocks from the Tweed Valley, together with other
indications to be mentioned, points to an ice-flow veering round through easterly
to a due north-to-south direction. The observations of the authors go to confirm
the above conclusions with respect to the area N. and KE. of Cheviot.

The authors, during a few days spent in the district, observed certain features
which throw much light on the later stages of the Ice Age in this area, Mr.
Clough mentions ! ‘ dry, steep-sided little valleys crossing over watersheds, which
do not appear to lie along lines of weakness or the outcrops of soft beds. It is
suggested that they might have been formed by streams from glaciers.’ Some of
the valleys observed by us run along the sides of hills or occur as loops detaching
portions of the walls of valleys, and the general characters of similar valleys have
been described by us separately.* Their mode of occurrence and the relations to
the relief of the country, as well as to the position occupied by the ancient ice-
sheets, show that they can be ascribed only to the overflow of water from lakelets
held up by an ice-barrier. In the tract of country between Yeavering Bell and
Ingram we found that each of the spurs separating the valleys which radiate from
Cheviot was cut across by one or more sharp gorge-like channels, draining, with
one significant exception, to the south. The spur between Roddam Dean and the
Breamish River is cut near Calder Farm by a channel, bounded on the east by
the moraine, draining to the south; but a higher portion of the same spur is
traversed by a channel draining in the opposite direction, z.e., to the north. The
highest member of a series across any given spur is usually just above the boun-
dary of the drift containing extraneous boulders. At the outlets of the valleys
there are, in several cases, deltas represented by masses of gravel.

Conclusions.—The existence of the series of overflow channels points clearly to
the former presence of a chain of small lakes held in the radial system of vaileys
of the Cheviots by a barrier of ice. The ice-stream by the boulders which it bore
may be inferred to haye swept round the end of the Cheviots out of the Tweed
Valley. The margin of the sheet at its maximum extension rose to about
1,000 ft. along the arc from Yeavering Bell to Brand’s Hill, beyond which it
may have declined. Along the south-eastern slopes of the Cheviots another
extraneous glacier swept in a north-east direction. Where their confluence took
place, or whether they were not in succession rather than simultaneous, is not
easy to decide, but the Roddam Burn channel points very clearly to the prepon-
derating influence of the southern stream, while the Calder Farm overflow lower
down the same ridge shows by its southerly slope that the northern ice later
acquired the mastery. If the two glaciers were confluent, then the overflowing

1 Geol. Surv. Mem., ‘The Geology of the Cheviot Hills.’

2 B.A, Report, 1899, P. . Kendall, ‘On Extramorainic Drainage in East York-
shire’; ibid., 1900, A. Jowett and H. B. Muff, ‘Preliminary Note on the Glaciation -
of the Bradford and Keighley District.’

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 647

waters of the lakes must have been discharged either beneath the ice, as at
present happens to the overflow from a chain of ice-dammed lakes on the
Malaspina Glacier, or over the top of the ice.

An important and unexpected result of our brief examination has been the
discovery that while ‘foreign’ ice was rising along the flanks of the Cheviots to
an altitude of 1,000 ft., not only were the spurs free from any native ice-sheet,
such as Cheviot or Hedgehope might have been expected to support, but even the
lower ends of the intervening valleys were occupied, not by great native glaciers,
but by lakes,

The conditions thus described may have some relation to the fact that while
the porphyrites of the Cheviots have furnished the most abundant types of
erratics in the drift of the Yorkshire coast, the granite, if present—which is not
quite certain—is very rare,

10. Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.
See Reports, p. 283,

11. Interim Report on the best Methods for the Registration of all Type
Specimens of Fossils in the British Isles.

12. Report wpon the Present State of owr Knowledge of the Structure of
Crystals.—See Reports, p. 297,

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER li.
The following Papers were read :-—

1. The Scottish Ores of Copper in their Geological Relations.
By J. G. Goovceuiip, 2.GLS.

The ores of copper occurring in Scotland appear, so far as their origin is con-
cerned, to be referable to two primary categories. The first of these includes
those minerals whose origin is evidently connected with the uprise of thermal
waters; and the second includes those which are due almost entirely to deposition
of materials carried down in solution from some rocks at a higher level to others
below. The two methods of origin may be likened to the ebb and the flow of the
tides.

To the first category belongs most of the Chalcopyrites occurring in Scotland,
and with that mineral is to be included also Chalcocite and Bornite. These
mostly oceur in connection with mineral veins. A small percentage of other
compounds of Copper with Sulphur appears to have originated in connection with
certain eruptive rock of sub-basic compesition. When these latter have been
affected by dynamic metamorphism the process seems to have favoured the local
concentration of the mineral which was formerly diffused. Hence several
Epidiorites contain Chalcopyrites, apparently as an original constituent (if we
regard their schistosity as original to that type of rock).

To the second category, that of the ebb-products or minerals of secondary
origin, belong all the remainder.

Taking these in the order, and with the numbers, adopted by Dana, we have,
first, (15) Native Copper. There cannot be much doubt that all the Scottish
specimens of this are of secondary origin. The earlier stage seems to have been
that of solution, along with those of the constituents of a sub-basic eruptive rock,
through which, probably, the copper ore was originally diffused in very minute
quantities. The decomposition of the rock by surface agencies has again converted

UU2

64:8 REPORT—1901.

this into solution—probably in the form of carbonate—from which solution
any one of various reagents, in most cases probably decomposing organic matter,
has reduced the dissolved substance to the metallic state. In this form it has
been deposited as thin sheets along the divisional planes of the rocks situated at a
lower level than its point of origin. In the form of films of this kind it occurs at
Boyleston, in Renfrewshire, where it is found in lavas of Lower Carboniferous
age; and at Ballochmyle, in the joints traversing the marls of the New Red
Rocks there. I may remark, in passing, that these rocks so closely resemble the
Bunter Sandstone that I should never have hesitated to refer them to that horizon
had not a different opinion regarding their age been expressed by the distinguished
author of ‘The Scenery of Scotland.’

Native Copper also occurs in the form of minute particles—possibly crystals—
in some of the Prehnites of Boyleston and Glen Farg. Doubtless these varieties
of Prehnite owe their colouring matter to the presence of this mineral, just as
the ordinary green variety of Prehnite owes its colour to diffused compounds of
copper of other kinds—possibly to Chrysocolla. The same metal also occurs at
Boylestone, disseminated throughout some of the beautiful crystals of Calcite
which line some of the drusy cavities of the lavas there. When Native Copper is
enclosed in these erystals the external form is much more complex than where the
metal is absent.

Some Chaleopyrites must undoubtedly be classed amongst ebb-products also,
seeing that a second generation of crystals often occurs upon minerals whose
secondary origin cannot be doubted. Atacamite has been claimed as a Scottish
mineral, but, it seems to me, on insufficient grounds.

(224) Cuprite, as might be expected, occurs in connection with the other
decomposition products of copper ores. Usually it occurs as one of the consti-
tuents in the compound known as Tile Ore; but occasionally, as at Glen Farg, it
shows traces of crystalline exterior; or as at Boyleston, where Mr. Craig-Christie
has got it in the capillary or velvet-like form. Some of the silicate of copper from
Lauchentyre appears to me to be coloured red by Cuprite, which may also occur
there in the free state.

(230) Tenorite has not yet been proved to occur as a separate Scottish
mineral; but the black Chrysocolla from Lauchentyre and other mines in the
neighbourhood may possibly owe its coloration to this mineral. :

(288) Malachite calls for no special remark here beyond the statement that it
does not appear to show crystalline termination at any locality in Scotland except
at Sandlodge, in Shetland, where it seems to have been taken for Brochantite.

(289) Azurite is singularly rare in Scotland, and has not yet been found with
visible crystalline faces. (290) Aurichalcite, (741) Linarite, and (7 39) Caledonite,
well known as secondary products of the decomposition of veins containing Copper,
do not call for any special remark in this abstract.

9. A Revised List of the Minerals known to occur in Scotland.
By J. G. GooDcHiLp.

The following list embraces the whole of the minerals whose claim to rank as
good species and whose occurrence in Scotland seem to the author to be beyond
doubt. The list will probably have to be extended :—

Graphite Dolomite Okenite
Sulphur Magnesite Gyrolite
Gold Siderite Apophyllite
Copper Aragonite Heulandite
Stibnite Strontianite Brewsterite
Molybdenite Cerussite Harmotome
Argentite Malachite Stiibite
Galena Azurite Laumontite
Chalcocite Aurichalcite Chahazite
Blende daratite Gmelinite

Pentlandite
Greenockite
Millerite
Niccolite
Pyrrhotite
Coyellite

(2) Bornite
Chalcopyrite
Pyrites
Gersdorflite
Marcasite
Kermesite

(2) Bournonite
Tetrahedrite
Salt
Sal-ammoniac
Fluor
Quartz
Quartzine
Tridymite
Opal
Valentinite
Cervantite
Water
Cuprite
Corundum
Heematite
Ilmenite
Spinel
Magnetite
Chromite
Rutile
Plattnerite
Brookite
Pyrolusite
Turgile
Goethite
Manganite
Limonite
Brucite
Pyroaurite
Psilomelane
Calcite
Caledonite
Linarite
Gypsum
Epsomite
Morenosite
Melanterite
Alum

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

Hydrocerussite
Orthoclase
Microcline
Anorthoclase
Albite
Oligoclase
Andesine
Labradorite
Anorthite
Enstatite
Hypersthene
Augite
Adgirine
Spodumene
Wollastonite
Pectolite

(2) Babingtonite
Hornblende

(2) Glaucophane
Riebeckite
Beryl
Iolite
Nepheline
Sodalite
Garnet
Forsterite
Olivine
Wernerite
Idocrase
Zircon
Thorite
Topaz
Andalusite
Sillimanite
Kyanite
Datolite
Zoisite
Epidote
Allanite
Prehnite
Hemimorphite
Tourmaline
Staurolite
Pickeringite
Halotrichite
Wulfenite
Hatchettolite
Ozocerite
Fichtelite
Retinite

649

Levyne
Analcime
Edingtonite
Natrolite
Scolecite
Mesolite
Thomsonite
Muscovite
Zinnwealdite
Biotite
Phlogopite
Lepidomelane
Haughtonite
Chloritoid
Ottrelite
Clinochlore
Pennine
Prochlorite
Delessite
Serpentine
Talc
Saponite
Celadonite
Glauconite
Kaolinite

(2) Halloysite

Chrysocolla
Pilolite
Sphene
Apatite
Pyromorphite
Vanadinite
Vivianite
Erythrite
Annabergite
Wavellite

(?) Glauberite

Barytes
Celestine
Anglesite

(2) Vauquelinite

Leadhillite
Lanarkite
Torbernite
Bathvillite
Middletonite
Petroleum
Asphaltum
Elaterite
Albertite, &c.

The following are remarkable by their absence :—Calamine, Witherite, Leucite,
Axinite, Anhydrite ; and Marcasite and Fluor by their rarity.

3. The Occurrence of Barium Sulphate and Calcium Fluoride as Cementing

Substances in the Elgin Trias.

By Wu. Mackie, 1.A4., M.D.

Barium sulphate as a coment of sandstone was first noted by Professor Clowes
in 1885 as occurring in Triassic rocks near Nottingham. Other localities in sand-
stones of the same age have since been noted, all of them in the north or centre of

Englana.

Barium sulphate in the Elgin Trias was first observed by the author in 1895.

650 REPORT—1901.

Tt oceurs mainly in nodules which range in size from a hazel to a walnut dis-
seminated through an extensive mass of sandstone along the coast of Elginshire,
near Covesea Lighthouse, where in consequence of its influence on the weathering
of the sandstones some unique results in rock sculpturing have been produced.
Analyses of some of these nodules show that they contain as much as 37 per cent.
of barium sulphate. In the nodules the barium sulphate is shown by the micro-
scope to directly envelope the grains of sand, except toward the periphery where
rims of secondary quartz and ferric hydroxide come between the sulphate and the
original grains.

The presence of calcium fluoride in rocks of the same age at Cummingston a
little further to the west than the barium sulphate area was also determined by
the author in 1895, The fluoride occurs in small white, often square-shaped,
patches, showing lustre-mottling disseminated through the mass of the sandstone.
Sometimes it occurs in aggregates which on section show that they are made up
of cubes placed in juxtaposition. There are also occasional bands cemented
throughout by calcium fluoride, but even in these lustre-mottling shows that it
occurs in masses of closely placed cuhes. The presence of fluoride was determined
by obtaining a copious precipitate of gelatinous silica on heating the powdered
sandstone with strong sulphuric acid and passing the evolved gas into water. As
much as 25°88 per cent. of calcium fluoride was obtained by analysing an average
specimen of the sandstone in detail. The microscope shows the presence of a
colourless isotropic substance directly enveloping the sand grains, Towards the
periphery, as in the case of the barium sulphate nodules, secondary quartz rims
and ferric hydroxide are occasionally seen to come between the fluoride and the
original grains.

The author disputes the explanation of Professor Clowes as regards the
raison d’étre of the barium sulphate, the presence of which has been ascribed by him
to the double decomposition of barium chloride—which he finds present in some
of the local deep well waters—by the soluble sulphates of the infiltrating waters.
On the contrary, the presence of both barium sulphate and calcium fluoride is
ascribed to the concentration of the waters of an inland lake from which these
substances if present—and both of them are present in sea water—would naturally
be deposited in the order of their insolubility as concentration went on. The
presence of beds of common salt in the English Trias presupposes the existence of
such a salt-impregnated lake over the southern area, and the same conditions may
be reasonably extended to the Elgin area during the same geological period.

4. Lhe Pebble-band of the Elgin Trias and its Wind-worn Pebbles.
By Wm. Macxte, J1.4., ID.

The Cutties Hillock pebble-band, which has figured so largely in the discussion
of the succession of the Elgin sandstones, is not, as has generally been contended,
a pure localism. ‘Two new openings into the Triassic rocks of the area show that
it is present at five widely separated points. Its characters are constant in all.
There is evidence that it is basal in position in the Triassic formation, and taking
it as a datum line one is enabled to fix the relation of the Triassic to the under-
lying U.O.R. recks with some certainty. It shows that the former overlie the
truncated edges of the latter beds in a thin cake, which is probably nowhere more
ihan 100 feet in thickness on a surface slightly inclined upwards from the south-
east to the north-west, while the U.O.R. rocks steadily dip at almost constant
angles in the opposite direction. Other facts definitely ascertained are, that the
two series of rocks wherever they occur in proximity invariably show marked
discordance of dip and strike, and that the Cutties Hillock area is detached from

. the other local areas of Triassic rocks, U.O.R. rocks having been traced all round
it, and quite a mile intervening between it and the Spynie and Findrassie area to
the north-west, in which interval U.O.R. rocks with discordant dip and strike
also appear.

Another interest attaches to the pebble-band in that its pebbles, which are all

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 651

but exclusively of quartz, quartzite, vein quartz, and chert, show unmistakable
evidence of sand-blast action.

‘Pyramidal pebbles’ are common, with surfaces showing different degrees of
polishing. Some of them even present strongly concave surfaces and finer depres-
sions beautifully polished. A considerable number show ‘ flaking’ of their edges,
and the surfaces so formed have subsequently been subjected to different degrees of
polishing. The cherts are beautifully fretted, and exhibit in perfection the results
of differential etching.

Inquiries as to definite orientation of the more polished surfaces of the pebbles
have hitherto failed to yield results. The author believes that no such definite
orientation obtains, and is of opinion that the pebbles had been subjected to con-
tinued sand-blast action in some other locality, and were suddenly and forcibly
transferred by the action of water to their present position, where many of them
were again subjected to further sand-blast action.

The result of the examination of the pebbles supports the author's contention,
based on the microscopical characters of their constituent sand-grains, that the
Cutties Hillock sandstones are really Triassic sand-dunes. Other reasons for
arriving at the same conclusion are: the peculiar undulating bedding of the sand-
stones, differences in the mode of occurrence as well as ontological differences of
the fossils from what obtain in the adjoining areas.

In the case of the other local Triassic areas deposition in water is assumed,
though the débris had evidently in some cases for a long time previously been sub-
jected to wind action on a land surface.

5. The Ocewrrence of Covellite in Association with Malachite in the Santd-
stone of Kingsieps, Nairn. By W. Maoxts, IA., M.D.

In a vein or fissure of about 14 inch width in Kingsteps Quarry, Nairn, the
sandstone is found to be impregnated with copper ore. ‘The vein shows an indigo
coloured centre of about } inch in width bordered by green margins of about
the same dimension. Analyses of the different parts gave results which show
that the copper ore exists in the centre of the vein, chiefly in the form of the
monosulphide (CuS) and mostly in the form of malachite at the margins. The
former, which is the mineral covellite, is apparently new to Scotland, as no mention
is made of it in Heddle’s ‘Mineralogy of Scotland.’ Nairnshire must also he
recorded as a new locality for malachite.

6. The Source of the Alluvial Gold of the Kildonan Field, Sutherland.
By J. Matcoum Mactraren, B.Sc.

In this field gold is practically confined to the small area drained by the
Kildonan, Suisgill, and Kinbrace streams, all tributaries of the Ullie or Helms-
dale. The-rocks of this area are granites and quartz-, flaser mica-, and granulitic
biotite-schists. The lines of demarcation between the various schists are at all
times difficult to trace, since the whole countryside is covered with a thick
deposit of the Glacial Drift. Fine flakes of gold have been found in many places
in the Glacial Drift, supporting the inference that alluvial gold is more or less
dispersed throughout. It is only in alluvium resulting from the action of the
present watercourses that concentration of the Drift has been carried to such an
extent as to attract commercial attention. The gold itself is found in nuggets
and scales, the largest of the former weighing 2 0z. 17 grains. The scales pre-
sent little evidence of rounding due to attrition or rolling friction. Veins of
‘clean’ quartz have been found in the upper waters of the Kildonan. One of
these veins on analysis yielded gold. The writer concludes that the alluvial
gold has been derived from the white quartz veins of the local schists (which are
almost certainly metamorphosed sediments, possibly originally containing alluvial
gold). The schists were crossed by glaciers travelling in a general south-easterly

652 REPORT—1901.

direction, rudely disposing the comminuted auriferous quartz in ‘leads’ in the
Drift. The present streams, cutting across the Drift, have more or less concen-
trated the gold. Profitable working of the deposit is precluded by the ‘burden’
of large stones, by the importance of the vested interests concerned, and by the
inclemency of the winter season.

7. Lield Notes on the Influence of Organic Matter on the Deposition of
Gold in Veins. By J. Matcotm Macrargn, B.Se.

The reducing action of organic matter on the soluble salts of gold was fairly
established by the researches of Henry, Percy, Daintree, Sterry Hunt, and New-
bery, and organic matter was considered for many years to be responsible for the
great majority of the auriferous vein deposits of the world. With the publication
of Skey’s researches, and his demonstration of the fact that sulphides alone are
competent to produce complete precipitation of gold from solution, the former
theory was almost completely abandoned. The following cases, however, which
have come under the writer’s personal observation, admit at least of the possibility
of precipitation by carbonaceous matter.

The reefs of the Gympie Goldfield, Queensland, underlie almost at right angles
across the dip of the bedded greywackes, shales, sandstones, and limestones in
which they are situated; but it is only where highly carbonaceous shales (the
‘ First,’ ‘Second,’ ‘ Third,’ and ‘ Phoenix’ ‘slates’ of the miner) are intersected by
quartz reefs that the latter are auriferous. The carbonaceous shales are certainly
pyritous ; but so also are the overlying and underlying beds in which the veins
are barren.

The Croydon Goldfield, North Queensland, is in an area of metamorphic
granite, containing much graphite. The reefs are more or less enclosed within
walls of kaolinic matter highly charged with graphite. Where graphite is most
abundant have been the richest auriferous deposits. On the other hand, broadly
speaking, the presence of pyrites in a Croydon reef indicates poverty of content,
and is considered as an unfavourable indication by miners.

The ‘indicators’ of the Ballarat Goldfield, Victoria, are thin beds of dark-
coloured shales and slates, formed of a carbonaceous mud and containing a con-
siderable percentage of iron pyrites. The main ‘indicator’ has been followed with
few breaks for a distance of eight miles, The most profitable quartz reefs cross
the ‘indicators’ almost at right angles, and the great bulk of the gold is found
where the quartz reef has crossed and slightly faulted the ‘indicator,’ little gold
being found at a greater distance than a yard from the intersection.

8. The Source of Warp in the Humber.
By W. H. Wueerter, I Inst.C.£.

It has frequently been stated that the mud or warp in suspension in the
Humber is derived from the erosion of the cliffs on the Yorkshire coast, and the
object of the paper is to show that it is physically impossible for the detritus
eroded from those cliffs to be carried into the Humber, and that the material in
suspension in the water is derived from detritus washed off the land drained by
the Humber and its tributaries or eroded from their banks.

The drainage basin of the Humber covers 10,500 square miles, and embraces
strata of various kinds of rocks, including estuarine deposits, glacial drifts, chalk,
sandstone, and oolites.

The water in the zone extending around the junction of the Trent and the
Ouse with the Humber, extending over a length of thirty-five miles, is very
highly charged with solid matter in suspension, the maximum quantity being
attained in the summer, when the downward flow of the fresh water is at a
minimum, the quantity then in suspension amounting to as much as 2,240 grains,
or nearly the third ina cubic foot of water. Above and below this zone the

—— st Sth TT

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 653

quantity diminishes to 262 grains up the river Trent and 202 grains near the
Albert Dock at Hull, while off Spurn, at the entrance to the river, there is no mud
in suspension, but only a few grains of clean sand. The floor of the North Sea at
the entrance is covered with clean sand and shells, the beach up to Grimsby also
being covered with sand.

The solid matter in suspension is derived from the detritus washed off the land
and poured into the river when freshets occur, or from the erosion of the banks
of the river and its tributaries. The greater quantity that prevails in the more
turbid zone is due to the material being kept in a state of oscillation by the ebb
and flow of the tides when the quantity of fresh water flowing down is not suf-
ficient to carry it out to sea,

The average quantity of solid matter contained in thirteen other English rivers
when in flood is 200 grains in a cubic foot. The average rainfall within the
watershed of the Humber is 29°60 inches, of which 10 inches may be taken as the
quantity due to such rains as produce freshets. With these figures the normal
total quantity of solid matter placed in suspension in floods may be put at three
million tons in a year. A portion of this is carried out to sea in heavy freshets
and the rest remains in the river in a state of oscillation.

The tendency in all rivers, whether fresh or tidal, is for material to work down-
ward under the laws of gravity. The same quantity of tidal water that flows into
the river has to flow out again, but its capacity for transporting material down-
wards is reinforced by the discharge of the fresh water.

The flood current in the Humber runs at the rate of four miles an hour, and
its duration varies from six hours at Spurn to two and a half at Goole. It may
be taken, therefore, that a particle of solid matter entering the Humber at Spurn
Point would not be carried by the flood tide more than 20 miles up the river, or
25 miles below the point where the greatest amount of solid matter is held in
suspension. On the turn of the tide it would be carried back again.

Allowing for the greater time the ebb current is running above the junction of
the rivers, as compared with the flood, the material carried down on the ebb is
73 per cent. greater than that carried up on the flood.

Taking the length of the Holderness Cliffs as 34 miles, the average height at
12 yards, and the mean annual loss at 23 yards, the mean quantity falling on the
beach is about 1? million cubic yards a year, of which about 40 per cent. consists
of stones, gravel, and coarse sand, leaving less than a million cubic yards to be
washed away. The foot of the cliffs is only reached for about four hours at high
water of springs, that is, by 260 tides in a year, the average quantity of alluvial
matter for each tide being 3,728 cubic yards,

The drift of the tidal current towards the Humber lasts 3} hours, and runs at a
velocity of 23 miles an hour ; the greatest distance a particle of solid matter put in
suspension at the point of mean distance, 20 miles from the Humber, could be
carried southward is 8? miles; when this distance is reached the tide would turn
and the particle would be carried northward for 16 miles, or 28 miles away from
the Humber.

It is, however, quite improbable that a particle of matter placed in suspension
at the foot of the clitts could ever reach the main current going to the Humber.
Owing to the Yorkshire coast being in an embayment the main tidal current does
not approach nearer the coast than the 6-fathom line, or a mile away from the
coast. The current of the flowing tide sets into the embayment towards the coast.
Even if a particle from the cliffs could overcome this shoreward set and traverse
the water contained in this mile of water in an opposite direction, so as to be
brought into the main southerly-going current, the quantity of solid matter
brought into suspension would only be sufficient to supply one grain to 14,000 cubic
feet of water,

It is evident from the above facts that it is not possible for the detritus from
the Yorkshire coast to reach, much more to be carried up, the Humber.

654: REPORT—1901.

9. On the Alterations of the Lias Shale by the Whin Dyke of Great
Ayton, in Yorkshire. By Grorck Barrow.

[Communicated by permission of the Director of the Geological Survey. |

The examination of the least altered portion of the rocks of the Highland
series in the area between Blairgowrie (Bridge of Cally) and Stonehaven has
shown that the grits are composed of practically unaltered grains or small pebbles
of quartz and oligoclase felspar set in a matrix of an unusual character, and
difficult to understand, as all traces of clastic micas have been obliterated from
it. It occurred to the author that this was due to heat action, and to test this
point slices of baked Lias’ shale were prepared, the specimens being taken from
the edge of the well-known Cleveland Dyke at Great Ayton. At six inches
from the edge of the dyke the clastic micas are large and abundant, but at the
contact they are entirely digested, and material like the matrix of the Highland
grit is produced. The minute pebbles are not affected in any way, and retain
their original form, size, and optical properties. It is thus shown that in
entering the Highland area we begin with rocks which, though little altered, owe
that alteration entirely to heat action.

10. On Cairngorms. By E. H. Cunnincuam Crata, B.A.

The search for these crystals was formerly a very profitable industry in the
districts contiguous to the great granite masses, but it has now been practically
abandoned. ‘he cairngorms were obtained by digging shallow pits and trenches
in the decomposed granite and débris which covers most of the flat hill-tops, and also
appears in many of the corries. The presence of vein-quartz, muscovite, large crystals
of orthoclase and graphic intergrowths of quartz and felspar in the loose débris have
been recognised as indications of the existence of the cairngorm-bearing veins.
Examination of the cliff sections in the deep corries reveals the presence of vertical
or highly inclined veins of fine granite intruded in the coarser surrounding rock.
These veins are more acid than the normal granite, and contain drusy central zones
in which the crystallisation is coarse. These central zones are characterised by
the presence of graphic intergrowths, muscovite plates, and, where the druses are
sufficiently large, idiomorphic crystals of orthoclase and more or less smoky quartz.

Beryl is also present in some cases.

These idiomorphic quartzes are the cairngorms, but are only valuable when
large and well coloured.

The veins probably represent the intrusion of more highly differentiated
material from the underlying magma into fissures due to contraction on cooling,
while the druses have probably a similar origin, and have been filled with highly
acid solutions from which the crystallisation took place.

ll. On the Circulation of Salt and its Geological Bearinga:!
By Witt1am Acxroyp, /.0.C., Public Analyst for Halifac.

During storms salt is driven from the sea far on to the land, is dissolved by
rains and carried back to the sea; in calm times the phenomenon is also in progress.
Various computations have been made of the amount of salt deposited on the land
in this manner from 24°59 Ib. per acre per year at Rothamsted to 641 Ib. at
Pennicuick. The writer estimates that during 1900-1901 there was 172°5 Ib. per
acre per year deposited on the Pennine Hills, nearly midway between the Trish Sea
and the German Ocean, at an altitude of over 1,000 feet above sea-level.”

It is shown that for the Millstone Grit and the limestone districts of Yorkshire,

' Published in full in the Geological Magazine, December 4, vol. viii. p. 445,
October 1901.

2 Ackroyd, ‘ Researches on Moorland Waters,’ Pt. II., Journ. Chem. Soc., vol. ¥xix.
p. 874,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 655

as well as for a belt of American coast some 200 miles broad, this cyclic sea-salt
forms fully 99 per cent. of what is carried to the seas by the rivers. Professor
Joly, in his estimate of the age of the earth, only allows 10 per cent.

A study of the phenomenon is also of importance in attempts to apportion the
causes of the saltness of inland lakes and salt hills, which may be due to: (1) salt
transported from a contemporary sea, or (2) salt derived from solvent denudation,
or (3) to varying degrees of these two influences. Reasons are given for regarding
the saltness of the Dead Sea as being largely due to the first cause, and of the
Caspian to the second.

12. Motes on the Occurrence of Phosphatic Nodules and Phosphate-bearing
Rock in the Upper Carboniferous Limestone (Yoredale) Series of the
West fiiding of Yorkshire and Westmorland Border. By Joun Ruoves,
of the Geological Survey.

By kind permission of the British Association Committee on Carboniferous
Zones I am enabled to announce the discovery of phosphatic nodules and of a rock
having a phosphatic matrix in the Yoredale rocks of the following localities :—

Phosphatie Nodules. Far Cote Gill, East Slope of Swarth Fell, Westmorland.

These nodules occur along with ironstone septaria in blue shales which rest on
the top silicious beds of the Underset Limestone.

The nodules are confined to the lower 5 feet of the shales, and are more
numerous in the lower half than in the upper half.

In same gill, and resting on the chert of the Little Limestone, there is a layer,
5 inches in thickness, containing phosphatic nodules embedded in a fine clayey
matrix. It is sprinkled throughout with glauconite grains and angular chips of
quartz, and is overlaid by ironstone shales.

At the same horizon as above, but 21 miles to the S.E., there occurs in a gill
that runs from Lambfold Crags to Lunds Church, 2 miles W. of N. of Hawes
Junction, a layer of rock, 3 inches in thickness, with a phosphatic matrix
throughout. This layer, which has a crust of brown iron ore, is rich in glauconite
and quartz grains, and also contains fragments of conodonts, &c.

Phosphatic Nodules. Goodham Gill, East Slope of Swarth Fell, 2 miles N.W.
of Hawes Junction, Yorkshire.

The phosphatic nodules at this locality occur throughout a limestone which
varies in thickness from 3 to 6 inches, This layer is underlaid and overlaid by
shale in more or less rotten condition.

The horizon is doubtful, but it appears to be about 170 feet over the Little
Limestone.

From the upper surface of the top bed of the Crow Limestone, Cartmere Gill,
Kast Baugh Fell, Grisdale, 2} miles W.N.W. of Hawes Junction, I have obtained
a solitary example of a phosphatic nodule.

The phosphatic nodules and phosphatic matrix examined show sponge spicules,
but these are for the most part fragmentary : some are of crypto-crystalline silica,
some replaced by calcite, whilst the axial canals are often filled with the same
phosphatic material as the matrix.

The spicules are referred to hexactinellid and to monactinellid sponges.

Tam very much indebted to Dr. G. J. Hinde for notes on the sponge remains,
and also to Dr. W. Pollard for testing the phosphates.

656 REPORT—1901,

13. Note on the Discovery of a Silicified Plant Seam beneath the Millstone
Grit of Swarth Fell, West Riding of Yorkshire. By Joun Ruoves,
of the Geological Survey.

By kind permission of the British Association Committee on Carboniferous
Zones I am enabled to record the discovery of a silicified plant seam beneath the
Millstone Grit at Swarth Fell, and two miles N.W. of Hawes Junction.

The exact geological position of the overlying strata is doubtful, but appa-
rently they occupy the horizon of the grindstone or ganister of the district.

At this particular place, however, the grindstone or ganister is absent, and its
place is taken by flaggy silicious limestones with marine shells and by a bed of
highly silicious grit with plant remains, the latter resting more or less directly on
the silicified plant seam.

Chert occurs, probably as lenticles in the uneven surface of the seam, and con-
tains a mass of detached silicious sponge spicules, apparently rod-like bodies, which
may belong to the anchoring ropes of hexactinellid sponges. In the same chert
are included fragments of silicified plant remains beautifully preserved.

In the plant seam included pebbles of silicious grit occur, which contain a few
spicules similar to those in the chert, and also plant remains. The plant seam
rests on a layer of silicified shale containing a few fragmentary sponge spicules,
mostly rod-like forms, one piece belonging to an hexactinellid sponge. The beds
below are more or less rotted clay shales with ironstones nodules,

I am indebted to Dr. G. J. Hinde for notes on the sponge remains directly
associated with the plant seam. The plants have not been determined, but have
been placed in the hands of R. Kidston, Esq., Stirling.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. On the Bone-beds of Pikermi, Attica, and on Similar Deposits in
Northern Eubea. By A. Smith Woopwarp, LL.D., F.RLS.

At the suggestion of the British Minister at Athens, Sir Edwin H. Egerton,
K.C.B., the Trustees of the British Museum recently undertook a series of exca-
vations in the well-known bone-beds of Pikermi in Attica, and I was honoured by
being entrusted with the supervision of the work. The owner of the estate, Mr.
Alexander Skousés, former Minister of War, most cordially assented, and gave
every possible facility for the undertaking ; while Sir Edwin Egerton’s unflagging
interest and zeal combined to ensure the greatest success. My wife and I went
into residence at the farm early in April, and we continued to occupy the simple
but comfortable room which Mr. Skousés had kindly placed at our disposal until
the cessation of digging in the middle of July.

During much of the time we were accompanied by Dr. Theodore Skouphos,
Conservator of the Geological Museum of the University of Athens, which claims
some share of the results of all such excavations made in Greece. We have to
thank him for much help in dealing with the workmen, who spoke only a language
with which I was at first unfamiliar.

The bones are occasionally exposed by the small stream in the ravine of
Pikermi, and they seem to have ben first observed by the English archeologist,
George Finlay, who presented some to the Athens Museum in 1855. Three years
later a Bavarian soldier took a few specimens to Munich, where Pikermi and its
fossils were first brought to the notice of the scientific world by Professor Andreas
Wagner. Within the next decade more bones were sent to Munich by Linder-
mayer and described by Wagner; while during the winter of 1852-53 the young
Bavarian naturalist Roth made the great collection which was described by
himself and Wagner in 1854, and still constitutes one of the chief treasures of the
Munich Old Academy. About the same time Choeretis presented a few specimens

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 657

to the Paris Museum ; while the late Professor Mitzopoulos—uncle of the present
distineuished Rector of the University of Athens—made a valuable and extensive
collection for the Athens Museum, which seems to have remained unnoticed until
1883, when the late Professor Dames, of Berlin, studied it and wrote a brief
account of some unique specimens contained in it. By far the most important exca-
vations hitherto made at Pikermi, however, are those which were undertaken by
Professor Albert Gaudry, under the auspices of the Paris Academy of Sciences,
between 1855 and 1860. These researches made known nearly all the essential
facts concerning the extinct mammalian fauna entombed in the Pikermi formation,
and led to several brilliant generalisations first published in Professor Gaudry’s
well-known work on the geology and fossils of Attica in 1862. During the last
forty years only insignificant diggings have been attempted, among them being those
of the late Professors Neumayr, of Vienna, and Dames, of Berlin.

Owing to the permanent mark left by former excavations it was easy to choose
sites for the new explorations of the British Museum. Three pits dug in continua-
tion of former workings soon yielded bones, and eventually furnished a very
extensive collection. Two trial pits at other points and in slightly different
horizons produced nothing except two decayed bone-fragments. Water still
occurs even in dry weather a little beneath the bed of the stream; but the
difficulties from this source are now much less than formerly owing to Mr. Skousés’
system of irrigation, by which the flowing stream of the ravine is usually diverted
at a point high up in its course.

The Pikermi formation has already been well described by Professor Gaudry.
It consists chiefly of red marl, varied with lenticular masses of rounded pebbles and
occasional yellowish sandy layers. Some of the pebble-beds are cemented into
hard conglomerate. The materials are such as might have been derived from the
mountain mass of Pentelicon, which forms the neighbouring high ground, the
mar! itself being apparently the detritus of marble or other calcareous rock. The
formation is of great extent in Attica, and has only attracted special notice at
Pikermi because a stream happens to have cut a deep ravine through it and
exposed fine sections of the beds.

As already observed by Professor Gaudry, the bones at Pikermi occur in two
definite horizons, those in the lower bed being less fragile and better preserved
than those in the upper bed. In two of our new pits, where the upper horizon is
well exposed, it is subdivided into two distinct layers by a nearly barren deposit of
marl from 30 to 45 cm. in thickness. The rotten nature of the bones is partly due
to their having been close to or at the surface and eroded by the present siream
before being covered by the three or four metres of superficial gravel which now
preserves them. The bones are also broken by the penetrating rootlets of trees.
The lower horizon is at a depth varying from one to two metres below the upper
horizon, and thus secure from destruction by surface agencies. Like each of the
two upper bone beds, it is rarely more than 30 em. in thickness; while the marl
above and below it is almost destitute of bones, rarely yielding more than rotten
fragments, but quite prolific in scattered land and fresh-water shells. The deepest
excavations beneath the lower bone-bed descended for about three and a half
metres and furnished the bone-fragments and shells throughout.

So far as can be judged at present from the new excavations, the three bone-
beds of Pikermi are all of the same nature and contain the same mammalian
remains. The bones are massed together in inextricable confusion, and are often
mixed with afew pebbles. Juarge and small bones, whole specimens and splintered
fragments, all occur together ; but the small bones are usually most numerous at
the bottom of the layer. Several specimens of approximately the same shape
and size are often met with in groups, as if they had been sorted by water in
motion. On one occasion, for example, the scattered remains of many gazelles
were found together; in another spot there were several skulls of Tragoceras
in one mass; in other cases nearly all the bones belonged to limbs of
Hipparion; while one area was specially characterised by pieces of vertebral
column of ruminants and Hipparion, The elongated bones and elongated groups,
however, were never observed to trend in one definite direction, but were always

658 REPORT—1901.

disposed quite irregularly, thus indicating that in the region where the bones
eventually accumulated the water by which they had heen transported either
became still or moved only in gentle eddies.

Very few nearly complete skeletons occur, and even when chains of vertebrze
are preserved most of the ribs are lacking. The only approximately complete
skeletons observed during the recent excavations were those of some Carnivora
(Ictitherium, Metarctos, and Macherodus). 1t is, however, obvious that many of
the bones were still held together by ligaments at the time when they were
buried, for numerous complete feet and nearly complete limbs are found with all
the bones in their natural position. It is also to be noted that in most cases these
limbs are sharply bent, so that the two or three segments are almost parallel, as if
they had retained the contraction assumed at death. Some decomposition of the
soft parts nad already taken place even in these instances; for a few of the
phalanges of the hipparions and ruminants are often wanting when the other bones
of the limb are still in their natural association, while the phalanges of the
rhinoceros-feet seem to be always lost, though the three associated metapodials are
quite common. Similarly, the loosely articulated mandible of the Ungulata is
nearly always removed from the skull; it is only commonly preserved in place in
the Carnivora and Quadrumana.

The majority of the bones are quite isolated, and most of the skulls of the
antelopes are so much broken that only the frontlets with horn-cores remain, A
large proportion of the limb-bones are also sharply fractured, some haying
completely lost both extremities ; and small pointed splinters of bone—apparently
most of RAinoceros—are often very numerous. Some of the breaking must have
taken place before the soft parts had entirely decayed, as is shown by certain feet
of Rhinoceros and many limbs of Hipparion and antelopes. In a few cases [
found the three associated metapodials of Rhinoceros with the distal ends as
sharply removed as if they had been cut off with one blow of a hatchet. In
several instances I carefully extracted the nearly complete hind limbs of
Hipparion from the soft marl, and in all except one [ found that the tibia ended
abruptly in a sharp, oblique fracture at its middle, with no trace of the proximal
end of this bone or of the femur. Moreover, nearly all the isolated tibias
of Hipparion were similarly fractured; while among about fifty examples of
humerus of the same animal only three complete specimens were found, all the
others being sharply broken at the weakest point of the shaft. It is therefore
evident that the limbs were often torn from the trunk by a sharp break at their
weakest point before the decomposition of the soft parts had proceeded far enough
to destroy the ligaments.

The new researches make scarcely any additions to the known fauna of the
Pikermi bone-beds, and confirm Professor Gaudry’s statement that the smaller
rodents, insectivores, and bats are absent. The only striking discovery consists
in fragmentary evidence of a gigantic tortoise, at least as large as the largest
hitherto found in Europe. Many specimens, however, afford important new
information concerning the species already described. Notable among these are a
few portions of skull and a mandible of Pliohyrax, a skull of Samotherium, a skull
of Hystrix primigenia, and the greater part of a skeleton of Metarctos. Remains
of Hipparion aye the most abundant fossils, and the new series of specimens
illustrates variations and growth-stages more satisfactorily than any collection
hitherto made. Isolated bones and skulls of Rhinoceros are also common; and
antelope-remains occur everywhere in great profusion. Limb-bones of Giraffide
are found abundantly in the lower bone-bed. Mastodon is rarer; but two small
skulls were obtained from the new excavations, and several very large limb-bones
were found, Among Carnivora Ictitherium is the commonest form; but remains
of Hyena are not infrequent, and evidence of four individuals of Macherodus was
discovered during the present diggings, Ooprolites of some bone-feeding
Carnivore, probably Hyena, also occur. Skulls and other portions of Mesopithecus
are frequently met with. The shells of the small Testudo marmorum are some-
times complete, but always lack the skull and other bones of the skeleton. The
Chelonian shells themselves are, indeed, more frequently broken and disintegrated ;

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 659

and a large proportion of the bone fragments discovered between and below the
bone-beds are recognisable as pieces of them. It is noteworthy that a good
specimen of Testudo marmorum was found in the marl between the upper and
lower bone-beds in one pit; and a small undetermined snake was discovered in
a similar position in another pit.

While the excavation of these fossils was in progress at Pikermi, Mr. Frank Noel,
of Achmet Aga in Northern Eubcea, accompanied Sir Edwin Egerton on one of
his visits. He recognised that the Pikermi marls were similar to some containing
fossil bones on his own estate. He also perceived the identity of the remains of
Hipparion at Pikermi with the commonest fossil bones with which he was familiar
at Achmet Aga. Many years ago he had sent some of these bones to the Athens
Museum, but they seem to have been lost and had never received any attention
from the Greek naturalists. He therefore invited the British Museum to examine
the discovery on his estate and decide whether or not the extinct Pikermi fauna
was there represented.

A brief visit to the locality where the bones occur, near Achmet Aga, sufficed
to confirm Mr. Noel’s anticipations. The interesting spot is in a deep ravine on the
steep slope just below the village of Drazi at an elevation of nearly 200 metres
above the sea level. The torrent has cut through a thick deposit of red indurated
marl much like that of Pikermi, and bones are noticeable in the section at many
points. Three days’ digging at one place revealed two bone-beds separated by a
thin layer of marl. The bones seem to be as abundant and varied as those at
Pikermi, and they exhibit exactly the same features. Hipparion is again the
commonest fossil, and mingled with the complete bones are splintered fragments
Land and fresh-water shells also occur in great abundance, especially a species ot
Planorbis.

Nearly all the bones discovered during this brief visit were too rotten for
preservation ; but the weathered face of the section alone was explored, and the
fossils would doubtless be found in good condition further inwards. Among them
could be recognised, besides the innumerable remains of Hipparion, parts of a
skull and tibia of Rhinoceros, a frontlet of Gazella bremcornis, jaws of a small
ruminant, a large ruminant metapodial (probably Samothertum), part of a skull
and mandible of Zctitheriwm, and some small carnivore vertebre. There was also
part of the skull of a small species of Oryeteropus, which I was able to preserve
and bring for comparison with the skull of the same genus from Samos now in the
British Museum.

From these observations it is evident that the Pikermi bone-beds are not merely
a local accident, but are due to some widespread phenomena, ‘The two localities
described are about sixty miles apart, and seem to be situated in two distinct Tertiary
basins separated by a barrier of Cretaceous limestones and earlier rocks. What-
ever the catastrophe may have been by which the animals were suddenly
destroyed, it clearly happened in both places at least twice if not three times
within a comparatively short period. The powerful force which broke up and
transported the bodies before they had completely decomposed was probably the
same in each case; while the final resting place of the bones both at Pikermi and
Drazi must have been beneath comparatively tranquil water where they could be
quickly buried in mud. The absence of all trace of vegetable matter is curious;
but the most plausible explanation of the broken limbs and torn portions of trunks
seems to be that the bodies were hurried by torrential floods through thickets or
tree-obstructed watercourses before they reached the lakes in which they finally
rested. Accompanying stones in rapid motion may account for some of the bone-
frarments,

2. The Fayum Depression: A Preliminary Notice of the Geology of a
District in Egypt containing a New Paleogene Vertebrate Fauna.
By Huen J. L. Brapyets, £.GS., £R.GS., of the Geological Survey

of Lgypt.
The Fayum is a large circular depression in the Libyan Desert, some fifty
miles south-west of Cairo. The lower part—an area of some 1,500 square

660 " REPORT—1901.

kilometres—is occupied by a large lake, the Birket el Qurun, and an inhabited
cultivated district, irrigated by a canal, entering the depression from the Nile
Valley. This central part is surrounded by an arid desert, rising by a series of
escarpments to varying heights, those on the north side attaining an elevation of
400 metres above the lowest part of the depression. The depression is cut out in
rocks of Eocene and Oligocene age, but within the hollow still younger deposits,
of Pliocene and Post-Pliocene date, are found.

The lowest beds exposed in the depression are the clays, marls, and limestones —
with Nummulites gizehensis of Middle Eocene age. These are succeeded by a

roup of marly limestones and gypseous clays which largely underlie the
cultivated alluvium of the Fayum. The latter are followed by a series consisting
of clays, sandstones, and calcareous grits, some beds of which are characterised
by the abundance of Operculina and small nummulites, This last group is
followed by the uppermost Eocene marine beds, an alternating series of clays,
sandstones, and limestones, the ‘Carolia beds’ (equivalent to the upper
Mokattam of Cairo), characterised by an abundant invertebrate and vertebrate
fauna.

Above the Carolia beds, and well marked off from them both lithologically
and palontologically, is found a great thickness of variegated fluyvio-marine
sands, sandstones, clays, and marls, divided near the summit by one or more
intercalated lava sheets.

The beds above the basalt are certainly of Oligocene age, and probably a large
part of those below; but the basal beds appear to represent the Upper Eocene,
there being evidently a perfectly gradual transition from Eocene to Oligocene in
this area.

During a survey of the area in 1898 the author found that certain strata of the
series were veritable ‘bone beds,’ being crowded in places with the remains of
crocodiles, ribs of cetaceans, fish bones, and coprolites.

In May 1901 he returned to the district with the special object of re-examining
and more carefully searching the most promising beds, and on this expedition
he was accompanied by Dr. C. W. Andrews, of the British Museum (Natural
History). On their return journey to Cairo they were most fortunate in crossing
the Eocene escarpments at a point where a considerable number of marine and
terrestrial vertebrate remains lay exposed on the surface of the bone beds, and a
fortnight’s careful work resulted in an unique collection of entirely new mammals
and reptiles.

A preliminary description of the most interesting of these is now being
published by Dr. Andrews in the ‘Geological Magazine,’ and Capt. Lyons intends
to issue as soon as possible a complete survey memoir on the district by the
author, with a description of the vertebrate remains by Dr, Andrews.

3, Report on the Movements of Underground Waters of N.W. Y orkshire,
See Reports, p. 337.

4. On the Physical History of the Norwegian Fjords.
By Professor Epwarp Hutt, !.A., LL.D., FERS, GS.

That the Norwegian fjords were originally river-valleys is a statement which
searcely admits of controversy. In their form, outline, and topographical position
they are simply prolongations of the valleys which descend into the sea partly
submerged ; and if the land were still further submerged, as it once was to the extent
of 200 metres according to Andr. M. Hansen, the fjords would be prolonged
beyond their present inland limits without much variation of form.

The process of valley erosion by rain and river action is nowhere in Europe
more admirably exemplified than in Western Norway, and the process may be
supposed to have been in operation in the early formation of the fjord channela

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 661

themselves before the epoch of submergence. But when we come to examine the
form of the channels, as shown by the soundings marked on the Admiralty
charts, we find ourselves confronted by the remarkable fact that the beds of
the channels descend to very great depths, far exceeding those of the outlets
where the fjords open out upon the floor of the North Sea. Now as river valleys
must necessarily increase in depth from their sources to their outlets, we are here
brought face to face with a physical problem which apparently is inconsistent
with our view of the original character of these channels as stated above. To
the solution of this problem we must now shortly apply ourselves.

2. General form of the fjord-beds.—The numerous soundings laid down on the
Admiralty charts of 1865 and 1886 enable us to determine with accuracy the form
of the submerged portions of the fjords. Using these soundings, and by their aid
laying down the isobathic contours, we arrive at results sufficiently remarkable.
In the case of the Hardanger, the Feris, the Sogne, the Nord, the Vartdals, and
the Stor Fjords with their branches we find that shortly after passing the entrance
from the outer sea and the chain of islands which fringes the coast of the mainland
they rapidly descend to great depths, which are continuous for long distances
inland, and then gradually become shallower toward the upper limits, where they
pass into river valleys characterised by terminal moraines of ancient glaciers, or
old sea terraces. In carrying out the mapping of the contours the author has
adopted the following soundings :-—

(1) Those of the 100-fathom contour (600 feet).

(2) ” a 200 ” ” (1,200 feet).
(3) » fe LOOTER, . (2,400 feet).
(4) by 5 COOhNN s, ie (3,600 feet),

The floor of the Sogne Fjord descends to even greater depths than the
last of these, viz, 661 fathoms (3,966 feet), which is reached in the case
of the Sogne Fjord at a distance of about 25 miles from the entrance. At the
entrance the depth seldom exceeds 100 fathoms (600 feet), and is generally less ;
but once the deep water is reached there is little change of level for long distances.
As regards the cross-section of the principal fjords a glance at the charts shows
that they retain the form of narrow channels with little variation in breadth,
receiving tributaries on either hand and bounded by steep or precipitous walls of
rock, as in the case of the valleys, of which they are only prolongations under the
surface of the sea.

3. When endeavouring to account for the peculiar form of the fjords and the
depth of their floors over the central portions we must not forget that these old river
valleys were the channels of great glaciers during the Post-Pliocene or Glacial
period, and that glacial erosion has contributed to the deepening process. Some
Norwegian geologists, such as Hansen,‘ attribute to this deepening of the original
channels by glacier erosion on the one hand, and to the piling up of enormous
masses of moraine matter at the entrance on the other, the great disparity of the
depth of the fjords at the inner and outer stages of their course. To the latter
cause the author fully assents; but he is doubtful whether glacier erosion has
had the effect of adding many hundreds of feet to the depth of the original floor
of the valleys. But leaving this question, we have to consider a second problem :
by what means did the original rivers empty themselves into the ocean before the
Glacial period, when there was neither deepening of the floor by glacial erosion
nor shallowing by moraine matter? Previous to the Glacial epoch the rivers
must, in the author’s view, have entered the outer ocean through channels which
cannot now be clearly traced by soundings over the shallow floor of the North Sea.
At the same time it is certain that it was by such channels that they reached their
ultimate destination in the Arctic Ocean, because rivers as they flow seawards must
necessarily descend to lower levels. This being so, it follows that the channels
do actually exist, though they may not be traceable by the soundings over the flow

' Mornay, edited by Dr. Sten Konow and Karl Fischer, May 1900. Translated
by J. C. Christie, Miss Muir, and others.

1901, xx

662 erpont=— 1001.

of the comparatively shallow North Sea, and we have to consider why it is
that they are untraceable.

The cause appears to be closely connected with the subsequent submergence in
later or Post-Glacial times, as indicated by the raised beaches and_terraces.*
During this epoch the glaciers had only partially disappeared or receded from the
lower valleys. Great quantities of mud, sand, gravel, and boulders would be
carried down by the streams and distributed by floating ice over the sea-bed,
By such material the whole floor of the North Sea has been overspread to
unknown depths, and owing to the agency of tides and currents would haye been
swept into the deep channels of the pre-existing rivers. The author is convinced
that were it possible to strip the floor of the North Sea of its sedimentary cover-
ing these channels would be found traversing the floor of the continental platform,
and ultimately opening out by caiion-like channels on the floor of the Arctic Ocean.

The phenomena here observed, or inferred, have their representatives along the
coasts of the British Isles and Western Europe. Ia both cases there is the
shallow continental platform, terminating in a deep and rapid descent to the
floor of the abyssal ocean, and traversed by channels of ancient rivers traceable
by the soundings in the case of Western Europe, or inferential in the case of
Western Scandinavia. In a few cases these channels are for short distances
clearly indicated on the charts, as, for example, in the cas2 of the Bredsund Dyhet,
which is a prolongation of the Stor Fjord out to sea, between the islands of Godo
and Harejdo in lat. 62° 30’, with a general depth of 100 fathoms below the
adjoining floor of the sea; and there are a few other similar cases.

Outline of the physical history of the fjords —As connected with the past
history of the Norwegian fjords the following appear to be the most important
stages :—

ist (Earliest) Period.—Continental conditions; Archzan rocks; river
erosion begins.

2nd Period.—Partial submergence in early Silurian times.

3rd Period.—Klevation of land during Mesozoic and Tertiary periods; further
deepening of river channels.

4th Period.—Quaternary. arly Glacial; great elevation of land and
ultimate extension of snowfields and glaciers. Ice filling the valleys and moving
out to sea.

5th Period.— Quaternary. Post-Glacial ; subsidence and partial submergence
of land; retreat of the glaciers. Icebergs and rafts covering the adjoining sea.
Amelioration of climate.

6th Period.—Recent. Re-clevation to approximately present positiov with
regard to the outer ocean. Formation of raised beaches (strand linien).

The paper concluded with a comparison between the above physical features
as they occur in Norway with those of Scotland.

5, On the Origin of the Gravel-flats of Surrey and Berkshire.”
By Horace W. Moncxton, /.L.8., V.P.GS.

On the south of the Thames flat expanses of gravel are largely developed.
They lie at various levels from 600 feet O.D. at Czesar’s Camp, Aldershot, down
to almost sea-level in the Thames valley near London.

The gravel is of variable thickness ; perhaps 15 feet is about the average.

There are similar gravel-flats north of the Thames, but there drift questions
are coniplicated by the presence of glacial beds.

1 According to Professor Reusch the terraces with marine shells reach an eleva-
tion of about 200 metres (620 feet) in the Trondheim district; but the author
during a recent visit was unable to observe any higher than 250 feet south of this
position.

2. Published in full in the Geological Magazine, December 4, vol. villi. November
1901,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 665

The author suggests—

1. That the gravels are river gtavels formed since the country last rose above
the sea;

2. That the process of elevation was not continuous, but that short periods of
rapid movement were separated by long periods of repose ; P

3, That the gravel-flats are the work of the rivers during the periods of
repose ;

od. That the earth-movements did not affect the whole area uniformly, and that
local depressions occurred.

In support of these conclusions the author refers to the step-terraces so common
in the fjords and to the old coast-plain and shore-lines which occur above and
below the present sea-level on the Norwegian coast.

As evidence of local depression, he refers to the deep channel of Drift in the
valley of the Cam, described by Mr. W. Whitaker,’ and to the great thickness of
the Corbicula fluminalis bed at Crayford.

6. On the Occurrence of Diorite associated with Granite at Assowait,
Upper Egypt. By ALEXANDER SOMERVAIL,

Immediately below the front of the Cataract Hotel there is exposed an
interesting section of the reddish granite of the neighbourhood. It is notable for
amass of dark diorite, which seems to cut it as a vein or dyke, running in an
E.N.E. and W.S.W. direction.

The breadth of this dyke-like mass is variable, but on an average it is about
three feet wide.

The walls of both are as a rule sharply defined, without any apparent passage
of the one into the other, although at some portions of the margin of the diorite
there are a few red erystals of the felspar of the bounding granite.

There are, however, about the central portion of the diorite, crossing it at
right angles, two small veins of the reddish granite of the parent mass. One of
these is only about quarter of an inch wide, and the other about two inches in
width.

These two veins are both in colour, and also in composition, exactly the same
as the mother rock; and are not continued into the parent mass as distinct veins,
but are essentially a part of the granite itself.

The author did not enter upon any theory of explanation, but it is, he thinks,
obvious that the granite and diorite are not separated from each other by any
great difference of age.

7. Note on some Hornblende Porphyrites of Victoria (Australia).
By James STiRviNG, Goverment Geologist of Victoria.

The existence of auriferous quartz veins associated with a class of eruptive
rocks, which are intrusive to the Upper Silurian formation (shales, sandstones,
conglomerates, and limestones) of Victoria has long been known. The frequent
occurrence of hornblende in this class of rock has led to the use of the term
diorite for most of the dykes, although marked diflerences in mineral composi-
tion and structure were frequently observed. During a recent geological and
underground survey of the Walhalla Goldfield, where the dykes were classed as
diorttes, caused a number of samples of the dykes to be selected and sliced for
petrographic investigation, with the result that many of the intrusive rocks were
found to belong to several different classes, in which hornblende was either
wholly absent or but sparingly represented, being replaced by mica-forming mica-
felsites, &e. This inquiry led to a closer examination of the well-known Wood's.

1 vuert. Journ, Geol. Soc., voi. xlvi. p. 333.

664. REPORT—1901.

Point diorites, in which hornblende is notably present, with the result stated
in the accompanying petrographic note. It is intended to continue the systematic
investigation of all the Victorian so-called diorites, particularly those with which
auriferous quartz veins are associated.

In this investigation I shall have the valuable co-operation of Mr. F. P.
Mennell, an Australian student at the Royal School of Mines, London.

The following brief description is intended as a preliminary note :—

Woon’s Pornt, Vicrorta.
“J

Shde 277.—This slice was cut from a dark coloured, even-grained rock of
granitic aspect. The specific gravity is high (2'9). Black hornblende is the most
conspicuous constituent; ilmenite and pyrites can also be recognised by their
characteristic colour and lustre. Under the microscope the rock does not show
that simplicity of structure which might be inferred from its appearance in hand
specimens. Hornblende is still the mineral which gives a distinctive character to
the rock; but the whitish material with which it is associated, though much
decomposed, is at once seen to be of a complex nature.

Constituent Minerals: Hornblende.—This mineral occurs in large granules,
often showing crystal faces, though the outline is frequently too indefinite for the
form to be determined with precision. The prismatic cleavage is generally well
marked, though some crystals show irregular cracks. The colour is in most cases
brown, though some of the crystals are of a greenish tinge, and a few are quite
colourless. The coloured varieties exhibit strong pleochroism (fairly deep brown
to almost colourless). Sections showing only one set of cleavage traces give a
maximum extinction angle of 20°.

Felspar.—The predominant felspar is evidently plagioclase, though owing to
its decomposed state and the absence of twin lamellation or cleavage traces it is
difficult to assign it with certainty to its proper position in the albite-anorthite
series. It seems, however, to be a basic oligoclase, and it is notable that in one
or two instances it presents crystal faces to the hornblende. Orthoclase is also
present, chiefly intergrown in crystallographic relation with quartz, forming
micropegmatitic patches, which give to portions of the rock very much the
appearance of a granophyre.

Quartz occurs almost entirely in micrographic intergrowth with the orthoclase
as sharply defined skeleton crystals, often triangular in outline. It is thus of
prior consolidation to the felspar with which it is associated, and in thin section
is the more distinct from its being entirely unaffected by the agencies which have
rendered the felspar almost opaque.

Iimenite is abundant in irregular grains and skeleton crystals, and is, no
doubt, the source of the black ‘ titaniferous ironsand’ which is so plentiful in the
locality. Its outline, lustre, and characteristic alteration afford a ready means of
identification.

Spheve, of the white variety known as leucoxene, has been abundantly pro-
duced by the decomposition of the ilmenite. It does not form definite crystals,
but it serves to bring out the internal structure of the ilmenite in a most striking
manner, owing to the way in which decomposition has proceeded along the lines
of least resistance, related to the crystalline form (hexagonal) of the original
mineral.

Other accessories are pyrites and apatite, neither of which is plentiful. The
former is easily recognised by its pale brassy colour, as seen by reflected light.
The apatite forms slender prisms, longitudinal sections showing the cross-fracture,
while transverse ones show the characteristic six-sided form. A colourless
mineral with the roughened appearance characteristic of a high refractive index
also occurs as a decomposition product of the hornblende. It is almost isotropic,
and may be referred to the chlorite group.

Structuie.—The texture and structure vary considerably in different parts of
the slice. The rock is holocrystalline, but the order of crystallisation of the
different minerals is variable and the presence of micropegmatite is distinctive.
The other minerals act very much the part of a ground mass toward the horn-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 665

blende, though the appearance of the rock is not strikingly porphyritic, and the
general structure is very similar to that of the less basic syenite-porphyries of the
Charnwood district in Leicestershire. It points, in fact, to a hyp-abyssal as
opposed to a plutonic origin for the rock, which might therefore be classed as a
diorite-porphyry or hornblende-porphyrite.

8. Note on some Anthropods from the Upper Silurian.
Sy Matcoum Laurie.

9. The Copper-bearing Rocks of South Australia. By F. P MENNELL.

The copper ores of Yorke’s Peninsula in South Australia were the first
metallic minerals worked on the Australian continent. They occur in rocks of
Archzean age, which at Moonta and Wallaroo have been subjected to crushing
and shearing to such an extent that they present few traces of their original
structures, except in the case of a diorite at Wallaroo, which is of a typically
plutonic character. Most of the rocks are mylonites, and in some instances have
been reduced to a compact flinty type, in which none of the minerals can be
recognised with certainty. Where the original constituents have survived they
are of a fragmentary character ; oligoclase seems to have best resisted the crushing,
and orthoclase occasionally remains in lenticles ; but the brittle quartz has invari-
ably been reduced to powder. The economic aspect of the examination is of
considerable importance, for the mines have several times been shut down when
the ore has thinned out owing to doubts as to its permanence. From the
character of the rocks it is, however, obvious that they occur in a true ‘fissure
lode, and no doubts need he felt as to the continuance of the ore to the limit of
workable depths.

10, Report on the Excavation of the Ossiferous Caves at Uphill, near
Weston-super-Mare,—See Reports, p. 352,

666 REPORT—1901.

Section D,— ZOOLOGY,

PRESIDENT OF THE Sectyon,—Professor J, Cossan Ewant, M.D., F.RS,

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.
The President delivered the following Address:
The Experimental Study of Variation.

THE study of variation may be said to consist (1) in noting and classifying the
differences between parents and their offspring; and (2) in determining by obser-
vation and experiment the causes of these differences, especially why only some of
them are transmitted to future generations. The facts of vatlatton having been
dealt with at considerable length in a recent work by Mr. Bateson, I shall discuss
chiefly the causes of variation.

Though for untold ages parents have doubtless observed differences in the form
and temperament of their children, and though breeders have long noted unlooked-
for traits in their flocks and herds, the systematic study of variation is of very
recent date. This is not surprising, for, while the belief in the immutability of
species prevailed, there was no special incentive either to collect the facts or
inquire into the causes of variation; and since the appearance in 1859 of the
‘Origin of Species,’ biologists have been mainly occupied in discussing the theory
of natural selection. Now that discussions as to the nature and origin of species no
longer occupy the chief attention of biologists, variability—the fountain and origin
of progressive development—is likely to receive an ever-increasing amount of notice.
Strange as it may appear, naturalists at the end of the eighteenth century con-
cerned themselves more with the causes of variation than their successors at the
end of the nineteenth. Buffon, who discussed at some length nearly all the
ereat problems that interest naturalists to-day, after considering variation arrived
at the conclusion that it was due to the direct action of the environment, and
even invented a theory (strangely like Darwin’s theory of pangenesis), to explain
how somatic were converted into germinal variations. Erasmus Darwin and
Lamarck also had views as to the causes of variation. Erasmus Darwin believed
variability resulted from the efforts of the individual, new structures being
gradually evolved by organisms constantly endeavouring to adapt themselves
to their surroundings. Lamarck about the same time endeavoured to prove that
changes in the environment produced new needs, which in turn led to the forma-
tion of new organs and the modification of old ones, use being especially potent in
perfecting the new, disuse in suppressing the old. Both Erasmus Darwin and
Lamarck, without attempting, or apparently even seeing the need of, any such
explanation as pangenesis offered, assumed that definite acquired modifications
were transmitted to the offspring, and they both further assumed that variations
occurred not in many but in a single definite direction ; hence they had no need
to postulate selection. The speculations of Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck haying

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 667

had little influence, it fell to Charles Darwin to construct new and more lasting
foundations for the evolution theory.

Charles Darwin, clearly realising that variation occurs in many different
directions, arrived at the far-reaching conclusion that the: best adapted varieties
are selected by the environment, and thus have a chance of giving rise to new
species. Though impressed with the paramount importance of selection, Charles
Darwin realised that ‘its action absolutely depends on what we in our ignorance
call spontaneous or accidental yariation.’' Darwin, however, concerned himself
to the last more with selection than with variation, doubtless because he believed
variability sinks to a quite subordinate position when compared with natural
selection. As variations stand in very much the same relation to selection as
bricks and other formed material stand to the builder, Darwin was perhaps
justified in rating so highly the importance of the principle with which his name
will ever be intimately associated. Though Darwin considered variability of
secondary importance, it may be noted that he did more than any other naturalist
to collect the facts of variation, and he, moreover, considered at some length the
causes of variation. He regarded with most favour the view ‘that variations of
all kinds and degrees are directly or indirectly caused by the conditions of life
to which each being or more especially its ancestors have been exposed,’’ Of all
the causes which induce variability, he believed excess of food was probably the
most powerful.* In addition to variations which arise spontaneously in obedience
to fixed and immutable laws Darwin believed with Buffon that variations were
produced by the direct action of the environment, and with Lamarck by the use
and disuse of parts; and he accounted for the inheritance of such variations by his
theory of pangenesis. Darwin seems always to have regarded the direct action of
the environment and use and disuse as, at the most, subsidiary causes of variation ;
but Mr. Herbert Spencer and his followers regard ‘ use-inheritance’ as an all-
important factor in evolution; while Cope and his followers in America, by a
mixture of ‘use-inheritance’ (Kinetogeneis) and Lamarck’s neck-stretching theory
(Archesthetism), apparently see their way to account for the evolution of animals
with but little help from natural selection.

Professor Weismann and others, however, have recently given strong reasons
for the belief that all variation is the result of changes in the germ-plasm ultimately
due to external stimuli, the environment acting directly on unicellular, indirectly
on multicellular organism, It is convenient to speak of biologists who believe
with Mr. Herbert Spencer in the law of use and disuse (use-inheritance) as Neo-
Lamarckians, and of those who with Weismann refuse to accept the doctrine of
the transmission of definite acquired characters, and in the case of multicellular
organisms the direct influence of the environment as a cause of variation, as Neo-
Darwinians. In discussing variability I shall assume that all variations are
transmitted by the germ-cells; that the primary cause of variation is always the
effect of external influences, such as food, temperature, moisture, &c.; and that
‘the origin of a variation is equally independent of selection and amphimixis,’ 4
amphimixis being simply the means by which effect is given to differences
inherited, and to the differences acquired by the germ-cells during their growth
and maturation.

Theoretically the offspring should be an equal blend of the parents and
(because of the tendency to reversion) of their respective ancestors. In as far
as the offspring depart either in an old or in a new direction from this ideal
intermediate condition they may be said to have undergone variation. The
more obvious variations consist of a difference in form, size, and colour, in the rate
of growth, in the period at which maturity is reached, in the fertility, in the power
withstand disease and changes in the surroundings, of differences in temperament

1 Animals and Plants, vol. ii. p. 206.

2 Thid., vol. ii. p. 240. Elsewhere he says we are ‘driven to the conclusion
that in most cases the conditions of life play a subordinate part in causing any
particular modification.’

3 Tbid., vol. ii. p. 282.

“ Weismann, The Germ-Plasm p. 431,

668 REPORT—1901.

and instincts, and in the aptitude to learn. In the members of a human family
there may be great dissimilarity, and the dissimilarity may be even greater in the
members of a single brood or litter of domestic animals, especially if the parents
belong to slightly different breeds. :

Frequently some of the offspring closely resemble the immediate ancestors,
while others suggest one or more of the remote ancestors, are nearly inter-
mediate between the parents, or present quite new characters. Similarly
seedlings from the same capsule often differ. Can we by way of accounting
for these differences only with Darwin say that variations are due to fixed and
immutable laws, or at the most subscribe to the assertion of Weismann, that
they are ‘due to the constant recurrence of slight inequalities of nutrition
of the germ-plasm’?' Weismann accounts for ordinary variation by saying
that the reduction of the germ-plasm during the maturation of the germ-cells
is qualitative as well as quantitative, ¢e, that the germ-plasm retained in
the ovum to form the female pro-nucleus is different from the germ-plasm dis-
charged in the second polar body. He accounts for discontinuous variation and
‘sports’ by ‘the permanent action of uniform changes in nutrition’! These
uniform changes in nutrition, by modifying in a constant direction susceptible
groups.of germ-units (determinants), after a time giving rise to new, it may be
pronounced variation. Must we rest satisfied with these assumptions, or is it
possible to account for some of the variability met with by, say, differences in the
maturity of the parents or of the germ-cells, by the germ-cells having been
influenced by interbreeding or intercrossing, or by the soma in which they are
lodged having been invigorated by a change of food, or habitat, or deteriorated by
unfavourable surroundings or disease? In other words are there valid reasons
for believing that the germ-cells are extremely sensitive to changes in their
immediate environment, 7.c., to modifications of the body, or soma containing
them, and that the characters of the offspring depend to a considerable extent on
whether the germ-cells have recently undergone rejuvenescence ?

Obviously, if the offspring, other things being equal, vary with the age of the
parents, the ripeness of the germ-cells and with the bodily welfare, the qualitative
division of the nucleus on which Weismann so much relies as an explanation of
ordinary variation will prove inadequate.

Is Age a Cause of Variation?

During the course of my experiments on Variation I endeavoured to find an answer
to the question, ‘Is Age a Cause of Variation?’ During development and while
nearly all the available nourishment is required for building up the organs and
tissues of the body, the germ-cells remain in a state of quiescence. Sooner or
later, however, they begin to mature, and eventually in most cases escape from the
germ-glands, I find the first germ-cells ripened often prove infertile. When,
e.g., pigeons from the same nest are isolated and allowed to breed as soon as
mature, they seldom hatch cut birds from the first pair of eggs, and though
quite vigorous in appearance they may only hatch a single bird from the second
pair of eggs. The same result generally follows mating very young but quite
unrelated pigeons; but when a young hen bird is mated with a vigorous, well-
matured male, or a young male is mated with a vigorous, well-matured female,
the eggs generally prove fertile from the first. The germ-cells are, as far as can
be determined, structurally perfect from the outset; and that they only fail in
vigour is practically proved by the fact that, though the conjugation of germ-cells
from two young birds leads to nothing, the conjugation of germ-cells from quite
young birds with germ-cells from mature birds generally at once results in
offspring.

The following experiments indicate how age may prove a cause of variation,
Last autumn I received from Islay two young male blue-rock pigeons which,
though bred in captivity, were believed to be as pure as the wild birds of the
Islay cayes. In February last one of the young blue-rocks, while still immature,

1 Germ-Plasm, . 431,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 669

was placed with an inbred white fantail, the other with an extremely vigorous well-
matured black barb. ‘In course of time a pure-white bird was reared by the white
fantail, and two dark birds by the black barb. Owing probably to the fantail being
inbred and the blue-rock being still barely mature, the young white bird died soon
after leaving the nest. No birds were hatched from the second and third pairs of eges
laid by the fantail, but from the fourth pair two birds were hatched which are now
nearly full-grown. These young birds are of a darker shade of blue, and look
larger and more vigorous than their blue-rock sire. As in the Indian variety of
the blue-rock pigeon the croup is blue, and, as in some of the Eastern blue-rocks,
the wings are slightly chequered. They, however, only essentially differ from their
sire in having four extra feathers in the tail. The first pair of birds hatched by
the black barb when they reached maturity early in August might have passed
for young barbs with somewhat long beaks. Since the first pair were hatched in
March the blue-rock and black barb have reared six other birds. One of the second
brood closely resembles the first birds hatched; the other is of a greyish
colour, with slightly mottled wings, a long beak, and a tail bar. The
birds of the third nest are both of a greyish colour, but have indis-
tinct wing bars as well as a tail bar. Of the fourth pair of young one
is greyish like the birds of the third nest, the other is of a dark blue colour with
slightly chequered wings, and a head, beak, and bars as in its blue-rock sire. The
gradual change from black to dark blue in the blue-rock barb crosses is very
remarkable. I can only account for the almost mathematical regularity of the
change by supposing it has kept pace with a gradual increase in the vigour or
prepotency in the young blue-rock. Eventually the offspring of the blue-rock
mated to the black barb, like the offspring of its brother with the white fantail,
may be of a slaty blue colour, and otherwise resemble a wild blue-rock pigeon. Many
breeders would explain the offspring taking more and more after the sire by the
doctrine of Saturation—a doctrine that finds much favour amongst breeders—but
as identical results were obtained when young females were mated with well-
matured males the saturation explanation falls to the ground.

Like results were obtained by breeding young grey quarter-wild rabbits with
an old white Angora buck: the first young were white, the subsequent young
were white, grey, and bluish grey. From these results it follows that, when old
and young but slightly different members of a variety or species are mated a
wonderfully perfect series of intermediate forms is likely to be produced. Amongst
wild animals the young males rarely have a chance of breeding with the young
females ; hence amongst wild animals, owing to age being a cause of variation, a
considerable amount of material is doubtless constantly provided for selection,
thus affording a variety an additional chance of adapting itself to slight
fluctuations in the environment,

In the results obtained by crossing mature, vigorous, and, in some cases, inbred
males with barely mature females an explanation may be found why in some
families the same features have persisted almost unaltered for many generations;
why in his features the squire of to-day sometimes exactly reproduces the lines of
his ancestors, as seen in portraits and monumental brasses. It should, however,
be borne in mind that highly prepotent forms are capable from the first of so
completely controlling the development that they transmit their peculiar traits to
all their offspring.

Is Ripeness of the Germ-Cells a Cause of Variation ?

While difference in age may sometimes account for the earlier broods and
litters resembling one of the parents, it fails to account for the very pronounced
variation often found in a single brood or litter, and for much of the dissimilarity
between members of the same human family. When a single fertilised germ-cell,
as occasionally happens, gives rise to twins, they are always identical ; hence it
may be assumed differences in members of the same family have their source
in differences in the germ-cells from which they spring. If the offspring vary
with the maturity of the soma it may also vary with the maturity of the germ-
cells, or at least with their condition at the moment of conjugation,

670 REPORT— 1901.

Some years ago Mr. H, M. Vernon, when hybridising echinoderms, discovered
that ‘the characterisics of the hybrid offspring depend directly on the relative
degrees of maturity of the sexual products.’! Mr. Vernon found subsequently
that over-ripe (stale) ova fertilised with fresh sperms gave very different results
from fresh ova fertilised with over-ripe (stale) sperms, from which ‘he inferred
that over-ripeness (staleness) is a very potent cause of variation.”

I find that if a well~matured rabbit doe is prematurely (7.e., some time before
ovulation is due) mated with a buck of a different strain, the young take after the
sire; when the fertilisation takes place at the usual time, some of the young
resemble the buck, some the doe, while some present new characters or reproduce
more or less accurately one or more of the ancestors. When, however, the
mating is delayed for about thirty hours beyond the normal time, all the young,
as a rule, resemble the doe. It may hence be inferred that in mammals, as
in echinoderms, the characters of the offspring are related to the condition of
the germ-cells at the moment of conjugation, the offspring resulting from the
union of equally ripe germ-cells differing from the offspring developed from the
conjugation of ripe and unripe germ-cells, and still more from the union of fresh
and over-ripe germ-cells. ‘This conclusion may be said to be in harmony with
the view expressed by Darwin, that the causes which induce variability probably
act ‘on the sex elements before impregnation has been effected.’* ‘Tle results
already obtained, though far from answering the question why there is often
great dissimilarity between members of the same family, may lead to further
experiment, and especially to more complete records being kept by breeders. It
is unnecessary to point out what a gain it would be were breeders able to
regulate, even to a small extent, the characters of the offspring.

Is the Condition of the Soma a Cause of Variation ?

There is a considerable amount of evidence in support of the view that
changes in any part of the body or soma which affect the general welfare
influence the germ-cells. This is but what might be expected if the soma in
the metazoa is to the germ-cells what the immediate surroundings are to the
protozoa. The soma from the first forms a convenient nidus for the germ-cells,
and, when sufficiently old and sufficiently nourished, it provides the stimuli by
which the ripening (maturing) of the germ-cells is effected. If in the case of
the protozoa variation is due to the direct action of the environment, it may
be inferred that in the metazoa variations of the germ-cells result from the
direct action of the soma, z.e., from the direct action on the germ-cells of their
immediate environment. This, however, is quite a different thing from saying
that definite somatic variations are incorporated in the germ-cells (converted into
germinal variations) and transmitted to the offspring.

It may first be asked, Does disease, in as far as it reduces the general vigour or
interferes with the nutrition of the germ-cells, act as a cause of variation? I
recently received a number of blue-rock pigeons from India infected with a blood
parasite (Halteridium) not unlike the organism now so generally associated with
malaria. In some pigeons the parasites were very few in number, in others they
were extremely numerous. The eggs of a pair of these Indian birds with
numerous parasites in the blood proved infertile. Eggs from a hen bird with
numerous parasites fertilised by a male with few parasites proved fertile, but the
young died before ready to leave the nest. An old male Indian bird, however,
with comparatively few parasites, mated with a mature half-bred English turbit
produced a single bird. The half-bred turbit has reddish wings and shoulders, but
is otherwise white. The young bird by the Indian blue-rock is of a reddish
colour nearly all over, but in make not unlike the cross-bred turbit hen.

Some time before the second pair of eggs were laid, the parasites had com-
pletely disappeared from the Indian bird, and he looked as if he had quite

! Proceedings Royal Society, vol. \xiii. May 1898.
2 Thid., vol. xv. November 1899.
* Animals and Plants, vol. ii. p. 259.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 671

recovered from his long journey as well as from the fever. In due time a pair
of young were hatched from the second eggs, and as they approached maturity
it became more and more evident that they would eventually present all the
distinctive points of the wild-rock pigeon.'! The striking difference between the
first bird reared and the birds of the second nest might, however, be due not to
the malaria parasites but to the change of habitat.

Against this view, however, is the fact that another Indian bird infected to
about the same extent as the mate of the half-bred red turbit counted for little
when mated with a second half-bred turbit; while two Indian birds in which
extremely few parasites were found at once produced blue-rock-like birds when
bred—one with a fantail, the other with a tumbler,

Another possible explanation of the difference between the bird of the first
and the birds of the second nest, is that the germ-cells were for a time in-
fected by the minute protozoan Halteridium in very much the same way as
the germ-cells of ticks are infected by the parasite of Texas fever. But of
this there is no evidence, for even in the haif-grown birds hatched by the pure-
bred malarious Indian rocks the most careful examination failed to detect any
parasites in the blood. In all probability Halteridium can only be conveyed from
one pigeon to another by Culex or some other gnat.

These results with pigeons suffering from malaria seem to indicate that the
germ-cells are liable to be influenced by fevers and other forms of disease that for
the time being diminish the vitality of the parents. Further experiments may
show that the germ-cells are influenced in different ways by different diseases,

Sometimes the germ-cells suffer from the direct action of their immediate
environment, from disturbance in or around the germ-glands. If, for example,
inflammation by the ducts or other channels reaches the germ-glands, the vitality
of the germ-cells may be considerably diminished; if serious or prolonged, the
germ-cells may be as effectively sterilised as are the bacteria of milk by boiling.

In 1900 two mares produced foals to a bay Arab which had previously suffered
from a somewhat serious illness inyolving the gezm-glands. These foals in no
way suggest their sire. This year I have three foals by the same Arab after he
had quite recovered: one promises to be the image of his sire, and the other two
are decidedly Arab-like both in make and action.

While the germ-cells are liable to suffer when the soma is the subject of
disease, there is no evidence that they are capable of being so infiuenced that they
transmit definite or particular modifications (unless directly infected with bacteria
or other minute organisms) ; that, ey., the germ-cells of gouty subjects necessarily
give rise to gouty offspring. Doubtless if the germ-cells, because of their
unfavourable immediate surroundings, suffer in vigour or vitality, the offspring
derived from them are likely to be less vigorous, and hence more likely than
their immediate ancestors to suffer from gout and other diseases.

It would be an easy matter to give instances of the offspring varying with the
condition or fitness of the parents; but it will suffice if, before discussing inter-
crossing, I refer to the influence of change of habitat.

Is Change of Habitat a Cause of Variation?

Tit has long been recognised that a change of surroundings may profoundly
influence the reproductive system, in some cases increasing the fertility, in others
leading to complete sterility. Exotic plants, sterile it may be at first, often
become extremely fertile, and when thoroughly established give rise to new
varieties. Inthe case of mares obtained from Iceland and the south of England
sometimes a year ¢lapses before they breed. An Arab-Kathiawar pony which
arrived during April from India, proved during the first three months quite sterile,
owing, I helieve, to loss of vigour on the part of the germ-cells, their vitality
being only about one-tenth that of a home-bred hackney pony, But the fertility is
apparently greatly impaired by even comparatively slight changes of environment.
Lions which breed freely in Dublin seem to be sterile in London, and I heard
recently that when bulls are changed from one district to another in the north of

' In these young birds the breast and some of the wing feathers are imperfect.
Fanciers regard this condition of the feathers as evidence of constitutional weakness,

672 REPORT—1901.

Treland the immediate result may be complete sterility. The tendency of some exotic
plants to ‘sport’ after they become acclimatised is doubtless due to the fact that
their new habitat is unusually favourable, their general vigour—so essential for
new developments—is increased, and, probably because certain groups of germ
units are constantly stimulated by the new food available, they give rise abruptly
or gradually to new and it may be unexpected characters. No one doubts that
the bodily vigour is liable to be impaired by fevers and other diseases, by changes
in the habitat, unsuitable food, rapid and unseasonable changes of temperature,
and the like ; hence it will not be surprising if further investigations prove that
changes in the soma, beneficial as well as injurious, are reflected in the germ-cells,
and thus indirectly induce variation. Moreover there are excellent reasons for
believing that the germ-cells are influenced by seasonable changes, such as moult-
ing in birds and changing the coat in mammals. In the case of pigeons, e.g., the
young bred in early summer are, other things being equal, larger and more
vigorous, and mature more rapidly, than birds hatched im the late summer or
autumn. But however sensitive the germ-cells may be to the changes of their
immediate environment, 7.c., the soma or body in which they are Jodged, there is
no evidence whatever that (as Buffon asserted and Darwin thought possible)
definite changes of the soma, due to the direct action of the environment, can be
imprinted on the germ-cells. By the direct action of the environment—food,
temperature, moisture, &c.—the body in whole or in part may be dwarfed,
increased, or otherwise modified ; but such changes only influence the germ-cells in
so far as they lead to modifications in their vigour and nutrition. They may
expedite or delay maturity, alter the length of the reproductive period, interfere
with the nutrition of the germ-cells, or retard the development of the embryo, but
they seem incapable of giving rise to definite structural or functional variations in
the offspring.

Intercrossing and Interbreeding as Causes of Variation.

. The belief was once common amongst naturalists that variability was wholly
due to crossing, and at the present day naturalists and breeders alike agree that
intercrossing is a potent cause of variability, and are unanimous in regarding
interbreeding as an equally potent means of checking variability. The opinion is
also general that intercrossing has a swamping influence; that having brought
forth new forms it forthwith proceeds to destroy them. Darwin, when discussing
reversion, points out that intercrossing often speedily leads to almost complete
reversion to a long-lost ancestor, z.e., to the loss of recently acquired and the
reappearance of long-lost characters.1 When, however, he comes to deal with
variability, he states that ‘crossing, like any other change in the conditions of
life, seems to be an element, probably a potent one, in causing variability,’* the
offspring of the first generation being generally uniform, but those subsequently
produced displaying an almost infinite diversity of character. As to the influence
of inbreeding, he says ‘ close interbreeding, if not carried to an injurious extreme,
far from causing variability, tends to fix the character of each breed.’

These statements may be quoted in support of the very common belief that
intercrossing is both a potent cause of variation and of reversion; that it produces
new varieties one moment and swamps them the next. Whether intercrossing
may be regarded as the immediate cause of variation or of reversion (it can hardly
be both) depends on what is implied by variation. Obviously, variation may be
either progressive or retrogressive, 2.¢., the offspring may differ from their parents
in having quite new characters or in presenting ancestral characters, or in being
characterised by traits neither new nor old, due to new combinations of characters
already recognised as belonging to the variety or species. When intercrossing
results in the restoration of old characters, we have reversion or retrogressive
variation ; when to new combinations of already existing characters like new com-
binations in a kaleidoscope, we have new variations of a non-progressive kind,

1 Animals and Plants, vol. i. p. 22.
2 Thid., vol. ii. p. 254. 3 Thid., vol. ii. p,. 251.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 673

almost always characterised by more or less reversion; when, however, inter-
crossing results in the characters of one variety being engrafted on another, or to
the appearance of characters quite new to the species, we have progressive
variation. Judging from the results I have obtained, intercrossing of two distinct
varieties results, as a rule, in the loss of the more striking characters of both
parents, 7.c., in more or less marked reversion, the extent of the loss generally
depending on the difference between the forms crossed. For example, if an owl
pigeon is crossed with a pigeon known among fanciers as an archangel, nondescript
birds are obtained, which may at once, with a white fantail, give birds almost
identical with a blue-rock—the common ancestor of all our breeds of pigeons.
Intercrossing, on the other hand, rarely leads to the blending of the unaltered charac-
ters of two or more varieties, and it never, so far as I have seen, results in the
appearance of characters absolutely new to the species. In a word, the immediate
result of intercrossing distinct varieties is, as a rule, more or less marked reversion.
But though intercrossing usually results in retrogressive variation, it is indirectly
an extremely potent cause of progressive variation. This isdue to the fact (better
realised by botanists than zoologists) that cross-bred offspring (first crosses) are
(unless the parents have been enfeebled by interbreeding) endowed with an unusual
amount of vigour, z.e., intercrossing is of supreme importance, not only because it
leads to the co-mingling of germ-plasms having different tendencies, but also and
perhaps chiefly because of its rejuvenating influence. The importance of this
rejuvenation is usually at once evident if intercrossing is immediately followed by
interbreeding. The persistent interbreeding of closelv related forms generally
reduces the vigour, and, as Darwin points out, ‘far from causing variability, tends to
fix the character of each breed’; 1 but the intercrossing of first crosses (or of highly
vigorous individuals closely related in either the direct or the collateral line)
without appreciably weakening the constitution, often results in offspring display-
ing, to use Darwin’s words, ‘an almost infinite diversity of character.’* The
epidemics of variation, so often the outcome of interbreeding first or at least
vigorous recently produced crosses, are apparently partly due to the union of
individuals having a similar tendency checking reversion, and partly to the
vigour acquired by recent intercrossing. This much may be inferred from the
fact, that when interbreeding is persisted in the variability dwindles as the vigour
ebbs.

Breeders agree with Darwin that first crosses are generally uniform, and that
the subsequent offspring usually vary immensely; yet neither breeders nor
naturalists seem to have clearly realised that interbreeding at the right moment is
the direct cause of variation, while intercrossing is, except in very rare cases, at the
most an indirect cause of variation.

It may be here said that it is impossible to over-estimate the importance of
vigour in studying variation, Without vigour no race or breed can maintain its
position ; without renewed vigour it is hardly likely to develop new characters.
The new vigour, as already explained, may be obtained by intercrossing ; but it
may also be acquired, especially in plants, by a change of surroundings accompanied
by a plentiful supply of suitable food.

With rigid selection the gradual loss of vigour may escape notice, but when
selection is suspended, rapid deterioration (from the fancier’s standpoint) is the
inevitable result. If, eg., a number of pigeons, good specimens of a distinct
breed, are isolated and left unmolested for a few years, they rapidly degenerate,
z.e., they lose their show points (be they peaks, frills, ruffs, or metallic tints) and
reassume the more fixed ancestral characters. If, however, the less characteristic
birds are eliminated, and high-class birds are from time to time introduced from
another loft, the vigour and the distinctive traits are indefinitely preserved.

If the age and condition of the soma and the state of ripeness of the germ-
cells are potent factors, and especially if vigour counts for much, the difficulties of
breeders become intelligible, and the unlikeliness of intercrossing being a direct
cause of variation all the more evident. The most that can be expected from

1 Animals and Plants, vol, ii. p. 251. ? Ibid., vol, ii, p. 254.

674 REPORT—1901.

intercrossing is the engrafting on one breed of the characters of another. Even this
rarely happens, and is only possible when the two breeds are somewhat allied. It
is impossible, e.g., to unite in one individual all the points of a fantail and a pouter,
or of a fantail and a jacobin; but given healthy, vigorous birds, the points of an
owl may be engrafted on a barb. Or to take another example, the black ears,
feet, &c., of a Himalaya rabbit may be combined with the characteristic form,
long hair, and habits of an Angora. It may be impossible to predict what will
happen when intercrossing is resorted to, but if pure-bred members of a distinct
variety are experimented with—and it is useless working with either plants or
animals of unknown origin—characters not already present in one of the varieties
need not be looked for.

But while interbreeding at the right moment may be a cause of progressive
variation, at other times it leads to what is perhaps best described as degeneration.
When, e.g., very young members of the same brood or litter, or unhealthy, closely
related individuals, or quite mature and apparently vigorous but for several
generations closely related animals are interbred, the offspring frequently differ
from their parents. They are often delicate and highly sensitive, and unable to
survive unless provided with highly nuiritious food; and though they mature
numerous germ-cells they rear but few offspring, and, what is still more striking,
they are sometimes either white or all but devoid of pigment. Offspring thus
characterised, especially when white or nearly white in colour, eg., nearly white
pheasants, partridges, and woodcock, white specimens of the brown hare, white
squirrels, &c., are sometimes regarded as distinct varieties, but when the departure
from the normal colour, &c., is the result of close inbreeding, it is better to regard
it as a form of degeneration.

In the spring of 1900 I crossed a quarter-wild grey doe rabbit with a closely
inbred black-and-white buck. The young obtained varied considerably in colour:
to one of her offspring coloured like the sire, the grey doe produced a second litter,
all but one decidedly lighter in colour than the sire. Two of the darker members
of this litter produced almost white young, and to one of them the original grey
doe has recently produced a light-coloured litter consisting of two pure-white
specimens, two with only a narrow dorsal band, two fawn-coloured, and one
black. Close interbreeding with goats and pigeons yields similar results. Birds
on small remote Pacific islands are sometimes marked with irregularly disposed
white patches. These pie-bald birds, like light-coloured pheasants, cream-coloured
partridges, and dun-coloured rooks, may also be the victims of close inbreeding.

The Swamping Effects of Intercrossinyg.

The question ‘ Ave new varieties liable to be swamped by intercrossing ? ’ is
perhaps the most important now pressing for an answer from biologists. What
would happen, for example, if specimens of all the different breeds of cattle were
set free and left unmolested on a large area? Would they some centuries hence
be represented by several breeds or by one? Many would answer this question by
saying that unless some of them in course of time were isolated by mountains,
deserts, or other physical barriers, they would eventually through intercrossing
give rise to a single breed. ‘To this question Darwin would, I think, have given a
somewhat different answer, for, while admitting ‘that isolation is of considerable
importance in the production of new species,’ he was, on the whole, ‘inclined to
believe that largeness of area is of more importance.’' Unfortunately Darwin
nowhere indicates how he supposed new varieties escape being swamped by inter-
crossing. His silence on this important point is difficult to explain, for during his
lifetime the influence of intercrossing in checking progress, except in one direction,
was often enough insisted on. Huxley tells us that in his earliest criticisms of the
‘Origin’ ‘he ventured to point out that its logical foundation was insecure so long
as experiments in selective breeding had not produced varieties which were more
or less infertile.’ * Later Moritz Wagner and others pointed out the important

’ Origin of Species, p. 104. 2 Life of Professor Huwley, p. 170.

—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 675

part physical isolation had played in the origin of species; and later still Romanes
endeavoured to show how the blighting influence of free intercrossing might be
overcome by physiological selection, Romanes, like Huxley, believing seyeral
varieties might be evolved in the same area if more or less mutually infertile.
Evidence of the importance of physical isolation is plentiful enough; but neither
has experimental nor selective breeding proved that physiological isolation has
been instrumental in arresting the swamping effects of intercrossing. Hence,
according to Huxley and others, the foundation of Darwin’s doctrine of natural
selection must still be regarded as insecure. Is intersterility the only possible
means by which new varieties can be sayed from premature extinction, from being
destroyed betore they have a chance of proving their fitness to survive? In other
words, are barriers as essential among wild as among domestic animals? It does
not seem to have occurred to the biologists who so fully realised the need of isola-
tion, that the old varieties instead of swamping might be swamped by the new, and
that several varieties might sometimes be sufficiently exclusive to flourish and
eventually give rise to a like number of species in the same area. If on an island
two new varieties of sheep appeared sufficiently vigorous, or, as we say, sufficiently
prepotent, to swamp all the other varieties—as the ill-favoured lean kine did eat
up the fat ones—and yet so exclusive that their cross-bred offspring invariably
belonged to the one new variety or the other, for their preservation fences and
other barriers would be superfluous.

Is there any evidence that by prepotency the swamping of new varieties is
sometimes checked, and that by exclusive inheritance two or more varieties, though
mutually fertile, may persist in the same area, occasionally intercrossing with each
other, but neither giving up to nor taking from each other any of their distinctive
characters? I have in my possession a skewbald Iceland pony that produces richly
striped hybrids to a zebra, but skewhbald offspring the image of herself in make,
colour, and temperament to whole-coloured bay Avab and Shetland ponies. This
pony instead. of being swamped invariably swamps older breeds.. A number of
prepotent skewbald ponies, wherever placed, would (especially with the help of
preferential mating) in all probability soon give rise to a distinct race suchas once
existed in the East. What is true of the Equide is equally true of other groups.
Black hornless Galloway bulls are often so prepotent that their offspring with
long-horned brightly coloured Highland heifers readily pass for pure-bred Gallo-
ways. The wolf is prepotent over the dog, as the wild rabbit, rat, and mouse
are prepotent over their tame relatives. As an instance of prepotency in rabbits,
J may give the results of an interbreeding experiment with a grey doe, the grand-
daughter of a wild rabbit, and an inbred buck richly spotted like a Dalmatian
hound. Of six young in the first litter three were like the sire. To one of her
sons the grey doe next produced eight young, all richly spotted, and subsequently
to one of her spotted grandsons she produced two spotted, two white, and two grey
oftspring. Similar results are obtained with plants; hybrid orchids, e.g., some-
times reproduce all the characters of one of the parents.

It need hardly be insisted on that if new varieties, well adapted for their
environment, are not only sufticiently prepotent to escape being swamped by other
varieties, but are also, like the spotted rabbit, able to hand on the prepotency
almost unimpaired to a majority of their descendants, progressive development
along a definite line will be possible. But of even more importance than pre-
potency is what for want of a better name may be known as exclusive inheritance.
Recently a vigorous mature Indian blue-rock pigeon mated with an inbred and
equally mature fantail, hatched and reared two birds, one exactly like a blue-rock,
but with fourteen instead of twelve tail feathers; the other characterised by all the
points of a high-class fantail, the tail feathers being thirty in number—two fewer
than in the fantail parent, but eighteen more than in the blue-rock parent. In
this case the blue-rock was the exclusive bird, the fantail having previously pro-
duced birds with only sixteen feathers in the tail when mated with an ordinary
dovecot pigeon. A still more striking example of exclusive inheritance we have
in the crow family. The carrion crow and the hooded crow aré so unlike in
colour that they were loug regarded as two distinct species ; now they are said to

676 REPORT—1901.

be two varieties of the same species. The carrion crow is’black all over, but 18
the hooded crow the breast and back are grey. These two crows cross freely (but
for this they would probably still rank as distinct species); but in the crossbred
young there is never any blending—they are either black or grey, usually both
varieties occurring in the same nest. Similar exclusiveness occurs amongst
mammals. When distinct varieties of cats are crossed, some of the young usually
resemble one breed, some the other, and the distinctions may persist for several
generations. A white crossed with a tabby-coloured Persian cat produced a pair
of white and a pair of tabby-coloured young; the two white cats when interbred
also produced two white and two tabby-coloured individuals. I find cats are far
more exclusive than rabbits ; perhaps it is partly for this reason we have so many
species and varieties of wild cats, so few species and varieties of wild rabbits.
Another very striking instance of exclusiveness we have in the Ancon or ‘ Otter’
sheep common in New England at the end of the eighteenth century. This breed,
which was characterised by short crooked legs and a long back like a turnspit dog,
descended from a ram-lamb born in Massachusetts in 1791. The offspring of this
‘sport’ were never intermediate in their characters: they were either like the
original Ancon ram or like the breeds, some thirteen in number, with which he
was mated. Frequently in the case of twins one was otter-like, the other an ordinary
lamb. More remarkable stili, the Ancon-like crosses, generation after generation,
were as exclusive as their crooked-legged ancestor.

Another familiar example of exclusiveness we have in the peppered moth, a
dark variety of which in a few years swamped the older light variety throughout
a considerable part of England, and is now extending its range on the Continent.
It thus appears that when a new variety is sutticiently prepotent, instead of being
swamped it may actually swamp the old-established variety; and that when two
or more varieties are sufficiently exclusive they may flourish side by side, and
eventually give rise to two or more distinct species.

Prepotency may hence be said to supplement and complete the work of the
environment. The environment seems to be mainly concerned in eliminating the
unfit ; whether any of the survivors persist depends not so much on their surround-
ings as on whether they are sufficiently prepotent and exclusive to escape being
swamped by intercrossing. This way of accounting for progress in one or more
directions may prove as inadequate as the one suggested by isolationists, but it has
the merit of being more easily tested by experiment. It not only gets rid of the
swamping bugbear, but makes it matter of indifference whether (to quote from the
President’s address at the last Oxford meeting of the Association) ‘the advan-
tageously varied bridegroom at the one end of the wood meets the bride, who, by
a happy contingency, had been advantageously varied in the same direction, and
at the same time, at the other end of the wood.’ Further, as a highly prepotent
vigorous variety can very well afford to maintain a number of budding organs, it
helps us to understand how luminous, electric, and certain other structures were
nursed up to the point when they began to count in the struggle for existence.

Doubtful Causes of Variation.

Having indicated how maturity of the soma and of the yerm-cells, and how
bodily welfare and interbreeding may act as causes of variation, and also how
swamping of the new variations may be checked, I shall now refer to certain
supposed causes of variation.

Maternal Impressions.

I may begin with the widespread belief that the offspring are capable of being
influenced in form, colour, and temperament by maternal impressions—the belief
we associate with the skilful shepherd who peeled wands and stuck them up before
the fulsome ewes. Muller,! more than half a century ago, conclusively argued
against the belief in maternal impressions, but the belief still prevails. 1 know of

1 Hlements of Physiology, vol. ii. p, 1405.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 677

two able naturalists who subscribe to the maternal impression doctrine, and it is
firmly held by many breeders and by not a few physicians. A writer in a recent
number of a quarterly,'! which circulates widely amongst farmers and stock-keepers,
boldly asserts that the existence of impressions which affect progeny (more espe-
cially in colour) is a settled fact. This writer supports his case by referring to a
highly successful breeder of polled Angus cattle, who considered it necessary to
surround his herd ‘with a tight black fence in order to keep the females from
dropping red calves because they saw the red herds of his neighbours.’ Reference
is also made by this writer to the belief, common in certain parts of England, that
whitewashed byres, regardless of the colour of the parents, produce light-coloured
calves ; that the colour of foals is often more influenced by the stable companion of
the dam than by her own colour or that of the sire; and that even the colour of
birds varies with the immediate surroundings, fowls, eg., however carefully
penned, hatching birds resembling in colour the hens they habitually see in a
neighbouring run. If maternal impressions thus influence the offspring they must
be one of the most effective causes of variation. During the last six years I have
bred many hundreds of animals, but the nearest approach to an instance of maternal
impressions was a dark pup with a white ring half round the neck, which suggested
the white metal collar sometimes worn by his sire. But similar rings round the
legs and tail rather discredited the view that the white neck-ring was in any way
related to the sire’s nickel-plated collar. Telegony was sometimes said to be due to
maternal impressions. It was doubtless: for this reason that I was urged some
‘years ago to carefully prevent the mares used in‘my experiments from seeing too
much of the zebras. But though numerous foals have been bred from mares
stabled with zebras or grazing with richly striped zebra hybrids, not a particle of
evidence have I found in support of the maternal impression doctrine. The foals
have neither stripes nor upright manes, and do not even attempt to mock the
weird barking call of the zebra. Sheep and cattle, goats, rabbits, and guinea-pigs,
fowls and pigeons, have simply confirmed the results obtained with horses. This
being the case, grooms may very well omit following the practice (considered so
essential in Spain during the Middle Ages, and still often religiously observed in
England and America) of setting ‘ before the mares . . . the most goodly beasts’
by way of hinting to them the kind of foals they are expected to produce,

The Needs of the Organism as a Cause of Variation.

No recent biologists are perhaps prepared to believe like Lamarck that the
wings of birds were developed by their remote ancestors making efforts to fly ; that
by stretching its toes the otter acquired webbed feet; nor are they prepared to
find in our new mammal, the Ocapi, evidence in support of Lamarck’s contention
that to meet new needs the giraffe by much stretching gradually lengthened his
neck. Yet it is difficult sometimes to see any real difference between the beliefs
of the new Lamarckians and the old. It is maintained, for example, ‘ that when a
certain functional activity produces a certain change in one generation it will pro=
duce it more easily the next,’ that, ¢.g., flounders and their allies by constant efforts
generation after generation have dragged the left eye to the right side, while by
similar efforts in the turbot and certain other flat fishes the right eye has been
shifted to the left side. It is not alleged by Neo-Lamarckians that globe fishes
resulted from round fishes blowing themselves out, or that flounders resulted from
round fishes generation after generation making efforts to flatten themselves. If
by germinal variation and selection flounders were evolved out of round fishes,
is it not straining at a gnat and swallowing a camel to refuse to admit that by
the same factors the left eye of the flounder has been transferred from the left to
the right side of the head? In the flat fishes it is not difficult to imagine how by
variation and selection the eyes originally acquired the power of responding to
certain external stimuli. .

1 Bibddy's Quarter’y, Autumn Numbet, 1900, p. 163.

1901, YY

678 REPORT—1901.

The Direct Action of the Environment and Use-Inheritance as Causes
of Variation.

Of the doctrine of the transmission of acquired characters, still so often the
subject of discussion, I need say little more than that I have failed to discover
any evidence in its favour. Writing in 1876, Darwin says, ‘In my opinion the
ereatest error which I haye committed has been not allowing sufficient weight to
the direct action of the environment, z.c., food, climate, &c., independently of
natural selection.’! Darwin not only in his later years reverted to the teaching
of Buffon, but, in as far as he continued to believe in the ‘inherited effects of use
and disuse,’ he adopted the views of Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck. While
admitting that the direct action of the environment on the soma and use-
inheritance are indirect—it may be potent—causes of variation, I do not believe
there is any trustworthy evidence in support.of the view that definite somatic
variations are ever transmitted,

Telegony as a Cause of Variation.

The belief in telegony is less deserving of consideration than the doctrine of
the transmission of acquired characters. Nevertheless I perhaps ought to refer
to it at greater length, not so much because of its scientific importance, but
because it interests all sorts and conditions of men in many different parts of the
world. Telegony (‘infection of the germ’ of older writers) means that not only
the immediate parents but also the previous mates (if any) contribute to the
characters of the offspring; that, ey.,a mare which had produced foals to, say,
‘Ladas’ and ‘ Persimmon’ might thereafter give birth to a foal by ‘Flying Fox,’
to which ‘ Ladas’ and ‘ Persimmon,’ as well as the actual sire, contributed some
of their characteristics. Many even think a sire may transmit definite structural
characters from one mate to another. If there is such a thing as telegony, if it is
possible to blend, without the risks of intercrossing, the characteristics of several
individuals or varieties, progressive deyelopment would be greatly accelerated.
Though the doctrine of ‘infection’ has probably long formed part of the breeder's
creed, it received but little attention from men of science until in 1820 Lord
Morton communicated a case of infection to the Royal Society, which in due time
was published in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions.’ In this the most credible and best
authenticated of all the cases of telegony on record a chestnut mare, after rearing a
quagga hybrid, produced toa black Arabian horse three foals of a peculiar bay
colour, one of them (a filly) showing more stripes than the quagga hybrid, and,
according to the stud groom in charge of ‘the colts, characterised by a mane
‘which from the first was short, stiff, and upright.’? Darwin, after fully
considering Lord Morton’s case, came to the conclusion that the chestnut mare
had been infected, and this case along with others led him to believe that the
first male influenced ‘the progeny subsequently borne by the mother to other
males.’® If the upright zebra-like mane in one of the pure-bred colts and the
markings on all three were the result of the chestnut mare having been first
mated with a quagga, there is undoubtedly such a thing as telegony, and the
presumption is that other mares first mated with a quagga or zebra and then with
a black Arabian would give birth to striped offspring with a stiff if not quite
upright mane. The evidence that from the first the mane of the filly was short,
stiff, and upright is most unsatisfactory. It consists of an allegation by a stud
groom. That the mane was upright, as in the quagga and zebra, is @ priori
improbable, (1) because the mane of the quagga hybrid instead of being short and
stiff was long and lank enough to arch to one side of the neck ; (2) because the
mane of zebra hybrids. throughout the greater part of the year is so long that
it falls to one or it may be both sides of the neck; and (3) because in the Equidee

1 Life and Letters: Letter to Moritz Wagner.
2 Phil. Trans., 1820, p. 21.
8 Animals and Plants, vol. ii. pp. 435, 436.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 679

an upright mane is always accompanied by a tail deficient of hairs at the root—
in the filly the tail is as perfect as that of her Arab sire. We have still stronger
evidence that the allegation of the groom was unfounded from drawings (of the
chestnut mare, her three ‘colts, the black Arab, the quagga, and the quagga
hybrid) by Agasse, a very reliable animal painter of the early part of last
century. In the drawing of the filly the mane is represented as lying to one side,
as in Arabs and other well-bred horses. The pictures (now in the Museum of the
Royal College of Surgeons, London) were made because the subsequent foals
were believed to prove the truth of the ‘infection’ doctrine. Had the mane of
the filly been erect it would hardly have escaped the keen eyes of the artist.
But had Agasse by any chance missed this all-important detail, Lord Morton or
some of those interested would doubtless haye called his attention to the matter.
lf the mane of an Arab is completely removed early in the spring it is stiff, and
upright in the autumn, but hanging to one side close to the neck in the following
summer. When the whole circumstances are taken into consideration, there
seems to me no escape from the conclusion that the mane of the filly was upright
when seen by Lord Morton in August 1820, and lying to one side when painted
by Agasse the following summer, because it had been regularly cropped or at least
hogged some months before Lord Morton’s visit. But whatever be the explanation
of the want of agreement between the mane as seen by Lord Morton and as
depicted by Avasse, it will, I think, be admitted that the evidence afforded by the
mane of the filly is hardly sufficient to establish the truth of the doctrine of
telegony. Of still less value is the evidence afforded by the make, coat-colour,
and markings which were apparently too indistinct to deserve the name of stripes.
The colts were decidedly Arab-like, of a bay colour marked more or less ‘in a
darker tint.’ Judging from Agasse’s drawings they closely resemble Arab-Indian
crosses ; they are, in fact, in make very like the Arab-Kathiawar horse already
referred to. I have seen a bay Highland cob with as many stripes as Lord
Morton’s colts, and pure-bred Arabs of a dun colour with stripes on the neck and
far more distinct leg bars than those depicted by Agasse. I believe the colts
owed their stripes and colour, not to ‘infection’ of their dam by her previous mate
the quagga, but to reversion. It is quite possible the black Arabian horse was of
mixed origin; that the chestnut mare was crossbred is admitted. Asin the west
of Ireland the offspring of black and chestnut ponies are sometimes of a
decidedly dun colour, it is not surprising that the black Arab and the half-bred
chestnut had bay offspring. Neither are the stripes surprising. I recently ascer-
tained that the chestnut mare was presented to Lord Morton (while serving with
his regiment in India) by one of his officers—Mr. Boswell of Deeside, A berdeen-
shire—and that she was most likely a cross between an Arab and a country-bred
pony. In Kathiawar the ponies when pure-bred are of a rufous grey colour and
more or less richly striped. If in the chestnut mare there was any Kathiawar or
even any native pony blood its offspring to a black sire might have been expected
to be of a dun colour and striped. In a word, there is no reason for assuming
that the foals would have been less striped if the chestnut mare had been mated
with the black Arab first and the quagea afterwards,

By way of testing the truth of the ‘infection’ doctrine I started, in 1895, a
number of experiments, and especially arranged to repeat as accurately as possible,
what is commonly called Lord Morton’s experiment. Since then twelve mares, after
producing sixteen zebra hybrids, a mule, and a hinny, have had an opportunity of
supporting the telegony hypothesis by giving birth to twenty-two pure-bred foals.

During the same period Baron de Parana of Brazil has bred at least six zebra
hybrids, and some of the dams of these hybrids subsequently produced ordinary
foals. Further, Baron de Parana has for a number of years been engaged in
crossing cattle and in watching the results obtained in several mule-breeding
establishments, where from 400 to 1,000 brood mares are kept. As in these
establishments the mares breed mules and horses alternately—two or three mules
and then a horse foal—there has been carried on for some years, under the observa-
tion of Baron de Parana, a telegony experiment on a gigantic scale.

The single hybrid bred by Lord Morton had extremely few stripes, and only

YE Z

680 REPORT—1901.

in a remote way suggested a member of the zebra family. All my hybrids, like
those bred in Brazil, have more stripes than their zebra sire, and in some of them
the bands are nearly as conspicuous as in some of the zebras, thus proving that
both the mares (which varied in colour and breed) and the two zebra stallions
used were well adapted for the experiment. The results of my experiments, not
only with the Equidée but also with other domestic quadrupeds and birds, all point
to the conclusion that there is no such thing as telegony, and the same conclusion
has been independently arrived at by Baron de Parana in Brazil. Believers in
telegony—they are numerous in America, India, and Australasia, as well as in
England—almost always say of the many experiments recently made with a view
to giving ‘infection’ a chance of showing itself, that they have only yielded
negative results, and they generally add, it is impossible to provea negative. After
carefully considering all the more striking so-called cases of ‘infection,’ I have no
hesitation in saying that there is no satisfactory evidence that there has ever been,
either in the human family or amongst domestic animals, a single instance of
‘infection.’

I have in a hurried and imperfect manner indicated that we are not likely to
find either in maternal impressions, the direct action of the environment, use-
inheritance, or telegony a true cause of variation. I have endeavoured to point
out that, instead of simply stating that variation is due to the constant recurrence
of slight inequalities of nutrition of the germ-cells, we may with some confidence
assert that differences in the age, vigour, and health of the parents and differences
in the ripeness of the germ-cells are potent causes of variation.

I have also endeavoured to prove that intercrossing, though a direct cause of
retrogressive variation, is only an zmdirect cause of progressive variation, while
interbreeding (in-and-in-breeding) at the right moment is a cause of progressive
variation.

Further, I have discussed at some length the swamping effects of inter-
crossing, chiefly with the object of showing (1) that progress in a single direction
is probably often due to new varieties swamping old, it may be long-established,
varieties ; and (2) that several varieties may be sufficientlv exclusive to flourish
side by side in the same area, and eventually (partly owing to their aloofness, z.e.,
to differential mating) give rise to several new species,

I have only now to add that I was mainly led to select ‘ The Experimental
Study of Variation’ as the subject of my address that I might indirectly indicate
that the time had come when a well equipped institute should be provided for
biological and other experiments.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. The Pelvic Cavity of the Porpoise (Phocena communis) as a guide to the
determination of a Sacral Region in Cetacea. By Davip HEpsurn,
M.D., FRS.E., Lecturer on Regional Anatomy, and Davip WaAtTER-
ston, JA., ILD., L.RSE., Demonstrator of Anatomy, University of
ainburgit.

Among Cetacea the absence of hind limbs renders it difficult to determine from
external examination where the trunk of the body ends and the tail begins, but
upon the skeleton the presence of chevrons enables us to differentiate the caudal
trom the so-called lumbar vertebree. No means of subdividing the lumbar verte-
bree into lumbar and sacral sets having hitherto been suggested, the authors are of
opinion that a key to such subdivision may be found in a study of the vertebral
relations of the pelvic cavity. They have determined the existence of a true pelvic
cavity in the common porpoise. This cavity corresponds to five pra-caudal verte-
bree, and its anterior end is opposite the 29th vertebra behind the skull. The
authors have examined the vertebral columns of a number of four-footed mammals
and find that the first segment of the fused sacrum varies in position from the
27th to the Slst vertebra behind the skull. Among Cetacea they find that

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 681

while allowing five pre-caudal vertebre for a sacral series, there is much
variability regarding the position of the first sacral segment. Thus, among cer-
tain Mystacoceti, it would occur from the 27th to the 31st vertebra behind
the skull, but in Balenoptera sibbaldii at the 33rd or 34th, Among toothed
whales (Denticeti) the variability is much greater, especially among Delphinide,
not only in different species, but even in different specimens of the same species
and in different sexes, for the first sacral vertebra may be situated from the 27th
to the 43rd vertebra behind the skull.

Notwithstanding these differences, the position of the pelvic organs indicates
that they are due rather to variation in the number of dorsal and true lumbar
vertebrge than to increase in the length of the sacral region. Therefore, from the
position of the pelvic organs and the presence of a peritoneal cavity (pelvic) in
Cetacea, and also the common occurrence of five vertebrie in the sacrum of quadru-
pedal mammals, the authors believe that among Cetacea five pree-caudal vertebrie
might fairly be classified as sacral, or, conversely, that the sacral series of vertebrie
might be reckoned from the inlet of the peritoneal pelvic cavity to the first of the
chevron-bearing or caudal vertebrie.

2. The Relationships of the Premaxilla in Bears.
By Bicuarp J. Anperson, M.D., Professor of Natural History, Galway.

The premaxilla presents many features of interest because of its relations to
other bones in the same animal, and to the same bone in other animals, also because
of the peculiar position which was assigned to it in the vertebrate theory of the
skull.

This bone in the bears articulates with the frontal, and differs in this respect
from the position of the bone in other carnivora. ~ The following summary repre-
sents the facts in the species examined :—

Ursus pyreneus.—The distance from the alveolar margin of the premaxilla
to the nasal in the middle line is 23 inches. The naso-premaxillary suture is
3 inches in length. ‘The premaxilla 1 inch wide below by 33 inches in length,
The nasal is 3 inches and the maxilla 33 inches. The maxilla is thus shut out
from the nasals.

Ursus labiatus.—The length of the skull here is 1 foot and the premaxilla
4 inches. The premaxilla is nearly + inch across at the lower end of the
nasals, The measurement from the incisor alveolar margin to the lower border
of the nasals is 2} inches. The naso-premaxillary articulation is 2 inches in
length.

“Ursus arctos,—The length of the skull is 1 foot 2 inches; nasals, 34 inches
by 3 inch broad ; premaxilla, 4} inches long by 2 inch broad. This may
be compared with the last. The distance of the alveolar margin from the
lower border of the nasals is 2} inches. It is 12 inch from the nasal edge to
the point of articulation with the frontal. The naso-premaxillary suture is
2} inches. Brown bear has a naso-maxillary suture (Owen),

The premaxilla of the Himalayan bear reaches further up and back than in
Ursus arctos and U. labiatus. Alveolar margin to nasal is 21 inches; naso-
premaxillary suture, 13 inch ; premaxillary maxillary suture, 33 inches.

Heliarctos has a skull 1 foot inlength. The nasal is 3 inches and premaxillary
4 inches long. The alveolar margin is 2} inches distant from the nasals. The
naso-premaxillary suture 13 inch.

Ursus maritimus has nasals 4 inches long and premaxille 5 inches. The
nasals appear to reach higher-than usual. The distance of the lower border of
nasals from the alveolus is 3} inches; the naso-premaxillary margin is 12 inch.

The fen bear, an ancient variety of Ursus arctos, which is sometimes found
in Irish bogs, has a premaxillary maxillary suture 33 inches long, and naso-
premaxillary 1} inch (a little less than in U. maritimus); the alveolar margin
to nasal, 24 inches. This and other specimens were kindly placed at my disposal
in the Kildare Street Museum, Dublin, 7

682 REPORT—1901.

It is thus observable that, whilst in some specimens (e.g., the Himalayan and
white bear) the nasals appear to be proportionally longer (reach higher up), there
appears to be tolerable uniformity.

Comparing Kindred Genera.—Herpestes has an arrangement similar to the
bears. The specimens examined belonged to the College of Surgeons’ Museum.
The marten has premaxille that nearly touch the frontals. In Genetta tigrina
these hones approach, and in the specimen examined the premaxilla of the left
side touches the frontal. The premaxillee in Procyon lotor reach almost to the
frontal. Mellivora capensis has a naso-maxillary suture three-eighths of an inch
long.

"The Canides approach the Ursids in only some of their species in the character
of the connections of the premaxilla, Canis aureus has a naso-maxillary suture
one-eighth of an inch long, or less. The tips of the frontals and premaxillee
approach in the fox, whilst in a St. Bernard dog 3 inches may be interposed
between the maxillaries and frontals. Hence we see that in the Canide there is
less uniformity than in the Ursidee.

The common otter (Lutra vulgaris) and the sea otter do not show any articu-
lated frontals and premaxille. The grey seal, common seal, and walrus show
no resemblance to the bears.

The whales, Mesoplodon, Orca, and the dolphins, on the other hand, have
ereatly elongated premaxille with greatly reduced nasals, whilst in the Sirenia
enormous development of the former corresponds with abortion of the latter.

The great development of the premaxillz in rodents and elephants, as in the
dugong, seems to be associated with the large incisor teeth, but the hyrax is more
like the Macropus in this regard. The premaxillie in lemurs, monkeys, and ant-
eaters are short and attached by their upper ends to the nasals; they are not much
concerned in the elongation of the skull in the latter group. The skull of Myrme-
cophaga jubata, 14 inches long, has nasals 7 inches, but premaxillee very short
and set perpendicularly to the nasals, the external inferior angle of which they
touch. The apparent separation of a portion of the frontal part of the premaxilla
appears to be the result of a wormian ossification such as is seen in the gorilla.
The ‘accessory premaxilla’ found in relation with the premaxilla in monotremes
seems to have no representative in mammals (Van Bammelen).* It seems, there-
fore, that—

(1) The Urside have the premaxilla usually articulating with the frontal.
The suture may occupy a higher level in some forms.

(2) That in the Procyon, marten, and Genetta the bones nearly touch.

(3) Some Canide resemble the bears in having the maxille almost separated
from the nasals.

(4) That the otters and common seals differ from the bears in this regard, as
also does the walrus.

3. Report on the Migration of Birds in Great Britain and Ireland.
See Reports, p. 364.

4, Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station, Naples,
See Reports, p. 354,

5. Report on the Oceupation of a Table at the Marine Biological
Laboratory, Plymouth.—See Reports, p. 376.

6. Report on the ‘Index Animaliwm.’—See Reports, p, 362.

1 Meckel, Owen, Turner, De Blainyille, &c,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 683

7. Report on the Plankton and Physical Conditions of the English
Channel.—ee Reports, p. 353,

8, Eleventh Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands,
See Reports, p. 352.

9. Report on the Coral Reefs of the Indian Region.—See Reports, p, 362,

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

The following Papers were read :—

1, The Coral Islands of the Maldives! By J. Stantny Garpiner, ILA.

The Maldive Archipelago to the south-west of Ceylon is made up of a large
series of comparatively shallow banks separated from one another by channels of
about 170 fathoms in depth. They extend north and south as a chain, double in
the centre, for 550 miles. All are covered with coral reefs arising to the surface.
Some banks have on their circumferences the single ring-shaped reefs of perfect
atolls, while others are studded with numbers of small isolated reefs many of
which are of circular form with shallow lagoons. The two classes of bank merge
into each other, and the changes taking place at the present day are such that
era may naturally be supposed to have arisen by the fusion of the smaller
reefs,

All land in the Maldive group owes its origin directly or indirectly to
elevation and in most atolls is very markedly washing away. Everything points
to a state of rest at the present day. The atoll reefs are perfecting themselves on
all sides, and their passages are closing up. The reefs, however, are not
broadening, but to a certain point narrow as they become more perfect. The
central basins of atollons are everywhere coming into free communication with
the lagoons of the atolls. There is no trace whatever of the filling in of the
lagoons ; indeed, such evidence as was found pointed on the contrary to their
further widening and deepening, and to the gradual destruction of the shoals and
lands within their encirclirg reefs. The Maldive group certainly marks the
existence of an ancient land area, but the changes going on are not consistent
with the view that the reefs were built up on the subsidence of the land. The
various reefs appear rather to have grown up separately on slight elevations of a
common platcau ata depth of about 150 fathoms, while the plateau itself seems
to have been formed by the washing away of the original land by wave and
current actions.

2. On a Method for Recording Locat Fawnas.
By Epwarp J. Buus, B.A., B.Sc.

It is evident that faunological work is the basis upon which zoological
investigations of all kinds are founded. ‘The important questions connected
with the study of environment—since the biological no less than the physical
environments of any particular organism must be taken into account—depend for
their solution on an accurate and complete knowledge of the associated fauna and
flora. There are unlimited opportunities for work on this fascinating subject at

‘ For a full account of these islands see The Mauna and Geography of the Mal-
dives and Laccadives, Camb. Uniy. Press, vol. i., part 1 (October 15, 1901) and part
2 (in the press). }

684 REPORT—1901.

our own doors, and for this reason alone, though there are many others equally
weighty, the compilation of our own local faunas is most desirable. ¢

The scheme proposed ! consists in the formation by natural history societies
of card or slip catalogues of species on a similar plan to the library catalogues
first devised in the United States. To facilitate reference each card would be
filled in on a uniform plan with the name of genus and species say at the top
left-hand corner, and columns or spaces for locality, date of capture, recorder,
means used to identify the specimens, remarks, in fact any data eonsidered desir-
able, The number of cards or slips assigned to each species need not be limited,
but would depend on the number of localities and other details thought necessary
to be recorded. The slips might vary in colour to indicate which entries are taken
from literature and which are due to personal observation, to denote extinct species
or those of economic importance, or to make any useful distinction. The slips would
be arranged on files on a definite system and with the use of the well-known
devices for dividing into groups.

An extremely desirable feature of the scheme would be that each slip should
be represented and the species authenticated by a specimen ir the local natural
history museum. The slip could easily hear a reference to the particular specimen
in the collection, and as the catalogue became filled up it might be placed in
some local public institution where it could at any time he utilised by natu-
ralists.

In this manner all the information collected by the members of local societies
could be brought together, from whatever source obtained; and there is no reason
why the fauna of a given district should not in course of time he completed in the
same sense as the British flora of flowering plants has been completed.

The district need not necessarily supply the specialists for all the groups of
animals, Specialists at a distance would in many cases be pleased to work out
collections carefully furnished with localities, &c., and thus supply the data for
filling up slips.

This scheme not only allows of the widest co-operation by bringing to a focus
both the results of systematic work and that of a more desultory nature, but also
favours the co-ordination of faunistic observation, since overlapping of work
would at once become apparent, and the gaps caused by neglect of certain groups
of animals would declare themselves, and thus attention and interest in filling up
the deficiencies would be invited.

Another advantage is the fact that the scheme can be started at any time by
filling up any number of slips, however small, and that then all additions whether
made singly or in quantity will at once find their proper places and by accumula-
tion eventually bring the list nearer and nearer to completion.

The present time is ripe for the commencement of this work. There seems to be
no reason why it should be deferred, and a strong argument in favour of the asser-
tion is given by so highly competent a body of naturalists, the German zoologists,
having committed themselves, and no doubt wisely, to that great undertaking
‘Das Tierreich.’

It is, I think, desirable to consider whether some body of English naturalists
with the necessary authority, say the Committee of the Conference of Delegates to
the British Association, should not see to it that the local Natural History Societies
of the United Kingdom adopt some such plan of record upon one and the same
system, Such a body of naturalists could draw up the most generally convenient
and useful form of slip and impress upon the Societies the value of cataloguing by
its use in a uniform manner the fauna of the whole country. Having the method
provided would perhaps encourage some societies to take up the work.

Political divisions and areas surrounding large towns are not often of zoological
value. The results obtained by this larger scheme would eventually have to be
rearranged according to the natural features of the country, By making the slips
all uniform the final rearrangement would be enormously facilitated, if not
reduced to the minimum of labour.

1 First suggested by myself to the Cambridge Entomological and Natural History
Society in a paper read on April 26, 1901.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION -D. 685

In concluding, I must acknowledge the assistance I have obtained by dis-
cussing the local scheme with the members of the executive committee of the
Cambridge Entomological and Natural History Society, which intends commencing
a fauna of Cambridgeshire on the lines suggested.

3. Some Notes on the Behaviour of young Gulls artificially and naturally
hatched,—See Reports, p. 378.

4, The Theory of ‘Germinal Selection’ in Relation to the Facts
of Inheritance! By Professor J, ArtHuR Tuomson, J/.A.

The aim of this communication was to test Weismann’s theory of germinal
selection by using it as an interpretation of some important facts of inheritance.
The author gave a brief abstract of the theory. It is an extension in the applica-
bility of the general idea of natural selection. To ‘superorganic’ selection,
ordinary ‘individual’ or ‘personal’ selection, Roux’s ‘histonal’ oy intra-
organismal selection, Weismann has added the idea of a struggle among the
determinants within the germ—germinal selection.

The author indicated the importance of a form of struggle between Roux’s
histonal selection and Weismann’s germinal selection, namely, the struggle between
gametes or potential gametes, e.g., between young ova, between sperms, even
between ova and sperms. A vivid realisation of this visible strugele, and the
sometimes discriminate selection which it implies, may lead naturally to an
appreciation of germinal selection which deals with the wholly invisible.

The following extension of Weismann’s idea of germinal selection was pro-
posed as logical and necessary:—Just as there are three types of individual
struggle, (1) between kindred organisms, (2) between organisms not akin, and
(3) between organisms and the so-called inanimate environment; so there may be
(1) struggle between determinants of the same character, (2) struggle between
different kinds of determinants (Weismann), and (3) struggle between all or any
of the determinants and the somatic or more external environment.

After stating the advantages of Weismann’s theory and possible objections,
the author proceeded to test it in relation to various facts of inheritance :—
(1) The frequently anomalous and unpredictable nature of the results of a pairing
even when the pedigrees are well known; (2) the phenomena of preponderant
and exclusive inheritance ; (8) some of the results of the ‘ Penycuik experiments’
on the importance of the relative ripeness of the gametes; (4) some well-
established cases of true reversion; (5) the supposed greater stability and domi-
nance of the phylogenetically older characters; (6) inbreeding; (7) different
modes of variation, including De Vries’ mutation ; and (8) the indirect etfect which
exogenous changes may have on the germ plasm.

The author’s conclusion was that Weismann’s theory of ‘germinal selection’
justifies itself provisionally as a formula unifying a large number of otherwise
unrelated facts of inheritance.

5. The Heterotypical Division in the Maturation Phases of the Sexual
Cells. By 'TuHomas H. Bryce, I.A., ID.

Of the features of Heterotypical Mitosis the one generally selected as distine-
tive is the ring form of the chromosomes, each ring being considered to arise from
the incomplete separation of the two products of the longitudinal cleavage of a
primary chromatin rod. The manner in which these ring chromosomes are
resolved has been variously interpreted. For the purposes of this note it will
suffice that three interpretations be summarised, thus :—

1 The paper will be included in the author’s work on Heredity (John Murray,
1902).

686 REPORT—1901,

ist. The rings are drawn out on the spindle, and break into Y-shaped daughter
chromosomes.

Tn the anaphase in some eases each daughter V is found again divided into
two \Y’s, and the secondary cleavage is held to be longitudinal. In other cases
the Y’s break at their apices into double rods by a cleavage held to be transverse,
No solution of this contradiction is found along this line.

2nd. The rings are doubled up on themselves and are resolved by being
reopened along the plane of the bend, There is a second longitudinal cleavage
seen, but it is only apparent. Variation in the form of the chromosomes is
explained by variation in the degree of the cleavage, by variation in the insertion
of the traction fibres, and hy different degrees of bending of the rings (Farmer and
Moore). ;

8rd. There is a zeal second longitudinal cleavage which appears in the
metaphase, and is completed in the anaphase of the first Mitosis. Thus daughter
and granddaughter chromosomes are formed in the course of the first Mitosis, the
second Mitosis merely distributing the granddaughter chromosomes (Gregoire,
Strasburger, 1900).

This view of the heterotype serves in Strasburger’s latest work to explain all
the phenomena in plants—differences arising only from the manner in which the
double rod prophase figures are placed on the spindle. In the animal series only
Carnoy and Le Brun and Janssens adopt the idea of the simultaneous double
longitudinal cleavage in Triton.

‘When true tetrads occur the first Mitosis is not strictly heterotypical in
character. In recent studies of the phases in Echinus I have found typical
tetradal bodies, never rings, yet the first Mitosis is heterotypical in character, and
my results show that part at least of the problem of reduction lies zot, as has been
held, in the determination of the origin, but rather in the fate of the tetrads.

Thus in Echinus esculentus there are sixteen tetrads, each consisting of a pair of
slightly curved bilobed rods lying back to back. The tetrads come to lie radially
on the first polar spindle. Each is opened out like a hinge from within outwards,
while at the same time a second longitudinal cleavage is taking place from without
inwards. Lozenge-shaped figures are produced: these elongate greatly and
ultimately break at the equator into two V’s, which again in the anaphase break —
at their apex to form two short bilobed rods lying back to back. This apical
splitting is the completion of the second longitudinal splitting. These bilobed
rods pass unchanged into the second Mitosis, arrange themselves radially on the
spindle, are opened out and separated from one another as the granddaughter
chromosomes, formed in the anaphase of the 1st Mitosis by the second longitudinal
cleavage. In the second polar body each remains as a short bilobed rod, but in
the ovum each greatly elongates into a sharply bent YV. This change in the size
of the chromosomes is important as indicating the relaxation from the very con-
densed condition of the chromatin rods characteristic of the divisions with the
reduced number of chromosomes.

Applying the hypothesis of ‘ Pseudo-reduction’ (Hicker and Riickert) to the -
facts observed each half of the tetrad might be considered to represent two
chromosomes united end to end by the omission of the last segmentation of the
chromatin thread. Through all the phases the fate of each lobe or sphere of the
tetradal body can be traced. The facts can be expressed in the usual formula,
thus, for each of the sixteen tetrads :—

lst Mitssis.

b b b b b b b

va | /\ 7s Y So. | |

4a a a aa aa aa aa

GQ) |) 4@ se (aie (4) aa (5) aa (6) aa (%) awa
bb Ne | N/ V vw, | |

b b b b b bh

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, 687

fr 2nd polar
b ’ i Ka) body
7

(2). des tied ag AAD ; (5)

~ b*
a) a
begin

Thus reduction would be only apparent throughout.

Ihave been unable to determine whether the tetrads arise by the omission of
the last stage of the segmentation of the chromatin thread or by conjugation, but
as each element is twice longitudinally divided in the heterotypical division, the
chromatin is equally distributed between the ovum and the polar bodies, and there
is no question of a reducing division or of unequal distribution of ‘ qualities.’

Whether the idea of ‘pseudo-reduction’ as represented above be accepted
or not, the essential feature is a reduction in bulk merely. The chromatin sub-
stance is, in Nehinus esculentus, packed in the maturation phases into sixteen
instead of thirty-two chromosomes. In view of the fact—whether the hypothesis
of the ‘ Individuality of the Chromosomes’ be accepted or not—that the same
number of chromosomes always emerge from a dividing nucleus as entered it,
this reduction in bulk of the chromatin may very well be a secondary character
acquired to maintain the number of chromosomes constant after the union of the
nuclei in fertilisation,

2nd Mitosis.

a
Q) |
b

.

6. The Fishes of the Coats Arctic Expedition. By W.S. Brucr, P.R.S.G.S.,
Heriot Research Fellow of Edinburgh University.

The author gave an account of the fishes collected by the Coats Arctic Expe-
dition in 1898, with which he sailed as zoologist. Mr. Andrew Coats, of Paisley,
resolved to undertake a voyage to the Arctic regions in 1898 in his yacht ‘ Blen-
eathra,’ now ‘Pandora.’ The ‘ Blencathra’ had previously been used for Arctic
exploration by Sir Allen Young and Mr. Popham. On board there was the
essential apparatus of an expedition, fitted out for oceanographical research, viz.,
Lueas sounding machine, thermometers, water-bottles, trawls, traps, and tow-
nets. On the return of the expedition Mr. Coats contributed a considerable sum,
which enabled the author to sort and classify the collection preparatory to a
detailed examination, which he has since been making by the help of the
George Heriot Research Fellowship, Edinburgh University. So far the careful
examination of the fishes constitutes the greater part of the work. There are
fully 400 fishes in the collection, about sixty of which are adult specimens
belonging to eleven species. The author gave an account of these species, which
he has examined in great detail. The collection is the first of any importance
in the Barents Sea, and is useful in bridging over the gaps in the series obtained
by Payer in 1874, and the author in 1896-97 in Franz Josef Land, and those of
the more recent Russian expeditions in 1898, 1899, and 1900 of the Murman coast
of Arctic Russia,

7. The Fauna of Franz Josef Land. By Wu11am 8. Brucr F.R.S.GS,
Heriot Research Fellow of Edinburgh University.

The author gave a preliminary account of the collections of the Jackson-Harms-
worth Polar Expedition to Franz Josef Land in 1896-97, when he accompanied
that expedition as zoologist. ‘The author was able to secure over 600 species of
animals, by far the largest ever obtained by any previous pelar expedition, and
added about 500 species to the previously known fauna of Franz Josef Land, He

688 REPORT—1901.

made most of the collections in shallow water, near the shore, at Cape Flora; but
also in deep water, as, for instance, in the farthest north station, in 81° N., where
he dredged in 250 fathoms. Marine invertebrates form by far the greatest part of
the collections. Three new mammals were recorded, viz., the Fin-back Whale,
Narwhal, and Floe Rat (the smallest Inown seal). Also five new birds, viz.,
the Lapland Bunting, Shore Lark, Turnstone, Bonaparte’s Sandpiper, Purple
Sandpiper. Among invertebrates the crustacean collection is the most remarkable,
173 species being obtained. This remarkable number is greater than all the
previously known species of animals of Franz Josef Land. Of these the author
pointed out that there were ten species new to science, and that the striking
feature was the recurrence in the high north latitude of species which irhabit
British shores. Other classes of animals were also richly represented in the
collection.

8. On the Mechanism of the Frog’s Tongue.
By Prof. Marcus Hartoc and Nevin Masketyne,

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers were read :—

1, Dimorphism in loraminifera. By J. J. Lister, #.R.S.

2, The Relation of Binary Fission and Conjugation to Variation.
By J. Y. Stpson, D.Sc.

It is a long-standing generalisation that binary fission is mere duplication ; that
the products of the process are exactly alike. The use of this generalisation in
theory is obvious. In binary fission we do not look for variation ; accordingly we
are left with an excellent rationale of conjugation, and so, finally, of sexual repro-
duction, viz., a means to produce variation in the interests of evolution.

A possible objection to the belief that binary fission is duplication may be
raised on @ priort grounds. Conjugation would still appear to be unconfirmed in
the case of the Amceboidea. If, then, there was no variation through binary
fission, there could not have been evolution.

The contention is not that there is always variation in binary fission, which is
probable, but perhaps impossible to prove. Where it was not quantitative, it
might yet be qualitative. In many cases quantitative variation cannot be esta-
blished under a less magnification than 625.

The species specially examined in this connection were Paramecium caudatum
and Stylonichia pustulata. The points to which hitherto examination has been
restricted are: (a) the general outline; (%) the total length; (c) the extremest
breadth ; (d) the distance between the two contractile vacuoles (Paramecium) ;
(e) the length of the middle caudal bristle (Stylonichia).

In all these five points I found variation ranging in (4) from 1 to 20p, in (ec)
from 1 to 20p, in (d) from 1 to 20, for Paramecium ; and for Stylonichia in (4)
from 1 to 60, in (c) from 1 to 20, and in (e) from 1 to 10u. The variation in
(a) for either form is demonstrated by microphotographs. The general corre-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 689

spondence in the figures is due to extreme cases. The following are the statistics
relating to the points , c, d in w for ten pair of Paramecium :—

| b ( d
|
First pair. . ° , 165...150 45...40 100...95
Second pair . ° <a 180...190 60...55 | 105...109
Third pair : , | 200...193 | 45...50 | 110...110
Fourth pair, : mi 140...150 | 40...45 80...85
Fifth pair. . a} 180...190 | 59...55 105...110
Sixth pair. ° . sil 230...220 60...50 110...105
Seventh pair . 2 ail 260...240 85...90 125...115
Highth pair . F ail 280...260 80...65 145...125
Ninth pair . : 260,..240 $0...70 115...105
Tenth pair , : | 250...230 75...95 120...110

The following statistics, also in p, relate to the points 6, c, d for five pair of
ee =) (f p ) Pp
Stylonichia pustulata :—

aoe Ee RTA
First pair. . .. 240,..230 120...110 | = pai (ka) ea
Second pair. , 2 240...180 110...90 40...20
Third pair -. . 230...240 110...100 40...40
Fourth pair. - 5 230,..245 pe Epa BLO) 55...40
Rateh pair’ 230...220 90...110 35...30

The measurements are for full-grown forms, but the microphotographs of Para.
mecium show variation at different stages of development. The variation waa
traced into the succeeding generation.

From the fact that there is variation in binary fission we get additional reason
for holding with Engelmann, Maupas, and Biitschli, as against Gruber, that the
vegetative phase of the life of the ciliata is primary, and we are enabled to see

in conjugation simply a device whereby the waste involved in that process can
be refunded,

3. On a new Form of Luminous Organ. By W. E. Hoyts, IZA.

4, Notes on Some Bornean Insects. By R. Suetrorp, M.A.

Orthoptera.—Two species of aquatic cockroaches—Zpilampra sp. and a
Panzesthiid—were found at the base of a waterfall on Mount Matang, Sarawak.
All the specimens were immature, but adult forms have been discovered by Mr.
Annandale in the Malay Peninsula ; the females are apterous. These cockroaches
swim and dive well, but are soon drowned if prevented from rising to the surface
to breathe, agreeing in this characteristic with most adult aquatic insects. When
at rest the body of the cockroach is almost entirely submerged, the tip of the
abdomen alone projecting above the surface of the water; the abdomen moves
rently up and down, and every 30-40 seconds a bubble of air issues from the
prothoracic spiracle on each side. Apparently the terminal spiracles are purely
inspiratory in function and the prothoracic expiratory.

The eggs of the stick-insects of the genera Necrosia, Marmessoidea, and Agon-
dasoidea are not seed-like as are the eggs of other genera; twenty or thirty only
are laid, and these are stuck in close-set rows on the leaves of the food-plant,
not dropped promiscuously on the ground. The eggs are long and somewhat
flattened cvals, white or cream-coloured, with a delicate network of black pigment
over the upper surface; there is no capitulum. The young hatch out’ in 10-14

690 REPORT—1901.

days. and the empty egg-shell is left adhering to the leaf to which it was originally
fastened.

It is noteworthy that Phasmide, notwithstanding their wonderful protective
resemblance to sticks and leaves, are the staple form of diet of Trogons.

Neuroptera.—A remarkable Agrionid nymph, apparently allied to Euphea,
occurred with the aquatic cockroaches. The last segment bears three pear-shaped
processes, and a pair of tracheal tufts protruded from and withdrew into the cloacal
opening in a rapid systole and diastole ; the tufts oper to the exterior on each side of
the anus, and each arises from the seven or eight branches, into which the two dorsal
tracheal trunks break up on either side of the rectum: they are pot connected in
any way with the rectum. The pear-shaped processes are hollow, and their cavities
communicate by the narrow lumina of their stalks with the general body cavity :
they are lined with epithelium and contain blood, but are not supplied with
tracheze. It is possible that these structures are highly modified caudal gills,
which now function as blood reservoirs, the flow of blood to and from which may
assist in the diastole and systole of the tracheal tufts.

Hymenoptera.—The habits of the bees of the genus Koptosthosoma were in-
vestigated. Inthe females of these bees there is a chamber at the base of the
abdomen containing numerous Acari; experiments with and dissections of the
nymphs showed that the Acari do not enter this special abdominal chamber until
the final stage in the development of the bee is reached. The nests of these bees
and also those of the genus Xylocopa, which are hollowed out in softwood posts
and dead saplings, simply swarm with Acari.

Coleoptera—The remarkable Mormolyce phyllodes excavates in Polypori fungi
a large lenticular chamber, entered by a narrow slit between the fungus and the
bark of the tree to which the fungus is attached; the chamber usually contains a
few larve in various stages of development. The larve present no features calling
for special remark, being typically Carabid in appearance ; the nymph is provided
with the foliaceous expansions characteristic of the adult. A male and female
Mormolyce are invariably found in close propinquity to the nest, keeping a close
guard over it.

The metamorphoses of two Lycid beetles—Lycostomus melanurus and
Calochromus melanurus—were investigated. The larve of hoth species are found
beneath the bark of trees, and they feed on the larve of other insects which
frequent the same situations. They are conspicuously coloured with black and
erange, and experiments have shown that they are as distasteful to insectivorous
vertebrates as the adult forms. The full-grown larva of ZL. melanurus measures
25 millimetres. The head is minute and can be completely withdrawn into the
first thoracic segment: it is incomplete behind, and does not enclose the brain ;
the antenne are two-jointed and retractile into a sheath; a simple ocellus is
situated at the base. The suctorial mandibles are sickle-shaped and enclosed in a
thin chitinous sheath; the maxille consist each of a single four-jointed palp; the
labium is a triangular plate with two three-jointed palps. The body is somewhat
flattened dorso-ventrally, each segment except the last bears a spiracle; the last
segment bears a ventral sucker formed by the everted lips of the rectum. A simple
hook represents the tarsus. The larva of Calochromus melanwrus agrees in many
points with the above description ; the segments of the body bear short lateral
processes with a spiracle at the base of each: these processes are not jointed as in
the Malacodermatous larva from New Britain, figured and described by Dr. Sharp
(‘ Zool, Results Willey Exped. : Insects’).

Some other Malacoderm larvee of considerable size (50-80 mm.) were
frequently met with, but their life-histories were not traced ; in fact these larvee
have long béen a complete puzzle to entomologists, since no adults of correspond-
ing sizes are known. The external features of one form have recently been
described by Bourgeois (‘ Bull. Soc. Ent. France,’ 1899, pp. 58-63) ; the head is
extremely like that of the Lycid larvee noted above, and in other points of its
anatomy it agrees with those forms; the cuticle is remarkable, being composed of
columnar cells with small nuclei: the inner and outer ends of these cells are
covered with a thin sheathing of chitin. In another form, with a pair of phos-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 691

phorescent organs in the penultimate segment of the abdomen, the cuticle is
glandular.

Lepidoptera.—An interesting example of protective resemblance was furnished
by a small Geometer larva which was found feeding on the budding inflorescence
of a spirea-like plant. The larva was pale green in colour and provided with
pairs of spine-like processes on the fourth to the eighth and on the eleventh
segment ; to each of these spines was attached by a delicate secretion of glutinous
silk a string of buds of the inflorescence on which the larve fed. As these buds
withered and turned brown they were cast off and renewed by fresh green ones.
The larva did not move about much, but even when it did it was well-nigh
indistinguishable from its food-plant. The pupa, which was enclosed in a silken
cocoon covered with green buds, was unfortunately destroyed by ants, and no
other specimen was obtained.

Diptera.—Some larvee closely resembling Vermileo were discovered on Mount
Penrissen, Sarawak, at a considerable altitude. The larve formed pitfalls in sand,
after the manner of ant-lions. Their habits have been described elsewhere.

A larva, apparently allied to Mierodon, was found in some numbers under the
sheathing leaves of a Caryota palm: it was remarkably slug-like in appearance,
showing no signs of segmentation. The upper surface of the body was highly
convex, and from the posterior end protruded a short median tube at the base of
which was situated a spiracle ; the ventral surface was flat and transversely wrinkled;
there were no legs or pseudopods; the chitinous head was completely retractile.
At the time of pupation the larval skin became strongly chitinised, forming a
puparium inside which the further transformation took place. ¢

All the aquatic dipterous larve obtained were closely allied to, if not
identical with, such well-known European forms as Corethra, Chironomua,
Tanypus, Evistalis, Stratiomys, &c.*

5. Zebras and Zebra Hybrids. By Prof. J. Cossar Ewart, JD., PRS,

6. On Echinonema grayi, a large Nematode from the Perivisceral Cavity
of the Sea-urchin. By James F. Gunuiin, JLA., ID.

The author exhibited some specimens of a large nematode from the perivisceral
cavity of the sea-urchin and gave an account of their occurrence and anatomy.

Females.—Body elongated, 600-1,500 mm. in length; 2-4 mm. in breadth ;
white or semitransparent, tapering at both ends, the posterior end being slightly
blunter and curved in a half-cirele. A delicate cuticular hook at both ends.
Mouth and anus entirely absent; the whole body covered by a delicate cuticle,
and the body wall thrown into a series of shallow transverse folds along either
side.

Hypodermis, a single layer of nucleated cells; muscular system, a single layer
-of cells beneath hypodermis, arranged in somewhat irregular longitudinal rows
along the ventral third of the body wall, and arranged less markedly in transverse
rows on the dorsal two-thirds of the body wall. Excretory system of canals
absent. Nervous system, a thickening of the hypodermis at head end, not cou-
tinued backwards into longitudinal cords. Alimentary canal apparently a mass
of spongy reticular tissue, with nuclei and protoplasmic masses at intervals,
with an irregular lumen ending blindly at either extremity. Ovary single,
greatly elongated ; development internal, with total unequal seementation, followed
by a modified form of gastrulation.

Males.—Much smaller, 50-200 mm. in length, with tail coiled characteristically
in a spiral, with two equal spicules close to posterior extremity. ¥

This nematode seems to have hitherto escaped notice, except for a mention
by A. E. Shipley,* whose specimen did not allow him to investigate its structure.

1 Some of the above noted insects will later form the subject of special memoirs.
2 0.S.M.S., 1900, p. 281, - ; ‘

692 REPORT—1901.

The author meatis to publish a fuller account of the worm elsewhere, and proposes
to name it Eehinonema grayt.

7. Exhibition of Abnormal Specimens of Nephrops. By F. WH. MarsHatt.

8. Exhibition of Microscopic Preparations of Mammalian Hairs.
By F. H, Marsuatt.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Lhe Fauna of an Atoll. By C. Forster Cooper.

The island of Holulé is a large wooded sand bank placed at the southern end
of the eastern reef of Malé atoll; it is in no place raised more than three feet
above high-tide marks. It shows signs of having once been much larger, and of
having formerly included the small island of Gadu, now some way to the south.
The reefs on the two sides of the island differ from one another in some respects.
The eastern and seaward reef is much broader than the western or lagoon reef, and
is divided up into three zones, the reef flat, boulder zone, and boat channel, the
latter being again subdivided into three zones by the nature of its inhabitants.

On the western side the boat channel is narrower, and corresponds to the
middle zone of the boat channel on the east side; the reef on this side is more rich
than the other. It was found generally that species were often confined to some
particular zone; that where free sand was much washed about by the action of
water animals could not and did not flourish, ‘The absence of all seaweeds was
also noticeable.

In the lagoon the bottom was found to consist either of sand or mud, the mud
usually being deposited in the centre of the lagoon, where the currents lost their
orce.

Reef-building corals were never found on the bottom of the lagoon, but only on
the slopes of reets.

The reefs were certainly not extending inwards towards the lagoon, but may
perhaps be extending seawards to some small degree.

9, The Land Crustaceans of a Coral Island. By L. A. Borrapaite, If A,,
Lecturer in Natwral Sciences at Selwyn College, Cambridge.

The island in which the species and their habits were observed was the atoll
of Minikoi in the Indian Ocean.
The following species of Crustaceans are found on land in Minikoi:—

Crabs:—1. Ocypode ceratophthalma, greyish-green in colour, and frequenting
the lagoon shore, where it lives in spiral burrows below extreme high-water mark.

2. Ocypode cordimana, chocolate-brown in colour, and living in horizontal
burrows on land above extreme high-water mark.

3. Geograpsus gray?, black and white in colour, running about actively in open
spaces.

4, Geograpsus erinipes, orange-yellow in colour, and living near freshwater
tanks and pools. *

5. Geograpsus longitarsis var. minikovensis, and 6, Metasesarina roussequxt,
dull greenish in colour, living under timber, stones, &c.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 693

Hermit Crabs (Soldier Crabs).—7. Cenobita rugosus, grey or lilac in colour,
of small size, and numerous along the shore.

8. Cenobita perlatus, scarlet and white in colour, of middle size, and also
found chiefly near the shore. ; :

9. Cenobita clypeatus, purple in colour, of large size, and“found in the jungle,

Slaters (Isopods):—10. Cubaris murinus, and 11, Philoscia sp., woodlice.

12. Ligia exotica, lives on the shore.

Land crustaceans, which are the dominant group in a coral island, are of im-
portance in the economy of the island:

i. As scavengers.

ii. In the destruction and disintegration of fruits.

iii. In the distribution of seeds,

iv. In the same manner as earthworms by their burrowing.
vy. As enemies of various animals,

vi. Occasionally as food for other animals,

vii. Possibly in the fertilisation of flowers.

viii, Probably in many other ways as yet unknown,

3. On the Anatomy of the Larval Polypterus.
By J.8, Bupeert, M.A., Urinity College, Cambridge.

The material for this paper is furnished by a single example of a larval Poly-
pterus, obtained in the Gambia in 1900.

The larva measures 30 mm. in length, and is in the condition when the
cartilaginous skeleton has reached its highest development and ossification is
about to commence.

The structure of the pectoral fins at this stage affordsa strong argument in
favour of the view that the Crossopterygian tin is derived from the uniserial type
of fin and not from the biserial archipierygium. The suspension of the jaws is
in a primitively hyostylic condition, while the hyomandibular cartilage carries a
segmented rod of cartilage forming the axis of the root of the external gill.

The vertebral cartilages resemble in their mode of formation those of
Lepidosteans and Teleosteans but, in addition to neural and hemal cartilages to
each segment, there are distinct lateral cartilages. The hemal cartilages give
rise to the ventral ribs, which are thus shown to be homologous with the ribs of
other Ganoids and Teleosteans, while the lateral cartilages give rise to the trans-
verse processes and lateral ribs, which are homologous with those of Elasmo-
branchs, Amphibians, and Amniota.

The oviducts are formed by the folding off of a portion of the body cavity
into which open a number of nephrostomes, and are thus shown to be of a nature
quite different from true Miillerian ducts; there is some evidence that the corre-
sponding duct in the male is homologous with the longitudinal canal of the
testicular network in those forms which have vasa efferentia passing to the
kidneys, while the vasa efferentia themselves are modified nephrostomes. ‘Che
head kidney is a very large organ lying between the foremost dorso-lateral and
ventro-lateral muscles far from the middle line: it consists of the much coiled
anterior end of the archinephric duct, and ends opposite a rather small glomus lying
close to the aorta, in the pronephric chamber, which is apparently without a
funnel, passing to the general body cayity.

The structure of this larva confirms the belief that Pol
generalised creature showing affinities with three
Teleostei, Elasmobranchi, and Amphibia.

lypterus is an extremely
great divisions of Ichthyopsida,

4, The Origin of the Paired Limbs of Vertebrates.
By J. Granam Kerr.
_ The author gave a short account of his hypothesis as to the phylogenetic
origin of the paired limbs of vertebrates. He passed in review the two current

1901, ae

694 REPORT—1901.

hypotheses—that of Gegenbaur and that of Balfour, Thacher, and Mivart. Atten-
tion was drawn to the complete absence of intermediate stages between gill septum
and limb, and also to the @ priori improbability of a gill septum such as we know
in the lower fishes, firmly fixed and flush with the surface, developing into a
motor organ. It was pointed out, however, that the numerous advocates of the
Gegenbaur view had managed to accumulate a large mass of evidence bearing
upon one particular phase of the question, and which consisted of facts pointing
to an extensive backward migration of the paired limbs having taken place from
somewhere in the neighbourhood of the branchial region.

The lateral fold view had at first the advantage of resting upon a more
certain foundation of anatomical fact—upon the fact discovered by Balfour that
in the young torpedo the two limbs are for a time connected by a continuous
ridge of epiblast—that in this form the paired limbs develop in precisely the way
in which the theory supposes them to have developed during phylogeny. Modern
research has, however, shown that this longitudinal ridge of epiblast does not
appear at all in the less specialised Selachians; even in Torpedo the ridge
appears secondarily, and its appearance at all is probably a quite secondary
phenomenon associated with the secondary extension of the paired fins along the
sides of the body in the adult. Embryology as it is known to-day does not
furnish the same foundation for such a theory of limb formation as it appeared to
do at an earlier period.

The anatomical resemblances between paired and unpaired fins were touched
upon, and it was suggested that such resemblances are probably due to homoplasy.

Attention was now drawn to the fact that in the relations to one another of
muscles, skeleton, and viscera in the lower vertebrates there was expressed an
admirable mechanical arrangement for lateral flexure of the body. Properly
co-ordinated lateral flexures provided a powerful means of locomotion through
fluid, a method used by all the lower vertebrates. It was difficult to believe that.
either a gill septum or a lateral fold could aid to any appreciable extent this
primitive method of swimming ; the probability was that in its incipient stages a
limb derived in such a way must act rather as a hindrance,

The author was of the view that the paired limbs were not at first swimming
organs at all, but that they were developed in correlation with movement about
a solid stratum, With a solid point @appui even a very small movable projection
would be of use in propelling the creature forward. The question was, Did such
projections of the body wall exist in the lower vertebrates which might have by
evolution become developed into paired limbs? He considered that the most
primitive groups of Gnathostomata were the Selachians, the Crossopterygians, the
Dipnoans, and the Urodele amphibians. In three out of the four groups there
occurred during development true external gills, projections of mesoblast covered
with epiblast sticking out from the visceral arches (Mandibular—‘ Balancer’
of Usodeles; Hyoid—Crossopterygians; Branchial Arches I.—IIJ.—Urodeles,
Lepidosiren, Protopterus; Branchial Arch 1V.—Lepidosiren, Protopterus). In
the Selachians their absence was correlated with the presence of the enormous
highly vascular yoll-sac, which made the persistence of any other dermal
respiratory organ of early life quite unnecessary. The true external gills were
supposed by some to be larval organs independently developed, but further
knowleage of their identical relations and development made it impossible to
accept any other view than that they were truly homologous structures inherited
from a remote ancestor.

The structures in question are provided with elaborate muscular arrange-
ments; in a live Dipnoan or Urodelan larva they are seen to be every now and
then sharply flicked back ; they are, in fact, though mainly respiratory, potentially
motor in function. In Urodeles the corresponding structure on the mandibular
arch has lost its respiratory and taken on a purely supporting function.

The author concluded that in these serially arranged potentially motor organs
of the lower vertebrates were to be recognised organs homodynamous with the
structures which had given rise to the paired limbs; the limb-girdles he followed
Gegenbaur in regarding as modified visceral arches, The earliest stage of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 695

purely motor appendage was probably a simple styliform structure resembling the
balancing organ of the Urodele or the limb of Lepidosiren, and from this stylo-
pterygium had been derived along two divergent lines of evyolution—the archi-
pterygium and ichthyopterygium on the one hand and the cheiropterygium on the
other.

Finally the author remarked that this hypothesis had the advantage of
explaining just as well as did the Gegenbaur hypothesis the traces of backward
migration of the limbs ; and in regard to the only serious objection to the view—
the absence of a cartilaginous skeleton in external gills—he pointed out that this
objection, already weakened by the presence of a cartilaginous axis in the barbels
of Xenopus had now been minimised by the description by Budgett of a rod of
cartilage projecting into the base of the external gill in the young Polypterus.

5. The Story of Malaria. By Ronaup Ross, /.R.C.S., PRS.

Interesting nature of the story. Incorrect versions propagated.

Endemic nature and paludal connection of malarial disease give rise to the
hypothesis of a telluric miasm. Absence of any scientific proof. Negative ex-
periments of Calandruccio and others.

The first fact—discovery of the malarial pigment, called melanin, by Frerichs,
Virchow, and Meckel in 1849-51.

Invention of the Bacillus malarie by Crudeli, Marchiafava, and other Roman
writers. Circumstantial details. The whole thing a fabrication.

The second fact—recognition of the melanin-bearing parasite by Laveran,
1880. He describes all forms of the parasite, Predatory Italian efforts.

The researches of Layeran and Golgi concerning the life-history of the
parasites within the body. Similar parasites found in birds by Danilewsky,
Certain forms of the parasites, now known as gametocytes, cannot be explained,
Krroneous degeneration theory of Grassi and Bignami.

Efforts to tind the parasite free in nature. Grassi discovers it in a fresh-water
amoeba—another fabrication. The mosquito hypothesis of King, Laveran, Koch,
Manson, Bignami, and others. All formed independently, and are partly right
and partly wrong.

I show that the so-called flagella emanating from the gametocytes are living
bodies. Sacharoff proves them to contain chromatin, MacCallum demonstrates
their true nature.

My attempts to cultivate the parasites of mosquitoes, 1895-97. Failure with
‘grey’ and ‘brindled’ mosquitoes (Culex). Final discovery of the ‘pigmented
cells’ in ‘dappled-winged’ mosquitoes (Anopheles) in 1897 practically solves the

roblem.

: Whole life-history of the parasites in mosquitoes determined by my experi-
ments on the development of the parasites of birds in Culex fatigans in 1898.
In association with Annett and Austen I find the similar development of the
human parasites in dappled-winged mosquitoes in Sierra Leone, and study the
habits of these insects, 1899.

Koch confirms MacCallum’s observations, studies the early history of the
zygotes, confirms my work (1898), and finds the frequency of infection in native
children (1899). Similar studies of Daniels. Great value of their labours,
Excellent researches of Christophers, Stephens, Nuttall, Ziemann, Van der Scheer,
Riige, Fernside, and many others. Crucial experiment of Manson in 1900,

After the publication of my work of 1898 Bignami, Bastianelli, and Grassi
detect the genus of my ‘dappled-winged’ mosquitoes from my description, and
find, in similar insects in Italy, the development of the parasites des¢ribed by me.
They pretend that their efforts were original. They add no new facts of funda-
mental importance, Unreliable and predatory nature of their work, especially of
that of B. Grassi. Letters from Charles, Laveran, and Koch,

Excellent histories of Mannaberg, Thayer, and Nuttall.

ZZ2

696 REPORT—1901.

The prevention of malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases. Punkahs,
mosquito-nets, wire gauze, and quinine. Segregation, Koch’s method,
Necessity for ridding towns of mosquitoes. Experiments now in progress in
Sierra Leone and Lagos.

6. Exhibition of Photographs of Fossils in the La Plata Museum,
By Dr. Francisco P. Moreno.

A New Sounding and Ground-collecting Apparaius,
By Professor G. Giison, of Lowvain.

Side view, showing method of suspension. Front view, showing mechanism.

h, handle suspending block b ; }, cast-iron block ; 57, steel bar; cp, cup; c, cover ; A, ring
keeping apparatus in an oblique position when lying down on the bottom, This ring is attached
to the block b and moves with it ; m, mechanism intended to release the cover c when the appa-
ratus is hauled up, and not before that.

The cam seen at the lower part falls as soon as the cup cp strikes the bottom, the block 6
sliding down then to the table ¢. This cam is fixed to a flat iron piece with a catch on its right
side to suspend the cover ce. The upper part of this piece is engaged, on the left side, in a groove
cut in the vertical rod. When the block 0 is lifted up, the cam not being in place, the end of the
groove catches, and the cover c is released by the swinging of the flat piece.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 697

This apparatus has been used for some time in the course of certain researches
which have been carried on in the North Sea. The task of a complete biological
survey of the Belgian coast having been entrusted to the author by his Govern-
ment, he soon felt the want of a handy ground-collecting instrument. Several of
the existing models, among which a few were of the boring-tube type, were tried.
Some worked rather well, but, although very heavy, they would only supply a
small quantity of sediment. Others gave good results on soft muddy bottom, but
no result at all on the sometimes very hard sands of the coast. None of them
was found to answer adequately for the particular desiderata of the work, a bulky
sample of all kinds of sediments being required. The author then set to work and
constructed the very simple apparatus exhibited, which, although a mere embryo
rather roughly set up, has done such good service as to induce him to call to it the
attention of those engaged in oceanographic study.

It belongs to the cup type of sounding machine, the earliest idea of a ground-
collecting apparatus. The cup, however, has been provided with several additional
devices which give the whole quite a peculiar character. The most important of
these is an iron cover, exactly titting the cup, and intended to prevent its contents
from being washed away. A very simple mechanism keeps this cover lifted up
as long as the cup is cutting into the soil. As soon as the cup touches the bottom
a little cam falls down, and is unlatched. Later on, when the apparatus is finally
hauled up, but not before it takes a vertical position again, the same mechanism
releases the cover and allows it to fall and close the cup.

The construction of the apparatus is given in the figure.

One of the most characteristic features of the instrument is that the rope is not
connected directly to the iron bar that bears the cup, but to a square block of
cast iron through which the bar freely plays up and down.

When a hard ground is reached, the men in charge take care to give the rope
a few short pulls in order to make the cup bite into it. If under such circum-
stances the instrument was allowed to lie flat on the ground it might empty itself
after each pull. The ring attached to the iron block is intended to keep the
apparatus in an oblique position, thus causing the cup to cut into the soil by its
edge, and to gradually fill up, no matter in what direction it may happen to tumble
down.

When full the cup contains about six pounds of sand. The whole construe-
tion is very simple. There is no piece in it that any blacksmith or ship engineer
could not easily repair or eyen make anew in case of a breakdown; a quality
which anyone engaged in exploration would certainly wish all his instruments to
possess,

The author has tried this sounding machine in shallow waters only ; but there
is little doubt that it would work well on the soft ooze of the deep sea. If neces-
sary a system of lost-weight mechanism could easily be devised and connected to it.

8, Exhibition of a New Orienting Apparatus for the Cambridge
Microtome. By Jamus Rankin.

698 ; REPORT—1901

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

PRESIDENT OF THH SEcTION—HveH Roperr M1x1,
D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S§.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The President delivered the following Address :—
On ResEARCH IN GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE.

Introductory.

TE annual reassembling of friends and fellow-workers in the old re-visited towns,
and the annual accession of new lovers of science, furnish a unique opportunity for
a survey of the advances made in each department, a fitting occasion also for
remembering those who have finished their work and can aid our deliberations
only by the memory of their example.

Apart from our more intimate losses in the death of many distinguished
geographers and devoted workers, the period since our last meeting has been for
all a year of mourning. The passing of the nineteenth century was almost like the
death of a friend, and it is still difficult to realise that the century which we had
been so long in the habit of associating with everything new and great and
progressive has itself hecome part of the past. Few coincidences have been more
striking than the almost simultaneous close of that unparalleled reign which gave
a name to the Era including all that was best and most characteristic of the
century. The death of Queen Victoria carried so keen a sense of personal loss
into every heart that few attempts have been made to show how vast a portion
of the stream of time—measured by progress—intervened between the terminal
dates of her life. Think for a moment of the splendid advances in the one small
department of geographical exploration during the late Queen's reign, the multi-
tude of landmarks which have been crowned by the great name of Victoria—of
the Earth’s most southerly land and its most northerly sea, of the largest lake
and most majestic waterfall of Africa, the loftiest lake of Asia, the highest peak in
New Guinea, the widest desert and most populous colony in Australia, and of the
two thriving seaports on either side of the North Pacific which couple together
the British Dominions of western America and eastern Asia.

What could be more appropriate in this first meeting after the close of such a
century and of such a reign than to pass in brief but appreciative review the
advances of geography during those hundred or those sixty-five years? One
thing in my opinion is more appropriate than to dwell on past triumphs or to
regret past greatness, and that is to survey our present position and look ahead.
In the first year of a new century and of a new reign we are reminded that we
have a future to face and that the world is before us, and I propose to seize this
opportunity in order to speak of the science of geography as it is now understcod
and especially to urge the importance of the more systematic pursuit of
geographical research henceforward.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION FE. 699

Geography in the Universities.

The prospect of immediate expansion in many British universities seems at
last likely to afford more than one opportunity of wiping out the old disgrace of
the neglect of geographical science in the accredited seats of learning. Already
Oxford has a well-manned School of Geography, and Cambridge has a Reader in
Seography. The reconstituted University of London occupies the best position in
the world for creating a chair of geographical research, situated as it is in the very
centre of the comings and goings of all mankind, and in touch with the most com-
plete geographical library and map-collection in existence. The new University of
Birmingham may, it is hoped, prove better than its promises, and may perhaps after
all provide some more adequate treatment of geography than its proposed par-
tition amongst the professors of half a dozen special subjects, all of them con-
cerned in geography, it is true, but none of them individually, nor all of them
collectively, capable of embodying that co-ordination of parts into a harmonious
unity which gives to geography its power as a mental discipline and its value for
practical application. But Hngland in all that pertains to higher education is still
a poor country, and the will to do well is hampered by the grinning demon of
poverty. Here, on the other side of the Border, we are in a different atmosphere.
The wave of the magician’s wand in the hands of Andrew Carnegie has brought
wealth that last year would have been deemed fabulous to the ancient universities
in Scotland, and it will be a disgrace to our country if this splendid generosity
does not result in the establishment of one or more fully endowed and completely
equipped chairs of geography.

There may still be some people who view geography as the concern only of
soldiers and sailors, adventurous travellers, and perhaps of elementary teachers.
Exploration is undoubtedly the first duty of geographers, but it is a duty which
has been well done, the nineteenth century having left us only one problem of
the first magnitude. This is the exploration of the polar regions, and even here
the twentieth century clamours for new methods.

The Antarctic Hupeditions.

This year has seen the long-hoped-for Antarctic expeditions set out on their
great quest, a quest not only of new lands in the southern ice-world but of
scientific information regarding all the conditions of that vast unknown region.
Two expeditions have been planned in Great Britain and Germany with a com-
plete interchange of information regarding equipment and methods of work.
Provision has been made for simultaneous magnetic and meteorological
observations, and in some instances for the use of instruments of identical
construction, and all possibility of any unseemly rivalry in striving for the
childish distinction of getting farthest south has been obviated by the friendly
understanding that the British ship shall explore the already fairly known Ross
quadrant, where it is pretty sure that extensive and accessible land will fayour
exploration by sledges, while the Germans have chosen the entirely unknown area
of the Enderby quadrant which no ice-protected steamer has yet attempted to
penetrate, and where they enter a region of potential discovery before they cross
the Antarctic Circle.

The British expedition is equipped on the good old plan that produced such
fine results in the days of Cook and Ross; it is manned by sailors of the Royal
Navy and is under the command of a gallant naval officer, though, unlike the
earlier vessels, the ‘ Discovery’ is not herseif a naval ship. As in the days of Cook
the nayal officers are assisted in their non-professional work by several young and
promising scientific men, two of whom have already had experience of work in
the polar regions, These have the great advantage of the counsel and help of
Mr. George Murray of the British Museum, who goes as far as Melbourne in the
position of Director of the Scientific Staff.

No one who has seen the zeal and unflagging enthusiasm with which Sir

700 : REPORT—1901.

Clements Markham has organised the expedition can hesitate to accord to him in
fullest measure the credit for its successful inauguration. And noone who has seen
the quiet and good-humoured determination of the commander, Commander R. F.
Scott, in overcoming many irritating preliminary difficulties, can doubt his fitness
to undertake the heavy responsibilities of the voyage. I am sure that he will be
a worthy successor to Cook, Ross, Franklin, Nares, and all the other officers
who have made their names and the name of the British Navy famous in Polar
service. The second in command, Lieutenant Armitage, R.N.R., has had several
years of Arctic experience, and amongst the crew there are some old whalers whose
knowledge of the ways of sea-ice should prove of value. The ship and her equip-
ment are unique; it is no exaggeration to say that she is the best-found and most
comfortable vessel which has ever left our shores on a voyage of discovery.

The German expedition has been more boldly planned than ours. It is new
and experimental all through, as befits a young nation in its first exuberant efforts
in a new field. If some people suppose that it may have made mistakes that
our expedition has avoided; these, at least, are new mistakes from which new
lessons are to be learned. If risks must be run—and we of the twentieth century
are, I trust, no more timid of incurring risks than our predecessors of the nine-
teenth, or the eighteenth, or even the seventeenth—it is good that they should be
new risks. To scientific men in Germany it appears natural and reasonable that
a man of science should be the head of a scientific expedition ; and that a geogra-
pher should lead a geographical expedition. Many British men of science sympa-
thise in this view. Dr. Erich von Drygalski, one of the professors of Geography
in the University of Berlin, has been entrusted with the command to which he
was appointed before the ship was designed, and for five years he has given all his
time and thought to the expedition. He is supported by a band of highly trained
specialists, who have spared neither time nor travel in mastering the subjects with
which they may deal, and each has also received a general training in the subjects
of all his colleagues—an admirable precaution. The captain of the ‘Gauss,’ who
belongs to the Merchant Service, has taken a course of training from the Norwe-
gian whalers off Spitsbergen. He will, of course, be absolute master of the ship
and crew in all that concerns order and safety, but he will be under the direction
of the leader in all that concerns the plan of the voyage and the execution of
scientific work. This arrangement is one which has always seemed to me to be
desirable, that the captain of a ship on scientific service should occupy a position
in relation to the scientific chief similar to that of the captain of a yacht in relation
to the owner; but it is subject to the drawback that a naval officer could not well
be asked to accept such a divided command.

Whatever our views as to ideal organisation may be, we are all certain that
both expeditioas will do the utmost that they can to justify the confidence that is
placed in them and to bring honour to their flags. We know that the officers and
staff of the ‘ Discovery ’ belong to a race which, whether trained in the University
or in the Navy, has acquired the habit of bringing back splendid results from any
quest that is undertaken.

A Definition of Geography.

The bright prospects of Antarctic Exploration must not, however, blind us to
the fact that exploration is not geography, nor is the reading or even the writing
of text-books, nor is the making of maps, despite the recognition of leading carto-
graphers as ‘Geographers to the King.’ These are amongst the departments of
geography, but the whole is greater than its parts.

The view of the scope and content of Geography which I have arrived at as
the result of much work and some little reading during twenty years is substan-
tially that held by most modern geographers. But it is right to point out that the
mode of expressing it may not be accepted without amendment by any of the
recognised leaders of the science, and for my own part I believe that discussion

rather than acceptance is the best fate that can befall any attempt at stating
scientific truth.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 701

Put in the fewest words, my opinion is that

Geography is the science which deals with the forms of relief of the Earth’s crust,
and with the influence which these forms exercise on the distribution of all other
phenomena,

This definition looks to the form and composition of the Earth’s crust itself,
and to the successive coverings, partial and complete, in which the stony globe is
wrapped. We sometimes hear of the New Geography, but I think it is more pro-
fitable to consider the present position of Geography as the outcome of the thought
and labours of an unbroken chain of workers, continuously modified by the growth
of knowledge, yet old in aim, old even in the expression of many of the ideas that
we are apt to consider the most modern.

Some LHistorical Landmarks.

Claudius Ptolemzeus, about 150 4.p., gathered into his great ‘Geography’ the
whole outcome of the Greek study of the habitable world. He laid stress on the
threefold nature of descriptions of the Earth’s surface, the general sketch of the
great features of the world alone receiving the name of Geography, the more
special description of an area he termed Chorography, and the detailed account of
a particular place Topography.

Aristotle, who first adduced real proofs of the sphericity of the Earth, had not
failed to note the relationships which exist between plants and animals, and the
places in which they are found, and he argued that the character of peoples was
influenced by the land in which they lived; but Ptolemy cared little for theories,
comparisons, or relationships, confining himself rather to the record of actual facts.
He made errors, the results of which were more important, as it happened, in ad-
vancing knowledge than were the truths which he recorded; for after the troubled
medizval sleep, when even the spherical form of the Earth was blotted out of the
knowledge of Christendom, the scientific deductions made by Toscanelli from the
false premises of Ptolemy heartened Columbus for his westward voyage to the
Indies, on the very outset of which he stumbled all unknowing on the New World.
‘When Magellan succeeded in the enterprise which Columbus had commenced, the
a centuries’ reign of Ptolemy in geography-came to an end; his work was

one.

The rapid unveiling of the Earth in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries cast
a glamour over feats of exploration which has not yet been wholly dissipated, and
it may not be easy, even now, to obtain wide credence for the fact that the ex-
plorer is usually but the collector of raw material for the geographer.

It is of vital interest to trace the re-formation of the theory of geography after
its interruption in the Middle Ages. The fragments of the old Greek lore were
cementel together by new and plastic thoughts, crudely enough by Apian, Gemma
Frisius, and Sebastian Munster in the sixteenth century, but with increasing
strength and completeness by Cluverius, Carpenter, and Varenius in the seyen-
teenth.

The First Oxford Geographer.

The names of Cluverius and Varenius are familiar to every historian of
geography, but that of Carpenter, I am afraid, is now brought to the notice of
many geographical students for the first time. He was not so great as Varenius,
but he was the first British geographer to write on theoretical geography as
distinguished from mathematical treatises on navigation or the repetition of nar-
ratives of travel, and I think that there is evidence to show that his work had an
influence on his great Dutch contemporary.

Nathanael Carpenter, Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, published his book in
1625 under the title—

‘Geographie delineated forth in two Bookes, Containing the Sphericall and
Topical] parts thereof,’ and with the motto from Ecclesiastes on its title-page—

3 One generation commeth, and another goeth, but the Harth remayneth for
ever,

702 REPORT—1901..

The great merits of Carpenter's treatise are his firm grasp of the relation of one
part of geography to another, his skilful blending of the solid part of the work of
Aristotle and Ptolemy with that of the explorers and investigators of his own
generation, and the wholesome common-sense that dominates his reasoning. His
definition is comprehensive and precise.

‘Geographie is a science which teacheth the description of the whole Harth,
The Nature of Geographic is well expressed in the name: For Geographie resolved
according to the Grecke Etymologie signifieth as much as a description of the
Earth; so that it differs from Cosmographic, as a part from the whole. Foras-
much as Cosmographie according to the name is a description of the whole world,
comprehending under it as well Geographie as Astronomic. Howheit, I confesse,
that amongst the ancient Writers, Cosmographie has been taken for one and the
self-same science with Geographic as may appeare by sundry treatises meerely
Geographicall, yet intituled by the name of Cosmographie.’

The differences held by Ptolemy to distinguish geography from chorography
Carpenter shows to be merely accidental, not essential, and as to geography he says
‘It is properly tearmed a Sczence, because it proposeth to it selfe no other end but
knowledge; whereas those faculties are commonly tearmed Arts, which are not
contented with a bare knowledge or speculation, but are directed to some farther
work or action. But here a doubt seems to arise, whether this Science be to be
esteemed Physicall or Mathematicall? Wee answer, thatin a Science two things
are to bee considered: first, the matter or object whereabout it is conversant ;
secondly, the manner of handling and explication: For the former no doubt can
bee made but that the object in Geographic is for the most part Phystcall con-
sisting of the parts whereof the Spheare is composed; but for the manner of
Explication it is not pure but mat; asin the former part Mathematicall, in the
second rather JZistoricall ; whence the whole Science may be alike tearmed both
Mathematicall & Historicall; not in respect of the subject which we have said to
be Physicall but in the manner of Explication.’

Although somewhat diffuse in expression, the meaning of these statements is
clear and sound, and tothe British public as new now as it was in the days of King
Charles. The book treats of mathematical geography and cartography, of
magnetism, climates, the nature of places, of hydrography, including the sea,
rivers, lakes and fountains, of mountains, valleys and woods, of islands and
continents, and at considerable length of people and the way in which they are
influenced by the land in which they live. Whether Dr. Carpenter lectured on
geography in Oxford I do not know, but his book must have acquired a certain
currency, for a second edition appeared in 1635, and it seems probable that it was
known to Varenius.

Varenius and Newton.

Varenius, a young man who died at twenty-eight, produced in Latin a single
small volume published in 1650, which is a model of conciseness of expression and
logical arrangement well worthy even now of literal translation into English. So
highly was it thought of at the time that Sir Isaac Newton brought out an
annotated Latin edition at Cambridge in 1672.1. The opening definition as
rendered in the English translation of 1783 (a work spoilt in most places by a
parasitic growth of notes and interpolations) runs :—

‘ Geography is that part of mixed mathematics which explains the state of the
Earth and of its parts, depending on quantity, viz., its figure, place, magnitude

1 Dugdale, in the introduction to the English translation published in 1783,
states explicitly that Newton produced his version for the benefit of the students
attending his lectures ‘on the same subject’ from the Lucasian chair; but we have
been unable to find any more satisfactory evidence that Newton actually lectured on
Geography at Cambridge.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 703

and motion with the celestial appearances, &c. By some it is taken in too
limited a sense, for a bare description of the several countries ; and by others too
extensively, who along with such a description would have their political
constitution.’

Varenius produced a framework of Physical Geography capable of including
new facts of discovery as they arose, and it is no wonder that his work, although
but apart, ruled unchallenged as the standard text-book of pure geography for
more than a century. Te laid stress on the causes and effects of phenomena as
well as the mere fact of their occurrence, and he clearly recognised the vast
importance upon different distributions of the vertical relief of the land. He did
not treat of human relations in geography, but, under protest, gave a scheme for
discussing them as a concession to popular demands.

Kant.

As Isaac Newton, the mathematician, had turned his attention to geography at
Cambridge in the earlier part of the eighteenth century, so Immanuel Kant, the
philosopher, lectured on the same subject at Konigsberg in the later part. The
fame of Kant as a metaphysician has defrauded him of much of the honour that
is his due as a man of science. As Professor Hastie puts it: ‘ His earlier
scientific work, like an inner planet merged in light, was thus almost entirely lost
sight of in the blaze of his later philosophical splendour.’

Kant, it will be remembered, considered that the communication of experience
from one person to another fell into two categories, the historical and the
geographical: that is to say, descriptions in order of time or in order of space.
The science of geography he considered to be fundamentally physical, but physical
geography formed the introduction and key to all other possible geographies, of
which he enumerated five: mathematical, concerned with the form, size, and
movements of the Earth and its place in the solar system ; mora/, taking account
of the customs and characters of mankind according to their physical surroundings ;
political, concerning the divisions of the land into the territories of organised
governments ; mercantile, or, as we now call it, commercial geography; and
theological, which took account of the distribution of religions. It is not so much
the cleavage of geography into five branches, all springing from physical geography
like the fingers from a hand, which is worthy of remark, but rather the recogni-
tion of the interaction of the conditions of physical geography with all other
geographical conditions. The scheme of geography thus acquired a unity and a
flexibility which it had not previously attained, but Kant’s views have never
received wide recognition. If his geographical lectures have been translated no
English or French edition has come under my notice, and such currency as they
obtained in Germany was checked by the more concrete and brilliant work of
Bet, and the teleological system elaborated in overwhelming detail by

itter.

The teleological views of Ritter were substantially those of Paley. The world,
he found, fitted its inhabitants so well that it was obviously made for them down
to the minutest detail. The theory was one peculiarly acceptable in the early
decades of the nineteenth century, and it had the immensely important result of
leading men to view the Earth as a great unit with all its parts co-ordinated to
one end. It gave a philosophical, we may even say a theological, character to the
study of geography.

Kant’s views had pointed to such a unity, but from another side, that of evolu-
tion. It was not until after Charles Darwin had fully restored the doctrine of
evolution to modern thought that it was forced upon thinking men that the fitness
of the Earth to its inhabitants might result not from its being made for them, but
from their having been shaped by it. It is certain that the influence of the
terrestrial environment upon the life of a people has been carried too far by some
writers—by Buckle, in his ‘History of Civilisation, for example—but it is no
less certain that this influence is a potent one.

704 REPORT—1901.

The Nature of Geography.

Granted that such influence is exercised, some objectors may urge that geography
has nothing to do with the matter, and we are compelled to acknowledge that the
meaning and contents of geography are in this country as variously interpreted as
the colour of the chameleon in the traveller's tale. Yet my thesis is that it is
just this relation between the forms of the solid crust of the Earth and all the
other phenomena of the surface that constitutes the very essence of geography.

It is a fact that many branches of the study of the Karth’s surface which were
included in the cosmography of the sixteenth century, the physiography of Linnzus,
the physical geography of Humboldt, and perhaps even the Erdkunde of Ritter,
have been elaborated by specialists into studies which, for their full comprehen-
sion, require the whole attention of the student. Geology, meteorology, oceano-
graphy, and anthropology, for example, have been successively specialised out of
geography ; but it does not follow that these specialisations fully occupy the place
of geography, for that place is to co-ordinate and correlate all the special facts
concerned so that they may throw light on the plan and the processes of the
Farth and its inhabitants. Geography is concerned with the results, not with
the processes of the special sciences, and the limits between geography and geology,
to take a single instance, are to be drawn, not between any one class of phenomena
and another, but between one way and another of marshalling and utilising the
same facts. This was clear to Carpenter in 1625, though we have almost forgotten
both it and him,

The Principles of Geography.

The principles of geography—the ‘ pleasant principles,’ to use the phrase of old
William Cuningham in 1559—on which its claims to status as a science rest are
generally agreed upon by modern geographers, though with such variations as
arise from differences of standpoint and of mental process. The evolutionary idea
is unifying geography as it has unified biology, and the whole complicated subject
may be presented as the result of continuous progressive change brought about and
guided by the influence of external conditions. These views have been often
expressed in recent years, but they do not seem to have been very seriously
considered, and no excuse need be offered for presenting them once more, though
in an epitome curt to baldness.

The science of geography is of course based on the mathematical properties of
a rotating sphere ; but if we define geography as the exact and organised knowledge
of the distribution of phenomena on the surface of the Earth, we see the force of
Kant’s classification, which subordinated mathematical to physical geography.
The vertical relief of the Earth’s crust shows us the grand and fundamental contrast
between the oceanic hollow and the continental ridges; and the hydrosphere is so
guided by gravitation as to fill the hollow and rise upon the slopes of the ridges
to a height depending on its volume, thus introducing the great superficial separa-
tion into land and sea. The movements of the water of the ocean are guided in
every particular by the relief of the sea-bed and the configuration of the coast lines.
Even the distribution of the atmosphere over the Earth’s surface is affected by the
relief of the crust, the direction and force of the winds being largely dominated by
the form of the land over which they blow. The different physical constitution
of land, water and air, especially the great difference between the specific heat and
conductivity or diathermancy of the three, causes changes in the distribution of the
sun’s heat, and as a result the simple climatic zones and rhythmic seasons cf the
mathematical sphere are distorted out of all their primitive simplicity. The whole
irregular distribution of rainfall and aridity, of permanent, seasonal and variable
winds, of sea-climate and land climate, is the resultant of the guiding action of
land forms on the air and water currents, disturbed in this way from their primitive
theoretical circulation. So far we see the surface forms of the Earth, themselves
largely the result of the action of climatic forces, and constantly undergoing change
in a definite direction, controlling the two great systems of fluid circulation

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION EF. 705

These in turn control the distribution of plants and animals, in conjunction with
the direct action of surface relief, the natural regions and climatic belts dictating
the distribution of living creatures. A more complicated state of things is found
when the combined physical and biological environment is studied in its incidence
on the distribution of the human race, the areas of human settlement, and the
lines of human communications. The complication arises partly from the fact that
each of the successive earlier environments acts both independently and collec-
tively ; but the difficulty is in greater degree due to the circumstance that man
alone amongst animals 1s capable of reacting on his environment and deliberately
modifying the conditions which control him.

It seems to me that the glory of geography as a science, the fascination of
geography as a study, and the value of geography in practical affairs are all due
to the recognition of this unifying influence of surface relief in controlling, though
in the higher developments rather by suggestion than dictation, the incidence of
every mobile distribution on the Earth’s surface.

The Classification of Geography.

Following out this idea, we are led to a classification of the field of geography
in a natural order, in which every department arises out of the preceding with no
absolute line of demarcation, and merges into the succeeding in the same way
This classification, it is necessary to note, is not like a series of pigeon-holes, which
may be placed in any arbitrary order, but like a chain, in which the succession
of the links is essential and unalterable.

Since form and dimension are the first and fundamental concepts in geography,
the first and basal division is the Mathematical. Mathematical geography leaves
the Earth as a spinning ball lighted and warmed according to a rigid succession of
diurnal and annual changes. This merges into the domain of Physical Geography,
which involves the results of contemporary change in the crust and the circulation
of the fluid envelopes, with the resulting modifications in the simple and pre-
dictable mathematical distributions. This division falls naturally into three parts:
Geomorphology, dealing with the forms of the solid crust and the changes they
are undergoing at the present time ; Oceanography, dealing with the great masses
of water in the world; and Climatology, dealing with the effects of solar energy
in theair. But all three spheres—lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere—are
so closely inter-related that no one of them can be studied without some preliminary
Imowledge of the others. This forms the largest and most important part cf
geography, more varied and intricate than the mathematical, better known and
more definite than those involving life.

Bio-geography, the geographical distribution of life, arises directly from physical
geography, which dominates it, but it is full of complex questions which involve
the biological nature of the organism and the influence of physical environment,
in which geographical elements, although predominant, do not act alone. Difficult
as some of the problems of the distribution of life are at the present day, the
remains of living creatures found fossil in the rocks, and the survivors of archaic
forms still lingering in remote islands, supply us with our only instrument of
research into the geography of past ages, often making it possible to lay down
the areas of land and water in earlier geological periods.

The relation of man to the surface of the Earth detaches itself from the rest of
Bio-geography by the number of exceptions to general laws of distribution and by
the human power of modifying environment. It has necessarily been formed into
a special department, Anthropo-geography. In primitive man the control exer-
cised by environment is nearly as complete and simple as in the case of the lower
animals; but with every advance in culture fresh complications are introduced.
The relation of people to the land they inhabit, the choice of sites for dwellings
and towns, the planning and carrying into effect of lines of communication, are all
obviously much under the control of land form and climate. When people get
settled in a favourable position they usually become attached to it; they acquire,
one may say, the colour of the land, in modes of thought as well as in manner of

706 REPORT—1901.

life, The poems of Ossian and the Crofter Question require for their elucidation
a knowledge of the geographical conditions of the Western Highlands, just as
the Border ballads and the Border raids were largely conditioned by the geo-
graphy of the Southern Uplands.

Attachment to the native valley or the native fields leads to the holding of
land by clans or tribes and the fusion of tribes into nations, while changes in
physical conditions stimulating migration from a deteriorating country may lead
to the invasion of settled territories by homeless hordes. Here Anthropo-
geography buds off the subdivision of Poletical Geography, which takes account
of the artificial boundaries separating or subdividing countries, and of the in-
numerable artificial restrictions and ameliorations which are superimposed on
the natural barriers and channels of intercommunication. Even in political
geography only a humble place is held by a statement of boundaries and capitals,
to lists of which the great name of Geography has actually been confined by people
who ought to have known better.

Anthropo-geography views the world from the standpoint of the race, political
geography from the standpoint of the nation ; but room has to be found for a yet
more restricted outlook, that of the individual, whose view of the world as it
profits himself is known as commercial geography. This department deals with
natural commodities and their interchange, and perhaps because here rather than
in the other departments a successful comprehension of the inter-relation of cause
and effect may be, in the language of the schoolroom, ‘ reduced to pounds, shillings,
and pence,’ the name of Applied Geography has been proposed. It fitly terminates
our survey of the science, for the flickering disturbances of the equilibrium of
supply and demand known simultaneously over the whole world, and the slower
movements of transport to restore equilibrium, are still far from the power of
scientific prevision, and all we can do at present is to point out certain clear lines
of least resistance, or greatest advantage, due to the interactions of natural and
human causes and effects.

To sum up in a sentence the field and the function of geography in the broad
majesty of its completeness, we may say that it is the description of the surface
of the solid Earth as it is in itself, as it acts upon the ocean, the air, and the living
things which inhabit it, and as it is affected in turn by their actions,

Geography and the State.

Viewed thus I believe that geography will be found to afford an important clue
to the solution of every problem affecting the mutual relations of land and people,
enlightening the course of history, anticipating the trend of political movements,
indicating the direction of sound industrial and commercial development.

It would be possible, unfortunately it would be easy, to enumerate misconcep-
tions of history, blunders in boundary settlements, errors in foreign policy, useless
and wasteful wars, mistakes in legislation, failures in commercial enterprise, lost
opportunities in every sphere, which are due to the neglect of such a theo-
retical geography. Surely it is to the laws defining the interaction of Nature
and Man that we should turn for guidance in such affairs, rather than to the dull
old British doctrine of ‘middling through.’ Tbat vaunted process after all means
that we are driven by stress of facts to do without intending it or knowing how,
and at immense expense, the very things that intelligent study beforehand would
have shown to be necessary, feasible and cheap.

All this has been urged again and again, and it has fallen on the ears of
those in authority ‘like a tale of little meaning though the words are strong.’ I
admit that all advocates of a rational geography have not escaped the danger of
the special pleader—they have promised too much. If a Government official were
to say, ‘ Yes, I confess there was a mistake here, the affair was managed badly,
much money and some prestige were lost; it must all be done over again; please
tell me how,’ I am afraid that the chances are that the answer would be vague,
general and unpractical. If the answer to this boldly hypothetical question is ever
to be clear and definite, geography must be studied as it has never yet been studied

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, 707

in this country. It must pass beyond the stage of a recreation for retired officers,
colonial officials, and persons of leisure, and become the object of intense whole-

earted and original study by men of no less ability who are willing to devote,
not their leisure, but their whole time to the work. The object of geographical
research should be nothing less than the demonstration or refutation of what
we claim to be the central principle of geography—that the forms of terrestrial
relief control all mobile distributions.

A Projected Geographical Description.

In order to focus the question it may beconvenient to consider the geography—
or chorography, as Ptolemy would have termed it—of the British Islands. No
author has ever attempted to give such a description. Camden’s ‘ Britannia’
was swamped by archeology ; the county histories, which are certainly not deticient
in number, were wrecked outward bound on the harbour-bar of genealogy. Sir
John Sinclair’s old ‘New Statistical Account of Scotland’ in the intelligent utilisa-
tion of very incomplete data was a great but solitary stride in the right direction.
Bartholomew’s great ‘Atlas of Scotland’ supplies the cartographical basis for a
modern description of the northern kingdom; but the description itself has not
been undertaken on an equal scale. The work of producing a complete geo-
graphical description of the British Islands would be gigantic, but not hope-
lessly difficult.

The material has been collected at an enormous expenditure of public money,
and is stacked more or less aecessibly, much of it well-seasoned, some I fear spoilt
by keeping; but there it lies in overwhelming abundance, heaps of building
materials, but requiring the labour of the builder before it can become a building.

“There is first and chief the Ordnance Survey, one of the grandest picces of work
in mathematical geography that has ever been accomplished. The result is a
series of maps almost as perfect as one can expect any human work to be, showing
in a variety of scales from + of an inch to 25 inches to a mile every feature of the
configuration of the land—except the lake-beds.

There is next the hydrographic survey by the Admiralty, giving every detail
of the subaqueous configuration in and around our islands—except the lake-beds.

These two great surveys supply the basis for a complete description of the
British Islands, and the geological survey, which in a sense is more elaborate than
either of the others, completes the fundamental part. The geological map makes it
possible to explain many of the forms of the land by referring to the structure of
the rocks which compose them. Both the geological and hydrographic surveys
are accompanied by memoirs describing the features and discussing the various
questions arising from the character of each sheet; but there is nothing of the
kind for the maps of the ordnance survey.

The ordnance maps show at the date of their preparation the extent and also
the nature of the woodlands and moorlands, and this information is supplemented
by the Returns of the Board of Agriculture, which each year contain the statistics
of farm crops, waste land, and livestock for every county. These returns are
excellently edited from the statistical point of view, but they are not discussed
geographically. It is easy to see in any year how much wheat is raised in each
county, but it is a slow and laborious process to discover from the Returns what
are the chief wheat-growing areas of the country. The county is too large a unit
for geographical study, as it usually includes many types of land form and of
geological formation. Before the distribution of crops can be understood or
compared with the features of the ground they must be broken up into parishes,
or even smaller units, and the results placed on maps and generalised. ‘The vast
labour of collecting and printing the data is undertalien by Government, and
paid for by the people without a murmur, but the geographer is left in ignorance
or he want of a comparatively cheap and simple cartographic representation of
the facts.

_ _The Inspectors of Mines and the Board of Trade publish statisties of the
industry and the commerce of the country, statistically excellent, no doubt, but in

708 REPORT—-1901.

most cases lacking the cartographic expression which makes it possible to take in
the general state of the country from year to year. The same is true of the
Registrar-General’s Returns of births, marriages, and deaths, in themselves an
admirable epitome of the health conditions of the country, and of the fluctuations
in population, but limited by a narrow specialism to the one purpose.

Finally and chiefly we have the Census Reports. Once in ten years the
people are numbered and described by sex, age and occupation. The inhabited
houses are numbered, and the smaller dwellings grouped according to size. The
fizures are most elaborately classified and discussed, so as to bring out the distri-
bution of population, and its change from the previous decade. But to the
geographer the Census Reports are like a cornfield toa seeker of bread. The
grains must be gathered, prepared, and elaborated before the desired result is
obtained. Nowhere is the cartographic method more useful than here. It is
a striking contrast to turn to the splendid volumes of the United States Census
Reports, many of them statistically inferior to ours, but thickly illustrated with
maps, showing at a glance the distribution of every condition which is dealt
with, and enabling one to follow decade by decade the progressive development
of the country, and to study for each census the relations between the
yarious conditions.

These are only a few of the statistical publications, produced by Government,
and embodying year after year a mass of conscientious labour, which, save for a
few specialists who extract and utilise what concerns themselves, is annually
‘cast as rubbish to the void.’

One small department supported by public money, but under unofiicial
direction, may be referred to as an example of the successful employment of
cartographic methods. This is the Meteorological Council, appointed by the
Royal Society, and charged with the collection of meteorological data and the
publication of weather reports, forecasts, and storm warnings. The maps
published twice daily to show the distribution of atmospheric pressure and tempe-
yature are only rough sketches and very much generalised, yet they serve the
purpose of presenting the facts in a graphic form, yielding at a glance information
which could only be extracted from tables by long and laborious efforts. The
pilot charts, published monthly by the same department, showing the average
conditions of air and sea over the whole North Atlantic, and the occasional
atlases of oceanographical data are valuable geographical material.

The official work of Government is supplemented by the voluntary labours of
many societies, in whose Transactions much valuable material is stored, and in
not a few cases is well discussed. But even with these supplements gaps remain
which must be filled by private enterprise before a complete geographical descrip-
tion can be compiled.

Considering the Ordnance Survey alone it is much to be regretted that cir-
cumstances have prevented the extension of the survey to the lake-beds, whatever
reason may be assigned for the omission; yet such is the fact. The directors of the
Survey have, however, shown themselves ready to encourage private workers by
placing the data presented by them upon the maps with due acknowledgment,

The Survey of the Lakes.

It is with profound satisfaction that I now make an announcement—by special
favour the first public announcement—of a scheme of geographical research on a
national scale by private enterprise. Sir John Murray and Mr. Laurence Pullar
have resolved to complete the bathymetrical survey of all the fresh-water lakes
of the British Islands. Mr. Laurence Pullar will take an active part in the pro-
posed survey, and has made over to trustees a sum of money sufficient to enable
the investigation to be commenced forthwith and to be carried through in a
comprehensive and thorough manner. It is intended to make the finished
work an appropriate and worthy memorial of Mr. Pullar's son, the late Mr.
Fred Pullar, who had entered enthusiastically upon the survey of the lochs of
Scotland, and whose heroic death while endeavouring to save life in Airthrey Loch

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 709

last February must be present to the memory of many of you. Large sums of
money devoted in good faith to scientific purposes do not always bring about the
wished-for result ; but in this case there is no room for anxiety on thut score.
Sir John Murray, with whom Mr. Fred Pullar had worked for several years, has
generously promised to direct the whole scheme, and to be responsible for carrying
it out. All the lakes of the British Islands will be sounded and mapped as a
preliminary to the complete limnological investigation which is proposed. The
nature of the deposits, the chemical composition of the water and its dissolved
gases, the rainfall of the drainage areas, the volumes of the inflowing and out-
flowing streams, the fluctuations in the level of the surface, the seasonal changes
of temperature, and the nature and distribution of aquatic plants and animals will
all receive attention. The geological history of the lakes may also be enquired
into with reference to such points as the growth of deltas, the erosion of the
margins, and, perhaps, the conditions of the old dead lakes that are now level
meadows.

Five years at least will be required to make these observations and to in-
corporate them in memoirs, each of which will be a complete natural history
of the lakes of one river basin. The proposed work wants more than money,
direction and time. It requires the services of several young and enthusiastic
workers—preferably men who have completed their University course and are
anxious to devote some time to research. Sir John Murray and Mr. Pullar
wish to meet three or four capable young fellows, one preferably a chemist,
one a geologist, one a botanist, and one a zoologist. When found they will
be offered a salary sufficient to enable them to give their whole time to the
work, but not large enough tc induce anyone who has not the love of science at
heart to take it up. From my experience when working in somewhat similar con-
ditions at the Scottish Marine Station seventeen years ago, I can promise those
who will have the good fortune to be selected plenty of hard work for which
they will get the fullest credit—and this they will appreciate more keenly when
they come to know the world better—and I can promise them also in their
association with Sir John Murray a course of scientific and intellectual training
such as even the universities do not afford.

Other Desirable Surveys.

The Geological Map requires to be supplemented by additional work on the
nature of the superficial soil as it affects agriculture, such as is expressed in
the Cartes agronomiques of France, going more fully into the chemical nature of
the soil than is possible on the Drift Maps of the Survey which so usefully supple-
ment the maps of solid geology. Such experiments as have been made at the
College at Reading in collecting analyses of the soils in the neighbourhood might
very well be carried out at the agricultural colleges and other centres all over the
country.

Of ayaa) value, though, perhaps, more obviously so to the scientific than to
the ‘ practical’ man, is the study of the natural vegetation of the country. Ina
highly cultivated land like ours there are comparatively few places where the
native flora remains in possession, but the mapping of the main crops which have
supplanted it is nearly as useful. To become satisfactory from this point of view,
the statistics of the Board of Agriculture ought to be supplemented by surveys
made by trained botanists on the ground. A valuable beginning has been made
under the ever-fertile stimulus of Professor Patrick Geddes in the two sheets of a
map of the plant-associations of Scotland compiled by the late Robert Smith,
whose premature death last year was a loss to science. It would be a splendid
thing it this map could be tinished as a memorial to the brilliant young botanist in
the same way as the survey of the lakes is proposed as a memorial worthy of
Fred Pullar, and I am glad to learn that there is some probability of it being
carried on.

Of all the other distributions which might be worked out cartographically
time fails us to speak; but reference must be made, however briefly, to a few.

1901, 3A

710 | REPORT—1901.

Geography of the Avr.

With regard to Meteorology, the distribution of temperature and pressure
over the British Islands for the year and for the separate months have been
worked out by the experienced hand of Dr. Buchan and published both in
separate memoirs and in the ‘Meteorological Atlas,’ edited by Dr. Buchan
and Dr. Herbertson. But such observations as the degree of cloud or of
sunshine can as yet be treated only in a superficial and generalised way for
want of data. Perhaps the most important and certainly the most difficult of
all the atmospheric conditions to discuss fully is precipitation. It depends on so
many varying conditions, such as the form and exposure of the land, the altitude
above sea-level, the direction and force of the wind, the relative frequency of
thunderstorms, the distance from the sea, the direction of the average paths of
cyclonic storms, &c., that far more numerous and more long-continued observa-
tions are required to establish the normal condition of the country than in the
case of either temperature or pressure. When we reflect that the whole water-
supply of the country depends directly on rainfall, and when we remember that
the value of water-power made available by differences of level promises to be
greater in the future than it has been in the past, we can see that a study of
rainfall in conjunction with configuration may prove as valuable for the localisa-
tion of the manufacturing centres of the future as the geological survey was for
those of the present.

Thanks to the remarkable foresight and the untiring exertions of the late
Mr. Symons, the volunteer rainfall observers of this country have been encouraged
to organise their efforts, and by working on a common plan have accumulated
within the last forty years a mass of observations unrivalled for number and com-
pleteness in any other land. But as yet the difficulties in the way of constructing
a map of normal rainfall on an adequate scale have not been overcome, and much
experimental work will probably be necessary before it can be accomplished. To
this task it is my ambition to devote myself. I may be permitted to state that
Scotland is far behind England or Wales in the number of rainfall stations per
square mile, Thus there is, roughly, one rain-observing station for every 20
square miles of England, one for every 30 square miles of Wales, but only one
for every 67 square miles of Scotland, and one for every 170 square miles of
Ireland.

Rainfall observations only tell the amount of available water; the con-
figuration of the stream-beds must be considered in determining water-power.
The only country I know where the horse-power of the rivers has been measured
and mapped is Finland, but of course individual rivers, such as the Mississippi,
Rhine, Seine, and Thames, have been thoroughly studied. Before many decades
have passed it will be a necessary element in the surveys of all countries, though
at present the available data are few and scattered.

Population Maps.

In considering human geography we come to the most interesting and least
occupied field of research. Until Mr. Bosse constructed his beautiful maps of the
density of population of Scotland and England we had absolutely no carto-
graphical representation of the true distribution of people over the land, To map
population by counties gives a very poor idea of the truth, for in such counties as
Yorkshire or Perthshire there are large areas entirely without inhabitants, and
small areas where the population is very dense. Mr. Bosse’s maps were made on
the principle of leaving blank all the land on which there were no dwelling-houses,
and so obtaining a close approximation to the true density of population of the
inhabited area. For Scotland his map shows at once that it is a function of
configuration. It shows the densely peopled lowland plain, the less densely
peopled coast-strip surrounding the country, and the least densely peopled valleys
running inland into the great uninhabited areas. The population map of England,
on the other hand, shows an absolutely startling relation to the geological structure,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 711

which in turn is closely related to the configuration. We are not astonished to
see the centres of densest population coinciding with the Coal Measures, but it
is both surprising and instructive to see how the density of population runs
parallel to the strike of the Secondary and Tertiary rocks of south-eastern
England, a baud of the lightest population following each outcrop of chalk and
limestone, a band of dense population following each belt of sandstone or clay.

Anthropo-geography teems with fascinating subjects of research. The admi-
rable investigations in the West of Ireland on the physical anthropology of the
people might well be extended to the whole country outside the great towns,
where all evidence of place of origin and original character is speedily lost. Good
work has been done in this way by the Ethnographic Survey promoted by a
committee of this Association, and a committee of the Royal Scottish Geo-
graphical Society has rendered great aid to the Ordnance Survey in the cognate
study of the place-names of Scotland.

The distribution of religion, even in the three typical forms of Anglican,
Presbyterian, and Roman Catholic—forms so typical as to be, broadly speaking,
national—is most imperfectly known. The objection to a religious census is one
which is somewhat difficult of comprehension in Scotland, and too polemic for
sober discussion in England. But a few of the problems are worth being worked
out by individuals. The curious islands of Roman Catholic continuity in Lanca-
shire, the Hebrides and the Highlands can probably be related simply enough to
the configuration of the country and the means of communication as influencing
free movement of people at critical periods of history. There are many inter-
esting points as to the geographical distribution of surnames, the relation of
characteristic literature or poetry to specific areas; things small in themselves, but
capable of exercising very far-reaching influence if systematically worked out.

Geographical Synthesis.

Granted that the subsidiary surveys have been made and the results put in a
strictly comparable form, the central problem remains—the synthesis of the complete
geography of the country. This can perhaps be solved best by comparing the maps
of the various distributions in the proper order, and seeing how far they are
related to one another. For the general discussion the Ordnance Map on the
scale of 1 inch to a mile should be used, and each natural region cught properly to
be treated by itself, but as a matter of practical convenience it would probably be
found best to select either the artificial boundaries of counties or the still more
arbitrary lines bounding sheets of the map. Whatever small area is taken as
the unit of description, it should be treated in such a way as to seek for and prove
or disprove the existence of any control exercised by the form of the land and its
geological character on the outcrops of the rocks, the nature of the soil, the course
of the rivers, the temperature and movements of the air, the rainfall, the vegetation
and agriculture, the distribution of population, the sites of towns, villages, and
isolated dwellings, the roads, railways and harbours, the birth-rate and death-rate,
and on the progressive changes in all these conditions which are shown in the
discussion of the statistics collected annually or decennially. When such unit
areas are worked out individually the results can easily be combined and condensed
into a geographical description that will be complete, well balanced, and sym-
metrical, ‘he work is practicable; it requires only time, money, direction and
workers to carry it out; but although a specimen memoir, prepared by the
authority of the Royal Geographical Society, met with a certain measure of
approval, all attempts failed to obtain funds for making the work complete, and
the scheme must await a more educated generation before it can be profitably
revived in its entirety. Meanwhile this field for geographical study and
research lies at the doors of every university where the subject is or may be
recognised, and the labours of professors and students might be profitably
directed to the completion of such memoirs for the surrounding district, gradually
working further and further afield. The idea is no more new than every other
‘thing under the sun,’ Such exercises, not so elaborately planned, but the same

3A 2

FE REPORT—1901.

in essentials, were ordinary subjects for theses in the universities of Sweden and
Finland during the eighteenth century. To come nearer home, the local handbooks
prepared for successive meetings of the British Association are frequently very fair
examples of the geographical description of a district. The essential qualities are
rarer in guide-books, but we must not forget one brilliant exception, the poet
Wordsworth’s ‘Guide to the English Lakes.’

It is pleasant to hear that through the encouragement of Sir John Murray the
Scottish Natural History Society is taking up the systematic study of the basin of
the Forth, and they will, I feel sure, give a good account of their labours. One
point which must be very strongly emphasised is that a geographical treatise is
distinguished from a jumble of facts mainly by the order and proportion in which
the phenomena are dealt with, and by the relation of cause and effect that is
established between them.

As to the utility of complete geographical descriptions, we must of course
recognise their greater practical importance in new and developing countries than
in old lands like our own. Yet even with us the study of the distribution of
natural resources may suggest important changes, involving great redistributions
of population.

A Geographical Warning.

Hitherto, except as regards exploration and cartography, the position of
geography in this country has never been satisfactory. Times are changing, and even
in exploration we are now only one amongst many rivals, often better equipped by
education, usually in no way deficient in daring. Although the best work of
several of our cartographers in Edinburgh and London need fear no comparison,
we cannot conceal the fact that Germany leads the world in map-making. <As
regards the recognition or even the comprehension of geography by the State, by
the universities and by the public, we are equally far behind our neighbours across
the North Sea.

It has sometimes been hinted that the study of geography has been deliberately
discouraged by politicians or by merchants because too much knowledge on the
part of the public might embarrass foreign policy or lead to mercantile competi-
tion; but we surely cannot entertain such unworthy suspicions. I am inclined to
attribute the neglect of the subject merely to ignorance of its nature due to
imperfect education.

Two cases in which the application of geography to political and practical
affairs suggests a definite course of action may be mentioned as examples. There
is still one important colonial boundary entirely undelimited in a region somewhat
difficult of access and still little known, where goldfields will probably be found
or reported before long, and where a very serious international question may
suddenly arise in a part of the world absolutely unsuspected by most people, even
amongst those who interest themselves in general politics and in colonial affairs.
It would cost a comparative trifle to survey the region in question, and to lay
down that boundary line before the goldfields are touched, so that no international
trouble could ever arise. What it may cost to postpone the matter until claims
have been pegged out on debatable land, the British Guiana and Venezuela
arbitration, the Alaska difficulty, and South Africa are there to tell us. It would
be interesting to calculate, now that the cost of a week of fighting is known, the
saving in pennies on the income tax that would have accrued from a survey of
South Africa if that had been carried out as an imperial duty when Cape Colony
was settled. I do not for a moment suggest that a survey would have prevented
the war; but it is not unreasonable to believe that it would have shortened it by
some months, In this connection it is satisfactory to know that a valuable report
has been drawn up by a Committee of the British Association, presided over by
Sir Thomas Holdich, embodying a scheme for the systematic survey of British
protectorates,

The second example comes nearer home. The utilisation of wind- and water-
power must increase in importance as mineral fuel diminishes in amount or
increases in price. Wind- and water-power will never failas long as the sun shines

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 713

and the land remains higher than the sea; but what may fail unless timely pre-
cautions are taken is the power of utilising them for the benefit of the community
at large. Are the existing laws as to water-rights, and the absence of laws as to
the utilisation of wind desirable and satisfactory? The usual answer to such
questions is, ‘ Why trouble about that just now? These matters are not urgent,
other things are.’ That argument is answerable for many disasters. The inevit-
able is in many if not in most cases simply another name for the unforeseen. It
is inevitable that the country will be impoverished if the utilisation of wind- and
water-power and the transport of that power by electricity are not wisely safe-
guarded and provided for ; but when a survey of our resources, the circulation of
the air over our islands, and the effects produced by the interposition of the moun-
tains, plateaus, and valleys upon it, plainly points to the possibility of such a
trouble, it only becomes inevitable as a result of culpable negligence.

These two examples, which will not strike anyone whose mind is wholly oc-
cupied in paying the penalties of old neglect, illustrate my contention that a com-
plete geographical description based on full investigation is of the highest and
most urgent importance, not for this country only, but for the Empire, and for
every country in the world.

Nor is it the land alone which claims attention. It is of the utmost importance
to investigate and evaluate the resources of the surrounding seas. The recent
International Conference for the exploration of the sea held at Christiania formu-
lated a scheme of research which has been taken up enthusiastically by Belgium,
Holland, Germany, Denmark, Russia, Sweden and Norway. Its object is to
place the fisheries of Northern Europe on a scientific basis, and to make for that
purpose a comprehensive survey of the sea, which will prove of high value to
meteorology, and through it to agriculture as well. The recent work by
Mr. H. N. Dickson on the circulation of the surface waters of the North Atlantic
in conjunction with similar work by Professor Pettersson in Sweden shows how
hopeful such researches are from the purely scientific standpoint, and their practical
importance is no less. It remains with our Government to show that this
country is not indifferent to an opportunity, such as has never presented itself
before, of placing one cf our great national industries on a basis of scientific
knowledge. This is in my belief one of the cases in which the expenditure of
thousands now will mean the saving of millions a few years hence.

It is magnificent to send out polar expeditions; they speak volumes for the
greatness of the human mind that can give itself to the advancement of knowledge
for the sake of knowledge, knowing that it will bring no material gain; and I
trust that such a spirit will continue to manifest itself until no spot on Earth, no
land however cold or hot, no depth of sea, no farthest limit of the atmosphere
remains unsearched and its lesson unlearnt. But I insist that the full study of
our own country is on a totally different footing. Magnificent it may be, too, but
sternly practical, since it is absolutely essential for our future well-being, and even
for the continuance of the nation as a Power amongst the states of the world.
Still, there is every probability that such work will be neglested until the events
which it should avert are upon us, and then it will be too late to make provisions
which now could be done cheaply, easily, and effectively.

A Proposed Remedy.

The few attempts which have been made in this country to promote the study
_of geography or to diminish the discouragements to geographical research have
had but slight success. Much has been done to improve geographical teaching
by the Royal Geographical Society, the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, the
Geographical Association, this Section of the British Association, and other
bodies; but that is not my theme. I refer to the little that has been done
towards the elaboration of a geographical theory and the elucidation of
geographical processes. Amongst the not inconsiderable number of teachers of
geograpby in the Universities and colleges of Great Britain there is not one
man who receives a salary on which he can live in decent comfort so as to

714 REPORT—1901.

devote all his time, or a substantial part of it, to geographical research; and the
sae is true of every official of all the geographical societies. Not one is paid a
salary sufficient to enable him to devote the time not occupied by mechanical
routine to any other purpose than supplementing his income by outside work—
writing text-books, correcting examination papers, perhaps even practising
journalism. If by an effort and the sacrifice of some of the comforts considered
necessary by most people of the professional classes he devotes a few odd hours
now aud then to some original research, he finds very few to consider it seriously;
some friendly expressions of opinion possibly, but scarcely a reader; and it counts
for nothing, save, perhaps, in enhancing the reputation of his country in other
lands where scientific work, no matter in what department, is valued in a due
degree. All this must be changed before much progress can be made. No doubt
a giant of genius would ignore all obstacles and pursue his work regardless of
recognition ; but such giants are not to be looked for many times in a century.
It should be made possible for a man of fair abilities to receive as much oppor-
tunity, encouragement, recognition and reward for good work in geography as
for good work, let us say, in chemistry or electricity. That is all that can reason-
ably be asked, and that is what is freely accorded in other countries where the
status of the man of science is higher than it is with us. It is here that help
may be hoped for from the Scottish Universities in the strength of their new
endowments. If a Chair of Geography were instituted with the purpose of
promoting research first and teaching afterwards, properly equipped with books,
maps, and apparatus, and held on the understanding that no outside work was to
be undertaken, something might yet be done to restore our country to the
position it held a century and a half ago, when a text-book of geography was
published without a thought of sarcasm, containing a frontispiece representing
‘Britannia instructing Europe, Asia, Africa, and America in the Science of
Geography.’

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Martin Behaim of Niirnberg, 1459-1507. By E. G. RAvENsTEIN.

Martin Behaim of Niirnberg fills a place of some prominence in the history of
geography on three grounds: firstly, the famous historian Jodo de Barros,
writing in 1539, tells us that he was a pupil of Regiomontanus, and was appointed
jointly with Master Rodrigues and Master Josepo, a member of a committee who
devised a method of ‘navigating by the sun,’ which had become necessary since
the Portuguese had crossed the equator, and left behind them the pole star to
determine their latitude; secondly, Behaim claims to have commanded a vessel
in Cao’s memorable second expedition ; and thirdly, during a visit to Nurnberg,
in 1490-1493, he superintended the manufacture of a terrestrial globe, which sur-
vives to this day, and is the most ancient geographical monument of that kind in
existence. As to the first point we may well doubt whether Behaim was a pupil
of the great Franconian astronomer, for Regiomontanus left Niirnberg in July
1575, and Behaim was intended for a commercial and not for a scientific career.
‘We know, on the other hand, that José Visinho, the Josepo of de Barros and a
pupil of the astronomer Zacuto of Guimaraes, actually did translate the ‘ Aimanach
Perpetuum’ of his master (it was printed at Leiria in 1496), and in 1484 under-
took a voyage to the Guinea coast for the especial purpose of determining the
latitudes with the aid of the astrolabe and the tables of the declination of the sun,
furnished by Zacuto. Behaim may have accompained José on this voyage. It
has been suggested that he introduced into the Portuguese navy an ‘improved’
astrolabe, the cross-staff or the ‘Ephemerides’ of Regiomontanus; but these are
mere idle conjectures.

Nor can we admit that Behaim was a member of C&o’s second expedition,
which left Lisbon towards the close of 1485 and was back before August 1486.
Behaim’s own account we gather from the legends on his globe and information
evidently communicated by him to Hartmann Schedel, the compiler of the well-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, 715

known ‘ Liber Chronicorum,’ He claims to have left Portugal in 1484 in com-
mand of one vessel, the other being commanded by Cao; to have set up a Padrao
on Monte Negro on January 18, 1485; and to have turned homeward after a
voyage of 2,300 leagues. As measured on his globe these 2,300 leagues would
have carried him, far beyond the Cape of Good Hope, to a ‘ Prom. 8. Bartholomeo
viego,’ whilst Cao turned back on a Cabo Negro (now known as Cape Cross) in
15° 14’ 8. If Behaim was knighted on Friday, February 18, 1485 (day of
the week, date, and year are in agreement), he cannot have set up a pillar on
January 18, 1485. But even supposing all these inconsistent dates of his to be due
to lapses of memory, we should still hesitate to admit his having been a companion
of that famous explorer, still less would a man who wrote in 1493 that ‘the
polar star not being visible to the south of the equator and the magnet refusing
to act the navigators are constrained to make their course with the aid of the
astrolabe’ have been placed in command of a Portuguese vessel. Behaim has
nothing to say about the powerful Manicongo ‘ discovered’ by Cao, but seems to
know everything about King Furfur’s Land (Benin), where the ‘ Portugal pepper ’
was discovered in 1485 ; about the mysterious ‘ Ogane,’ supposed to be Prester John ;
and about the great mortality in the Gulf of Guinea owing to the heat. But
these are experiences of the expedition of Joaio Affonso d’Aveiro, who left
Portugal in 1485 and returned in 1486 in time for Behaim to enter into a scheme
for the discovery of the ‘island of the seven cities,’ as supposed by Ernesto do Canto.
We therefore think it quite possible that Behaim took part in d’Aveiro’s expedi-
Bap, but reject unhesitatingly his claim to have commanded a vessel in that of
/20,

As to the globe still to be seen at Niirnberg there is no doubt that it was pro-
duced under his direction, and I propose shortly to publish a full description of it,
together with a trustworthy facsimile.

2. Report on the Climatology of Tropical Africa.—See Reports, p. 383.

3. Morphological Map of Europe. By Dr. A. J. Hurpertson.

4. Geographical Conditions affecting British Trade.
by Geo. G. Cutsuoim, I.A., B.Sc.!

Fluctuations in British trade are often discussed as if they depended solely on

such matters as tariffs and bounties, the ignorance and negligence or knowledge
and enterprise of merchants, the behaviour of masters and men among the indus-
trial classes, railway rates, and so forth. It may therefore be worth while to call
attention to some obvious facts showing that geographical conditions are im-
portant factors to be taken into account in considering such changes.

The history of Glasgow furnishes a very interesting illustration of this truth.
Throughout the separate history of Scotland, Glasgow was a town of quite minor
importance. Not till trans-Atlantic trade developed did it rise to the position of
an important commercial and industrial city. In considering this rise it is im-
portant to note that, in relation to such trade, the physical configuration of Scot-
land gives to Glasgow, as its hinderland, not merely the small valley of the Clyde,
but all the originally richer eastern lowlands of Scotland from the Grampians to
the Tweed. i

In discussing the subject of the Paper with reference to the United Kingdom
as a whole, it will be convenient to distinguish between commercial and industrial
advantages or disadvantages, even although these act and react on one another.

Commercially, this country has a situation presenting unparalleled advantages
in relation to those parts of the world most conveniently reached from the

} Published in full in the Geographical Journal, October 1901.

716 : REPORT—1901.

seaboard, but no others. The importance of these advantages is well illustrated
by the great magnitude and the remarkable constancy in the relative value of
the British entrepét trade, and also by the rapid development and continued
pre-eminence of our chief textile industry, that of cotton.

Such being the essential nature of British commercial advantages, all improve-
ments in connection with shipping, the change from wood to iron and steel as
ship-building materials, the change from sails to steam as a means of propulsion,
the improvement of marine engines, the enlargement of ships, the improvement
and enlargement of harbours, the improvement of the means of communication
between the seaboard and the interior in all parts of the world, have tended in
the aggregate more to the advantage of this country than any other.

On the other hand, all improvements in the means of communication between
inland centres of production and inland markets have tended to diminish the
relative value of the commercial position of this country. This consideration is
illustrated by reference to some facts in the history of the trade of Germany with
surrounding countries, and that of the United States with Mexico and Canada.

The industrial advantages of the United Kingdom depend on the great
abundance of coal and iron ore in convenient situations. It is obvious, however,
that the development of similar resources elsewhere must reduce the relative value
of these adyantages. With reference to this point the position of two rival
countries is of peculiar interest for different reasons. Germany is so favoured,
both in its coal and iron fields, that one is led to ask why that country was so
long in becoming a rival in industry of the United Kingdom. The United States
is even more favoured, and in the case of that country the interesting point to
note is how the advance of time is tending to increase its industrial advantages
relatively to those of our own country.

Another circumstance tending to lower the industrial advantages of this
country relatively to those of others is the development of water-power. Formerly
the use of this power was restricted by natural obstacles, but now these obstacles
are, to a large extent, removed by the employment of electricity as a means of
transmitting that power. All this must obviously tend more to the advantage of
such countries as Switzerland, Norway, and Italy in Europe, and Canada and the
United States in America, than to that of this country. Under this head the case_
of Italy is of peculiar interest. Water-power is there getting very largely applied
through electricity. Now, it isto be borne in mind that Italy has an extremely
advantageous commercial situation. That was shown by the whole history of
commerce in the middle ages. The opening of the Suez Canal has restored, to
some extent, this advantage, which, however, has not yet been fully or even
largely turned to account. But in commerce the great law is that to him that
hath shall be given. If, then, Italy, through her water-power or in other ways,
is able to develop very greatly a trade based on her own resources, all the more
likely will she be to add to that trade a great transit and entrepdt trade such as
she once possessed.

5. The Influence of Geographical Environment on Polttical Evolution.
By ALLEYNE IRELAND.

The influence of geographical environment on political evolution in the tropics
and sub-tropics is a subject which must assume for us an increasing practical
interest as time passes. In order to emphasise this point it is only necessary to
observe that, taking the tropics and sub-tropics to mean the heat-belt lying
between 30° N. and 30°S., the sea-borne trade of these regions is increasing at a
much greater rate than is the sea-borne trade of the temperate lands.

We know that commerce to-day demands for its best development certain
conditions of government which must in the main conform to the usages of what
we call Western Civilisation. Thus the construction of the Suez Canal involved
the Europeanising of the Egyptian Government, as the Panama or Nicaragua
Canal of the future will involve the establishment, under one authority or another,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. rly)

of a type of government in Central America very different from that which now
exists.

It would be easy to multiply indefinitely examples intended to prove the
interdependence of commerce and political administration. The history of British
rule in India might well be founded on that central idea; and from the earliest

.times European relations with China have been moulded by the failure of the
Chinese political system to meet the necessities of Kuropean commerce. _

A brief survey of the history of tropical and sub-tropical countries during the
past four centuries confronts us with the fact that in three countries only—
Mexico, Peru, and India—did the first European travellers find native Govern-
ments possessing any serious elements of stability, and that in each case the
government was in the form of a military despotism. Broadly speaking, we may
say that whatever degree of organised government exists to-day in Central and
South America, in the West Indies, in the whole of Africa, in Further India, and
in the Malay Archipelago is due to the intrusion of one or another of the
European Powers. ‘These countries may be divided into two classes—one com-
prising those in which the administration is of direct European origin, the other
including those in which popular representation effectively throws the control of
affairs into the hands of the local inhabitants. If we accept India as representing
the former class, and the Central American Republics as representing the latter,
we cannot fail to be impressed by the fact that, although European influence in
Central America antedates British influence in India by a full century, the
argument on the facts is strongly against the applicability of representative
institutions to tropical countries.

Briefly the question resolves itself into one of climatic discipline. In Europe
the extreme range of temperature demands variety of clothing, and to this
necessity we may attribute the growth of industry in early times. A winter
season, during which food cannot be obtained directly from the soil, involved an
excess of labour above the daily need during the season of crops, and from this we
adduce the development of thrift and foresight. To these two factors, and to
their innumerable and far-reaching corollaries, must be attributed the general
character of Evropean civilisation. In the development of the tropical man
neither of these great agencies has been at work, nor, except in a few special
instances, can it be foreseen that they will come into operation.

It is not asserted that the natives of the tropics are necessarily deficient in the
intellectual faculties. To propound such a theory, in view of the constant and
deserved success of East Indians and Negroes in our Universities and at the Bar,
would merely betray colour prejudice. But when we observe the tropical man as
a legislator or as a responsible administrator we find him, with very few excep-
tions, to be utterly unsuited to his task. I think that the available facts justify
the theory that the climatic conditions of the tropics have set an insuperable
barrier to the advancement of tropical peoples in the direction of popular govern-
ment. It seems to me that a great deal of futile experimenting would be saved if
we accepted the principle that in the heat-belt of the world administrative affairs
must rest in the hands of specially trained Europeans, guided by the advice of a
nominated council consisting of representatives of each class of the community.

It is not because we would oppress the native, but because we would save him
from oppression and from the evil effects of rash and ill-considered iegislation, that
we would take the administration of his country out of his hands.

6. Itineraries in Portuguese Congo. By Rev. Tuomas Lewis.

The ancient kingdom of Kongo discovered in the fifteerith century is so little
known at the beginning of the twentieth. In past generations the Portuguese
were more interested in their island plantations, and used their territories on the
mainland to supply them with slaves. The Government of to-day shows signs of
activity in opening up the country, and have established three military and fiscal
stations inland, the latest on the Kwangu River,

718 REPORT—1901.

The traveller finds the river banks from the coast to Moqui sparsely populated.
Mogqui itself is very unhealthy, but is indispensable as the principal port and depot
for goods into the interior, From here he starts on his inland journey, and travels
for six days through dreary and monotonous country to 8, Salvador, the ancient
capital of Kongo.

Here there are ruins of ancient churches, and the main arch of the cathedral
is in a good state of preservation, the only monument of a great and glorious
past. There is a Portuguese Resident, two trading firms, and two missions.

Three years ago the writer of this paper was requested to make a prospecting
journey into Zombo, and after traversing the country in several directions esta-
blished a mission station at Kibokolo, in the heart of Zombo.

Travelling east from 8. Salvador he ascended the plateau at Bangu, where the
Mbrizi River falls into the valley, the Arthington Falls, The journey proceeded
eastward, and the source of the Mbrizi was noted, The Kwilu River also rises
on this plateau. Two days’ journey takes him to the Lufunde Valley, the high,
precipitous rocks and waterfalls on both sides of which are very picturesque. The
river Lufunde flows into the Mbrizi to the south-west.

Climbing the hill on the eastern side the traveller is again on the plateau, and
Kibokolo is a populous district on the highland, 50,250 feet above the sea.

The climate is much better on the plateau than in the swampy lowlands, and
the temperature is much lower, with a good annual fall of rain.

The soil is sandy and the country naturally well drained, the most noticeable
feature being the abundance of water in sparkling and crystal streams and the
absence of swamps. Hence these highlands of Zombo are much healthier for
Europeans, and malarial fever is not prevalent.

The flora of the country affords a splendid field for botanists. Many parts of
Portuguese Congo are sparsely populated, but Zombo is an exception, being very
thickly populated.

When slavery and native wars and superstitions are done away with the
natives of Africa will rapidly increase in number, and the question of the native
races will be the most difficult of African problems.

The development of the country must be by the uplifting of the natives. New
needs and new tastes must be cultivated, so that the natives may be impelled te
work for their living.

Here Christian missions do great good in teaching the people and providing
them with vernacular literature, so that they are no longer satisfied with savage
life. Young men are trained as carpenters, stonemasons, and blacksmiths, and they
employ themselves in useful work. Thus the natives take their position as
responsible beings in the progress and development of their country.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Effects of Vegetation in the Valley and Plains of the Clyde.
By G. F. Scorr-Extiot, 1.A., B.Sc, F.LS., F.R.GS.

General characters of the valley in (1) the subalpine, (2) heather and peat,
(3) sheep pasture, and (4) arable districts; (5) the Valls of Clyde or canyon,
(6) the valley below the falls, and (7) the flat alluvial plains about Renfrew.

Erosion.—The effect of erosion on peat, bare arable land, and permanent pasture
is contrasted with a view to showing that the water retained in peaty soil, the
transpiration amounts of living plants, as well as the vegetable matter produced,
must so alter the character and amount of the erosion that no trustworthy estimate
can be formed it these factors are disregarded.

Slopes or sides of the valley—The successive stages in the formation of the
slope are traced in several instances, taken from the Falls of Clyde and the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 719

tributaries Nethan and Harpersgill, &e. It is shown that a perfect series of transi-
tions can be found from the vertical cliff or scaur left by the river to the continuous
steep slope, which is characteristic of the valley-sides throughout this neighbour-
hood.

The vegetation is shown to control this slope formation throughout. The
vegetation covering the space at the base of the cliff forms very rapidly.
The annual formation of wood and other tissues is shown to be very great in this
sheltered and moist situation (as compared by measurements with the growth of
the same plants in more exposed positions). Any falls from above, such as stones
or rock, earth and vegetable matter washed or blown down, accumulate at the

base of the precipice o scaur, and are at once covered over by the vegetation. Thus
a steep sloping surface is formed which gradually extends up the side of the cliff
until eventually the characteristic V-shape of the ravines is produced.

Measurements showing the average slopes in at least four separate ravines
were given.

The undermining of the rock below the fringe of vegetation is shown in some
cases to result in a slope which eventually unites with the accumulation from below
to form the characteristic angle of inclination.

The character of the vegetation of course alters greatly the tenacity of the
covering formed by it. Thus trees form an exceedingly strong network of roots,
as is shown by the example at Kenmuir, where landslips affecting the whole face
of the slope have appeared through the original trees having been destroyed.

An attempt was made to give measurements of the average tenacity of the
vegetation crust in a few cases, proyided the practical difficulties can be overcome
in time.

Holmlands or flats or valley floors.—Character, value, and constitution of the
holms at different points of the Clyde contrasted, and their differences shown to
depend on the mixtures of soils and proportions of organic material. The formation
of these flat lands is shown to depend chiefly on the work of certain marsh plants,
of which Scirpus lacustris, Phragmites, Vaucheria, Poa fluitans, and various sedges
are the most important. The difficulty of tracing their action arises from the
extent to which draining has been carried on, but observations are given illustrating
the species mentioned, and showing that the amount produced in a single year is
by no means an inconsiderable quantity.

Shingle beds.—The shingle beds and the manner in which they are covered by
vegetation is also discussed shortly.

An attempt is made to show on the map the approximate boundary of what
was at one time river and estuarine marshes. The difficulty of deciding upvn the
exact boundary line is shown to depend upon the amount of boulder clay and drift
which closely resembles the ordivary alluvium. If time is left, an attempt will be
made to compare the alluvial formations of other countries with those of the

Clyde.

2. The Scottish Natural History Society's Scheme for the Investigation of the
Forth Valley. By Marion Newsiein, D.Sc.

The paper gives an account of a scheme which has been undertaken by the
Scottish Natural History Society at the suggestion of Sir John Murray. It is
proposed, first, to arrange, in a readily available form, references to papers already
published on the natural history of the Forth Valley, including its botany, zoo-
logy, and geology ; secondly, the Society proposes to utilise its various sections and
the labours of its individual members in the acquisition of a mass of detail in regard
to the existing organic conditions in the valley of the Forth, with the primary object
of providing a basis of fact upon which conclusions may be later established, although
the opportunities of the work as a means of training observers will not be lost
sight of. It is hoped that the work may be carried out in such a way that the
conditions of existence of the most important organisms within the area may be
readily ascertained by reference to the Society’s records,

720 REPORT—1901.

3. Methods and Objects of a Botanical Survey of Scotland.
By W.G. Surru, B.Sc., Ph.D., Leeds.

The botanical survey now under consideration was initiated by Robert Smith,
of Dundee, and was drawn up in co-operation with a survey of France on similar
lines, the project of Professor Ch. Hahault, of Montpellier. According to this
method the vegetation of any area is regarded as consisting of a collection of plant-
associations the distribution and extent of which are indicated on standard maps
by distinctive colours. Each association of plants is adapted to certain conditions
of food-supply, heat, light, moisture, &c., and one of the objects of the survey is to
obtain fuller information on these life-conditions of plants.

Each plant-association consists of a variable number of species, which may be
arranged thus:

(a) One or more dominant social (gregarious) species: these are used to name
the association, ¢.g., oak, beech, pine, heather, &c.

(6) Secondary social species struggling for dominance.

(c) Dependent species protected by the dominant forms or more or less de-
pendent on them for food, &c.

A feature of the survey is the collection of field-notes and lists of species in
order to amplify our knowledge of plant-associations and species included in each.

In Scotland the following have been found to be the most suitable asscciations
for recording, and they are equally applicable to a botanical survey in progress in
various parts of England :—

I, Maritime and littoral group of associations.

II. Agrarian group.

(a) Cultivation: (1) with rotations including wheat—upper limits, 500
to 600 feet ; (2) without wheat—up to limits of cultivation, 1,000 to
1,250 feet.

(6) Woods of deciduous trees: (1) mixed deciduous woods with beech,
oak, &c.—upper limits, 700 to 1,000 feet; (2) oak woods without
beech—upper limits, 1,000 feet.

III. Sub-alpine group (1,000 to 2,000 feet),

(a) Woods: (1) Scots pine or mixed conifers—upper limits, 1,250 to
1,800 feet; (2) larch woods—upper limits, 1,500 to 1,800 feet ;
(3) birch woods— upper limits, 1,500 to 2,000 feet.

(6) Hill pasture and moorland: (1) grass hill pasture associations ;
(2) heather associations ; (8) cotton-grass and heather associations on
peat-bog.

IV, Alpine group (2,000 to 4,000 feet).

(1) Heather associations, up to 3,100 feet.

(2) Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) association, up to 3,600 feet,
(3) Alpine pasture associations.

(4) Alpine plateau with mosses, lichens, &c.

(5) Alpine crags.

4. Notes on Argentine Anthropo-geography.
By F. P. Moreno, Director of the La Plata Museum.

The paper gives an account of the distribution of the extinct and existing
human races in the Argentine Republic.

There are in Argentina the remains of men who lived before the continent
had acquired its present relief and contour. Afterwards these men, developing,
commenced their migrations, while another race appeared in the regions of the
West at the end of the Glacial epoch, and the ancient people were pushed to the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. THE

South, where to-day we meet their descendants; and amongst them we note an
extraordinary variety of types observed in no other country in the world. Man
lived in caves with extinct mammals as man lived in European caves of the
Pleistocene period, and other people migrated from the northern extremity of the
American continent. We find Polynesian anthropological elements mixed with
the Patagonian, Polynesian culture among Calchaqui and old Peruvian culture.
Advancing in time, we find a complicated civilisation which it is impossible to
ally with any known type, yet presenting an astonishing similarity in some
respects with that of people who lived in the same latitude in the northern hemi-
sphere and in lands of similar physical conditions. There is a remarkable analogy
between the petrographs extending from Arizona to Patagonia, on both sides
of the Andes, and between their industrial arts and myths. In intermediate
countries there are identical analogies with races of the Scuth and of the Kast.
In Bolivia the ruins of Tiahuanaco and other similar ruins have no antecedents ;
the people to which they are referred, the one that used the macrocephalic defor-
mation, has its representatives from Vancouver to Patagonia; in the old Peruvian
pottery the human types are not all those of the natives of to-day, but those of
Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, and Chile; in this pottery Mexican types appear
represented as prisoners; several small artistic terra-cottas, so common in the oid
Mexican towns, have been discovered in the pampas of Buenos Aires; while other
Mexican objects are the same as some of Calchaqui. Calchaqui remains extended
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Patagonia to Peru an inter-Andean
trade has existed in remote epochs showing the enterprise of the peoples which
maintained such relations across so great a barrier. When we remember all these
facts, we cannot but believe that man in South America has had a very long
existence, and that intercontinental, and even interoceanic, communications have
been maintained from the prehistoric times until the day when the Spanish
conquistadors continued the work of the wild tribes in destroying the older
civilisation.

But who are the Onas, the Tehuelches, the Gennakens, the Araucanians, the
Misiones, and Chaco tribes, the Calchaquis? It is impossible to answer these
questions at present. The importance of these investigations has been indicated in
the hope that it may conduce to the solution of these problems, but the author
thinks that we are already in presence of the elements which formed the old and
lost civilisation, the ruins of which are spread over the whole continent of South
America. The anthropologist treating of North America only, and ignoring what
can be seen in South America, supposes that the latter continent was peopled by
the races of the former, and that the ancestors of the Pueblos were also the
founders of the old civilisations of Peru and Bolivia; but probably the South
American origins are the older, and there is ample evidence in support of this
contention. Palseontology has demonstrated that the Pampean mammals migrated
from the South to Mexico and the United States, and it is not impossible that
men may have taken the northward route. It is true that the Mastodon is both
a European and North American mammal, but it is not to be forgotten that its
remains are also abundant in South America, in beds of the same age as, or older
than, those of North America and Europe.

5. Some Explorations of Andean Lakes. By Husketu Pricwarp,

Itinerary of expedition—The Pampas—Difficulties of transport—Arrival at
Colohuapi—The Tehuelche Indians—Their appearance and method of life—Lago
Buenos Aires—Santa Cruz—Following Darwin’s route—Arrival at Lago Argen-
tino—First down-stream navigation of the Rio Leona—Exploration of Lago
Argentino—The Forests— Discovery of a new lake—Homeward,

6. M. Elisée Reclus’ Map on Natural Curvature. By M. Recius«Guyon

722 REPORT—1901.
SATURDAY, SHPTEMBER 14.
The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. The Belgian Scientific Hxpedition of Ka-Tanga.'
By Captain Lemaire.

The duty of a scientific exploring expedition is to study in all its aspects the
object which has been assigned to it, and not to concern itself with affairs.

The scientific apparatus and equipment of the expedition were enumerated.

The European staff of the expedition; loss of two of their number who were
drowned in Tanganyika ; their replacement by others,

Work of the Expedition.

Cartography —6,600 kilometres of itinerary mapped on a large scale; map of
1: 1,000,000 in four colours, containing 195 stations determined by astronomical
observation.

Terrestrial Magnetism.—117 stations determined by the three magnetic com-

onents.
? Altimetry.—Remarks upon the establishment of a single table for the deter-
mination of altitudes in equatorial Africa by a single reading of the barometer and
the thermometer, without the knowledge of these data for the same moment at a
point of comparison. Altitude of Tanganyika ; the greatest altitudes noted.

Meteorology.—Four stations for observation were at work from August 1898
to August 1900, furnishing data relating to temperature, atmospheric pressure,
moisture, evaporation, duration of insolation, radiation from the earth, atmospheric
precipitations, the nature and direction of clouds and winds, the transparency of
the air, &c. Certain remarkable phenomena.

Geology.—The geologist and the prospector of our expedition have drawn up
detailed reports, accompanied by maps and geological sections. Forty cases of
mineralogical specimens were collected.

Fauna and Flora —An herbarium was collected: 100 coloured plates have
been prepared ; ten cases of specimens were brought back. A rapid glance over
the economic fauna and flora of the country traversed.

Ethnography.—Anthropometric determinations ; ten cases of collections.

‘Photography and Painting.—350 photographs; 290 canvasses, water colours,
and sketches.

Occupation of the Country by Ewropeans.—Description of the plateaux of high
altitude, 1,790 to 1,900 metres; food-products: European potatoes, wheat, Euro-
pean vegetables, fruits, rice, &c.; domestic animals, both large and small, uninjured
by the ¢sé-tsé; the White Fathers of Tanganyika and their admirable work; the
steamers on Tanganyika and Moéro; our meeting with Major Gibbons; Anglo-
Belgian relaticns.

2. Report on Terrestrial Surface Waves.—See Reports, p. 398.

3. The Mean Temperature of the Atmosphere and the Causes of
Glacial Periods. By H. N. Dickson, B.Se.

If we suppose that secular variations of climate in the past have been due to
changes in the mean temperature of the atmosphere, it is most probable that such

1 Published in the Scottish Geographical Magazine, October 1901.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION EF. 723

changes have been accompanied by large relative alterations in the gradient of
temperature between the equator andthe poles. But this difference of temperature
is the primary cause of the whole planetary circulation of the atmosphere, the
form and intensity of which must have varied with it, both absolutely and rela-
tively to the modifications produced at the earth’s surface by the distribution of
land and sea. The general conditions lead to the conclusion that a lowering of
mean temperature would be accompanied by an increase of the equator-poleward
gradient, and a rise by a diminution of it. Ferrel’s theory of atmospheric circu-
lation would then suggest that in the former case the planetary circulation would
become more active, the tropical high pressure belts would be displaced to lower
latitudes, and the modifying influence of great continental areas would be rela-
tively diminished ; while in the latter case the circulation would he less energetic,
the tropical belts would be farther from the equator, and the contrast between
oceanic and continental climates would be more sharply defined.

The probable effects of such changes on the distribution of precipitation, and
especially on the position and direction of the great cyclone tracks, are examined,
and it issuggested that the greater proportion of rainfall received with easterly
winds on the polar sides of cyclones, in lower latitudes than at present, may ex-
plain some peculiar features of glacial phenomena. In any case, the aspects of the
problem to which attention is drawn deserve fuller recognition than they have
received ; they indicate that the variations of temperature required to account for
climatic changes are of smaller range than has been supposed, and they may, by the
exclusion of some surviving theories, assist in determining the true cause.

4, Report on a Survey of British Protectorates.—See Reports, p. 396.

5. Northern Ontario: Its Geography and Resources. By Ropert Brit,
M.D., DSc, LL.D. PRS. Director of the Geological Survey of
Canada.

Northern Ontario, now also called New Ontario, comprises more than half of
the whole province, or all that portion lying north-west of the line of Lake Nipis-
sing and the French River. It has a length of fully 800 miles from Mattawa, on
the Ottawa, to the eastern line of Manitoba, near the junction of the Winnipeg
and English Rivers, and a breadth of 400 miles from the outlet of Lake Superior
to its most northern part, which is at the mouth of the Albany River on James
_ Bay. The eastern boundary, which follows the Ottawa River and the meridian
line from Lake Temiscaming, on that stream to James Bay, is also nearly 400 miles
in length ; but the western half of the region has an average breadth of only 200
miles. Taking the eastern boundary as a base, Northern Ontario is roughly tri-
angular in form, the apex being at the western extremity. The southern boundary
is formed by Lakes Huron and Superior and the northern line of the State of
Minnesota, while the northern boundary is defined by the English and Albany
Rivers and part of the shore of James Bay. The last-named circumstance gives
Ontario a claim to be considered a maritime province, with a seaport at Moose
Factory and possibly others at Fort Albany and Hannah Bay. The total area of
Northern Ontario is estimated at 72,000,090 acres, or about one and one-third times
that of Southern Ontario. Its position lies between lat. 46° N. and lat. 52° N., and
the climate is about normal for those degrees of latitude. The paper gives a
general geographical description of the relief, geology, and hydrography of Northern
Ontario, and deals especially with its resources in the way of minerals, agricultural
land, fisheries, and forests.

The principal rivers and lakes of what is now Northern Ontario were surveyed
topographically and geologically by myself in the thirty-one years from 1869 to 1900
inclusive, and they have been described in various summary and detailed reports of the
Geological Survey. Maps have been published showing Lake N ipigon, the country
around Thunder Bay, the whole of the basin of Moose River, the Sudbury district,

724 REPORT—1901.

and the region around French River. The maps resulting from many of my sur-
veys have not yet been published, although on file in the office of the Geological
Survey, and accessible to anyone requiring them. In 1900 the Government of
Ontario sent out ten surveyors, in charge of an equal number of parties, to inspect
Northern Ontario. The reports of these surveyors and explorers, recently pub-
lished in one volume, amply confirm all that I have said during the last thirty
years, in the Geological Survey reports and elsewhere, in regard to the ‘New
Ontario.’ A small-scale map, compiled from the most recent surveys and explora~

tions, accompanies the paper.

6. On the Systematic Exploration of the Atmosphere at Sea by means of
Kites. By A. Lawrence Rotcu, Director of Blue Hill Meteorological
Observatory (Massachusetts, U.N.A.) and American Member of the
International Aéronautical Committee.

It is appropriate that this paper should be presented at Glasgow, since it was
here that Dr. Alexander Wilson first used kites for meteorological observations in
1749.1

Kite-flying with continuously recording instruments was originated at Blue
Hill in 1894, and the progress of the work is set forth in five annual reports pre-
sented to Section A of this Association. Although the meteorological conditions
up to a height of three miles above this region have been ascertained by several
hundred kite-flights, yet since wind of at least twelve miles an hour is required,
certain types of weather—notably the anticyclonic—can rarely be studied.

The method proposed not only permits kites to be flown in calm weather, but
enables data to be obtained a mile or two above the oceans, where no observations
have been possible hitherto. The method consists in installing the kites and ap-
paratus on board a steamship, which, when travelling through calm air at a speed
of ten or twelve knots per hour, enables the lites and instruments to be raised to
the height that can be reached in the most favourable wind. Should the wind be
too strong, its force may be moderated by steaming with it. In this way thekites
can be flown at all times and in the equatorial regions, where a knowledge of the
conditions of the upper atmosphere is needed to complete our theories of the
atmospheric circulation.

The use of kites to the best advantage requires a vessel that can be manceuvred
at will, and therefore experiments were made in Massachusetts Bay on a tug
having a maximum speed of ten miles an hour. Although the wind blew only
six to ten miles an hour, and at no time was strong enough to lift the kites, yet by
steaming towards it within 45° of its mean direction, the meteorograph was raised
to a height of half a mile. The ease with which the kites were launched and the
steadiness with which they flew in the uniform artificial wind were noticeable, A
trial of the kites was next made upon a passenger steamer crossing the North
Atlantic in order to ascertain whether it was possible to obtain in this way meteoro-
logical data frequently during the voyage. Flights were made on five days, when
although the winds accompanying an anticyclone were too light to lift the
kites, the artificial wind, caused by the eastward motion of the vessel at a speed of
15 knots, sufficed to carry the kites and meteorograph to a maximum height of
one-third of a mile. Had it been possible to alter the course of the vessel the kites
could have been flown every day. The kite records obtained in this anticyclone,
in connection with similar ones on deck, show abnormal changes of temperature
with altitude above the ocean, great fluctuations in relative humidity, and slight
variations in wind velocity. A series of such flights on successive voyages would
disclose any difference in the vertical distribution of the meteorological elements
above the ocean as compared with that over the land, and in weather condi-
tions like the above would furnish data for the upper air that cannot be obtained
with kites at a fixed station.

1 Trans, Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, vol, x. part ii, pp. 284-286,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

“I
bo
Or

7. Report on Changes of the Land-level of the Phlegreean Fields.
See Reports, p. 382.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 137.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Weather Maps. By W.N. Suaw, F.R.S.

The author exhibited a set of specimens of the daily weather reports issued by
different European and extra-European countries in 1901. The maps of the
following countries were shown :—

TeVROPEAN. EXtRA-EUROPEAN.
Austria. Algeria.
Bavaria. Australasia.
Belgium. Canada,
British Isles. India.
Denmark. » Bay of Bengal.
France. Japan.
Germany. Mexico.
Holland. United States.
Italy.
Portugal.
Roumania.
Russia.
Saxony.
Spain.
Switzerland,

2, The National Antarctic Expedition. By Dr. J, Scorr Kurtin.

3. With the ‘Discovery’ to Madeira. By Dr, H. R. Mut, F.R.S.E.

4. The Methods and Plans of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition.
By W.S8. Bruce.

5. The Experimental Demonstration of the Curvature of the Earth’s Surface.
By H. Yue Orpuam, IA.

In 1870 Dr. A. R. Wallace performed his well-known Bedford Level
experiment. In the summers of 1900 and 1901 a series of similar experiments was
made with the special object of obtaining photographic records of the same. The
Bedford Level is a portion of the Fens north of Ely, through which in the
seventeenth century two great canals were made, shortening the course of the
Ouse. Of these, one, the New Bedford river, is tidal; the other, the old Bedford
river, has locks at each end, and presents long, straight stretches of water without
current or tide. The six-mile stretch of the old Bedford river between Welney

1901, 3B

726 REPORT—1901.

and Denver was selected, as it is perfectly straight, has a bridge at each end, but
none in between. ‘The height of the parapet of Welney bridge above the water
level was measured, a mark was set up on Denver bridge at the same height above
the water-level, and midway—three miles from each end—a mark was set up on a
pole at the same height above the water-level. A telescope was then directed
from the parapet of Welney bridge to the mark on Denver bridge, and the middle
mark was seen to stand up about six feet above the line of sight, agreeing with the
effect calculated to be produced by the curvature of the earth’s surface.

6. Travels in China. By R. Locan Jacn, LL.D., FRG S.

The party, consisting, besides the writer, of his son R. Lockhart Jack and Mr.
J. 1°. Morris, employed by an English capitalist who had obtained mining conces-
sions in Szechuan, left Shanghai on January 4, 1900.

Having reached Ichang (1,000 miles) by steamers up the Yangtse, a houseboat
was chartered by which the party made the voyage to Chung King, a further dis-
tance of 392 miles.

An overland journey of 299 miles was then made to Chengtu, the capital of
Szechuan, via the coal mines of Lung Chang and the brine wells of Nei-Kiang-
Hsien.

The party had occasion to cross five times the Chengtu Plain, whose fertility,
enhanced by a perfect system of irrigation, enables it to support four million in-
habitants. They visited and mapped the valley of Tung-ling-tse, where copper
mines are worked by the Chinese, and made a ‘loop-cast’ of 607 miles to the
‘Northern Alps,’ at first through a large tract of undescribed country and after-
vards over Gill’s route of 1877, via Lung-an and Sungpan.

Leaving Chengtu on June 19, this time accompanied by Mr. Herbert Way,
who represented an English company, the party travelled by road (850 miles) to
the Maha Gold Mines, which overlook the left bank of the Ya-lung River. Here
their stay was cut short by long-delayed communications from Chung King
relating the capture of the Taku forts, the tragedies of Tientsin, and the supposed
massacre of all foreigners at Pekin. The British Consul at Chung King ‘most
strongly advised’ the party to make for Burma. phe

An attempt was made to reach Kampti, on the Upper Irrawadi, by the route
followed by Prince Henri of Orleans, and the party got as far as Hsiao Wei-si, on
the Mekong, where a French missionary related some of Prince Henri’s experi-
ences and demonstrated the uselessness of the attempt so late in the season.
It was judged imprudent to run such risks. Nine days after leaving Maha the
party were the guests of a Lolo chieftain, the Toussa of Kwa-pit. Between the
Yangtse and the Mekong extra precautions had to be taken in crossing a pass
infested by robbers armed with crossbows and poisoned arrows.

Very unwillingly, the party, whose leading idea was to keep as much as
possible among the Lolo aborigines and half-Tibetan Sifan tribes, retraced their
steps, and leaving the Yangtse at Shi-Ku made for Sin Kai or Bhamo, a route
which brought them again into contact with the Chinese. ‘They crossed the
Mekong and Salwen Rivers, and finally reached Bhamo, in Upper Burma, on
October 21, after overcoming many obstacles. At Yung-chang further progress
seemed to be barred by the refusal of the Carriers’ Union to transport the baggage
of foreigners, and the tales which the coolies had been told of the terrors of the
‘fever valley’ (Salwen) had so demoralised them that they were with difficulty
prevented from deserting in a body.

Interesting observations were made on the Lolos and Sifans, as well as on the
Shan tribes of the Tai-ping Valley and the Katchins of the mountain regions on
the border of Burma. The distance from Maha to Myothet. on the Irrawadi, was
estimated at 874 miles.

The journey afforded opportunities of mapping, to some extent, the margin of
the Chengtu Plain and the rivers which fall into it from the north. Portions of
the courses of the Ya-lung and Yangtse, near Kwa-pit and Li-Kiang respectively,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION FE. 727

were also laid down with more definiteness than had previously been attained.
These rivers both make remarkable bends which are not given in any European
map

‘A number of views, by Mr. R. Lockhart Jack and others, illustrative of the
journey were exhibited by the aid of the lantern.

7. The Crux of the Upper Yangtse. By ARCHIBALD LITTLE.

8. The Representation of the Heavens in the Study of Cosmography.
By A. GALERON.

728 REPORT— 1901.

Section F,—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS,

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Sir Ropert Girren, K.C.B., F.R.S,

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The President delivered the following Address :—
Lhe Importance of General Statistical Ideas.

T Trust you will excuse me, on an occasion like the present, for returning to a
topic which I have discussed more than once—the utility of common statistics.
While we are indebted for much of our statistical knowledge to elaborate special
inquiries such as were made by Mr. Jevons on prices and the currency, or have
lately been made by Mr. Booth into the condition of the London poor, we are
indebted for other knowledge to continuous official and unofficial records, which
keep us posted up to date as to certain facts of current life and business, without
which public men and men of business, in the daily concerns of life, would be very
much at a loss. What seems to me always most desirable to understand is the
importance of some of the ideas to be derived from the most common statistics of
the latter kind--the regular records of statistical facts which modern societies
have instituted, especially the records of the census, which have now existed for a
century in most [European countries and among peoples of European origin.
Political ideas and speculation are necessarily coloured by ideas originating in
such records, and political action, internationally and otherwise, would be all the
wiser if the records were more carefully observed than they are, and the lessons to
be derived widely appreciated and understood.

I propose now to refer briefly to one or two of these ideas which were taken
up and discussed on former occasions,’ and to illustrate the matter farther by a
reference to one or two additional topics suggested in the same manner, and more
particularly by the results of the last census investigations, which complete in this
respect the record of what may be called the statistical century par eacellence—-
the century which has just closed.

Increase of European Population during last Century.

The first broad fact then of this kind, which I have discussed on former occa-
sions, is the enormous increase of the population of European countries and of
peoples of European origin during the century just passed, especially the increase
of the English people and of the United States, along with the comparative
stationariness of the population of one or two of the countries, particularly France,
at the same time. The growth all round is from about 170 millions at the begin-
ning of the century to about 510 millions (excluding South American countries and
Mexico); while the growth of the United States alone is from a little over 5 to
nearly 80 millions, and of the English population of the British Empire from
about 15 to 55 millions, Germany and Russia also show remarkable growth—

1 Cf. Essays in Finance, 2nd series, pp. 275-364, and Proceedings of Manchester
Statistical Society, October 17 1900.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 729

from 20 to 55 millions in the one case, and from 40 to 135 millions in the other—
partly due to annexation ; but the growth of France is no more than from 25 to
40 millions. Without discussing it, we may understand that the economic
growth is equally if not more remarkable. The effect necessarily is to assure the
preponderance of European peoples among the races of the world—to put aside
completely, for instance, the nightmares of yellow or black perils arising from the
supposed overwhelming mass of yellow or black races, these races by comparison
being stationary or nearly so. The increase of population being continuous, unless
some startling change occurs before long, each year only makes Kuropean pre-
ponderance more secure. Equally it follows that the relative position of the
English Empire, the United States, Russia, and Germany has become such as to
make them exclusively the great world powers, although France, for economic
reasons, notwithstanding the stationariness of its population, may still be classed
amongst them. When one thinks what international politics were only a hundred
years ago—how supreme France then appeared; how important were Austria,
Italy, Spain, and even countries like Holland, Denmark, and Sweden—we may
surely recognise that with a comparatively new United States on the stage, and
with powers like Russia and Germany come to the front, the worid is all changed
politically as well as economically, and that new passions and new rivalries have
to be considered.

The figures also suggest that for some time at least the movements going on
must accentuate the change that has occurred. According to the latest figures,
there is no sign that either in France or any other European country which has
been comparatively stationary has any growth of population commenced which
will reverse the change, while a large increase of population goes on in the lead-
ing countries named. ‘This increase, it is alleged, is going on at a diminishing
rate—a point to be discussed afterwards—but in the next generation or two there
is practically no doubt that the United States will be a larger international factor
than it is, both absolutely and relatively, and that Russia, Germany, and the
English people of the British Empire will also grow, though not in such a way.
apparently, as to prevent the greater relative growth of the United States, and
notwithstanding perhaps some relative changes of a minor character amongst
themselves.

The foreign nations then with which the British Empire is likely to be con-
cerned in the near future are Russia, Germany, and the United States; and other
Powers, even France, must more and more occupy a second place, although
France, for the moment, partly in consequence of its relations with Russia,
occupies a special place.

Special Position of British Empire.

Another idea which follows from a consideration of the same facts is the
necessity laid upon the British Empire to consolidate and organise itself in view
of the large additions of subject races made to it in the last century, and especially
in the last twenty years of the century. In a paper which I read before the Royal
Colonial Institute two years ago, an attempt was made to show that the burden
imposed on the white races of the Empire by these recent acquisitions was not
excessive as far as the prospect cf internal tumults was concerned. Relatively to
some other Powers, especially France, we have also been gaining internationally in
strength and resources. But whether we had gained internationally on the whole,
looking at the growth of Powers like Russia, the United States, and Germany,
and their greater activity in world-politics, was a different question, The problem
thus stated remains. It would be foreign to the scope of an address like this,
which must avoid actual politics, to examine how far light has been thrown on it
by the South African war. No one can question at least that the organisation of
the Empire must be governed by considerations which the international statistics
suggest, and that no step can be taken safely and properly unless our public men
fully appreciate the ideas of international strength and resources as well as other
considerations which are germane to the subject. :

730 REPORT—1901.

Europe and Foreign Food Supplies.

Another idea to which attention may be drawn appears to be the increasing
dependence of European nations upon supplies of food and raw material obtained
from abroad. We are familiar with a conception of this kind as regards the
United Kingdom. For years past we have drawn increasing supplies from
abroad, not merely in proportion to the growth of population, but in larger pro-
portion, The position here obviously is that, with the industries of agriculture
and the extraction of raw material (except as regards the one article, coal) prac-
tically incapable of expansion, and with a population which not only increases in
numbers, but which becomes year by year increasingly richer per head, the con-
suming power of the population increases with enormous rapidity, and must be
satistied, if at all, by foreign imports of food and raw materials; there is no other
means of satisfaction. But what is true of the United Kingdom is true ina greater
or less degree of certain European countries—France, the Low Countries, the
Scandinavian countries, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Germany. Especiaily is it
true in a remarkable degree of Germany, which is becoming increasingly industrial
and manufacturing, and where the room for expansion in agriculture is now very
limited. Those interested in the subject may be referred to an excellent paper by
Mr. Crawford, read at the Royal Statistical Society of London about two years
ago. What I am now desirous to point out is the governing nature of the
idea, which necessarily follows from the conception of a European population
living on a limited area, with the agricultural and extractive possibilities long
since nearly exhausted, and the population all the time increasing in numbers and
wealth. Such a population must import more and more year by year, and must
be increasingly dependent on foreign supplies.

I shall not attempt to do over again what is done in Mr, Crawford’s paper, but
a few figures may serve to illustrate what is meant. In the ‘ Statistical Abstract ’
for the principal and other foreign countries I find tables for certain European
countries classifying the imports for a series of years into articles of food, raw and
semi-manufactured articles, &c. From these I extract the following particulars
for all the countries which have tables in this form :—

Imports of Articles of Food and Raw Materials and Semi-manufactured
Articles into the undermentioned Countries in 1888 and 1898 compared.

| | Increase

| | | Amount Per Cent.

ARTICLES OF Foon, &c.

| Russia . . 1,000 roubles 78,975 105,391 27,416 35
German Empire mln. marks 907 1,819 912 100
France ; . 1,000 francs 1,503,000 1,505,000 Nil Nil
Switzerland z 238,000 332,000 94,000 40
Italy : . 1,000 lire 274,480 391,600 117,120 42
Austria-Hungary 1,000 gulden 1 Ahr } 191,919 92,478 85

RAW AND SEMI-MANUFACTURED MATERIALS.

|

Russia : . 1,000 roubles 241,497 | 313,629 71,132 | 29
German Empire mln. marks | 1,507 2,247 740 | 49
France . . 1,000 francs 2,014 2,848 334 | 16
Switzerland 33 508,110 390,111 82,001 27
Italy - 1,000 lire 398,330 509,418 111,088 28

|
Austria-Hungary 1,000 gulden 231,000 | 293,000 62,000 | 27

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 731

The drawback to this table is that it is one of values. Consequently the in-
crease of values in the later years may in part be one of values only without corre-
sponding increase of quantities. But the general course of prices in the period in
question was not such as to cause a great change of values apart from a change in
quantities. The inference seems undeniable, then, that the Continental countries
named, especially Germany, have largely increased their imports of food and raw
materials of recent years—that is, have become increasingly dependent on foreign
and oversea supplies. The position of Germany, with its enormous increase of
food imports—from 907 to 1,819 million marks, or from 45 to over 90 million
sterling, and its corresponding increase of raw material imports—from 1,507 to
2,247 million marks, or from 75 to 112 milliorf sterling—is especially remarkable.

An examination in detail of the quantities imported of particular articles would
fully confirm the impression given by the summary figures. But it may be enough
to refer to the ‘Statistical Abstract’ from which I have been quoting, as well as
to Mr. Crawford’s paper. The figures are not out of the way in any respect, and
it is the idea we have now to get hold of.

The inference is that the ditlerence between the United Kingdom and Continental
countries, especially Germany, as regards dependence on foreign supplies of food
and raw materials, is only one of degree, and that, as regards Germany at least,
the conditions are already remarkably like those of the United Kingdom, while the
more rapidly Germany increases its manufacturing and industrial population, the
more like it will become to this country. In other words, in the future there will
be two great countries, and not one only, dependent largely for their food and raw
materials on supplies from abroad. What their position is to be economically and
otherwise relatively to the United States, which is at once the main source of
supply, and a competitor with European countries in manufactures, is obviously a
matter of no little interest. As a believer in free trade, I am sure that nothing
but good will come to all the countries concerned if trade isinterfered with as little
as possible by tariffs and Government regulations. I believe, moreover, that the
practice of free trade, whatever their theories may be, will unavoidably be accepted
by all three countries before long. Obviously, however, as the new tariff in
Germany indicates, there is to be a great struggle in that country before the
situation is accepted; and if some people in this country had their way, not-
withstanding our long experience of free trade and its blessings, we should even
have a struggle here.

There is another point of view from which the facts should be studied. We
are accustomed, and rightly so, I think, to consider naval preponderance indis-
_ pensable to the safety of the Empire, and especially indispensable to the safety of

the country from blockade, and from the interruption of its commerce, which
would be our ruin. But our position in this respect is apparently not quite
exceptional. Less or more our Continental neighbours, and especially Germany,
ate in the same boat. In the event of war, if they could not make up the loss by
traffic over their land frontiers, they would be just as liable to suffer from blockade
and interrupted commerce as we are. It is conceivable, moreover, that in certain
wars some of the countries might not be able to make up by traflic over their land
frontiers for blockade or interruption of commerce by sea. We may apprehend,
for instance, that Germany, if it were victorious by sea in a war with France,
would insist upon Belgium and Holland on one side, and Italy and Spain on the
other side, not supplying by land to France what had been cut off by sea. One or
more of these countries might be allies with Germany from the first. Contrari-
wise France and Russia, if at war with Germany and the Triple Alliance, might
practically seal up Germany if they were successful at sea, insisting that the
Scandinavian countries and Holland should not make up to Germany by land what
had been cut off by sea. Germany in this view, apart from any possibility of
rupture with this country, has a case for a powerful fleet. It is not quite so much
liable to a blockade as we are, but there is a liability of the same kind. The
question of naval preponderance among rival powers may thus become rather a
serious one. If preponderance is to be nearly as essential to Germany as it is to
this country, who is to preponderate? What our practical action ought to be in

732 REPORT—1901.

the premises is a question that might easily lead us too far on an occasion like this,
but the facts should he ever present to the minds of our public men. We may be
quite certain that they are quite well known and understood in the councils of the
Russian, German, French, and other Continental Governments.

New Population and New Markets.

Another idea suggested by the facts appears to be an answer to the question as
to how new markets are to be found for the products of an increasing population—
a question which vexes the mind of many who see in nothing but foreign trade an
outlet for new energies. The point was mentioned in my address at Manchester
a year ago, but it deserves, perhaps,a more elaborate treatment than it was possible
then to give it. Whatwe see then is that not only in this country, but in Germany
and other Continental countries, millions of new people are, in fact, provided for
in every ten years, although the resources of the country in food and raw materials
are generally used to the full extent, and not capable of farther expansion, so that
increasing supplies of food and raw material have to be imported from abroad.
How is the thing done? Obviously the main provision for the wants of the new
people is effected by themselves. They exchange services with each other, and so
procure the major part of the comforts and luxuries of life which they require.
Lhe butcher, the baker, the tailor, the dressmaker, the milliner, the shoemaker, the
builder, the teacher, the doctor, the lawyer, and so on, are all working for each
other the most part of their lives, and the proportion of exchanges with foreign
countries necessary to procure some things required in the general economy may be
very small. These exchanges may also very largely take the form of a remittance
of goods by foreign countries in payment of interest on debts which they owe, so
that the communities in question obtain much of what they want from abroad by
levying a kind of rent or annuity which the foreigner has to pay. If more is
required, it may be obtained by special means, as, for instance, by the working of
coal for export, which gives employment in this country to about 200,000 miners,
by the employment of shipping in the carrying trade, by the manufacture of special
lines of goods, and so on. But the main exchanges of any country are, and must
be, as a rule, at home, and the foreign trade, however important, will always
remain within limits, and bearing some proportion to the total exchanges of the
country. Hence, when additions to the population, and how they are to live, are
considered, the answer is that the additions will fill up proportionately the frame-
work of the various industries already in existence, or the ever-changing new
industries for home consumption which are always starting into being. These
are the primary outlets for aew population even in old countries like the United
Kingdom and Germany. Of course, active traders and manufacturers, each in his
own way, are not to take things for granted. They must strive to spread their
activities over foreign as well as over home markets, But looking atthe matter
from the outside, and scientifically, it is the home and not the foreign market
which is always the most important. ,
“24 The same may be said of a country in 2, somewhat different economic condition
from England and Germany, viz., the United States. I can only refer to it,
however, in passing, as the facts here are not so clearly on the surface. Contrary
to England and Germany, which have no food resources and resources of raw
material capable of indefinite expansion, the United States is still to a large
extent a virgin country. Its increasing population is therefore provided for in a
different way for the most part from the increase in England and Germany. But
even in the United States it has been noticeable at each of the last census returns
that the increasing population finds an outlet more and more largely, not in agri-
culture and the extraction of raw materials, but in the miscellaneous pursuits of
industry and manufacture. The town population increases disproportionately. In
the last census especially it was found that the overflow of population over the
far Western States seemed to have been checked, the increase of population being

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 7390

mainly in the older States and the towns and cities of the older States. The
phenomena in England and Germany and in other Continental countries are
accordingly not singular. The older countries, and the older parts even of a new
country like the United States are becoming more and more the centres where
populations live and grow, because they are the most convenient places for the
general exchange of services with each other among the component parts of a large
population, which constitutes production and consumption. A small expenditure
of effort in proportion enables such communities to obtain from a distance the food
and raw materials which they require. Migration is no longer the necessity that
it was.

Decline in Rate of Growth of Population.

I come now to another idea appearing on the surface of the census returns
when they are compared for a long time past, and the connected returns of births,
marriages, and deaths, which have now been kept in most civilised communities
for generations. Great as the increase of population is with which we have been
dealing, there are indications that the rate of growth in the most recent census
periods is less in many quarters than it formerly was, while there has been a
corresponding decline in the birth-rates; and to some extent, though not to the
same extent, in the rate of the excess of births over deaths, which is the critical
rate of course in a question of the increase of population. These facts have sug-
gested to some a question as to how far the increase of population which has been
so marked in the past century is likely to continue, and speculations have been
indulged in as to whether there is a real decline in the fecundity of population
among the peoples in question resembling the decline in France, both in its nature
and consequences. I donot propose to discuss ali these various questions, but
rather to indicate the way in which the problem is suggested by the statistics, and
the importance of the questions thus raised for discussion, as a proof of the value
of the continuous statistical records themselves.

The United States naturally claims first attention in a matter like this, both
on account of the magnitude of the increase of population there, and the evidence
that recent growth has not been quite the same as it was earlier in the century.
Continuing a table which was printed in my address as President of the Statistical
Society, in 1882, above referred to, we find that the growth of population in the
United States since 1800 has been as follows in each census period :—

Population in the United States, and Increase in each Census Period of the
Nineteenth Century.

Increase since previous Census
er Population ;
Amount Per Cent.
Millions Millions

1800 . . . 5:3 — —
18luv : a * 72 19 36
1820 5 : P 9°6 2°4 33
1830 ; A 12'9 3:3 B+
184u ; : 171 4:2 33
1850 % > 23°2 OL 36
1860 . i 314 8:2 36
1870 : js i 38°5 (Ri) 23
1880 . é é 5O'L 11°6 30
| 1890 ; é ‘ 62°6 12°5 25
1900 7 5 - | (arte 131 21

: This does not include population of Indian reservations, &c., now included in
the official census for the first time.

734 REPORT—1901.

Thus it is quite plain that something has happened in the United States to
diminish the rate of increase of population after 1850. Up to that time the
growth in each census period from 1800 downwards had ranged between 33 and
36 per cent. Since then the highest rates have been 30 per cent. between 1870 and
1880, and 25 per cent. between 1880 and 1890, There is a suspicion, moreover,
that, owing to errors in the census of 1870, which were corrected in 1880, the
increase between 1870 and 1880 was not quite so high as stated. There is ac-
cordingly a somewhat steep decline from a growth in each ten years prior to 1860,
ranging between 23 and 36 per cent., to a growth first of about 25 per cent., and
finally of 21 per cent. only. The Civil War of the early sixties naturally occurs
to one as the explanation of the break immediately after 1860, but the effects
could hardly have continued to the present time, and a more general explanation
is suggested.

Other special explanations have occurred to me as partly accounting for the
change. One is that, prior to 1860, the United States at different times in-
creased its territory and population partly by purchase and partly by annexation.
But I cannot make out that either the purchase of Louisiana early in the century,
or the subsequent annexations following the Mexican war, would make a material
difference. ‘There is a considerable increase certainly after the Mexican war, but
it would be difficult indeed to estimate how much of the population of Texas and
New Mexico, which was then added to the Union, had previously swarmed over
from the Union, and had thus been from the first economically, if not politically,
part of the United States. Another obvious suggestion is that possibly immigra-
tion into the United States has fallen off as compared with what it formerly was.
But this explanation also fails, as far as the official figures carry us. The pro-
portion of immigration to the total increase of population in each census period
Pi 1820, previous to which I have not been able to obtain figures, has been as
ollows :—

Proportion of Inmigzvation to Total Increase of Population in the undermentioned
Periods in the United States.

Per Cent. | Per Cent.
1820-30 . ‘ P pn AST, | 1860-70 . : rt 85-0
1830-40 . E ° pee es 1870-80 . i - . 242
1840-50 . P 3 27:9 1880-90 . - oe, 443
1850-60 . p 7 Aiea 1890-1900 _ +. eee

Immigration, according to these figures, has thus in late years played as
important a part as it formerly did in the increase of population in the United
States. Possibly the official figures of immigration of late years are a little
exaggerated, as the United States Government does not show a balance between
immigration and emigration; but whatever corrections may be made on this
account, the recent figures of immigration are too large to permit the supposition
that the failure of immigrants accounts in the main for the diminished rate of
increase of the population generally. The ten years’ percentage of increase with-
out immigrants, I may say, varied before 1860 between 24 and 32 per cent., and
has since fallen to 14 and 15 per cent. Even if the latter figures should be
increased a little to allow for the over-estimate of immigration, the change would
be enormous. :

Passing from the United States, we meet with similar phenomena in Aus-
tralasia. Indeed, what has happened in Australasia of late has been attracting a
good deal of attention. The following short table, which is extracted from the
statistics of Mr. Coghlan, the able statistician of the Government of New South
Wales, gives an idea of what has occurred :— '

~J
co
Cr

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

Population of Australasia at different Dates, with the Annual Increase
per Cent. in each Period.

Annual | | Annual
Increase | Increase
_ Population per Cent. || — | Population | per Cent.
since previous || | since previous |
Date | | Date |
sl ES eee ee —||— | $$] ————_|
Thousands | Thousands | . |
1788 . . 1-0 — | 1851. | 4306 | 7:36 |
EOL ys 65 Lid Beil) LEG on, Wee) clet53:0.,.,| . 11-30
1811. : 115 11°94 1871 . jilindieae cae 4°39
LSOr F 35°6 5°88 P881 . le uae Dat || 3:60
1831 . ‘ 79°3 8:34 } bso lp OssUae 3:3
1841 . é 2111 10 28 ) 1899 . | 4,483°0 | 21
Supplementary Table of Rate per Cent. of Increase since 18390.
Per Cent. | Per Cent.
1891 : - : . B34 1896 - ° - . 1°84
1892 : C - . 210 1897 : : - - 186
1893 A E : opghdsa ths: 1898 ° ; - - 1:40
1894 3 F : : 1°96 | 1899 : ; : » 144

1895 F . . . 188 |

The decline in the rate of increase is so great and palpable as to need no
comment.

Here the perturbations due to immigration have obviously been greater than in
the case of the United States. The country was, in fact, settled mainly between
1850 and 1870, without previously having had a population to speak of. But
daducting immigration, the increase would appear to have been as follows in each
decade:

Rate of Increase per Cent. of Population in Australasia, deducting
Immigration, in the undermentioned Periods.

Per Cent. | Per Cent.
1860-70 . 3 5 . 30:0 189099 .. . - 2 e160

1870-80 . H A . 25:0

Of course, so long as immigration continues, the effect is to swell indirectly the
natural increase of population, so that the large increases here shown between
1851 and 1870, and even down to 1890, may be accounted for in part as the
indirect result of the large immigration that was going on. But whatever the
cause, the fact is unmistakable that the rate of increase, apart from the direct
immigration, has declined just as it has done in the United States.

There has been a similar though not nearly so marked a decrease in England,
at any rate if we carry the comparison back to the period before 1850. The
population at each census period since 1800 in England, with the percentage
increase between each census period, have been as follows :—

1851-60 . = « 48:5 1880-90 . . . - 24:5

Population of England at the Date of each Census since 1800, mith Percentage of
Increase between each Census.

| Dk per | | Increase per |

; ent. since | : Cent. since |

~ Population previous | — | Population previous

Census | / Census

| as | |

Millions. | Millions, .

1800 - 89 —_ | 1860 eel 20°1 119 |

1810 - 10:2 14:0 |, 1870 - 22°7 13:2 |
1820 : 12:0 18-1 || 1880 - 26'0 14-4
1830 ‘ 13°9 15'8 || 1890 r 29:0 11°6

1840 i 159 14:5 ' 1900 . 32°3 12:2 .

736 PREPORT—1901.

Thus the increase between recent census periods has been sensibly less than it
was before 1850; and the slight recovery between 1860 and 1880 has not been
maintained. We are thus in presence of much the same kind of change as has
been shown in the United States and in Australasia.

It should be noted, however, in order that we may not strain any fact, that,
when the United Kingdom is viewed as a whole, Scotland and Ireland, as well as
the senior partner, being taken into account, it cannot be said that there is any
falling off in the rate of growth of the population since 1850. For several decades
after that,in fact, the rate of growth of the United Kingdom as a whole was
diminished enormously by the emigration from Ireland, and the growth since 1860
has been at a greater rate than in the thirty years before. There may be new
causes at work which will again diminish the rate of growth, but in a broad view
they do not make themselves visible owing to the disturbance caused by the Irish
emigration. Still the facts as to the United Kingdom as a whole ought not to
prevent us from considering the facts respecting England only along with the
similar facts respecting the United States and Australasia.

These diminutions in the rate of growth of large populations, as I have indicated,
are corroborated by a study of the birth- -rates, and of the rate of the excess of
births over deaths.

The United States unfortunately is without birth- or death-rates, owing to the
want of a general system of registration over the whole country. This is a most
serious defect in the statistical arrangements of that great country, which it may
be hoped will be remedied in time. "In the absence of the necessary records [
have made some calculations so as to obtain a figure which may be provisionally
substituted for a proper rate of the excess of births over deaths, which I submit
for what it may be worth as an approximation, and an approximation only. In
these calculations one-tenth of the increase of population between two census
periods, apart from immigration, is compared with the mean of the population at
the two census dates themselves, with the following results :—

Approximate Rate of Excess of Births over Deaths in the United States, caleulated
Srom a Comparison of One-tenth the Increase of Population between the Census
Periods, deducting Immigrants, rith the Mean of the Numbers of the Population
at the two Census Dates.

1 / 2 | 8 | 4
| non One-tenth | Calculated Excess
x . of Population | of increase since of Births over
Year Population seamed | pene Census, | Deaths per ape k
| ess roportion o
Se) | carblemate Col. 8 to Col. 2
Millions, | Millions, | Mhomanndes
1800 . 53 — — —
1810 . 7-2 6°2 — —
1820 . 9-6 8-4. | _ —
1830 . 129 11:2 308 25 |
1840 . 17 15:0 360 24
1850 . 23°2 20°1 441 2
1860 . 31-4 27:3 ] 565 21
1870 . 38°5 35:0 462 13
1880 . 50-2 44-4 878 20
1890 . 62°6 56°4 | 722 13
1900 . TST 69°2 923 13

Thus, while the excess rate was as ay as 21 to 28 per 1,000 pelos 1860, it
has since fallen to one of 13 only, or about one-half. W pate er validity may
attach to the method of calculation, the real facts would no doubt show a change
in the direction of the table—a decline in the rate of the excess of births over
deaths from period to period, The decline in the growth of population is thus not
merely the direct effect of a change in immigration, but is connected with the birth-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 737
and death-rates themselves, although these rates are of course indirectly affected
by the amount and proportion of immigration, It would be most important to
know what the decline in the birth-rate is by itself, and how far its effects on the
growth of population have been mitigated or intensified by changes in the death-
rate ; but United States records generally give no help on this head.
Dealing with Australasia in the same way, we have the advantage of a direct
comparison of both birth- and death-rates and the rate of the excess of births over
deaths, ‘This is done in the following table :—

Birth-rate and Death-rate and Rate of Excess of Births over Deaths in Australasia
Jor undermentioned Years.

[From Mr. Coghlan’s statistics. ]

_ Birth-rate Death-rate ig ese idea
1861-65 , . . ‘ 41°92 16°75 25°17 |
1866-70. - ‘ ri 39°84 15°62 24:22
BP ert ta oasis 37°34 15:26 22-08 |
1876-80. % . : 36°38 15:04 21°34
1881-85 , 4 ; ma 35°21 / 14:79 20°42
1886-90, - : - | 34°43, 3°95 20:48 |
US91-95. - : : 31°52 12°74 18:78 /
1896-99 fi : A 27°35 12°39 14:96 |

Thus from a high birth-rate forty years ago Australasia has certainly gone
down to very ordinary birth-rates, lower than in the United Kingdom and in
Continental countries, and Australasia certainly has had heavy declines in the rate
of excess of births over deaths, viz., from 2517 in 1861-65 to 15 in 1896-99,
which is to be compared with the decline in the United States, as above stated
approximately, from 28 in 1820-80, and 21 as late as 1860, to 13 in the last twenty

ears.
: A similar table for England only gives the following results :—

Birth-rate and Death-rate and Rate of Excess of Births over Deaths in England
for wndermentioned Years.

Birth-rate per Death-rate per | Excess of Birth-

— 1,000 1,000 rate over Death-
rate
Sal. A ° > i 34:2 22:0 12:2
HS6L *. ; 4 * “ 34°6 21°6 13:0
1871 . 5 4 . ‘ 35:0 22°6 12°4
1881 . F . 33°9 189 15:0
vSoT*. ¢ “| ‘ H 31:4 20°2 11:2
| WSIS)", 3 ' : 29°3 18°3 11:0

Note.—Highest birth-rate in 1876, 36°3.

Here the birth-rates, to begin with, are not so high as in Australasia, and
presumably in the United States, and the excess of births over deaths, though it
has declined a good deal since 1871-81, when it was highest, has been by com-
parison fairly well maintained, being still 11 per 1,000, as compared with 12-2 in
1851.

We have thus on one side a manifest decline in the rate of growth of population
in three large groups of population, coupled with a large decline of birth-rates in
England and Australasia where the facts are known, and a smaller decline in the
rate of the excess of births over deaths, this decline in England as yet being com-
paratively small. Such facts cannot but excite inquiry, and it is an excellent

738 : REPORT—1901.

result of the use of continuous statistical records that the questions involved can
be so definitely raised.

As I have stated, it would be foreign to the object of this paper to discuss fully
the various questions thus brought up for discussion, but one or two observations
may be made having regard to some inferences which are somewhat hastily drawn.

1. The rate of growth of population of the communities may still be very con-
siderable, even if it isno higher than it has been in the last few years. A growth
of 16, 15, or even 12 per cent. in ten years, owing to the excess of births over
deaths, is a very considerable growth, though it is much less than the larger figures
which existed in some parts forty or fifty years ago. What has happened in the
United Kingdom is well worth observing in this connection. Since 1840 the
population of the United Kingdom as a whole has increased nearly 60 per cent.,
although the increase in most of the decades hardly ever exceeded 8 per cent.,
and in 1840-50 was no more than 23 per cent. The increase, it must be remem-
bered, goes on at a compound ratio, and in a few decades an enormous change is
apparent. ‘The increase from about 170 to 510 millions in the course of the last
century among European people generally, though it includes the enormous growth
of the United States in those decades, when the rate of erowth was at the highest,
also includes the slower growth of other periods, and the slower growths of “other
countries. An addition of even 10 per cent. only as the average every ten years
would far more than double the 500 millions in a century, and an increase to at
least 1,500 millions during the century now beginning, unless some great change
should occur, would accordingly appear not improbable.

2. Some of the rates of growth of population from which there has been a
falling off of late years were obviously quite abnormal, i refer especially to the
growth in Australasia between 1850 and 1880, and the growth in the United
States prior to 1860. They were largely due to the indirect effect of immigration
which has been already referred to.

The population to which immigrants are largely added in a few years, owing
to the composition of the population, has its birth-rates momentarily increased and
its death-rates diminished—the birth-rates because there are more people relatively
at the child-producing ages, and the death-rates because the whole population is
younger, than in older countries. It appears quite unnecessary to elaborate this
point. The rates of the excess of births over deaths in a country which is receiving
a large immigration must be quite abnormal compared with a country in a more
normal condition, while a country from which there is a large emigration, such as
Treland, must tend to show a lower excess than is consistent with a normal con-
dition. This explanation, it may be said, does not apply to England, since it is a
country which has not been receiving a large immigration or sending out, except
occasionally, a large emigration. England, “however, must have been “affected both
ways by movements of this char acter. It recely ed undoubtedly a large Irish
immigration in the early part of last century, and in more recent periods the
emigration in some decades, particularly between 1880 and 1890, appears to have
been large enough to have a sensible effect on both the birth-rate and the rate of
the excess of births over deaths, This effect would be continued down into the
following decade, and the consideration is therefore one to be taken note of as
accounting in part for the recent decline in birth-rates in England.

Tn addition, however, it is not improbable that there was an abnormal increase
of population in the early part of last century, due to the sudden multiplication of
resources for the benefit of a poor population which had previously tended to grow
at a very rapid rate, and would have grown at that rate but for the checks of war,
pestilence, and famine, on which Malthus enlarges. The sudden withdrawal of
the checks in this view would thus be the immediate cause of the singularly
rapid growth of population in the early part of last century. It is quite in
accordance with this fact that a generation or two of prosperity, raising the scale
of living, would diminish the rate of growth as compared with this abnormal
development, without affecting in any degree the permanent reproductive energy
of the people.

3. It is also obvious that one explanation of the decline in birth-rate, and of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 739

the rate of the excess of births over deaths, may also be the greater vitality of the
populations concerned, so that the composition of the population is altered by an
increase of the relative numbers of people not in the prime of life, so altering the
proportion of the people at the child-producing ages to the total. This would be
too complex a subject for me to treat in the course of a discursive address. Nor
would it explain the whole facts, which include, for instance, an almost stationary
annual number of births in the United Kingdom for more than ten years past, not-
withstanding the largely increased population. But the case may be one where a
great many partial explanations contribute to elucidate the phenomena, so that this
particular explanation cannot be overlooked.

4, There remains, however, the question which many people have rushed in to
discuss—viz., whether the reproductive power of the populations in question is
quite as great as it was fifty or sixty years ago. We have already heard in some
quarters, not merely that the reproductive energy has diminished, but suggestions
that the populations in question are foliowing the example of the French, where
the rate of increase of the population has almost come to an end. Apart, however,
from the suggestions above made as to the abnormality of the increase fifty or
sixty years ago, so that some decline now is rather to be expected than not, I
would point out that the subject is about as full of pitfalls as any statistical
problem can be, for the simple reason that it can only be approached indirectly, as
there have been no statistical records over a long series of years showing the pro-
portion of births to married women at the child-producing ages, distinguishing
the ages, and showing at the same time the proportion of the married women to
the total at those ages. Unless there are some such statistics, direct comparisons
are impossible, and a good many of the indirect methods of approaching the sub-
ject which I have studied a little appear, to say the least, to leave much to be

desired. We find, for instance, that a comparison has been made in Australasia

between the number of marriages in a given year or years and the number of
births in the five or six years following, which show, it is said, a remarkable
decline in the proportion of births to marriages in recent years as compared with’
twenty or thirty years ago. It is forgotten, however, that at the earlier dates in
Australasia, when a large immigration was taking place, a good many of the
children born were the children of parents who had been married before they
entered the country, while there are hardly any children of such parents at a time
when immigration has almost ceased. The answer to such questions is in truth
not to be rushed, and the question with statisticians should rather be how the
statistics are to be improved in future, so that, although the past cannot be fully
explained, the regular statistics themselves will in future give a ready answer.

5. One more remark may, perhaps, be allowed to me on account of the delicacy
and interest of the subject. To a certain extent the causes of a decline in repro-
ductive energy may be part and parcel of the improved condition of the popula-
tion, which leads in turn to an increase of the age at marriage, and an increase of
celibacy generally through the indisposition of individual members of the com-
munity to run any risk of sinking in the scale of living which they may run by .
premature marriage. These causes, however, may operate to a great extent upon
the birth-rate itself without diminishing the growth of population, because the

_ children, though born in smaller proportion, are better cared for, and the rate of
excess of births over deaths consequently remains considerable, although the
birth-rate itself is low. The serious fact would be a decline of the rate of the
excess of births over deaths through the death-rate remaining comparatively high
while the birth-rate falls. It is in this conjunction that the gravity of the
stationariness of population in France appears to lie. While the birth-rate in
France is undoubtedly a low one, 21:9 per 1,000 in 1899, according to the latest
figures before me, still this would have been quite sufficient to ensure a consider-
able excess rate of births over deaths, and a considerable increase of population
every ten years if the death-rate had been as low as in the United Kingdom—viz.,
18°3 per 1,000. A difference of 3:6 per 1,000 upon a population of about
40 millions comes to about 150,000 per annum, or 1,500,000 and rather more
every ten years. In France, however, the death-rate was 211 per 1,000, instead

74.0 REPORT—1901.

of 18°3, as in the United Kingdom, and it is this comparatively high death-rate
which really makes the population stationary. ‘he speculations indulged in in
some quarters, therefore, though they may be justified in future, are hardly yet
justified by the general statistical facts. ‘Ihe subject is one of profound interest,
and must be carefully studied ; but the conclusions I have referred to must be
regarded as premature until the study has been made,

Conclusion.

Such are a few illustrations of the importance of the ideas which are suggested
by the most common statistics—those of the regular records which civilised
societies have instituted. It is, indeed, self-evident how important it is to know
such facts as the growing weight of countries of European civilisation in com-
parison with others; the relative growth of the British Empire, Russia, Germany,
and the United States, in comparison with other nations of Europe or of Euro- .
pean origin; the dependence of other European countries as well as the United
Kingdom upon imports of food and raw materials; the ability of old countries
and of old centres in new countries to maintain large and increasing populations ;
and the evidence which is now accumulating of changes in the rate of growth of
European nations, with suggestions as to the causes of the changes. It would be
easy, indeed, to write whole chapters on some of the topics instead of making a
remark or two only to bring out their value a little. It would also be very easy
to add to the list. There was a strong temptation to include in it a reference to
the relative growth of England, Scotland, and Ireland, which has now become the
text of so much discussion regarding the practical question of diminishing the
relative representation of Ireland in Parliament, and increasing that of England
and Scotland. It is expedient, however, in an address like this, to avoid anything
which verges on party politics, and [ shall only notice that while the topic has
lately become of keen interest to politicians, it is not new to statisticians, who
were able long ago to foresee what is now so much remarked on. This very topic
was discussed at length in the addresses of 1882-83, to which reference has been
made, and even before that in 1876 it received attention.' Another topic which
might have been added is that of the economic growth of the different countries
which was discussed in the address in 1883; and such topics as the increase of
population in a country like India under the peace imposed by its European
conquerors, by which the stationariness of the country in numbers and wealth
under purely native conditions has been changed, and something like European
progress has been begun. Enough has been said, however, it may be hoped, to
justify this mode of looking at statistics, and the ideas suggested by them.

May I once more, then, express the hope, as I have done on former occasions,
that as time goes on more and more attention will be given to these common
statistics and the ideas derived from them? The domination of the ideas suggested
by these common figures of population statistics, in international politics and in
social and economic relations, is obvious; and although the decline in the rate of
growth of population in recent years, the last of the topics now touched on,
suggests a great many points which the statistics themselves are as yet unfit to
solve—what can be done with a great country like the United States, absolutely
devoid of bare records of births, marriages, and deaths P—still the facts of the
decline as far as recorded throw a great deal of light on the social and economic
history of the past century, prepare the way for discussing the further topics
which require a more elaborate treatment, and enforce the necessity for more and
better records. We may emphasise the appeal, then, for the better statistical
and economic education of our public men, and for the more careful study by all
concerned of such familiar publications as the ‘Statistical Abstracts, the
‘Statesman’s Year-book,’ and the like. The material transformations which are
going on throughout the world can be substantially followed without any
difficulty in such publications by those who have eyes to see; and to follow such
transformations, so as to be ready for the practical questions constantly raised, is
at least one of the main uses of statistical knowledge.

1 See Lssays in Finance, 2nd series, p. 290 et seg. ; p. 330 et seg.; and Ist series,
p. 280 et seq.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. TAL

The following Papers were read :—
1. The Postulates of the Standard. By WitLiAM WaARRAND CarLiLe, JA,

Professor Walker’s exposition of the manner in which the standard substance
comes to measure values in his ‘Money Trade and Industry ’ shows the fallacy of
the current view that any commodity can measure the value of any or of all
others. We find, on the contrary, that the postulate of the whole process is this,
that there must be a general desire for the substance which becomes the standard.
Should this general desire cease to operate, the value-measuring process would
cease also. This general desire must therefore be an insatiable desire. How it
became so is a question that it is not proposed to enter on at present, but rather to
look at the fact in some of its bearings. In connection with the Tabular Standard
it seems clear that the natural gold standard must be, all the time, the basis of the
prices whose average forms it. Being a mere secondary product, it could never be
substituted for the primary. The conception of reality or objectivity depends
upon human intercourse. Such sensations only give the impression of reality as
are capable of exact comparison as between man and man. This applies also to
the conception of value. For such exact comparison, however, a common meeting-
ground for human desires is needed. This is furnished by the existence of one
substance which is the general goal of industrial effort. ‘The Austrian theory of
decreasing degrees of utility ignores this. It has some application to expenditure
on immediate consumption, but only a forced and unnatural one to business sales
and purchases.

Though one must begin with the central fact of an insatiable desire for the
standard substance, the next fact with which we are struck is its unlimited re-
placeability, for the purposes of money, by other substances. If a man has a
document conveying to him the immediate right to gold on demand, the chances
are a hundred to one that he will never ask for the gold itself at all. The
document will serve all his purposes quite as well. Thus an immense mass of
substitutes for gold comes into existence. But in all theories of demand and
supply fluctuations in the supply of substitutes are held to affect the value of the
original commodity just as much as fluctuations in its own supply; and so with
the standard. The more completely inviolable, therefore, the gold standard
is maintained by legislation, the more effective do these documents become as sub-
stitutes for gold, and the more, consequently, is the volume of money increased.
This may be considered in connection with Jevons’ metaphors of the two
cisterns connected by a pipe, and of the two intersecting lines representing gold
and silver respectively. The modern system connects all commodities by pipes
into one great cistern called money, and neutralises all fluctuations. It really
fulfils the ideal of the framers of systems of multiple tender. Asa product of
evolution, showing an interesting system of adaptation of means to ends, it is
comparable to the human eur or the human eye.

2. Some Notes on the Output of Coal from the Scottish Coalfields.
By Rosert W. Dron, A.1.Lnst.C.£.

During the last few years there has been a growing feeling of uneasiness
regarding the duration of our coal supply, and there is at present a movement in
apHOUE of a further inquiry as to the extent of the coal resources of Great

ritain.

The following considerations regarding the Scottish coalfield are in most
cases applicable to the whole of Great Britain.

The output of coal in Great Britain in the year 1660 was about 2,000,000 tons
per annum, and of that quantity Scotland probably produced about 250,000 tons.
Since then there has been a steady progression, until now the Scottish output

amounts to 31,142,612 tons per annum. The total quantity of coal which has
been worked in Scotland up to the present date may be estimated at 1,600 million
tons, and the quantity still to work at about 10,000 million tons.

1901. 3¢

742 REPORT—1901.

During the last 400 years there have been many alarms regarding the
approaching exhaustion of the coalfields, with the result that at various periods
laws have been passed either totally prohibiting the exportation of coal or placing
a heavy tax on any coal exported.

In recent years the proportion of the output which is exported has increased
enormously. In 1861 the proportion of the output exported was only 6°4 per
cent., whereas last year it amounted to over 20 per cent. In 1861 the home con-
sumption per head of the population was about three tons per annum, whereas it
is now over five tons per head of the population. Most of the Scottish coal
exports go to the continent of Europe, and about 25 per cent. of the whole export
goes to Germany.

If the export and home consumption are to continue increasing at the present
rate, then by the end of this century the Scottish output will be 60 million tons
per annum, and the 10,000 million tons we have ayailable will be exhausted in
about 180 years. If all the coaltields were producing coal in the same proportion
to their area as in Lanarkshire, the output of Scotland would be 60,000,000 tons
per annum. Such an output will never be required, because methods will be
found to use the coal much more economically than at present, so that one ton of
coal will do the work for which two tons are now required, and in that way the
duration of the coalfields will be prolonged indefinitely. A great deal of coal is
being wasted in the working, and in shafts and bores many thin seams are being
passed through of which no national record is kept. There should be a Govern-
ment department for the inspection of systems of working and for the preservation
of exact records of all shafts and bores.

More than one-half of the Scottish output comes from the Lanarkshire coal-
field, and at the present rate all the coals in that county will be exhausted in
forty years; but within twelve or fifteen years all the thick and easily wrought
seams of the Clyde basin will be worked out. This is not such a serious matter
for the population of Glasgow and the west of Scotland as at first sight it might
appear. The royalties payable on these coals are from 9d. to 1s. 6d. per ton
higher than are payable on similar coals in the outlying districts. As the Lanark-
shire coals become exhausted less money will be paid to the landlords and more
to the railway companies, but the net result will not be any very serious increase
in the cost of fuel.

The royalties at present being paid in Scotland vary from 23d. to 2s. per ton,
or on a sliding scale from +; to 3 of the selling price. From the report of the
Royal Commission on Mining Royalties it appears that the average royalty pay-
able in Scotland in 1891 was 6°54d. per ton.

The average profit earned by the coalmasters under normal conditions is 8d.

er ton.

5 Coal-cutting machines have been in use in Scotland for over thirty years, and
last year 529,791 tons were produced by that method. It is not ignorance or
prejudice which prevents the more extensive use of these labour-saving appliances,
but the physical conditions under which most of the seams are now being worked.
In practically every case where coal-cutting machinery can be used to advantage
it has been adopted; but in the future it may come to be more largely used when
thinner seams are opened up.

The annual output per man employed is 3860 tons, In U.S. America it
amounts to 400 tons, but in Germany it 1s only 270 tons per man.

The greatest depth from which coal is being worked in Scotland is 2,760 feet
below the surface.

3. The Growth and Geographical Distribution of Lunacy in Scotland.
By J. F. Sutuerpanp, ID.

The lunacy forming the subject-matter of this communication is what is known
as ‘pauper lunacy,’ an unfortunate and misleading term in so far as it refers to
the lunacy arising in 80 per cent, of the population, whereas indigency, pauperism,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 743

destitution, and delinquency account for about 10 per cent. of the population
and aftluence for the remaining 10 per cent. ’

The maintenance of a pauper lunatic in an institution calls for an annual
expenditure of 30/., a sum beyond the reach of 80 per cent. of the population.

The lunacy statistics of the last two decades contrasted and the geographical
distribution of lunacy (1901) set out (vde shaded map).

Between the lunacy ratios of the four main areas of Scotland with economic
ethnic, aah geographical differences there are percentage differences respectively of
94, 72, and 62.

*Controversion of views put forward to the effect that lunacy is going up by
leaps and bounds, views suggestive of a state of matters not without risk to the
national well-being.

Acceptance of proposition that in large areas of country the lunacy ratio will
not vary except witbin certain narrow limits.

Explanations of the enormous ratio differences as well as of the growth of
lunacy are to be found in aconsideration of the following five factors in tke order
of their respective importance.

First and most significant is the economic one suggestive of a widely different
relative capacity on the part of householders in different counties to maintain the
insane without the aid of the public purse in whole or in part.

Second.—The migration and emigration of the strong from rural and insular
districts to centres of population results in the feeble products, mental and
physical, of the birth-rate being left behind in, as a rule, stationary or dwindling
populations. 2

Third.—The death-rate under 5, nearly three times greater in centres than in
rural districts, has the effect of removing hundreds of lunatics who, had they sur-
vived the neglect, injudicious dieting, exanthematous diseases, &c., incidental to
child life in industrial centres, would have augmented the statistics of lunacy in
such centres (vide shaded map).

Fourth—The conditions of modern life, with its unparalleled competition in
every walk, abuse of alcohol and tea, errors of diet, &c., setting up a deranged
metabolism and disturbing mental equilibrium never stable, 4 3

Fifth—tThe views of the medical profession as to what constitutes certifiable
lunacy suggestive of a widened and widening portal to official registers (senility
slight imbecility, eccentricity, &c.).

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Shipping Subsidies? By Benepicr Witiiam Ginspure, I.A., DL.D.

The importance from a national point of view to a manufacturing and foreign-
food-consuming power like Great Britain of the maintenance of her maritime power
is self-evident. Inthat term ‘maritime power’ must be included the supply of a
sufficiency of ships to carry on the nation’scommerce. In considering the subject it
is necessary first to consider the adequacy or otherwise of the supply of ships whose
individual characteristics render them useful as auxiliaries to the navy in time of
war, and secondly to regard the conditions under which exist the great bulk of the
vessels of the mercantile marine—vessels whose individual characteristics do not
matter to the nation, but which nevertheless fulfil the important function of shifting
the great bulk of its traffic. On the first point, whilst France, Germany, and Russia

1 The extreme ratios for the counties is represented by Argyll with 59 per 10,000
of population, and Dumbarton with 19, the percentage difference being 210.

2 The paper is published in extenso in the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society
September 1901. ‘

302

744, REPORT—1901.

are largely increasing their supply of high-speed ocean steamers, this country shows
little progress in this direction ; whilst the more recent vessels built for British
mail companies are not equai in speed either to those of Germany or even to
those formerly built for our own lines. On this account it might well be desirable
for military reasons for our Government to consider the advisability of increasing
its inducements for building high-speed ships.

The British shipowner works under certain natural and economic conditions of
a favourable nature. But he is placed under many statutory disabilities. Yet
some of the restrictions under which he labours are not wholly to his disadyan-
tage, since his percentage of loss is lower than that of unregulated marines, and
this fact should assist him in placing his insurances at alow premium. The natural
tendency of improvements in ship building and marine engineering is towards the
gradual extinction of the sailing ship. In our own country this natural movement
goes on. In Italy and France an attempt has been made to revive this trade by
means of construction and navigation bounties. France has achieved some success
in this direction. But it is doubtful how far the shipowner really will benefit
from the construction bounty, and no one would be likely to suggest its adoption
here.

The notable increase in size and cost of modern steamships seems to tend
towards a large concentration of the trade in the hands of big companies and lines.

Competition between the steamship lines of different countries has of recent
years developed, whilst the cost of national support to the competitors has very
largely increased. Some of the results achieved have been, at least as yet, quite
inadequate to the efforts made, whilst a good deal of foreign money is certainly
being thrown away in the attempt to foster national trade. Some success is un-
doubtedly being achieved by the German policy of making the State assist in the
unremunerative work of pushing trade in new channels,

This, perhaps, the British Government could not be expected to do. But com-
bined action on a large scale amongst British shipowners might enable them to do
that for themselves which foreign shipowners have done for them by their Govern-
ments.

2. Thirty Years’ Export Trade, British and Irish Produce, 1870-99.
Sy Barnard ELLIncer.

Comparisons of one period of our export trade with another, based on sterling
returns of isolated years, are unsatisfactory because the alteration of prices is not
taken into consideration, and frequently the years compared are years of different
degrees of prosperity

Comparisons of the annual averages of decades have therefore been used in this
paper as being more satisfactory than shorter periods, embracing as they do the
whole cycle of trade expansion and depression.

If the alteration of price is taken into consideration, the comparison is of course
more satisfactory ; but the most satisfactory comparison is on a basis of quantity,
always making reservations for possible alterations of quality.

It is obviously impossible to satisfactorily compare quantities of such commodi-
ties as machinery, chemical products, millinery, &c.; but on comparing the export
of eighteen of our chief exported commodities in 1890-99 with 1870-79 (each of
which commodities was in some year of the period exported to the value at least
2,000,0002.) we find the average of the quantity exported annually during the later
decade was 25 per cent. larger than in the earlier.

The sterling value of the eighteen commodities is about 51 per cent. of our total
trade, and the remaining 49 per cent. (of which comparisons of quantity cannot be
made) show an increase of 37 per cent. in sterling value exported.

The average annual value of our exports of 1890-99 was 19,000,000/. greater
than in 1870-79. E32

The average annual value exported per head of the population in 1890-99 was
5'6 per cent. less than in 1870-79; but if it is assumed that the 26 per cent. gain in’

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 745

quantity on the eighteen commodities (being 51 per cent. of our total export)
holds good for the rest of our export, we have an annual average increase of quan-
tity exported per head of population of nearly 9 per cent. ;

Prices of imports having fallen more in the period under review than prices of
exports, the comparatively small total increase in value exported is not of substan-
tial importance if the increase of quantity is satisfactory, as it is this latter factor
which denotes the amount of employment found for our people by this branch of
trade.

Another objection to relying on comparisons of value is that the returns under
this head are probably inexact to a considerable extent both for imports and
exports, and although the error may partially correct itself over large quantities,
comparisons of the details of the trade are at all events on this ground unsatis-
factory.

The error both in imports and exports is probably a growing one, owing to
increasing laxity, atid also owing to the growth of the export business now done on
a O.LF. basis, which exports would appear to be largely entered for Customs pur-
poses on a C.I.F. valuation instead of an F.O.B. valuation.

The probable extent of the error is a subject which might be investigated by
the Chambers of Commerce of this country.

The error on graded qualities of such imports as wheat and cotton is probably
small, Customs authorities being able to fairly well control these valuations,

Of the eighteen commodities selected eleven have increased in quantity over
1890-99 as compared with 1870-79 : these are woollen and worsted yarns, spirits,
copper ingots cakes and bars, cotton goods (bleached and unbleached), cotton goods
made of dyed yarns, ‘ dyed and printed,’ cotton yarn, and coal.

In one or two cases, however, notably in yarn, the comparison between 1890-99
and 1880-89 is not so satisfactory.

One commodity, namely, pig and puddled iron, has remained stationary, com-
paring 1870-79 with 1890-99; and over the same period woollen and worsted
tissues, rails, bar angle bolt and rod iron, linen yarn, linen piece goods, beer, and
ale show decreases in the average annual quantity exported.

3. The Theory of Progressive Taxation. By G. CAasset.

Expenses which are made in the general interest of the State, and which are
not to the particular advantage of any special group of citizens, must be paid for
by taxes according to the ‘Principle of Ability,’ of which the income-tax might
be regarded as the type. But in the parliamentary state, where the interested
classes are voting the taxes themselves, this cannot be enforced unless the income-
tax is so constructed as to cause every class of taxpayers an equal sacrifice,

Equal sacrifice means deduction of such part of the income which is necessary,
not only for the physical, but also for the economic, the professional existence of
the taxpayer, i.e., deduction of the ‘necessaries of efficiency’ (Marshall), and taxing
the remainder of the income at a constant rate.

Every progressive scale of taxation can be obtained by the method of granting
tax-free deductions to the different incomes, and taxing the remainders at a constant
rate. Thus there is no difference in principle between a progressive and a ‘ degres-
sive’ scale. And we need, in the theory of progressive taxation, not discuss any
other question than what different deductions shall be allowed to the different
incomes,

The subject of the discussion thus fixed, we proceed to apply the Principle of
Equal Sacrifice, interpreted as above. For everyone who accepts this principle
the whole problem of progressive taxation reduces itself to the question: What are
the ‘necessaries of efficiency’ for each class of the society? But in the limits
thus given to the discussion there is room enough for very divergent views, from
the conservative one which thinks the real necessities of the labourer to be very
small, and which leads to a nearly proportional taxation, to the modern democratic

74.6 REPORT—1901.

view, wich thinks the labourer’s necessities of efficiency to be comparatively very
high, and which leads to a strong progression, ; :

As type for the usual scales of progressive taxation the following scheme may
serve :—

Incomes from Os. till 500s. pay O per cent.
5 93 500s: 7j, 2,500s." ,y 11 ss
a Pt DOOS ie eetesDU08.0 syne
iy 5) 28,0005: 9, 20,5008.) 5, 2 <5
+» above 20,500s. 4

The scale is, from a technical point of view, very crude, involving discon-
tinuities in taxation at every rung of the ladder. We can avoid these if we state
that—

The 500 first s. of every income pay 0 per cent.

» 2,000 next s. i. ” Lin
6-00 0hees + ” 2 »
op AIAOOUS 4G. ” ” 3.
All following s. + » 4 ”

But this scale can just as well be obtained by the method of deductions; we
have only to state that—

The first 500s. shall have the right to deduce 100 per cent.

» next 2,000s. - x Fr) 75 ”
” ” 6,000s. ” ” a” 50 ”
” "19.0008. 5 ¢ fi OB at 83
All following s. » -p 0 ”

and that of the remainders a constant rate of 4 per cent. shall be paid. Generally,
if in the different groups the tax is to be paid at a rate of p,, P., Py.--Dn
per cent., the same result can be obtained by levying the tax at a constant rate P,
not less than any of the p, but granting deductions within the different groups of
_ oe per oi per cent., and so on.

However, even this method is primitive, and involves too much arbitrariness
in fixing the deductions for the different incomes. It is better to let the deduction
y increase with the income « as a function of the form

_ur+B

q
yu + 8°

This contains three independent elements, to which comes the constant tax-
percentage P, so that the arbitrariness of the progressive scale now is reduced to the
choice of four elements. We denote by e.the tax-free minimum of subsistence, by
em the upper limit of the deductions, ¢.e., of the necessaries of efficiency, and call
it the maximum of subsistence; the arithmetical medium between these two is the

m+l

‘medium of subsistence,’ and is equal to e aADEak We denote further by w and

v the income and the deduction counted in e as a unity, so that w=eu and y=ev,
We can then put

n—1
v=m—(m )) = pe
where ~ signifies that value of the income w, for which the deduction is equal to
the medium of subsistence. Thus we have arrived at a set of formulas where
each of the four constants , m, e, and P has a clear and definite sense.
We can reduce the arbitrariness involved in the construction of a progressive
scale still more if we decide once for all that »=m+1, 7@.e., that the medium of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 747

subsistence shall be deduced from an income twice as large. We have then the
following formulas to calculate the tax s:
v=m _m (m— 1) ;
utm—t
L= CU, Y=CV;

Pedal
= i090 y).

The complete fixation of a progressive scale of taxation involves, then, only the
choice of three elements, viz.—

8

The minimum of subsistence e ;
the maximum of subsistence em ; and
the constant tax-percentage P.

The first and third of these elements must always be decided upon by any
income-tax ; thus the progressive scale increases the number of arbitrary elements
only by one, and this one has a quite definite sense, viz., the upper limit of the
necessaries of efficiency of any group of society. In spite of this extreme reduction
of the arbitrariness, there remains still room enough for every sensible view of
progressive taxation.

4, British Agricultwre. By Professor Ropert WALLACE.

The nineteenth century may be divided into six very distinct periods, in which
prosperity and adversity to agriculture succeeded each other alternately.

(1) During the first fourteen years great agricultural activity prevailed, owing
to the abnormally high prices of corn, All classes associated with land henefited,
but the landlords most.

(2) The next twenty years was a time of agricultural depression, although the
price of wheat—56s. 2d. per quarter—in 1836 was more than double—26s. 1ld.—
the price in 1900. Bones roughly broken were first used as manure.

(3) The abolition of the Corn Laws in 1846, during the succeeding period of
twelve years of prosperity, did not ruin agriculture, as was expected. Peruvian
guano, dissolved bones, and dissolved mineral phosphates were first employed as
manure, and in 1843 Rothamsted, the greatest, experimental station in the world,
was opened, to be ultimately endowed by Sir John Lawes.

(4) The fourth short period of temporary but severe depression—1849 to 1852
—opened with a sudden drop in the price of wheat. Sir James Caird advocated
high farming, which was applauded as usual by people generally, but not
followed by the tenants.

(5) Twenty-two years—1853 to 1874—of great agricultural prosperity
followed, but economy was not sufficiently studied by either tenants or proprietors.
Reliable agricultural returns, dating from 1870, when compared with the corre-
sponding figures of 1900, show a decrease of arable land in the United Kingdom
of 2,600,000 acres, but a concurrent increase of 4,600,000 acres of permanent
pasture. The rage for steam ploughing and steam digging began, but not till
1898, when Darby introduced a steam digger having a horizontal rotary motion in
- its digging parts, could mechanical motive-power field cultivation be pronounced
financially successful. The success of the string-binding reaper dates from 1870.
But it was 19U0 before the McCormic Company produced at the Paris Exhibition the
Auto-Mower. By the end of the century the oil engine had become the cheapest
stationary source of power on the farm. A cycle of good seasons greatly contri-
buted to the measure of prosperity during this period. The average yield of
wheat in Britain during the sixties was thirty bushels per acre, and the record
yield of 1863 was thirty-nine bushels.

(6) The last long depression which closed the century began about 1875, and,
in common with the dislocation of the general trade of the country, was largely

748 REPORT—1901.

due to currency influences, but also to bad seasons and to foreign competition.
Although the active currency influence has passed, by it agriculture has been left
in an inferior position as compared with other industries, which were more readily
able to adjust themselves to altered currency conditions. Agricultural capital
was immensely reduced during the period; but along with the material shrinkage
there were many important developments made. Miss Ormerod, between 1877
and 1901, laid the foundation of the subject of economic agricultural entomology.
John Garton, of Newton-le-Willows, began in 1880 the system of multiple cross-
breeding of plants which has resulted in the production of an infinite number of
improved breeds of crop plants; agricultural shows have become more numerous
and successful ; the cream separator (the Alfa Laval, &c.) has revolutionised the
butter trade; the advantages of the system of enstlage have been demonstrated ;
Thomas’s phosphate powder has been employed to encourage clover and improve
permanent pastures ; the spraying of potatoes with Bordeaux mixture to prevent
disease, and of grain crops with 3 per cent. solutions of sulphate of copper to
destroy charlock, have both been successful; Hellriegel and Wilforth demonstrated
the power of leguminous crops, acting in symbictic relations with minute organisms
living in the wart-like procesees of their roots, to fix the free nitrogen of the air;
the systems of rotation of crops have also been revolutionised.

Some of the difficulties with which farmers have to contend are the increase of
‘aubury’ in turnips, the development of a bacterial disease on the swede crop, and
the ever-increasing difficulty of the rural exodus, and the scarcity, inefficiency, and
dearness of labour, aggravated by an imperfect system of education for children
in rural districts.

5, Food and Land Tenure. By E. ATKINSON.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers were read :—

1. A Business Manon Supply and Demand. By T. 8. Cres.

Mr. Goschen, some time ago, expressed regret that there was so little sympathy
between business men and economists. This want of sympathy is traceable to a
departure by some of our economists from certain views formerly held both by
economists and business men, and still generally held by the latter.

A chief principle of all sound economics is the law of supply and demand ; the
law that supply and demand are always tending to an equality at a certain exact
point in price. That law has come to be questioned: John Stuart Mill accepted
a correction of it, namely, that the equality was established, not at an exact point
in price, but that several different prices might satisfy the law, which, indeed, only
brought the price to a kind of tableland where it ceased to be operative, leaving a
considerable range of price to be determined by other forces than the operation of
the law of supply and demand. Mill held with Thornton that in the labour
market, in fighting for a share of that indetermined range of price, the employers
possessed so great an advantage by having the initiative in naming the price that
nothing but a strong combination of workmen could give the workers evena chance
of successfully holding their own against the employers.

Mh

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 749

It is held in this paper that there is not an inch of ground where the law of
supply and demand ceases to operate: it is a law of tendency only, but always to
an exact port, not to a plane of prices. Mill’s correction is not only unnecessary
but untrue in fact. The initiative is not an advantage, but a disadvantage in
bargaining. Though the law of supply and demand does not fix the terms of
every individual bargain exactly, Mr. Mill’s remedy, combination, greatly increases
the area of indeterminateness.

Mr. Alfred Marshall in his‘ Keonomics of Industry’ says that an employer is a
mueh larger unit than his men individually ; that the workmen are poor and known
to have no reserve price ; and that therefore union among the men is necessary:
These propositions cannot be accepted. Wages are not low because workers are

oor and uncombined, but because there are many competing for tke job.

Mill and Marshall are wrong in approving of trades unions, and, as Mill puts
no limits to the area in which he holds the law to be inoperative, we might suppose
that area to be indefinitely large; it might indeed cover almost the whole field,
and the law of supply and demand be banished from all discussion of labour
questions.

And it is the case that in the economic journals, in the writings of the
younger economists and in the constitutions of societies to help the working
classes, the idea of there being a law working automatically to a just and satis-
factory division is almost, if not quite, absent. Satisfactory division is to be
secured through investigations into facts and statistics, and a Government depart-
ment is suggested to collect these, which one economist speaks of as ‘a necessary
preliminary to all social progress.’

This view is held to be erroneous. Investigations are not required to give us
the proper price of iron or cotton, and there is no good reason why they should be
necessary in regard to the wages of labour. Adam Smith had hardly any figures
and no facts but such as were patent to everybody.

The want of belief in this equalising law of supply and demand is shown in the
ready acceptance of complaints of grievances in particular trades. It is forgotten
that all trades have peculiar conditions, but that all tend to an equality of advan-
tage ; that the so-called grievance is certainly counterbalanced by some advantage.

No human power could make such investigations as would enable it to make
a just distribution of the products of industry. Omniscience and omnipotence
would be needed for the task, and the law of supply and demand alone has these
qualities. A belief in the beneficent and effective operation of that law in the
labour market and the practical repudiation of it by economists and philanthro-
pists is the chief difference between these classes of which Mr. Goschen spoke,

2. The Decline of Natality in Great Britain.
By Enwin Cannan, I.A., LL.D.

Between 1876 and 1900 the birth-rate of England and Wales fell from 36 to
29°3 per thousand, but as this rate is calculated on the whole population, it cannot
be trusted to show changes in natality. These may be measured roughly by
comparing the births of each year with the number of persons born, say, twenty-six
years before. The ratio of the births of 1877 to those of 1851 was 144 to 100.
Since then the ratio has fallen steadily, till that of 1900 to 1874 was only 108°3
to 100. The ratio between the births and the survivors of the persons born
twenty-six years before and still remaining in this country probably fell still
more.

The decline of natality does not seem to have been due to a decline of nuptiality,
but to the fact that the average number of children resulting from each marriage
has diminished. To compare the marriages of each year with the births in that
year is ser ag but it is possible to get a useful result by substituting for the
marriages of each year a figure in which due weight is given to the marriages of
previous years. The following table gives the ratio between the legitimate births
of each year and a weighted marriage figure equal to the sum of 2:5 per cent. of

750 é REPORT—1901.

the marriages of that year, 20 per cent. of those of the previous year, 17°5 per cent,
of those of the year before that, and so on, with percentages of 15, 12°5, 10, 7-5,
5, 3°75, 2°5, 1°75, 1:25, and 0°75. It will be seen that the ratio or number of
children per marriage has fallen from 4°36 in 1881-1884 to 3:74 in 1899, and
about 3°63 in 1900 :—

Year Ratio Year Ratio Year Ratio Year Ratio
| = | | |

1851 3°92 1864 417 || 1877 4:30 1890 4:08
1852 4:01 1865 4:14 1878 4°30 1891 4:21
1853 8°87 || 1866 409 || 1879 4:28 1892 4:05
1854 3°90 1867 410 || 1880 4:34 1893 4:05
1855 3°85 1868 4:16 1881 4:36 1894 3°90
1856 3°97 1869 4:09 1882 4°36 1895 4:01
1857 3°97 1870 4:19 1883 4:35 1896 3°94
1858 3°90 1871 4:19 1884 4°36 1897 3°88
1859 4:10 1872 4:29 1885 4:27 1898 3°80
1860 4:01 1873 4:22 1886 4°32 1899 3:74
1861 4:03 1874 4:26 1887 4°24 1900 3°63
1862 4:15 1875 4:18 1888 4:20

1863 416 1876 4°31 1889 4-21

The natality of Scotland fell in the same period from the same cause, though
the fall was not quite so great.

There is no reason to regret the approach of a time when the population of
Great Britain will become stationary, but the cessation of the overflow of
population from Great Britain is a serious matter for the British empire, as the
natality of the British colonial population is low and diminishing.

3. The Significance of the Decline in the English Birth-rate.
By Cuarues 8. Devas.

Great increase of population in England shown by the recent census—Character
of increase requires examination—Decline of the natural rate of increase a result
of the decline of the birth-rate—This decline persistent in spite of a higher
marriage rate—Likeness to the decline of the birth-rate in France, in North
America, and in Australasia—Analogous decline among the Greeks of the second
century B.c. described by Polybius—How he accounts for it—Similar decline
among the Romans of the classical period—In the six cases of Greece, Rome,
France, America, England, and Australasia one common antecedent to the decline
of the birth-rate is observable, namely, decay of religious beliefs—Deductive
reasoning supports the inductive conclusion of a connection between the two
phenomena—How far John Stuart Mill’s anticipations on population have been
realised in England—Grounds alleged for the slow increase of the French popula-
tion—Possible special causes of low birth-rates—Striking difference of opinion on
‘whether a low birth-rate is desirable or not—Problems before us,

4. Correlation of the Marriage-rate and Trade.’ By R. H. Hooker, M.A.

The application of the theory of correlation to economic phenomena frequently
presents many difficulties, and most fallacious deductions may easily be drawn
from its careless use, notably with regard to such phenomena as involve the
element of time. The usual formula adopted for testing the correspondence of
8 (x29) ,
no 1% ;
corresponding observations from the averages of the series, and c,, 0, are the

two series of variables is 7 = in which 2,, 2, are the deviations of two

1 Published in extengo in the Jowrnal of the Royal Statistical Society, Sept. 1901,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 751

standard deviations. But this correlation will clearly only give an indication of
the correspondence of the general movements of two curves; whereas the minor
movements may be intimately connected, although the general movements may be
quite different. It appears possible to slightly modify the usual method of correla-
tion so as to eliminate the general movement in the special case—of very frequent
occurrence—where the phenomena exhibit a regular periodic fluctuation, and to
correlate the oscillations. All that is necessary for this purpose is to replace the
deviations from the average of the whole series in the above formula by the devia-
tions from the trend, or curve of instantaneous averages. To determine this trend,
note the number of observations (p) in a complete phase; the instantaneous
average at any particular point is represented by the average of the p observations
of which that point is the middle one.

As an illustration the method may be used to determine which of the sets of
figures, quoted by the Registrar-General in his annual reports for comparison with
the movements of the marriage-rate, is most intimately connected with it, viz.,
imports, exports, total trade, wheat prices, or amount cleared at the Bankers’
Clearing House. The marriage-rate is now lower than formerly, whereas the
trade per head has increased: there is thus no correspondence between the general
movements, and correlation by the usual method about the average merely confirms
this. But the marriage-rate (and four of the other phenomena to be examined)
shows fairly regular oscillations with a period of about nine years. Replacing the
average of the whole period in these various series by the trend, the ‘average’ for
any one year being the average of the nine years of which it is the middle, we can
thus ascertain what correspondence there is between the oscillations of these
curves. By correlating the marriage-rate with the trade, &c., of the previous and
following years, of half a year earlier, &c., other correlation coefficients are
obtained : if these are plotted on a diagram it will easily be seen that there is a
point of maximum correlation. This gives a measure of the lag of the marriage-
rate behind the trade-curve, the point of maximum correlation indicating the
period with which the marriage-rate is most closely connected.

It is thus found that the total trade per head and the amount of clearing are
most intimately connected with the marriage-rate, the exports per head is
almost as ciosely, and the imports per head less so, although the correspondence
with all four is very close, There is on the other hand no connection between the
price of wheat and marriage-rate nowadays. As regards lag, the marriage-rate
1s now just half a year behind the total trade, three quarters of a year behind the
exports, and about one and a quarter year behind the clearing.

It is noticeable that in 1861-75 the marriage-rate was only a quarter of a year
behind the total trade and export curves, indicating that it now responds a little
more slowly to the general prosperity. It is interesting to observe that this defer-
ment of a quarter of a year (as compared with total trade) corresponds very fairly
with the deferment indicated in the marriages by a consideration of the ages at
marriage,

5. Joint Discussion with Section L on Economics and Commercial
Education, opened by L. L. Price.

In the middle of the nineteenth century the economist exerted a dominant
influence over British public opinion, but by the close of the century that influence
had become less considerable. The stir now arising on commercial education
offers a fresh opportunity for asserting the claim of Economics to a distinct place
in the education of the citizen ; and two circumstances favour the advance of the
claim. On the one hand, the inner history of economic study affords reason for
believing that the old controversies, which created such noise, are dying or dead ;
that the criticism, which has been busy, has been accompanied by a considerable
amount of constructive work; and that the popular antithesis between the ‘old’
and the ‘ new’ schools has lost its meaning, if it is supposed to represent irrecon-
cilable feuds. On the other hand, economic guidance is more urgently required in
practical affairs ; for many questions coming to the front of popular discussion are

752 REPORT—-1901.

economic in character. The pressure of commercial rivalry, for example, is likely
to re-awaken the controversy between free traders and protectionists ; and Economics
has something of importance to say on this question, The superficial appearance
of things may easily mislead, and economists can render unique assistance in
disclosing the ‘unseen’ below the ‘seen.’ Similarly, with regard to questions
classed as ‘ socialistic,’ which are attracting increasing notice, although Evonomics
is not entirely individualistic, and its conclusions may be modified by political
considerations, its aid is nevertheless important. Both classes of questions are of
special interest for the merchant and the manufacturer. The individualistic
spirit prevalent among Americans, who promise to be the most formidable of our
commercial competitors, lends emphasis to the danger attaching to a trade union
policy which, of unconscious or deliberate intent, may possibly offer real hindrance
to the rapid use of new machinery or the speedy introduction of novel business
methods. Restrictive legislation, for the same reason, must be scrutinised,
although in the early days of the factory system economists erred from shortness
of sight, and ‘ factory reformers’ displayed more regard for the permanent welfare
of the nation. Economic study is specially calculated to induce the habit of mind
needed to discover and expose lurking fallacy.

On this ground a place may be claimed for the abstract reasoning of the text-
books in commercial education. Business men deal with the concrete in their
ordinary lives, and without some preliminary mental discipline they may fall a
prey to unsuspected fallacy. Some training in logic is held by most men to be
beneficial, and an acquaintance with economic argument, as expounded in the
theoretical reasonings of the text-hooks, may impart this training in close connection
with the phenomena of business-life. Although the business man may act by
instinct rather than reason, instinct is often the slow product of large experience ;
and an ability to see and trace the connection between cause and effect cannot fail
to be useful. Without some such mental training the possibility of a ‘ plurality of
causes’ and an ‘intermixture of effects’ may escape recognition; and, as an
intellectual discipline, the abstract reasoning of the economists affords a more
rigorous and bracing exercise than economic history. Regarded from this stand-
point even ‘mathematical methods’ of study, which induce precision, may find a
place in commercial education; but the place cannot be large, as they foster the
harmful idea that economic reasoning is too hard for averag2 men. The use of
theory as a mental training might be illustrated by many examples; but the
theory of money and of banking, which has undergone less change than other
theories, and is closely related to the daily life of bankers and financiers, may be
taken as a typical instance.

Economic history must fill a very large place in commercial education. It has
recently made marked progress. Escaping from arid controversies about method,
although the conclusions of one historian may be questioned or rejected by his
successors, and much may remain unexplored or uncertain, it is now able to present
the broad characteristics and leading events of English commercial and industrial
history in orderly sequence for the instruction of the citizen. From the point of
view of commercial education, too much time may hitherto have been spent on
questions of origin—such as the manor—which attract by the opportunity they offer
for ingenious hypothesis, but are from their nature difficult to solve, and, by
comparison, too little attention may have been bestowed on later but less misty
periods. Butit is impossible to gain a real knowledge of the causes and conditions
of the commercial and industrial success of England without a special study of
economic history, as general histories have dealt but scantily with economic
matters. The maintenance of that success is, to some extent, dependent on the
knowledge and on the investigation of the rise and fall of other nations which have
been conspicuous in trade.

Lastly, Statistics, which has also progressed of late, supplies Economics with
the means of systematic observation, in default of the more effective mode of
experiment open to a physical science like Chemistry. An elementary knowledge
of statistical technique and methods is a requirement of the times and a special
need of commercial education.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 793

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
The following Papers were read :—

1. A Discussion on Housing was opened by Professor W. Smarr.

2. The Economic Effect of the Tramways Act, 1870.
By E. F. Vestry Knox, 1.4.

The Act has now been thirty-one years in operation, and has never been
amended. It has been a disastrous legislative experiment, This view is not the
result of opposition to municipal trading, nor based on any idea that municipal
ownership of tramways is an economic mistake.

I. Listory and Effect of the Act.

The decision in Reg. v. Train (1862) rendered it necessary to obtain Parliamen-
tary authority to lay down a tramway. The object of the Act was to facilitate
tramways by substituting Provisional Order for Bill. It was, however, hedged
round with restrictions.

Il. The Vice of the Departmental Method of Legislation.

The essence of the departmental method is that the inspector who holds the
local inquiry (if any) has no authority to decide. The Board of Trade have failed
to obtain any respect for decisions in really contested cases. In such cases the
practice of promoters is now to go to Parliament direct.

Il. The Want of Compulsory Powers for the Taking of Land.

English roads are seldom suited for tramways without alteration, yet the
Tramway Order may not authorise the taking of land for road widening.

IV. The Lrontagers’ Veto.

Frontagers in narrow places can prevent tramways by a mere mechanical yeto,
This has led to single lines and other bad tramways.

. V. The Veto of the Local Authorities,

This veto has sometimes been abused, and has tended to discourage the best
schemes and the soundest promoters. It is not, however, likely that an objection
by a local authority based on reasonable grounds would ever be overruled.

VI. The Purchase Clause.

There were some good reasons for inserting a purchase clause, though nothing
of the sort had been applied to railways, and gas and water undertakings have only
heen purchased under special Acts at avery full price. It is now hopeless to con-
tend that there should be no power of purchase; the really debatable matters are
the period and the method of valuation. Mr. Shaw Lefevre anticipated that pro-
moters would not mind the purchase clause because there was no limitation of
profits. What they did was to try to take their profit through inflating the
capital, and clear out. Hence abortive schemes and disappointed investors, The
comparison between the price at which railway and tramway capital can be raised
is not less instructive than that between private and municipal credit for tramway
purposes. The best class of investors have been discouraged by the Tramways

754 REPORT—1901.

Act, and the cost of capital for tramway enterprise has consequently been
increased.

The great discovery of the application of electricity to tramways came just
when the purchase periods in England were running out. There was consequently
along delay in adopting the new invention, and though England ought, but for
Parliament, to have led the world, as it did in railway construction, it has been
kept behind other countries, and has suffered social, economic, and industrial loss.
There is no other country which had so great a need for electric tramways as
England.

The corporations have been slow to try experiments owing to their careful
trusteeship of the ratepayers’ money.

The method of valuation is more important than the period of purchase. If
goodwill is not to be paid for there is no adequate motive for developing a busi-
ness. The corporations have actually lost on balance, for while Tramway Act
price is less than enough for a good tramway it is too much for a bad tramway. It
pays the company better, when the purchase period is approaching, to retain au
obsolete equipment, which ought to be scrapped, so as to make the corporation
buy it.

EP eactiaally no tramways are now made by companies on Tramways Act terms
without modification ; but the retention of the Act on the statute book still does
a great deal of injury to tramway enterprise.

3. Notes on Glasgow Wages in the Nineteenth Century.
By A. L. Bowtey, I/.A.

The statistics available for an estimate of the changes in the rates of average
wages are very numerous, but it is only in a few cases that a reliable calculation
extending over half a century can be made.

The following table shows in rough form average money wages (assuming no
change in regularity of employment and averaging over ten or twenty years) in
various industries, expressed in each case as percentages of their level in the
decade 1890-1900 :—

| 1
cas 1810- | 1880-| 1850-| 1860-| 1870-| 1880-| 1890-
1790 | 439 | 1850 | isco | 1870 | 1880 | 1890 | 1900 | 290°

Building 35 50 50 65 70 86 83 | 100 | 110
(Glasgow)
Coal-hewer 50 70 60 61 | 62 93 77 | 100 | 135
(Lanarkshire)
Engineering _ = _ 67 72 83 90 | 100 | 110
(Glasgow)
(Artisans on time-
wages)
Printers— | |
Compositots —- = 73 73 75 | 83 94 | 100 | 110
(Time-wages) | | |

A.B. Seamen — at 70 90 90 | 100 90 | 100 | 110 |
(Money-wages)
Rough general | — 60 55 | «65 70 | 8} 80) | 100 "|| 11553
average | |

! | '

The general average would probably be affected if allowance were made for
such changes in the construction of the working-class population as the growth of
the class of partially skilled workers.

No attempt has been made to include any estimate for the changes in the
purchasing power of money.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

~JI

4. The Poor Law and the Economic Order. By T. Mackay.

Early legislation concerning the poor was for their regulation, not for their
relief. It was based on an assumed adscription of the population to the soil. The
obligation of the community to relieve was of later origin. On this territorial
basis was founded our system of poor relief as established by Elizabeth.

The legislature regarded the population as stationary, but it was not till some
fifty years afterwards that the mobility characteristic of an industrial population
came into conflict with this assumption.

For remedy the 14 Charles II., c. 12 (1662), attempted to define settlement
and facilitated the forcible removal of migrant labourers to their place of settle-
ment, The tyranny of this has often been condemned, and from the first many
methods of evasion were adopted. The complete immobility of the population,
however, was due, not to this enactment, but to the guarantee of maintenance held
out to everyone who clung resolutely to his parish and to his decaying industry.
It was this system of imprisonment in some 16,000 parishes that gave rise to the
appearance of over-population. Labour was rendered immobile, not only in place,
but in character and habit.

The business of the new poor law in 1834 was to relax these bonds and allow
the absorption of the population into the economic order. It was in large
measure successful, and subsequent experiments in the way of restriction have
sought to carry the reform further. The justification of a restrictive policy is
that pauperism is a retention of a part of our population in a condition of primitive
poverty much longer than the economic necessity of the situation warrants.
This archaic survival is to be contrasted with the economic order, which offers the
true policy of emancipation.

The hand-to-mouth life is now more amply endowed than it has ever been; a
consideration which answers the argument that, in view of the improved
conditions of working-class life, a relaxation of poor-law tests is desirable.
Improved opportunities for independence too often merely go to make the pro-
letariate life, for the time being, more profuse and irresponsible. The difficulty is
to induce a certain type to submit, in even the slightest degree, to the discipline of
the economic order and to renounce its much more natural, primitive, hand-to-
mouth instincts.

Maine’s generalisation that progress is from status to contract is based on
historical fact; but as regards the future it may not be the last word. It is sub-
mitted, however, that, even if we welcome a tendency to revert in certain directions
to civic and municipal status, the status of parochial pauperism is a condition from
which we should endeayour to emancipate our poorer population.

5. British Colonial Policy in,its Economic Aspect.
By ARCHIBALD B. Ciarx, JA.

The timely and substantial assistance rendered to Great Britain by the
Colonies in the South African War has awakened a fresh interest in the question
whether a more formal recognition and exact definition should not be given to
the rights and responsibilities of the Colonies in connection with the government
and defence of the Empire. The problem, like nearly every practical problem, is
not exhausted by consideration of its purely economic aspects. But the policy of
‘tightening the ties’ is, at present, advocated mainly on economic grounds; and it
is sought to attain the end in view by the manipulation of economic factors.

As regards defence, under modern conditions a huge and growing expenditure
on the Army and Navy is inevitable; and it is argued that the Colonies, who
equally with Great Britain gain from the resulting security, may fairly be asked
to contribute towards the expense. But (a) by way of compensation our weight
in the councils of the nations is vastly greater by reason of the possession of our
Colonial Empire. (4) Recent experience suggests that the interests of Imperial
Defence may be better served by the spontaneous action of the Colonies than by a
formal and binding contract.

756 REPORT— 1901.

It is thought that we might find material compensation, and at the same time
meet the hostile tariffs of foreign countries and increase the strength of the
Empire, by entering into a Customs Union with our Colonies on the basis of free
trade within the Union and protection against the foreigner. Or, failing that, we
might adopt a system of bounties on trade with the Colonies. But (a) we rely on
the foreigner for food and raw materials; and of the total external trade (import
and export) of the United Kingdom, roughly 75 per cent. is, and has been for
half-a-century, a trade with foreign countries. (5) The diversity of interests, too,
among the Colonies themselves renders it hopeless to expect that any scheme
could be formulated which would fail to create discord. (c) Any such scheme—
whether of differential duties or bounties—would involve a serious departure from
our free-trade policy the great virtue of which is its practical simplicity.

Like that free-trade policy, the existing connection between Great Britain and
her Colonies may be imperfect in theory, but, like it, it has proved workable in
practice. Under the one we have enjoyed half-a-century of unrivalled prosperity ;
and, as the outcome of the working of the other for a similar period, we have
amongst the Colonies a sense of unity and an intensity of loyalty to the mother
country unparalleled in history. This, too, has been most unqualified where the
hand of ‘ Downing Street’ has been least conspicuous. The policy of ‘ tightening
the ties’ is really retrograde and unhistorical. It represents the extreme of
reaction from the view which prevailed generally from about 1840 to 1880—that
the independence of the Colonies would be the natural outcome of the concession
of self-government. It involves a return to that system of monopoly and inter-
ference by the central government which im the eighteenth century lost us the
American Colonies. In our colonial policy the most pressing need at present is
concentration and economy, based on recognition of the truth that trade follows
the flag in no other sense than that it follows the establishment of peace, security,
and good government.

6. The Present Position of Woman as a Worker. By Miss M. H. Irwin.

Owing to the rapidly increasmg number of women who are year by year
entering both the professional and the industrial labour market, the nature and
conditions of women’s employment form a subject of first importance to the
economic student, not only in relation to the women themselves, but also in
respect to their men fellow-workers, and the general development of our national
industries. Many industrial complications have arisen, and threaten still to arise,
from the presence and the extended application of women’s labour.

There is a want of adequate and authoritative information regarding women’s
work. The subject has sutfered in the past from being regarded as a matter for
philanthropic sentiment rather than economic research. A change of attitude is
being brought about through various causes.

The need for systematic inquiry and exact knowledge as providing a basis for
both philanthropic effort and legislative reform. Legislative action is specially
desirable for the regulation of the conditions of women’s work, owing to the
difficulty of forming any organisation among them sufficiently strong to protect
them from possible evils in the way of excessive hours and other unhealthy
conditions of work.

Results of investigations undertaken by the Scottish Council for Women’s
Trades and other bodies into various employments followed by women in which
there was either no legislative restrictions, or these were defective. Laundries,
shops. Investigations into home work. The economic results of home work.
The sanitary side of the question. Proposed regulations. The dressmaking trade.
The tailoring trade. A complex and highly graded industry of special value as a
subject for economic investigations.

Among the suggestive points offered for study by the tailoring trade are the
competition between the men and women workers. The results of the introduction
of the cheap and unprotected labour of women, systems of wages rating, displace-
ment of the skilled hand labour of men by the machine-tended and comparatively

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. tay

unskilled labour of women. The rise of the clothing factory and spread of the
‘division of labour system, the operation of factory legislation, and the Public
Health Acts, The difference between the rates paid to the two sexes for work
of the same nature and efficiency. The absence ofa standard and uniform rate for
women’s work.

Causes which may account for the lower wages-rates of women. Attitude of
the men’s Union towards the women workers. The nature and significance of
women’s competition. The extension of mechanical aids favouring the increased
application of women’s labour. The typographical trade. The new printing
machines and the scarcity of boy labour furthering the employment of women.
The textile trades of Scotland. These have become practically women’s industries
since the introduction of the power-loom. Bookbinding. The non-employment
of women in many departments of this trade is due to artificial restrictions, such
as custom, and the lines of demarcation laid down by the men’s Union. So far
as an investigation into the printing, bookbinding and kindred trades which is
now in progress has gone, it would appear that while machinery has displaced
hand labour in certain departments, owing to the largely increased output, there
has been an increase in the total number of workers employed all over the factories
coming under observation.

In view of possible future industrial changes, in which women’s labour is
likely to be a very important factor, there is urgent need for systematic investigations
of the nature and conditions of women’s labour.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15S.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. The Real Incidence of Local Rates. By Cameron Corserr, U.P.

The incidence of local rates is fundamentally influenced by the question as to
whether the area affected by them is fully built up or is affected by a practical
chance of additional acccommodation being provided within it. If it be fully built
up, then the rate falls on the owner except in so faras the cause of the rates is cal-
culated to affect the rents beneficially ; that is to say, the burden of wasteful
administration would fall upon him. Inthe cases where a higher rate affects an
area where building can be influenced by it, the burden falls on the tenant in the
same way as the burden falls on the consumer of a manufactured article, production
being checked thereby.

The proposal, after taxing building and land together, to put a special second
burden on land values would raise the price of houses to buyers, and consequently
the rent to tenants. The reduction of four years’ purchase in the selling price of
ground rents which has taken place during recent years has amounted in many
instances to more than the whole cost of the land, and has therefore affected the
production of houses as unfavourably for the occupiers in these cases as if the cost
of the land had been doubled. It is quite evident that land values being exposed
to a special rate would affect the buyers and tenants of houses very severely, for
the builders would require to get as much additional inducement from the buyer
of the house as would counterbalance the lessened amount they would receive from
ground-rent buyers.

2. Recent Results of Farm Labour Colonies. By Haroup E. Moors, FS. I.

At the Liverpool Meeting in 1895 a paper was read on ‘ Farm Labour Colonies
and Poor Law Guardians.’ It was then pointed out that farm labour colonies
might be considered to be of two distinct classes. One of these would
be colonies for the reception of well-conducted men of the working classes
temporarily out of employment; and the other class would be colonies for the

1901, 3D

798 REPORT—1901.

reception of men who would otherwise be in the casual wards, inmates of work-
houses, or dependent partially on private charity. It was suggested that the esta-
blishment of colonies of the first class was difficult ; but the further extension of the
second named was recommended as being both desirable and practicable.

During the last six years there has been extension in the work of the last
named, and so far with satisfactory results. Colonies under the control of volun-
tary committees, but subsidised by grants from Boards of Guardians, are at work:
(a) At Hadleigh in Essex, under the controi of the Salvation Army ; (b) at Dorking
in Surrey, under the control of the Church Army, in succession to a smaller one
carried on by that organisation near Ilford in Essex; and (c) at Lingfield in
Surrey, and another near Kendal in Westmoreland, under the control of the
Christian Union for Social Service. ‘lhe financial and other results of each of
these efforts from their economic aspect is separately considered.

There are also colonies in operation not subsidised by Poor Law funds, the
most important being the one under the control of the Scotch Colony Association,
near Dumfries. There is also a colony for women only. founded by the efforts of
Lady Henry Somerset, near Reigate in Surrey, as well as some smaller private
attempts at providing work on the land asa means of relief; while Guardians at
Sheffield and elsewhere are working land.

The results show that colonies for the second class (a) have reduced the cost
of maintenance of those there received as compared with the expense of their
maintenance in other ways; and (b) have been beneficial as a reformatory influence
when the work has been under the control of Christian voluntary committees,
restoring some to independent life who would otherwise have remained in a perma-
nent dependent position.

3. Feebleness of Mind, Pauperism, and Crime. By Miss Mary Denpy.

The special point to be proved is this: we are to-day suffering from an evil
which will, if unchecked, bring ruin upon our nation, and that before very long,
A chain is no stronger than its weakest link, and the weakest link in the chain of
our social life is the mass of mentally feeble persons who live amongst us,
unguarded and unguided, suffering and helpless, a danger to themselves and to
Society, and perpetually propagating their species. The time has come when this
evil must be dealt with, very tenderly, very kindly, so far as individuals are
concerned, but very plainly, very scientifically, so far as Society at large is con-
cerned, As years ago our nation realised that we had no right to populate a new
country with criminals and ceased to send its convicts abroad, so now we should
realise that we have no right to provide for our own future a feeble, helpless,
half-witted population. That this is what we are doing at present there is no
doubt; the main cause of feebleness of mind is heredity.

The time is come when we should ask for scientific morality, should question
what is morality worth which is mot scientific, and should demand that the
transmission to the future of a terrible evil shall be stopped—an evil which brings
all other evils in its train. It is not only that our weaker brethren themselves
become criminals; they atford the opportunity for crime in those who are not
weak but only bad. It is probable that two-thirds of the crimes of our nation
might be prevented in the course of two generations by a scientific method of
dealing with the feeble-minded. And we must remember that it is futile to talk
of weak-minded criminals as sinners. Sin there must be, where so much crime
and misery are; but the sin lies where the responsibility lies, and that is with the
sane and not with the insane.

The one defect most generally common to weak-minded persons is great
weakness of will-power.

There is a whole class whose feebleness consists in a total lack of the moral
sense. It was of these that Huxley wrote: ‘As there are men born physically
cripples and intellectually idiots, so there are some who are morally cripples and
idiots, and can be kept straight not even by punishment. For these people there
is nothing but shutting up or extirpation.’

yt

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 759

Many persons who are, when left to their unassisted efforts, quite helpless can
earn a living, or partly earn a living, when under constant supervision. The
lacking will-power can be imposed from without. The late Sir Douglas Galton
said that the feeble-minded man could never be worth three-fourths of a man.
That three-fourths, at least, could generally be arrived at in proper conditions.
His weakness of will makes him obedient to any suggestion; he can be trained to
make use of all the faculties he possesses, and those faculties, though they cannot
be made normal, can be greatly strengthened. Thus in good hands he may become
nearly self-supporting, while in bad hands he is self-destroying.

However, the Commissioners in Lunacy have given us a good working
definition of the feeble-minded. They speak of ‘persons who are known as the
feeble-minded. They are not the subjects of such a degree of mental unsoundness
as in the opinion of the medical officers renders them certificable in the eye of the
law, and they are, therefore, unable to be detained against their will, although
they are not sufficiently of sound mind to be able to take care of themselves,’

Briefly what happens to a feeble-minded boy (and there are three boys of this
type to every two girls) is this: He leaves school quite unable to take care of
himself ; very often the one wholesome influence of his life ceases with his school-
days, his parents being very little stronger in mind than himself. Their one idea
is to make him earn money for them. He knows no skilled work and cannot keep
a situation if he gets one. He comes upon the streets, sells matches, shoe-laces,
papers, and generally ends by turning up in gaol. By this time he has become
used to a vagrant life, and as he can only move along the path of the least
resistance, and as it is made so much easier for him to go wrong than to go right,
he goes wrong persistently, and becomes a confirmed criminal. So he grows up
through a pitiful and degraded youth to a pitiful and degraded manhood and dies,
leaving behind him offspring to carry on the horrible tradition. With the girls
the evil, though not more real, is more obvious, and for this reason more attempts
have been made to help them than their brothers. Of course, in accidental cases,
where the parents are respectable, they do their best for their weakly children,
and try to keep them at home or with kindly employers. But if they are of the
wage-earning class they ultimately, in nearly every case—their natural protectors
dying—come upon the rates. The main cause of this terrible evil is, undoubtedly,
heredity. The child of a feeble-minded parent is likely to be one degree at least
worse than that parent. Dr. Caldicott, of Earlswood, says: ‘In our statistics the
one cause which stands prominently forward is Heredity, and the more accurately
we are able to penetrate the family history of our cases the more we are forced
to the conclusion that a very definite “neurotic ”’ taint is found in the direct and
immediate progenitors. For my own part I believe this to be as high as 70 to
75 per cent.’ Dr. Miiller, of Augsburg, also states that 70 per cent. of weak-minded
persons are accounted for by heredity.

The English law has at length recognised the existence of these people as a
class, apart both from the sane and the certificated insane.

It now permits educational authorities to make provision for them, but only
up to the age of sixteen. As if those who are mentally unsound at sixteen
would be mentally sound at seventeen !

In 1898 there were 100,322 children on the books of the public elementary
schools of Manchester. Of these 44,463 were in the Board school. I now
proceeded to make an inspection of all these Board School children, and I saw at
their work, all who were in actual attendance, 39,600. When I saw a child who
seemed to me abnormal, I made a special examination of it, speaking also to
normal children so as to avoid singling out any one for remark. With the aid of
an attendance officer, I took down all particulars concerning the child. In this
way I made notes on 525 children. This report would, of course, not in itself
have been reliable evidence. But when it was complete we were so fortunate as
to secure the help of Dr. Ashby, our great children’s doctor, the head physician of
our children’s hospital, a man whose opinion is acknowledged to be the best
possible. He most kindly consented to see all my cases, He examined every
child carefully and gave a written opinion on each. He summarised the

3D2

760 REPORT—1901.

result thus: ‘Out of 500 examined, 214 were dull and backward (it being under-
stood that the backwardness arose from the child’s condition, not from home
conditions), 276 were mentally feeble, 4 were deaf-mutes, and 6 did not appear
to be sufficiently behindhand to come under either of these terms.’

Adding the proportion for the voluntary schools in Manchester, we have
about 1,000 children who are mentally unsound in the day-schools at one time.
Since then I have worked in a similar manner through all the voluntary schools
in a large non-School Board area with similar results. Wherever an attempt
has been made to obtain correct statistics, these figures are confirmed. To con-
clude. Prudence, economy, and humanity demand that we shall deal with this
question rationally. It is possible at an early age to detect the unsound brain ;
scientific morality demands that we shall talie care that our weak-minded children
are always protected, so as to render them harmless to themselves and Society.

I shall ask you to dwell on these facts :—

Our workhouses and lunatic asylums cannot provide for our derelict population.

Lunacy and imbecility and pauperism are largely on the increase.

Two per cent. at least of our school-going population are in some degree
weak-minded—some more, some less, Feebleness of mind is hereditary, with an
increasing intensity.

Almost all feeble-minded persons are at large during the most critical period
of their lives, and most become parents.

It would be easy to detain such persons if the detention were commenced in
early youth, and they could be kept happy, harmless, and partially self-supporting
for their whole lives. They would then be no danger to Society, and they would
be far smaller expense than they are.

4, Report on the Economic Effect of Legislation regulating Women’s
Labour.—See Reports, p. 399.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 761

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

PRESIDENT OF THE SucTION—Colonel R. E. Crompton, M.Inst.C.E.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Ar this the first meeting of the British Association of the new century I wish to lay
before you some of the interesting problems presented by recent developments in
means of locomotion on land which demand the best thoughts, not only of our
engineers, but of everyone interested in the improyement in means of travelling
and in the more rapid transit of goods.

During the seventy years which have passed since the introduction of railways
in almost every country passenger and goods traffic has developed itself to such an
extent that almost everyone is interested in these questions; and of late years our
attention has not been confined to railways only, but, owing to the invention of the
cycle and motor-car, has also been directed to travel on our road-ways, which during
the first fifty years of the railway era had somewhat fallen into disuse. I am not
able, being limited to the length of this address, to deal with many of the interest-
ing questions affecting our long-distance railways other than by referring to the
probable early introduction of railways of a new type intended to attain a speed of
120 miles per hour and worked by electrical power. The railway race to Scotland
of a few years back attracted the attention of the managers cf American and
Continental railways to railway speed questions, and we have seen during the last
few years so great improvement in the speed of the trains and the comfort of the
passengers in these countries that it appears that England has already been beaten
in the matter of extreme railway speed, although it is probable that our railways
still provide a larger number of rapid trains than either the American, German, or
French do. But whether it be in England or in the countries I have mentioned,
it appears that after all the speed limit of railways of the present system of
construction is reached at about sixty-five or seventy miles per hour. Higher
speed on level runs has undoubtedly been recorded, but it is not probable that
anything greatly in excess of seventy miles per hour will be reached until our
railway managers initiate an entirely new system of construction. The high-speed
service that is now in contemplation, not only in England but in America and
Germany, intends to attain speeds of over one hundred miles per hour by providing
electrical means of haulage suflicient to propel light trains consisting of one, or, at
the most, a few cars; and in order to render this service successful to run these
light trains at short intervals of time, so in effecting this high speed the railways
will give a service which more nearly resembles the tramway service than our
present system of heavy express trains at infrequent intervals. This high-speed
service of light trains at frequent intervals is well suited to electrical haulage,
as it works generating machinery situated at fixed points to the best advantage
and enables the best return to be obtained from the necessarily heavy capital cost

762 REPORT—1901.

of copper itt the conductors which transmit the energy along the length of the
line, as it is evident that if the speed be sufficient to ensure that each section
of the line only carries one running train, the costs of the conductors will be in
proportion to the weight of that train.

Great advantages have already been made in adapting electrical traction to
long lengths of railways. The work already done by Brown Boveri, of Baden, in
Switzerland, at first on the mountain railways and afterwards on the Burghdorf-
Thun full-gauge line, the experimental work of Ganz & Co., of Buda-Pesth, and
of Siemens & Halske at Charlottenburg, have already shown that the power
problems are nearly all of them solved, so that we may feel confident that
electrical engineers will very shortly surmount any power difficulties that still
remain. But this high-speed railways problem at present presents certain unknown
factors which can only be satisfactorily determined by the actual testing and
working the lines when carrying passengers. I refer to those which deal with
the increased oscillation, vibration, and noise to be expected from the extreme
speeds. ‘These matters must be met so as to give sufficient comfort and protection
to the passengers, for if passengers are rendered uncomfortable by the extreme
speed the service can never become popular, and on this last question depends the
most important question of all, viz., the extent to which the travelling public are
likely to make use of a high-speed railway service. In attempting to forecast this
matter, although we meet many business men who think it would be an undoubted
advantage if the journeys between important business centres occupied half the
time they do at present, in the United Kingdom there are only a few journeys
of sufficient length to make saving of time of great importance, but the case is far
different in America and on the Continent, where the business centres are much
further apart than they are here. I, as an English engineer, foresee that this
topographical question will cause our English engineers to be at a disadvantage
as compared with American and Continental ones, for it appears likely that the
number and mileage of high-speed railways is likely to be far greater in America
and on the Continent than in the United Kingdom. Before I entirely leave the
subjectof very high-speed railways, a rather curiousspeculation presents itself to us:
this is whether the need for rapid communication between town and town may not
eventually besupplied by high-speed motor-cars on roads specially prepared for them.
Mr. Wells in his interesting forecast in the ‘ Fortnightly Review’ seems to think that
the time is not far distant when all passenger traffic will be carried on special roads on
motor-cars. That the advantages of carrying your family and loading up your belong-
ings at your own door, in your own or a hired car, and transporting them without
any change or handling of your baggage right up to the point where your journey
ends, will be so great that even for comparative long journeys travellers will
prefer it to the railway, and that our railways will eventually be relegated to carrying
minerals and heavy goods. But, without going so far as Mr. Wells, it does seem
probable that it only a few passengers require to travel between two business
centres such as Manchester and Liverpool, and to occupy only half the time from
door to door at present taken by the railway and the two terminal cab rides, it
might be better to provide one of Mr. Wells’ improved roads on which private
owners could run their own cars, paying toll for the road, and on which a public
service of cars would provide for those who did not own cars themselves.

I now propose to deal at somewhat greater length with what I think is a most
important problem in locomotion, viz., that caused by the congestion of street
traffic in our towns and by the undoubted difficulties which exist in carrying our
workers to and from their homes in the country to their places of employment in
our towns. A large proportion of the workers who during the latter half of the
last century lived and worked in the country are now working in towns, although
some of them still live outside in order to obtain the advantages of lower rents
and of a healthier life for their families, and this last class is likely to largely
increase. Those who have been responsible for the enlarging and improvements
of our towns have done so much to make town life preferable to country life that
the country is gradually being depopulated. The results we see in the increasing
difficulties which the town authorities find in dealing with the water and sewerage

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 763

questions, and in the increasing mass of vehicular street traffic, which makes some
of our cities veritable pandemoniums. Luckily it seems that we are likely
through the skill and energy of our engineers to meet these difficulties in more
than one way. The cycle, which commenced as an amusement and went on as a
fashionable craze, has now settled down into being the poor man’s horse. The
number of our working population that use the cycle for going to and from their
work is already very large and is steadily increasing, and their use of the roads
must be considered. Then came the motor-car, developed in France to such an
amazing extent, and which seems now likely to be developed to an equal extent in
this country. After many years of objecting to the use of the overhead trolley
system, our town authorities seem now to have determined that the only way of
relieving street traffic is by an enormous development of electrical tramways, and
on all sides we find the large towns rivalling one another in the extent of the
tramway systems which they have either acquired or are laying down for them-
selves. It seems opportune now to point out that a great deal of mischief may
accrue by this indiscriminate use of tramways, and for those who are considering
these matters I bring forward a few facts which are worthy of notice. Of course,
in new countries, or in new towns in old countries, where the roads are rough and
bad, anything in the nature of a tramway using rails is an improvement on a road-
way ; but when we are dealing with cities which already possess well laid out and
well paved streets on which all kinds of wheel traffic can be carried on with a
minimum of rolling resistance, it seems wrong from an engineering point of view
to break up the surface of these streets for the purpose of laying tramways, and for
the following important reasons: Traffic carried on a roadway by vehicles, whether
horse-drawn or by cycle or motor-car, differs from traffic carried on rails chiefly in
that the former vehicles possess an important power, viz., that of overtaking, which
is not possessed by the latter, that is to say that vehicles on the plain road surface
can overtake a stopping or a slower vehicle going in the same direction without
interfering with other vehicles, whereas on rails the vehicles going one way must
always remain in the same relation to one another, so that the speed of vehicles
on rails must always be regulated by that of other vehicles going in the same
direction. Street tramways, for instance, must stop to set down and take up
passengers: this limits the speed average and the number of vehicles per mile of
track, for if there be not sufficient intervals between the vehicles they would have
to stop and start nearly simultaneously, Thus the carrying capacity of the best
modern electrical tramway is limited by this want of overtaking power. I have
made careful inquiry from these who have great experience in tramways not only
in this country but in America and on the Continent, and I find that it is generally
admitted that the maximum carrying capacity of an electrical tramway in one
direction is 4,000 passengers per hour carried past any given point. 1 find
that a full-gauge suburban or metropolitan railway crowded to its fullest extent
cannot carry more than 12,000 passengers per hour. Now most of us have often
seen large crowds taken away from a point of attraction by omnibuses and horse-
drawn vehicles, and have noticed that the crowded omribuses almost touch one
another and yet can go ata fair rate of speed. In this case at eight miles per
hour speed 14,000 passengers can be carried from a given point per hour.

Up to the present a public motor-car service has not yet been installed of any
magnitude to enable us to compare the carrying capacity of motor-cars with that
of horse-drawn omnibuses, but owing to the reduced length of motor-cars com-
pared with that of omnibuses, and on account of their greater speed and greater
control, motor-cars can now be built to deal with great crowds at an even higher
rate per hour than that noted above. It appears certain, therefore, that although
the provision of electrical tramways is undoubtedly an economical means of carry-
ing passengers, yet that these tramways cannot be laid in existing thoroughfares
without considerably reducing the total road carrying capacity at times of heavy
pressure of traffic, and as it appears likely that either for the daily transport of the
workers to and from their homes to places of employment, or for taking great
crowds out into the country for pleasure purposes, a motor-car service carried out

764, REPORT—1 901.

on well-made roads will compete favourably with, and in many ways may be ptefer-
able to, tramway service.

It must be remembered that the laying of tram rails not only blocks ordinary
traffic, but in our most crowded streets it introduces dangers to all wheeled vehicles
not on rails, motor-cars, and cyclists by the skidding of the wheels when they cross
the line of rails, and these dangers are daily causing, and are still likely to cause,
very serious accidents.

The increased road and street traffic and the development of new means of
road locomotion have made imperative some modification «f our existing system of
roadway administration. Cycles, motor-cars, electrical tramcars, haye been in-
vented and put on roads which are maintained and worked exactly as they were
seventy years ago at the commencement of the railway era, when the population
of the United Kingdom was half its present figure, and that of the large towns
one-tenth of the present figure. During the 150 years previous to the railway era
the ancient tracks were gradually improved into tolerably efficient roads for coach
and wagon traflic, but after the introduction of railways there was a complete
cessation of improvement, as for fifty years after the railways started the old
roads were equal to the farmers’ and local traffic which the railways left for them ;
but for the last twenty years the roads near to the great towns have been inadequate,
and now that the cyclist and motor-carist travel over the whole of the roads of the
country the neglect of our ancient roadway system is very apparent.

Although the urban populations have so greatly increased, the old coaching
roads are still the only ones that exist; no main roads paralle] to the old ones or
alternative to them have ever been made. Towns which are now joined by rail-
ways grew out of small rows of houses built facing the main road; in fact in
many cases the road made the town. During the early part of the railway era,
when the roads were so little used from coaching falling into disuse, encroach-
ments on the roadway took place in and near the towns, such roads being now
actually narrower and less suitable for traffic than in the coaching days: so that
these towns which owe their existence to these roadways now put every impediment
and hindrance to their use by the travelling public. What is needed is that towns
situated on our main through roads should provide alternative routes, so that
through travellers could, if they desired, avoid the crowded streets of the town.
One method of providing such relief roads would be by by-laws providing that all
building estates should set aside iand for main roads. The building estates which
are developed around our great towns never provide a road which can be used as a
main line of thoroughfare, although by their very act of building additional houses
they cause additional congestion to the main roads, They lay out their roads to
obtain quiet for those who live on the estate, and take every possible means to
prevent their estate roads from taking a share of the main thoroughfare traffic.

Parliament must take in hand an improved administration of our high-
ways by a comprehensive scheme. Far too many ancient main lines of thorough-
fare, already too narrow for the traffic which is on them, are being blocked
by having tramways laid on them; these cause the development of building
estates, which throw additional traflic on to these thoroughfares. Apart from the
roads themselves, the complicated conditions of street and road traflic demand
careful regulation. Street traffic should be carried as far as possible by lines of
vehicles driven as nearly parallel to one another as possible. The rule of the
road, as it is called, and which is embodied in an Act of Parliament, 5 and 6 of
William IV., which is commonly called the Highways Act, says that every
vehicle is to keep as close as possible to the left, or near side of the road, except
when overtaking another vehicle going in the same direction, and then it is to
keep to the off side of the overtaken vehicle as closely as possible. As a matter
of fact, everybody knows that this rule is habitually neglected by drivers who,
whenever they get a chance, drive down the centre of the road, so that others
who overtake them dare not do so on the wrong or near side, but must pass out
far to the off side of the road, and consequently interfere with the traffic coming
in the opposite direction. This neglect of the rule of the road causes a great ,
waste of space immediately behind every vehicle, and is one of the chief causes

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G, 765

of the limited carrying capacity of the streets im cities where the police do not
attend to this important matter. It can be remedied by the existing police
regulations being adhered to and insisted on by fixed-point constables, or by
constables moving about on motor-cars or bicycles. Slow moving and frequently
stopping vehicles are another cause of congested traffic. A great deal might be
done by arranging that during certain hours much of the slower moving traftic is
shunted into alternative routes, so as to be kept by itself. An increase in the speed
of the street traffic is desirable; for the faster the vehicles travel the less the
street is occupied by them. Motor-cars can safely travel at sixteen miles an hour,
and, therefore, need only take half the time and occupy ovly half the street
surface that an omnibus does when travelling at eight miles per hour. Such high
speeds as these, which are desirable and perfectly safe for motor-cars, cannot,
however, be obtained unless some regulations are made as to the use of the
roadways by foot passengers. There is no rule of the road for foot passengers
they pass one another on the footpath, or vehicles in the roadway, just as they
please. No driver of a vehicle in the road who sees a foot passenger stepping into
the roadway can ever tell with certainty what his movements will be. It will be
no hardship to foot passengers to insist on their movements being regulated.

Much has been recently suid and written on the subject of motor-cars and
motor-wagons, It is generally admitted that there will be considerable scope for
engineering skill and capital in their improvement and construction. It is by no
means an easy problem to put into the hands of the public such a complicated
piece of mechanism as a self-propelled carriage which has in most cases to be
managed and driven by men who have had no special mechanical training. Motor-
cars to be universally successful must be made so as to reduce to a minimum the
liability to break down ; repairs must be limited to the replacement of worn or
damaged parts by other parts, which must be supplied by the manufacturers so
that they can be readily put in by the unskilled users. That this can be done is
shown by the success and universal use of typewriters, sewing machines, and
bicycles: all of these are really complicated pieces of mechanism, but which are
now in such general use and in everyone’s hands. In these cases, however, the
organised manufacture of machines with thoroughly interchangeable parts, or com-
ponents as it is the fashion to call them, has only been developed after the type of
machine had settled down, and this up to the present cannot be said of the motor-
car or motor-wagon. Up to the present the development of these cars has gone
on on several lines. The development in France, which so far has led the world,
has been principally in the direction of the use of light motors driven by petrol
spirit. Again to France we owe the flash boiler of Serpollet, which assists the use
of steam engines for this purpose.

At first sight steam, with the complications of boiler, engine, and condenser,
does not appear likely to compete favourably with the simpler spirit motor, but for
heavier vehicles, where steady heavy pulling power is of importance, up to the
present no internal combustion motor has competed with it. The Americans,
with their usual skill and power of rapidly organising a new manufacture, have
already turned out a very large number of steam-driven motor-cars, which are so
largely in use in unskilled hands that it shows that they have already solved the
problem to some extent.

The directions in which the two classes of motors require further development
are, for the internal combustion motors, the satisfactory and inodorous use of the
heavier oils, and in this perhaps Herr Diesel may help us with his wonderfully
economical motor improvements in the clutch mechanism, for with all in-
ternal combustion engines up to the present it has been found impossible to start
the motor when coupled to the driving-wheels of the car; and in the case of the
steam motor the simplification of the boiler, the boiler feed mechanism, the inodorous
and noiseless burning of heavy oils as fuel, improved condensers, methods of
lubricating the pistons and valves so as to avoid oil passing back to the boiler
with the condensed water, and the rendering of all processes of boiler feed and fuel
feed mechanism completely automatic so as not to require the attention of the
driver. On points common to both classes, although much has been done, further

766 REPORT—1901.

improvement is required in the methods of transmitting the power from the motor
to the driving-wheels. In the case of the steam cars, where this has heen done
by single reduction, using chain, pinion, and sprockets, very efficient and noiseless
transmission has already been obtained, but up to the present in most of the internal
combustion engines where more than two cylinders have to be employed, it has
been found necessary to arrange the crank shaft of the motor at right angles to the
axle of the driving-wheels, so that part of the transmission having to be through
bevel gear, this part has up to the present always been noisy. In the providing
of noiseless and efficient chain driving, the manufacturer of cars has gained
greatly by the high degree of perfection to which these chains had already attained
for bicycle work.

The recent great road races which have taken place in France and elsewhere
have shown that the motor-car can be driven safely at a very high speed, already
reaching in some cases seventy miles an hour; but to render this capacity for high
speed useful, not only must special roads be provided on which these high-speed
cars can travel without danger to others and with least slip and wear and tear of
tyres, but a great deal requires to be done in the improvement of the pneumatic
tyres, which at present get excessively hot, and therefore damaged by these high-
speed runs. At these high speeds the mechanical work done on the material of
which the outer covers of pneumatic tyres are composed is excessively high. It
can probably be reduced by increasing the diameter of the wheels, but, of course,
at the cost of increased weight and, to some extent, of stability, for the side strains
on the wheels of these cars when swinging round curves ofsharp radius are very great.

Another direction in which mechanical invention is required for the wheels
of motor cars and wagons is a shoeing or protection of hard material of easily
renewable character which can be firmly and safely attached to the outside of the
tyre covers to take the wear and cutting action caused by the driving strain and
by the action of the breaks on sudden stops.

The late R. W. Thomson, of Edinburgh, made good progress some thirty years
ago in providing steel shoeing for the solid rubber tyres he then used, and the
problems of providing the same for pneumatic tyres ought to be no harder than
those he then successfully encountered.

One of the topics which has been most strongly discussed during the last year
has been the position which this country holds relatively to other countries as
regards its commercial supremacy in engineering matters. A few years back we
were undoubtedly ahead of the world in most branches of mechanical engineering,
but owing to the huge development of mechanical engineering in America and
Germany, we are certainly being run very hard by these countries, and everyone
is looking for means to help us to regain our old position. In endeavouring
to learn from America we see that, although the workmen in that country
receive higher wages than they do here, and although the cost of some of the
materials is higher than it is here, their manufacturers manage to deliver engines,
tools, and machinery of all classes of excellent quality at a price which appears to
our manufacturers to be marvellously low. When we look into the matter we find
that the chief difference between the manufacturer of America and the manu-
facturer at home is that, whether it be steam-engines, tools, agricultural machinery,
or electrical machinery, the American invariably manufactures goods in large
quantities to standard patterns, whereas we rarely do so here, at any rate to the
same extent. Where we turn out articles by the dozen the American turns them
out by the hundred. This difference in the extent to which an article is reduplicated
is caused by the Americans having realised to a far greater extent than we have
the advantage of standardisation of types of machinery. They have felt this so
strongly that we find in America that work is far more specialised than it is bere,
so that a manufacturer as a rule provides himself with a complete outfit of machi-
nery to turn out large numbers of one article. He lavishes his expenditure on
special machinery to produce every part sufficiently accurate to dimension to secure
thorough interchangeability ; consequently the cost of erecting or assembling the
parts is far less than it is here. One reason why the American manufacturer has
been able to impose on his purchasing public his own standard types, whereas we

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 767

have not been able to do so, is that very rarely in America does a consulting
engineer come between the manufacturer and the user, whereas here it is the
fashion for the majority of purchasers of machinery to engage a consulting
engineer to specify and inspect any machinery of importance. By this I do not
impute any blame to our consulting engineer; he considers the requirements of
his client, and insists that they are to be adhered to as closely as possible; to him
the facility of the production of articles in large quantities is of no moment. In
America it seems to be understood by the purchaser that it is a distinct advantage
to everyone concerned, both manufacturer and purchaser, that the purchaser
should to some extent give way and modify his requirements so as to conform
with the standard patterns turned out by the manufacturer. Although manu-
facturers all hope for this simplification of patterns, yet, for the reasons I have
given, it will be some time before their hope is realised. But on other matters it
is quite possible for manufacturers to combine, so as to obtain some standardisa-
tion of parts which they manufacture which will reduce costs and be of advantage
to everyone concerned. Many years ago Sir Joseph Whitworth impressed on the
world the importance in mechanical engineering of extreme accuracy, and of secur-
ing the accurate fit and interchangeability of parts by standard gauges. But in spite
of his idea being so widely Inown and taught, how seldom it has been acted upon
to the extent that it should be. We pride ourselves on having all our screws made
of Whitworth standard, and yet how many of the standard bolts and nuts
made by different makers fit one another? I myself have sat on a committee
of this Association which was called together twenty years ago, with Sir Joseph
Whitworth as a member of it, to fix on a screw gauge which would be a satisfactory
continuation of the Whitworth screw gauge down to the smallest size of screw
used by watchmakers.! It has taken all these years-to carry out the logical outcome
of Sir Joseph Whitworth’s original idea, viz., the providing of standards to be
deposited in care of a public authority to act as standard gauges of references.
The complete interchangeability of parts which I have above referred to, and
which is so desirable in modern machinery, can, of course, be obtained within the
limits of one works by that works providing and maintaining its own standards to
a sufficient degree of accuracy. But if the articles be such as watches or bicycles,
motor-cars, &c., it is very desirable that all parts liable to require replace-
ment should be made by all manufacturers to one standard of size, and in
order that the gauges required for this purpose should all be exact copies
of one another it is necessary that they should be referable to gauges
deposited either with the Board of Trade or with some body specially fitted to
verify them and maintain their accuracy.

Up to the present the Board of Trade has dealt with the simple standards
of weight, capacity, and length, but in other countries National Standardising
Laboratories have been provided, viz., by the Germans at their Reichsanstalt
at Charlottenburg, and with the happiest results; here at last, through the
exertion of the Council of the Royal Society, our Government has been moved to
give agrant in aid and to co-operate with the Royal Society to establish a National
Physical Laboratory for this country. About ten years ago Dr. Oliver Lodge gave
the outlines of a scheme of work for such an institution. Later Sir Douglas
Galton, in his Presidential Address to this Association, called attention to the
good work done by the Germans and the crying need that existed for such an
institution in this country. The matter has since progressed. A laboratory is
already in existence, and will soon be at work, at Bushy House, Teddington: it
is a large residence, which was once occupied by the late Duke of Clarence and
afterwards by the Duc de Nemours. It will make an admirable laboratory, as it
has large and lofty rooms and a vaulted basement in which work can be carried on
where it is important to secure the observer against changes of temperature.

The aims of a National Physical Laboratory have been well put forward by
Dr. Glazebrook in a recent lecture at the Royal Institution, in which he points out
how little science has up to the present come to be regarded as a commercial factor

1 A report of this Committee will come before you during this meeting.

768 REPORT—1901.

in our commercial world. The position of manufacturers of all classes must be
helped and improved by a well-considered series of investigations on the properties,
of materials, measurements of forces, and by the careful standardisation of and
granting certificates to measuring apparatus of all classes. Until the question is
fairly faced and studied, few manufacturers realise how helpless individual effort
or individual investigations must be when compared with comprehensive and con-
tinuous investigations which can be carried on by a National Laboratory so as to
deal with the whole of each subject completely and exhaustively, instead of each
investigation being limited by the temporary need of each manufacturer or user.

As an example Dr. Glazebrook showed how much has been done at Jena and
afterwards at the Reichsanstalt in the development of the manufacture of glass used
in all classes of scientific apparatus. The German glass trade has benefited
enormously from these investigations. The microscopic examination of metals,
which was begun by Sorby in 1864, has been much worked at by individual investi-
gators in this country, but its further development, which is probably of enormous
importance to arts and manufactures, is clearly the duty of a National Laboratory.
We owe much to the investigations of the Alloys Research Committee of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers; but, again, this is work for the National
Laboratory. As regards the measurement of physical forces how little is accu-
rately known of the laws governing air resistance and wind-pressures, and the
means of measuring them. Who can formulate with any certainty a law for the
air resistances likely to be met with at speeds in excess of eighty miles an hour,
the importance of which I have already noticed ?

I have already alluded to the verification, care, and maintenance of ordinary
standard gauges of accuracy. In this electrical age the accuracy of electric standards
is of supreme importance.

These are only a few of the directions in which we can foresee that the establish-
ment of a National Physical Laboratory will be of the greatest use and assistance
to our country in enabling it to hold its own in scientific and engineering
matters with its energetic rivals. The work has been commenced on asmall scale,
but it is to be hoped that its usefulness will become at once so evident and appre-
ciated that it will soon be developed so as to be worthy of our country.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Mechanical Exhibits in the Glasgow Exhibition.
By D. H. Moron.

2. Long continuous burning Petroleum Lamps for Buoys and Beacons.
By Joun R, Wicuam.

3. New Scintillating Lighthouse Light. By Joun R. WiGHAM.

4, A Recording Manometer for High-pressure Explosions.
By J. EK. Peravet.

In this instrument the spring of the ordinary indicator is replaced by a metal
cylinder. The travel of the piston is therefore limited to the amount allowed by
the elastic compression of the metal (about one thousandth of an inch in the case
of the present records). "

The diagrams exhibited are typical of the results obtained: they both refer
to a mixture of air and gas in the ratio of 6:4 to 1 fired at an initial pressure of
ubout 1,190 Ib. per sq. inch. In the second figure the speed of the chronograph
has been greatly reduced so as to obtalh a clear record of the rate of cooling.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 769

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
The following Report and Papers were read :-—

1. Report on the Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction.
See Reports, p. 402.

2. Railway Rolling Stock, Present and Future.
By Norman D, Macponaxp, Advocate.

In this paper the discussion is confined to rolling stock as used, and as likely
to be used, in Great Britain, only touching upon the progress in other countries
so far as it can be used to illustrate or provide hints for our future. Nor does
it dwell on the present state of the art except so far as to show the future
tendency. An attempt is made to raise points for thought and discussion rather
than to give a lecture on the subject or to lay down laws and principles.

First, locomotives are treated on, and these under the various heads of
shunting, mineral, goods, suburban, and express. Suggestions are made as to the
best types for each in future, and the class of demands they will have to answer to.
The question of compound versus simple is looked at, and also the matters of steam
pressures, types of boilers, compensating levers (with special reference to the
method in use on the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad for throwing
extra weight on the drivers), water tubes, arrangements of fire-boxes, and all the
details necessary to produce an efficient and powerful machine on our confined
gauge. The various points observed at the Paris Exhibition for getting more
power are touched upon, Also the modifications of designs necessary to obtaining
a clear view ahead when a huge boiler is used. Reference is made to the use of
auxiliary electric locomotives on grades. The various types, ‘four-coupled,’ ‘ ten-
wheeled,’ and ‘ Atlantic’ for express locomotives are discussed. But in the whole
paper no attempt is made to be technical or to descend to mere details. Loco-
motive tenders are briefly touched on with reference to track-tanks and their uses.

Next, passenger coaches are dealt with, including all questions of couplers,
brakes, heating, and ventilation. The various types of trains and coaches—suburban,
ordinary local, and express ; sleeping cars (first and third), dining cars, buffet cars,
kitchen cars, and a new type for suburban trains, with references to United States,
Russian, and Continental practice and progress—are fully discussed. The coming
competition of electric trams and motor-cars for suburban traffic compels the con-
sideration of new types of rolling stock for competitive purposes. High-speed
brakes for special stock are touched on.

Lastly, goods and mineral waggons claim attention, and in regard to these,
economical transport in larger units, couplers, continuous brakes, and all the
various questions of quick handling and quick transport are looked at. A cross
between United States and British practice is advocated, and the examples of such
from the colonies are adduced in illustration.

3. The Panama Candl. By P. Bunau VarILua.

4. On a Leaf-arrestor, or Apparatus for removing Leaves, &c., from a
Water Supply. By Tae Earu or Rosse.

Having recently erected a turbine of 15 h.p., with 8-foot fall, for working an
electric light installation at Birr Castle, I found, as I had anticipated, considerable
trouble through leaves, &c., choking the screen in the water supply, so much so
that during the fall of the leaf last autumn the output was generally reduced to
one half in the course of half or three-quarters of an hour’s working unattended,
notwithstanding that the area of the screen was nearly a hundred square feet.

770 REPORT—1901.

Accordingly an apparatus was devised for remedying the evil. It was so
successful that the turbine would go for a whole day without attention and
without diminution of output from the above cause.

The apparatus consists of a cylinder of wire gauze, of 4 feet diameter and
43 feet height, set in an opening in a vertical diaphragm extending across the
supply drain and revolving twice in a minute or so round a vertical axis. The
current flows through the gauze cylinder in a horizontal direction. The leaves,
carried down with the current, attach themselves under pressure of the stream,
are carried round till they reach the diaphragm, which on that side is double,
with an intervening space of some ten inches, which is connected with the tail-
race; and at this point, the current through the gauze being reversed, the leaves
are detached and are carried by a portion of the water towards the tail-race.
Four or five per cent. of the supply is ample for conveying the leaves; probably
much less would suffice. A very few leaves get past and on to the screen, but so
few that they give no trouble.

The apparatus has also been constructed of the disc form, and also as a
cylinder on a vertical axis, the water entering all round, except along one vertical
section connected with the tail-race as before, and bearing vertically downwards
rcund the axis; but only as working models, and on this scale they are even more
effectual in their action. But there seemed no sufficient reason for modifying the
full-sized apparatus, which has now been in action for nearly a year, and has given
complete satisfaction.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Protection of Buildings from Lightning.
By Kiuneworta Hepers, MInst.C.k., ML#.L.

The last time this subject was brought before this Association was at the Bath
meeting in 1888, when a joint discussion of Sections A and G was held ; but there
has been no official report as to the effect of lightning stroke upon buildings
protected by conductors since the Lightning Rod Conference of 1882. Interest in
the subject has been again revived, first, by the Electro-Technische Verein of
Berlin, who have this year published a set of rules; and secondly, by the
establishment in this country of the Lightning Research Committee, organised
jointly by the Royal Institute of British Architects and the Surveyors’ Institute.

The author compares Continental and American practice, and gives an account
of his rearrangement of the system used at St. Paul’s Cathedral, where the
conductors, erected as recently as 1872, were found to be totally inefficient, both as
regards the conductivity of the joints and the resistance of the earth connections.
In the plan recommended, both for this installation and for the more recent one at
‘Westminster Abbey, the number of ordinary conductors from air to earth has
been greatly increased, and, besides these, horizontal cables are run on the ridges
of the roofs and in other prominent positions so as to encircle the building, being
interconnected to the vertical conductors wherever they cross one another. The
horizontal cables are furnished at intervals with aigrettes, or spikes, which are
invisible from the ground level, and are designed to give many points of
discharge. At the same time they, in conjunction with the cables, would receive

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. vee.

any side flash which might occur should any portion of the building receive a
direct stroke of lightning.

The unreliability of soldered joints for conductors, whether of cable or tape,
has led the author to design a special joint box, which can be applied for uniting
any portion“of the system together in such a manner as to give great mechanical
strength as well as good electrical contact; at the same time any box can have
points inserted so as to form an aigrette in any desired position.

Owing to the difficulty of sinking an earth plate of sufficient area, on account
of old foundations, a special form of tubular earth has been designed which takes
up little space and has the advantage that if a suitable moist ground is not
obtainable the desired low electrical resistance is attained by leading a tube in
connection with the rain-water pipes, so that a portion of the rainfall is diverted
to the tubular earth.

The author alludes to the immense amount of damage to property annually
occurring which might be prevented if efficient conductors were installed. He
mentions that instead of every church having its lightning conductor not ten
per cent. are so provided; and in the case of other public buildings the percentage
is not much larger, the reason in the case of the former class of buildings being
that a vicar wishing to safeguard his church has usually to pay the cost out of
his own pocket.

Architects, as a rule, treat the question of lightning conductors in a very brief
manner, and in their specifications seldom say anything as to the way in which
they are to be run, or the necessity for good joints and good earth connections.

2. The Commercial Importance of Aluminium.
By Professor Ernest Wixson, J./.2.£.

During the last ten years enormous progress has been made in the production
of aluminium. In 1900 no less than 5,000 tons were produced by plants having
25,000 horse-power, representing a capital of 2,000,000/. All aluminium may be
said to be produced by the electrolytic method, which was patented by Hall in
America and Hérault in England and France in 1886-1887. After giving a short
résumé ot the progress in manufacture, and a description of the electrolytic cell,
the author discussed the properties of the metal. From experiments made at
King’s College, London, it appears that aluminium containing ‘31 per cent. Fe
and -14 per cent. Si has a specific resistance of 2°76 x 10~° ohms at 15° C., which
shows that its conductivity is about 61:5 per cent. that of copper, taking
Matthiessen’s standard. In the form of wire ‘126 in. diameter the breaking load
is 12°6 tons per square inch, the limit of elasticity 8°65 tons per square inch, and
percentage extension within the limit of elasticity -19, with an applied force of
7-2 tons per square inch. Some copper and nickel copper alloys give 20 tons per
square inch, 16 tons limit of elasticity, ‘19 per cent. extension within the limits of
elasticity under an applied force of 7-2 tons per square inch, with a conductivity
52 per cent. of that of copper. The Standard Electric Company of California in
their 43 miles transmission line are stated to use aluminium having 10:1 tons per
square inch breaking load, and a conductivity 59-9 per cent. of copper.

The weight of a given volume of a metal may govern its financial value.
Since copper is 3°37 times as heavy as aluminium it follows that, volume for
volume, aluminium at 1307. per ton is cheaper than copper at 70/. per ton.

For equal conductivity the relative weights would be 1 of copper to } of
aluminium, and the diameter of the aluminium wire would be 1:27 time that of
the copper.

Dealing with wind pressure the author stated that the total tensile strength
of an aluminium wire of the same conductivity as copper may be greater than
that of the copper, and this may compensate for increase in the surface exposed
to wind, snow, &e.

A short description of some long-distance transmission lines was given, show-
ing that aluminium is being installed with success, It was stated that joints

772 REPORT—1901.

which are mechanical in the above cases can be made with success. It was
pointed out that aluminium can be welded and soldered, The melting and
casting, rolling and forging, hardening and annealing, of aluminium were next
dealt with.

Probably the widest field is still in the purification of iron and steel. At high
temperatures the metal decomposes nearly all metallic oxides, and prevents blow-
holes by combining with the gases which form the holes.

The author referred to the use of aluminium when alloyed with copper for the
production of aluminium bronzes. The breaking load varies from 44 to 39 tons
per square inch in the case of alloys containing 8 to 12 per cent. aluminium. It
has a golden appearance, and is suitable for hydraulic work on account of its non-
corrodible properties.

3. Recent Observations on Bridges in Western China.
By R. Lockuart Jack, BL.

During 1909, while travelling in the West of China, in Szechuan and Yunnan,
T was struck by the variety of Chinese bridges, ranging as they do from pontoons
and even large baskets of shingle supporting a temporary decking, to stone and
iron bridges of large span.

On the headwaters of the Min, Fou, and Mekong rivers the single rope bridge
is used, on which the traveller, by the aid of a runner to which he is fastened,
crosses from one bank to the other. The rope is of plaited bamboo, from two to
three inches in diameter, while the runner employed is a half cylinder of hard
wood ten inches long.

The bamboo is also much employed for suspension bridges, a very good example
of which is to be found at Shih Chuen. It is composed of sixteen hawsers, each
from 7 to 8 inches in diameter, tightened by capstans, and is 240 feet long by ten
wide. The decking, of wicker work, is laid upon fourteen of these hawsers, the
other two acting as guard rails. The bridges are entirely renewed at intervals of
one to three years.

Tn other districts suspension bridges are built of wrought iron, chains or bars,
the decking following the curvature of the chains, which, however, is very slight,
that of the Yangtse near Likiang being less than 20 feet on a span of 320. This
bridge, the largest single span we saw, is built up of eighteen chains, the links of
which were 11 inches long of 14 inch bar iron. The chains are anchored to
castings bedded in the masonry abutments, and are tightened by driving wedges
between the links. This type of bridge is said to have been in existence at about
the beginning of the Christian era, and possibly much earlier,

Cantilevers and trestle bridges are used where timber is plentiful, the latter
being generally covered with a tiled roof and lined at the sides with stalls. The
timber is mostly soft wood, but they last very well owing to the protection
afforded by the roof.

The greatest triumphs of the Chinese, however, are their masonry bridges,
which are exceedingly numerous in the wealthier districts of Szechuan. Broadly,
they are of two kinds: those in which slabs of stone are used as girders, and those
which embody the principle of the arch, A good example of the former was being
erected at Chiung Chow, 50 miles 8.W. of Chengtu, and consisted of a bridge
nearly 700 feet long by 15 wide, formed of stone slabs laid on edge, and carried
on thirty-three tiers, each 40 feet by 4. The whole of the stone used was a red
sandstone cut into blocks.

Of the arch bridges the largest is at Ning Shih, also of sandstone, where a
bridge about 600 feet long (including masonry approaches) is carried across a
tributary of the Yangtse Kiang on three spans of over 100 feet each.

One-arch bridges with the roadway rising to the centre by steps are very
common over small streams, and bridges of twelve to eighteen arches are occa-
sionally met with.

There is reason to believe that the Chinese used such bridges as have been
described at a very early period, and it would be of interest to make a study of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 773

their works, and so see if they are built in accordance with some definite rule or
formula, or if they have learned by long experience what is safe for each type
and each material.

4. On Recording Soundings by Photography. By J. Ditxuo0n.

5. On the Size of Waves as observed at Sea.
By Vaucuan Cornisu, D.Sc.

The Height of Waves.—The height of the ocean waves in deep water froni
land has been determined with fairly concordant results by independent observers.
The values recorded are the average of the heights of a number of successive
waves :—

Heights in Feet.

| —_ | Desbois - Paris Wilson-Barker, Mean |

| Hurticane . , =. | (2854 1) 2548 28 27°32

| Strong gale. = : 20°64 16 57 23 20°07
Gale. : : Seas 15°42 — 14 14-71
Strong breeze - : 10°83 LS 8 9°415

These values are only about one-half of the 40 or 50 feet which experienced
seamen frequently state to be ‘the size of the waves’ met with in strong gales in
the open ocean. The author has observed during gales in the North Atlantic
that waves of a larger size recurred at short intervals, and that it was these
which riveted the attention and which were dangerous. He thinks that it is the
average size of these ‘ordinary maximum’ waves which is commonly estimated
by seamen as 40 to 50 feet, and he suggests that it is desirable to record in
future, not only the general average height, but also the height of the ‘ordinary
maximum’ waves. This practice would do away with much of the apparent
discrepancy between the accounts of the size of waves at sea, and would also give
some notion of the simultaneous differences of roughness at different points, which
is an important aspect of a sea-way.

The Length of Waves.—The highest waves in deep water are recorded during
storms, but the longest are the swells encountered in a calmer atmosphere. At
sea, where the ship rises and falls, and there is no fixed object to provide a datum
line, crests and troughs are judged less by actual elevation than by convexity or
concavity of the water's surface. When the profiles of two waves of nearly equal
amplitude but of very different wave-length are combined, the resulting wavy
line presents a series of inequalities the wave-length of which is fairly regular,
and equal, on an average, to that of the shorter component. When, however, the
two combining waves, of very different wave-length, are of equal steepness, the
combination appears as a series of inequalities which, although displaying minor
sinuosities of outline, have unmistakably the wave-length of the longer com-
ponent. Their average amplitude is also equal to that of the longer component.
This indicates (a) that a swell, even of great amplitude, is not directly measure-
able in a storm; (4) that a great swell scarcely affects the recorded average height
and length of the shorter storm-waves, but that it can cause irregularity of the
kind referred to in the last section; and (c) that the appearance of the water may
change somewhat’ suddenly from that of an irregular short sea to that of an
irregular long swell, the longer component being now what the author terms ‘the
dominant wave.’ This change of appearance is not, however, accompanied by any
acceleration of the processes going on in the wave-water,

— ee
eae eee

38

774 REPORT-—-1901.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1, Report ow the Small Screw Gauge.—See Reports, p. 407.

2. A Portable folding Range-Finder, for Use with Infantry.
By G. Forsus, LAS.

3. Machinery for Engraving. By Marx Barr.

4, Recent Developments of Chain Driving. By C. R. Garrarn.

Dd. Measurement of the Hardness of Materials by Indentation by a
Steel Sphere. By T, A. Huarson. .

6. On the Critical Poini in Rolled Steel Joists. By E. J. Epwarps.

In selecting rolled steel joists for floors there are two elements which determine
the section to be used with a given load per square foot of floor area.

First, the stress per square inch produced by the load.

Second, the deflection produced by the same load.

At first, particularly with small spans, it is the stress per square inch which is
the governing element: this stress must not exceed safe working limits. As the
floor span is creased the deflection becomes the ruling element, the stress per
square inch falling into the background.

The deflection must not he sufficient to crack the ceiling where there is one,
nor sufficient to be unsightly where there is none.

In the diagrams exhibited two curves are shown, one in black and the other in
red, The former is the curve of a given maximum stress, and shows the loads a
steel joist will carry for various spans. The red curve gives the loads which pro-
duces a deflection which is a constant given fraction of the span, viz., sty.

The curves cross each other, and the point of crossing the author calls the
eritical point. At this point the distributed load produces the given stress and
given deflection. Before the critical point is reached the load produces the specified
stress, but is insufficient to produce the limiting detlection ; after the critical point
is passed the distributed load produces the specified deflection, but is insufficient
to produce the specified stress; in other words, the limit of deflection is reached
before the limit of stress. Hxamples are given of various sizes of steel joists with
the limiting stresses and deflections,

Generalising, up to the eritical point the stress curve is the more important ;
beyond this the deflection curve is more important. The two important parts of
the curves taken together are called the curve of loads, which is a curve with a
kink in it.

The first part of curve is drawn from the formula W = lcd

d q 5) al a

part from the formula Wet. Explanations showing how the equations are
arrived at are given in thé paper. Se t= -- su53;
With a factor of safety of 3 and a breaking stress of 82 tons per square inch,
and a deflection of ;45 span, the critical‘ point is at-a’¢pan of twenty-seven times

and the second

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 775

the depth. For this particular deflection it is shown that the factor of safety
multiplied by 9 gives the critical point.

Tf the deflection in percentages of the spanare calculated a series of curves of
deflection can be plotted. At 1 ton per square inch and 1 per cent. of deflection
the critical point is 576, the depth at 2 per cent. of deflection, the critical point is
288 times the depth, or 9x32. As at 1 ton per square inch, 32 is the factor
of safety.

The values are tabulated and shown graphically by diagrams.

Returning to the special object of the paper, the selecting of rolled steel joists
for fireproof floors, the principal step is to determine the pitch or spacing apart
of the joists,

These pitches are tabulated for various sections of joists for the loads cf
1 ewt. and 1} cwt. per square foot of floor. A formula is deduced for a loading

T
of 1 ewt. per square foot: p= 26, and for any other loading p,=”, where x
ue
isthe ewts. of load per square foot, » = pitch in feet, L=span in feet, and W = dis-
tributed load in tons, the rolled steel joist will carry safely.

A final result is that the pitch varies inversely as the square of the span when
the stress per square inch is considered, z.e., up to the critical point, and varies
inversely as the cube of the span when the deflection is considered or beyond the
critical point.

7. On Alternating Air Currents in Churches and Publie Buildings.
By J. W. Tuomas, F.I.C., 7.0.8.

When the temperature of the air outside is 35° F. or less, the exit space for
foul air in a great number of churches and public buildings is too large to keep
back the extra pressure outside, and cold air enters the top of the building at the
points of least friction and resistance—the large openings generally. In high
buildings the cold air currents, or down-draughts, are followed by hot and
oppressive waves of air, after which the air becomes motionless and stagnant for
some seconds.

Some years ago the author experimented in a large public hall, and found that
these hot and cold experiences were due to alternating air currents in the building.
Taking the point of the least internal pressure as the first observation, it took
about half a minute to reach the point of highest internal pressure, and rather less
than half a minute afterwards to reach the point of least pressure again. The
first five seconds after the least internal pressure was reached there was a gradual
rise, followed by double such an interval of more rapid increase ; then there were
a few seconds of lesser increase, followed by a lengthened period, during which
the pressure-recording instrument remained almost steady. When the reduction
of internal pressure began much cold air still descended, and there were ten or
more seconds during which the reduction was gradual; then, for about half that
period, a very rapid decrease occurred, followed by several seconds when the
instrument was steady and almost stationary at the point of least pressure.

The strangest fact in the results obtained was that, owing to the elasticity of
the air, its density (32° F. outside), and the velocity obtained by falling about
60 feet, the pressure increased internally until it actually exceeded the pressure
outside for a few seconds, then decreased and increased alternately.

Since then experiments in high churches and buildings have given similar
results. An anemometer held in a narrow opening in a doorway leading to a
church turned rapidly inwards, indicatmg an up-current; then it stopped and
subsequently reversed, showing that the pressure in the building was acting
outwards. . ,

Air inlets to hot-water pipes under the floor of a building are influenced by
alternating air currents at their highest pressure, and when the period of greatest
upward movement occurs, such a deluge of cold air passes inwards that the inlets
have to be shut.

Alternating air currents, therefore, greatly impair the ventilation of buildings.

352

776 REPORT—1901.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE Suction—Professor D. J. CunnincHam, M.D., D.Sc.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.RS.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The President delivered the following Address :—

TWENTY-FIVE years have passed since the British Association met in Glasgow.
This is a long time to look back upon, and yet the. period appears short when
measured by the great advance which has taken place in almost all branches of
knowledge. Anthropology has shared in the general progress. The discoveries
made within its confines may not have been so startling, nor yet have had such a
direct influence upon the material welfare of the people, as in the case of other
fields of scientific study, but its development has been steady and continuous, and
it has grown much in public estimation.

At the Glasgow Meeting of the Association in 1876 Anthropology held a
subsidiary position. It only ranked as a Department, although it gained a special
prominence through having Alfred Russel Wallace as its Chairman. It was not
until several years later that it became one of the recognised Sections of the
Association, and attained the high dignity of having a letter of the alphabet allotted
to it. But quite independently of its official status it has always been a branch
of study which has been accorded a large amount of popular favour. The anthropo-
logical meetings have, as a rule, been well attended, and the discussions, although
perhaps on certain occasions somewhat discursive, have never lacked vigour or anima-
tion. Professor Huxley, who presided over the Anthropological Department at the
Dublin meeting in 1878, ascribed the popularity of the subject to the many open-
ings which it affords for wide differences of opinion between the exponents of its
numerous branches and to the innate bellicose tendency of man. As the repre-
sentative of a country in which, according to the same high authority, this tendency
is less strongly marked than elsewhere, and of a race which has so frequently and
pointedly exhibited its abhorrence of vigorous language, I trust that my presence
here as President may not react unfavourably on the interest shown in the work of
the Section.

The present occasion might appear to be peculiarly appropriate for my taking
stock of our anthropological possessions and summing up the numerous additions to
our knowledge of ‘ man and his doings’ which have been made during the century _
which has just passed. Such a task, however, is surrounded with so much diffi-
culty that I shrink from undertaking it. The scope of the subject is enormous,
and the studies involved so diverse and so varied that I feel that it is beyond my
power to give any comprehensive survey of its development in all its parts, [prefer
therefore to confine my remarks to that province of Anthropology within which
my own work has been chiefly carried on, and from this to select a subject which
has for some years held a prominent place in my thoughts. I refer to the human
brain and the part which it has played in the evolution of man. 2

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 716

One of the most striking peculiarities of man when regarded from the structural
point of view is the relatively great size of his brain. Although with one or two
exceptions the several parts of the brain are all more or less involved in this
special development, it is the cerebral hemispheres which exhibit the pre-
ponderance in the highest degree. This characteristic of the human brain is
rendered all the more significant when we consider that the cerebral hemispheres
cannot be looked upon as being primitive parts of the brain. In its earliest con-
dition the brain is composed of three simple primary vesicles, and the cerebral
hemispheres appear in a secondary manner in the shape of a pair of lateral offshoots
or buds which grow out from the foremost of these primitive brain-vesicles.

The offshoots which form the cerebral hemispheres are found in all vertebrates,
Insignificant in size and insignificant in functional value in the more lowly forms,
a steady increase in their proportions is manifest as we ascend the scale, until the
imposing dimensions, the complex structure, and the marvellous functional
potentialities of the human cerebral hemispheres are attained. In their develop-
ment the cerebral hemispheres of man rapidly outstrip all the other parts of the
brain until they ultimately usurp to themselves by far the greater part of the
cranial cavity. To the predominant growth of the cerebral hemispheresis due the
lofty cranial yault of the human skull; to the different degrees of development
and to the different forms which they assume are largely due the variations in
cranial outline in different individuals and different races—variations in the deter-
mination of which the Craniologist has laboured so assiduously and patiently.

I think that it must be manifest to everyone that the work of the Craniologist,
if it is to attainits full degree of usefulness, must be founded upon a proper recog-
nition of the relation which exists between the cranium and the brain, or, in other
words, between the envelope and its contents.

The cranium expands according to the demands made upon it by the growing
brain. The initiative lies with the brain, and in normal conditions it is questionable
if the envelope exercises more than a very subsidiary and limited influence upon
the form assumed by the contents. The directions of growth are clearly defined
by the sutural lines by which the cranial bones are knit together ; but these are so
arranged that they admit of the expansion of the cranial box in length, in breadth,
and in height, and the freedom of growth in each of these different directions has
in all probability been originally determined by the requirements of the several
parts of the brain.

The base or floor of the cranium, supporting as it does the brain-stem or the
parts which possess the greatest phylogenetic antiquity,and which have not under-
gone so large a degree of modification in human evolution, presents a greater
uniformity of type and a greater constancy of form in different individuals and
different races than the cranial vault which covers the more highly specialised and
more variable cerebral hemispheres.

To what extent and in what directions modifications in the form of the cranium
may be the outcome of restrictions placed on the growth of the brain it is difficult
tosay. But, broadly speaking, I think we may conclude that the influence which
the cranium, under normal circumstances, independently exerts in determining the
various head-forms is trifling.

When we speak therefore of brachycephalic or short heads, and dolichocephalic
or long heads, we are merely using terms to indicate conditions which result from
individual or racial peculiarities of cerebral growth.

The brachycephalic brain is not moulded into form by the brachycephalic
skull; the shape of both is the result of the same hereditary influence, and in their
growth they exhibit the most perfect harmony with each other,

Craniology has been called the ‘spoiled child of Anthropology.’ It is supposed
that it has absorbed more attention than it deserves, and has been cultivated with
more than its share of care, while other fields of Anthropology capable of yielding rich
harvests have been allowed to remain fallow. his criticism conveys a very partial
truth. The cranium, as we have seen, is the outward expression of the contained
brain, and the brain is the most characteristic organ of man; cranial peculiarities
therefore must always and should always claim a leading place in the mind of the

778 REPORT-—1901.

Anthropologist; and this is all the more imperative seeing that brains of different
races are seldom available for investigation, whilst skulls in the different museums
may literally be counted by thousands.

Meantime, however, the Craniologist lies buried beneath a mighty mountain
of figures, many of which have little morphological value and possess no true
importance in distinguishing the finer differences of racial forms. Let us take as
an example the figures upon which the cephatic or length-breadth index of the skull
is based. The measurement of the long diameter of the cranium does not give the
true length of the cranial cavity. It includes, in addition, the diameter of an
air-chamber of very variable dimensions which is placed in front. The measurement
combines in itself therefore two factors of very different import, and the result is
thereby vitiated to a greater or less extent in different skulls. A recent memoir
by Schwalbe’ affords instructive reading on this matter. One case in point
may be given. Measured in the usual way, the Neanderthal skull is placed in the
dolichocephalic class ; whereas Schwalbe has shown that if the brain-case alone be
considered it is found to be on the verge of brachycephaly. Huxley, many years
ago, remarked that ‘ until it shall become an opprobrium to an ethnological collec-
tion to possess a single skull which is not bisected longitudinally’ in order that
the true proportions of its different parts may be properly determined we shall
have no ‘safe basis for that ethnological craniology which aspires to give the
anatomical characters of the crania of the different races of mankind.’ It appears
to me that the truth of this observation can hardly be disputed, and yet this
method of investigation has been adopted by very few Craniologists.

It has become too much the habit to measure and compare crania as if they
were separate and distinct entities and without a due consideration of the evolu-
tionary changes through which both the brain and its bony envelope have passed.
Up to the present little or no effort has been made to contrast those parts of the
cranial wall or cavity which have been specially modified by the cerebral growth-
changes which are peculiar to man. It may be assumed that these changes have
not taken place to an equal extent, or indeed followed identically the same lines
in all races.

Unfortunately our present knowledge of cerebral growth and the value to be
attached to its various manifestations is not so complete as to enable us to follow
out to the full extent investigations planned on these lines. But the areas of cere-
bral cortex to which man owes his intellectual superiority are now roughly mapped
out, and the time has come when the effect produced upon the cranial form by the
marked extension of these areas in the human brain should be noted and the skulls
of different races contrasted from this point of view.

To some this may seem a return to the old doctrine of Phrenology, and toa
certain extent it is; but it would be a Phrenology based upon an entirely new
foundation and elaborated out of entirely new material.

It is to certain of the growth changes in the cerebrum which I believe to be
specially characteristic of man, and which unquestionably have had some influence
in determining head-forms, that I wish particularly to refer in this Address.

The surface of the human cerebrum is thrown into a series of tortuous folds or
convolutions separated by slits or fissures, and both combine to give it an appear-
ance of great complexity. These convolutions were long considered to present
no definite arrangement, but to be thrown together in the same meaniugless
disorder as is exhibited in a dish of macaroni. During the latter half, or rather
more, of the century which has just ended it has, however, been shown by the
many eminent men who have given their attention to this subject that the pattern
which is assumed by the convolutions, while showing many subsidiary differences,
not only in different races and different individuals, but also in the two hemispheres
of the same person, is yet arranged on a consistent and uniform plan in every
human brain, and that any decided deviation from this plan results in an imperfect
carrying out of the cerebral function. Jn unravelling the intricacies of the human

1 Studien iiber Pithecanthropus erectus (Dubois). Zeitschrift f. Morph. und
Anthrop., Band i, Heft 1, 1899, :

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 779

convolutionary pattern it was very early found that the simple cerebral surface of
the ape’s brain in many cases afforded the key to the solution of the problem.
More recently the close study of the manner in which the convolutions assume
shape during their growth and development has yielded evidence of a still more
valuable kind. We now know that the primate cerebrum is not only distinguished
from that of all lower mammals by the possession of a distinct occipital lobe, but
also by having imprinted on its surface a convolutionary design, which in all but
a few fundamental details is different from that of any other order of mammals.

There are few matters of more interest to those anthropologists who make a
study of the human skull than the relationship which exists between the cranium
and the brain during the period of active growth of both. Up to the time imme-
diately prior to the pushing out of the occipital lobe, or, in other words, the period
in cerebral development which is marked by the transition from the quadrupedal
type to the primate type of cerebrum, the cranial wall fits like a tight glove on the
surface of the enclosed cerebrum. At this stage there would appear to be a growth
antagonism between the brain and the cranial envelope which surrounds it. The
cranium, it would seem, refuses to expand with a speed sufficient to meet the
demands made upon it for the accommodation of the growing brain. In making
this statement it is right to add that Hochstetter, in a carefully reasoned memoir,
has recently cast doubt upon the reality of the appearances which have led to this
conclusion, and at the recent meeting of the Anatomische Gesellschaft, in Bonn,
Professor Gustaf Retzius,! one of the numerous observers responsible for the
description of the early cerebrum upon which the conclusion is based, showed
some inclination to waver in his allegiance to the old doctrine. This is not the
time nor the place to enter upon a discussion of so technical a kind, but I may
be allowed to say that whilst I fully recognise the necessity for further and more
extensive investigation into this matter I do not think that Hochstetter has satis-
factorily accounted for all the circumstances of the case.

When the occipital lobe assumes shape the relationship of the cranial wall to
the enclosed cerebrum undergoes a complete change. The cranium expands so
rapidly that very soon a wide interval is left between the surface of the cerebrum
and the deep aspect of the cranial envelope within which it lies. This space is
occupied by a soft, sodden, spongy meshwork, termed the subarachnoid tissue, and
it is into the yielding and pliable bed thus prepared that the convolutions grow.
At first the surface of the cerebral hemisphere is smooth, but soon particular areas
of the cortex begin to bulge out and foreshadow the future convolutions. These
suffer no growth restriction, and they assume the form of round or elongated
elevations or eminences which rise above the general surface level of the cerebral
hemisphere and break up its uniform contour lines in the same manner that moun-
tain chains protrude from the surface of the globe.

As growth goes on, and as the brain gradually assumes a bulk more nearly in
accord with the cavity of the cranium, the space for surface protrusions of this
kind becomes more limited. The gyral elevations are now pressed together: they
become flattened along their summits, and in course of time they acquire the
ordinary conyolutionary shapes. While this is going on the valleys or intervals
between the primitive surface elevations become narrowed, and ultimately assume
the linear slit-like form characteristic of the fissures. These changes occur shortly
before birth, but are not fully completed until after the first few months of infancy.
The final result of this process is that tie convolutions come into intimate relation
with the deep aspect of the cranial wall and stamp their imprint upon it.

Tt is obvious that certain of the later changes which I have endeavoured to
portray might be ascribed to a growth antagonism between the brain and the
enclosing cranium at this period. In reality, however, it is merely a process by
which the one is brought into closer adaptation to the other-—a using up, as it were,
of superfluous space and a closer packing together of the convolutions—after the
period of active cortical growth is past. Nevertheless the convolutionary pattern
is profoundly affected by it, and it seems likely that in this process we find the

1 Anatomische Gesellschaft, Bonn, May 28, 1891. Gustaf Retzius, Zransitorische
Furchen des Grosshirns.

780 REPORT—1901.

explanation of the different directions taken by the cerebral furrows in brachy-
cephalic and dolichocephalic heads.

The cortical elevations which rise on the surface of the early cerebrum are due
to exuberant growth in localised areas. There cannot be a doubt that the process
is intimately connected with the development of function in the districts concerned.
We know that functions of different kinds are localised in different parts of the
cortex, and when we see an area on the surface of the early cerebrum rise up in
the form of an eminence we may reasonably conclude that the growth in the area
concerned is the structural foundation of what will become later on a centre of
functional activity of an acute kind.

A consideration of this matter gives the clue to the simple convolutions of the
ape and the complex convolutions of man, and, further, it explains how the inter-
rupted form of fissural development is one of the essential characteristics of the
human brain as compared with the simian brain. Areas which rise up in the
form of one long elevation on the surface of the ape’s brain appear in the form of
several eminences on the surface of the human brain, and fissures which appear
in the form of long continuous slits in the simian cerebrum appear in the human
cerebrum in seyeral detached bits, which may or may not in the course of time
run into each other and become confluent. All this is due to the greater definition,
refinement, and perfection of the functions carried on in the cerebral cortex of
man, It is an index of a more complete ‘ physiological division of labour’ in the
human brain.

It is not necessary, for the purpose I have in view, to enter into any detail
regarding the many points of ditference which become evident when the cerebral
surface of the ape is compared with that of man. It is more my purpose to indi-
cate certain of the districts of cerebral cortex which have undergone a marked
increase in the human brain—an increase which may be reasonably supposed to
be associated with the high mental attributes of man. To us, at the present time,
it is difficult to conceive how it was ever possible to doubt that the occipital lobe
is a distinctive character of the simian brain as well as of the human brain, and
yet at successive meetings of this Association (1860, 1861, and 1862) a discussion,
which was probably one of the most heated in the whole course of its history, took
place on this very point. One of our greatest authorities on animal structure
maintained that the occipital lobe and the hippocampus minor—an elevation in its
interior—were both peculiar to man and to him alone, Everyone has read in the
‘ Water Babies ’ Charles Kingsley’s delightful account of this discussion. Speaking
of the Professor he says: ‘He held very strange theories about a good many
things. He had even got up at the British Association and declared that apes
had hippopotamus majors in their brains just as men have. What a shocking
thing to say ; for if it were so, what would become of the faith, hope, and charity
of immortal millions? You may think that there are other more important
differences between you and an ape, such as being able to speak, and make
machines, and know right from wrong, and say your prayers, and other little
matters of that kind; but that is a child’s fancy.’ In the light of our present
knowledge we can fully understand Professor Huxley closing the discussion by
stating that the question had ‘become one of personal veracity.’ Indeed, the
occipital Jobe, so far from being absent, is developed in the ape to a relatively
greater extent than in man, and this constitutes one of the leading positive dis-
tinctive characters of the simian cerebrum. Measured along the mesial border,
the percentage length of the occipital lobe to the total length of the cerebrum in
the baboon, orang, and man is as follows:—

Baboon : Q : A : = BN
Orang. A 3 3 . 4 A . 23-2
Man . ss : : F * . 21:2

But these figures do not convey the full extent of the predominance of
the occipital lobe in the ape. The anterior border of the lobe grows forwards
beyond its proper limits, and pushes its way over the parietal lobe which lies in
front, so as to cover over a portion of it hy an overlapping lip termed the occipital

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 78]

operculum. There is not a trace of such an arrangement in the human brain, and
eyen in the anthropoid ape the operculum has become greatly reduced. Indeed,
in man there is exactly the reverse condition. The great size of the parietal lobe
is a leading human character, and it has partly gained its predominance by pushing
backwards so as to encroach, to some extent, upon the territory which formerly
belonged to the occipital lobe.1 A great authority® on the cerebral surface
refers to this as a struggle between the two lobes for surface extension of
their respective domains. ‘In the lower apes,’ he says, ‘the occipital lobe proves
the victor: it bulges over the parietal lobe as far as the first annectant gyrus.
Already, in the orang, the occipital operculum has suffered a great reduction ; and
in man the victory is on the side of the parietal Jobe which presses on the occipital
lobe and begins, on its part, to overlep it.’ Now that so much information is
available in regard to the localisation of function in the cerebral cortex, and
Flechsig has stimulated our curiosity in regard’ to his great ‘ association areas’ in
which the higher intellectual powers of man are believed to reside, it is interesting
to speculate upon the causes which have led to the pushing back of the scientific
frontier between the occipital and parietal cerebral districts.

The parietal lobe is divided into an upper and a lower part by a fissure, which
takes an oblique course across it. Rudinger,® who studied the position and inclina-
tion of this fissure, came to the conclusion that it presents easily determined
differences in accordance with sex, race, and the intellectual capacity of the indi-
vidual. He had the opportunity of studying the brains of quite a number of
distinguished men, amongst whom were Bischoff of Bonn, Déllinger of Munich,
Tiedemann of Heidelberg, and Liebig of Munich, and he asserts that the higher
the mental endowment of an individual the greater is the relative extent of the
upper part of the parietal lobe,

There is absolutely no foundation for this sweeping assertion. When the
evolutionary development of the parietal part of the cerebral cortex is studied
exactly the reverse condition becomes manifest. It is the lower part of the
parietal lobe which in man, both in its early development and in its after growth,
exhibits the greatest relative increase. Additional interest is attached to this
observation by the fact that recently several independent observers have fixed upon
this region as one in which they believe that a marked exuberance of cortical
growth may be noted in people of undoubted genius. Thus Retzius has stated
that such was the case in the brains of the astronomer Hugo Gyldén,* and the
mathematician Sophie Kovalevsky ;° Hansemann ° has described a similar condi-
tion in the brain of Helmholtz; and Guszman’ in the brain of Rudolph Lenz, the
musician. Some force is likewise added to this view by Flechsig, who, in a recent
paper,® has called attention to the fact that within this district there are located
two of his so-called ‘ Terminalgebiete,’ or cortical areas, which attain their func-
tional powers at a later period than those which lie around them, and which may
therefore be supposed to have specially high work to perform.

Without in any way desiring to throw doubt upon the observations of these
authorities, I think that at the present moment it would be rash to accept, without

1 It is necessary to emphasise this point, because in Wiedersheim’s Structure of
Man we are told that in man there is a preponderance of the occipital lobe, and that
the parietal lobe is equally developed in man and anthropoids.

2 Kberstaller, Wiener Medizinische Blitter, 1884, No. 19, p. 581.

8 Beitrige zur Anatomie und Embryoloyie, als Festgabe Jacob Henle, 1882.

4 Retzius, Biologische Untersuchungen, neue Folge, viii. 1898, ‘Das Gehirn des
Astronomen Hugo Gyldéns.’

5 Retzius, Biologische Untersuchungen, neue Folge, ix. 1900, ‘Das Gehirn der
Mathematikerin Sonja Kovalevsky.’

6 Hansemann, Zeitschrift fiir Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane,
Band xx. Heft 1, 1899, ‘ Ueber das Gehirn von Hermann v. Helmholtz.’

7 Josef Guszman, Anatomischer Anzeiger, Band xix. Nos. 9 and 10, April 1901,
‘ Beitriige zur Morphologie der Gehirnoberfliche.’

8 Flechsig, ‘Neue Untersuchungen iiber die Markbildung in den menschlichen
Grosshirnlappen,’ Vewrologisches Centralblatt, No. 21, 1898,

782 REPORT—1901.

further evidence, conclusions which have been drawn from the examination of
the few brains of eminent men that have been described. There cannot be a doubt
that the region in question is one which has extended greatly in the human brain,
but the association of high intellect with a special development of the region is a
matter on which I must confess I am at present somewhat sceptical.

But it isnot only in a backward direction that the parietal lobe in man has
extended its territory. It has likewise increased in a downward direction. There
are few points more striking than this in the evolution of the cerebral cortex of
man. In order that I may be able to make clear the manner in which this increase
has been brought about, it will be necessary for ne to enter into some detail in
connection with the development of a region of cerebral surface termed the zsular
district. The back part of the frontal lobe is also involved in this downward
extension of surface area, and, such being the case, it may be as well to state that
the boundary which has been fixed upon as giving the line of separation between
the parietal and frontal districts is purely artificial and arbitrary. It is a demar-
cation which has no morphological significance, whilst from a physiological point
of view it is distinctly misleading.

The insular district in the foetal brain is a depressed area of an elongated
triangular form. The general surface of the cerebrum occupies, all round about it,
a more elevated plane, and thus the insula comes to be bounded by distinct walls,
like the sides of a shallow pit dug out in the ground. The upper wall is formed
by the lower margins of the frontal and parietal lobes, the lower wall by the
upper margin of the temporal lobe, and the front wail by the frontal lobe.
From each of these bounding walls a separate portion of cerebral cortex
grows, and these gradually creep over the surface of the insula so as to overlap
it, and eventually completely cover it over and exclude it from the surface,
in the same way that the lips overlap the teeth and gums. That which grows
from above is called the fronto-parietal operculum, while that which grows from
below is termed the temporal operculum. These appear very early, and are
responsible for closing over more than the hinder three-fourths of the insula. The
lower or temporal operculum is in the first instance more rapid in its growth than
the upper or fronto-parietal operculum, and thus it comes about that when their
margins meet more of the insula is covered by the former than by the latter. So
far the development is apparently precisely similar to what occurs in the ape.
The slit or fissure formed by the approximation of the margins of these two
opereula is called the Sylvian fissure, and it constitutes a natural lower boundary
for the parietal and frontal lobes which lie above it. At first, from the more
energetic growth of the lower temporal operculum, this fissure slants very
obliquely upwards and backwards, and is very similar in direction to the corre-
sponding fissure in the brain of the ape. But in the human brain this condition
is only temporary. Now begins that downward movement of the parietal lobe
and back part of the frontal lobe to which reference has been made. The upper or
fronto-parietal operculum, in the later stages of foetal life and the earlier months of
infancy, enters into a growth antagonism with the lower or temporal operculum,
and in this it proves the victor. The margins of the two opercula are tightly
pressed together, and, slowly but surely, the fronto-parietal operculum gains
ground, pressing down the temporal operculum, and thus extending the territory
of the frontal and parietal districts, This is a striking process in the brain
development of man, and it results in a depression of the Sylvian fissure or the
lower frontier line of the frontal and parietal lobes. Further, to judge from the
oblique direction of the Sylvian fissure in the brain of the ape, the process is
peculiar to man ; in the simian brain there is no corresponding increase in the area
of cerebral cortex under consideration,

I do not think that it is difficvlt to account for this important expansion of the
cerebral surface. In the fore part of the region involved are placed the groups of
motor centres which control the muscular movements of the more important parts
of the body. These occupy a broad strip of the surface which stretches across the
whole depth of the district concerned. Within this are the centres for the arm
and hand, for the face, the mouth and the throat, and likewise, to some extent,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 783

the centre for speech. In man certain of these have undoubtedly undergone
marked expansion. The skilled movements of the hands, as shown in the use of
tools, in writing, and so on, have not been acquired without an increase in the
brain mechanism by which these are guided. So important, indeed, is the part
played by the human hand as an agent of the mind, and so perfectly is it adjusted
with reference to this office, that there are many who think that the first great
start which man obtained on the path which has led to his higher development
was given by the setting of the upper limb free from the duty of acting as an
organ of support and locomotion. It is an old saying ‘that man is the wisest of
animals because of his hands.’ Without endorsing to its full extent this view, I
think that it cannot be a matter for surprise that the district of the cerebral
cortex in man in which the arm-centres reside shows a manifest increase in its extent.

In the same region of cerebral cortex, but at a lower level, there are also situated
the centres which are responsible for facial expression. n the ape there is a con-
siderable degree of facial play; but this is chiefly confined to the region of the
lips ; and the muscles of the face, although present in greater mass, show com-
paratively little of the differentiation which is characteristic of the lighter and
more feeble muscles in the face of man. And then as to the effect produced: These
human muscles are capable of reflecting every fleeting emotion, every change of
mind, and by the lines and furrows their constant use indelibly fix on the counte-
nance the character and disposition of an individual can to some extent be read.
As the power of communication between primitive men became gradually esta-
blished, facial movements were no doubt largely used, not only for the purpose of
giving expression to simple emotions, such as anger or joy, but aiso for giving point
and force to the faltering speech of our early progenitors by reflecting other con-
ditions of mind. The acquisition of this power as well as the higher and more
varied powers of vocalisation must necessarily have been accompanied by an
increase of cerebral cortex in the region under consideration. And in this connec-
tion itis a point well worthy of note that the area of cortex mapped out in the
human brain! as controlling the muscles of the face, mouth, and throat is as large,
if not larger than that allotted to the arm and hand,” and yet it is questionable if
all the muscles under the sway of the former would weigh as much as one of the
larger muscles (say the triceps) of the arm. ‘This is sufficient to show that it is
not muscle power which determines the extent of the motor areas in the cerebral
cortex. It is the degree of refinement in the movements required, as wellas the
degree of variety in muscle combinations, which apparently determines the amount
of ground covered by a motor centre.

Still, the increase in the amount of cerebral cortex in man due to the greater
refinement of movement acquired by different groups of muscles is relatively
small in comparison with the increase which has occurred in other regions from
which no motor fibres are sent out, and which therefore have no direet connec-
tion with muscles.

The remarkable conclusions arrived at by FJechsig, although not confirmed
and accepted in all their details, have tended greatly to clear up much that was
obscure in the relations of the different districts of cerebral cortex. More particu-
larly has he been able to apportion out more accurately the different values to be
attached to the several areas of the cerebral surface. He has shown that fully two
thirds of the cortex in the human brain constitute what he terms ‘association
centres.’ Within these the higher intellectual manifestations of the brain have
their origin, and judgment and memory have their seat. They are therefore to
be regarded as the psychic centres of the cerebral cortex.

1 See diagram in Schiifer’s article on the ‘ Cerebral Cortex’ in his recent work on
physiology.

* The comparison only refers to surface area, and thisis not an absolutely true
criterion of the relative amount of cortex in each region. The arm-centre has a large
amount of cortex stowed away within the fissure of Rolando in the shape of inter-
locking gyri which is not taken into account in a measurement confined to the super-
ficial surface area. Still, this does not to any great degree detract from the argu
ment which follows. seeing that the discrepancy is still sufficiently marked.

784 REPORT—1901.

Now, it requires a very slight acquaintance with the cerebral surface to perceive
that the great and leading peculiarity of the human brain is the wide extent of
these higher association centres of Flechsig. Except in connection with new
faculties, such as speech, there has been relatively no striking increase in the extent
of the motor areas in man as compared with the cortex of the ape or the idiot, but
the expansion of the association areas is enormous and the increase in the frontal
region and the back part of the parietal region is particularly well marked. It is
this parietal extension of surface which is chiefly responsible for the pushing down
of the lower frontier of the parietal lobe and the consequent enlargement of its
territory.

I have already referred to the views which have been recently urged by several
independent observers, that in the men who have been distinguished during life
by the possession of exceptional intellectual power, this region has shown a very
special development.

It is a curious circumstance, and one which is worthy of consideration, that in
the left cerebral hemisphere the Sylvian fissure or the lower boundary of the
parietal lobe is more depressed than in the right hemisphere, and, as a result of
this, the surface area occupied by the parietal lobe is greater on the left side of the
brain than on the right side. To the physiologist it is a matter of every-day
knowledge that the left cerebral hemisphere shows in certain directions a marked
functional pre-eminence. Through it the movements of the right arm and right
side of the body are controlled and regulated. Within it is situated also the active
speech centre, This does not imply that there is no speech centre on the right
side, but simply that the left cerebral hemisphere has usurped the chief, if not the
entire, control of this all-important function, and that from it are sent out the chief
part, if not the whole, of the motor incitations which give rise to speech. The
significance attached to the dominant power of the left hemisphere receives force
from the now well established fact that in left-handed individuals the speech func-
tion is also transferred over to the right side of the brain. To account for this
functional pre-eminence of the left cerebral hemisphere numerous theories have
been elaborated. The interest attached to the subject is very considerable, but it
is impossible on the present occasion to do more than indicate in the briefest
manner the three views which have apparently had the widest influence in shaping
opinion on this question. They are: (1) that the superiority of the left cerebral
hemisphere is due to its greater weight and bulk ; (2) that it may be accounted for
by the greater complexity of the convolutions on the left brain and the fact that
these make their appearance earlier on the left side than on the right side; (8) that
the explanation lies in the fact that the left side of the brain enjoys greater
advantages in regard to its blood supply than the right side.

Not one of these theories when closely looked into is found to possess the
smallest degree of value. Braune! has shown in the most conclusive manner that
if there is any difference in weight between the two hemispheres it is a difference
in favour of the right and not of the left hemisphere ; and I may add from my own
observations that this is evident at all periods of growth and development.
Equally untrustworthy are the views that have been put forward as to the superiority
of the left hemisphere from the point of view of convolutionary development. I
am aware that itis stated that in two or three cases where the brains of left-
handed people have been examined this superiority was evident on the right
hemisphere. This may have been so; I can only speak for the large percentage
of those who are right-handed; and I have never been able to satisfy myself that
either in the growing or fully developed brain is there any constant or marked
superiority in this respect of the one side over the other; and I can corroborate
Ecker * in his statement that there is no proof that the convolutions appear earlier
on the one side than the other. The theory that an explanation is to be found in
a more generous blood supply to the left hemisphere is more difficult to combat,

1 «Das Gewichtsverhiiltniss der rechten zur linken Hirnhiilfte beim Menschen,’
Archiv Jiir Anat.
* Archiv fiir Anthropologie, 1868, Bd, cxi.

&

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 785

because the amount of blood received by each side of the brain depends upon two
factors, viz., the physical conditions under which the blood-stream is delivered to
the two hemispheres and the calibre of the arteries or tubes of supply. Both of
these conditions have been stated to be favourable to the left hemisphere. It is
a matter of common anatomical knowledge that the supply pipes to the two sides
of the brain are laid down somewhat differently, and that the angles of junction,
&e., with the main pipe are not quite the same. Further, it is true that the blood-
drains which lead away the blood from the brain are somewhat different on the
two sides. Whether this would entail any marked difference in the blood-pressure
on the two sides I am not prepared to say. This could only be proved experi-
mentally; but, taking all the conditions into consideration, | am not inclined to
attach much importance to the argument. It is easy to deal with the loose state-
ments which have been made in regard to the size of leading supply pipe (viz., the
internal carotid artery). It passes through a bony canal in the floor of the cranium
on its way into the interior of the cranial box. Its size can therefore be accurately
gauged by measuring the sectional area of this bony tunnel on each side. This I
have done in twenty-three skulls chosen at random, and the result shows that
considerable differences in this-respect are to be found in different skulls, These
discrepancies, however, are sometimes in favour of the one side and at other times in
favour of the other side; and when the combined sectional area for all the skulls
examined was calculated it was, curiously enough, found to be 583} sq. mm.
for the left side and 583 sq. mm. for the right side.

Leaving out of count the asymmetry in the arrangement of the convolutions
in the two hemispheres, which cannot by any amount of ingenuity be twisted into
such a form as to give a structural superiority to one side more than the other, the
only marked difference which appears to possess any degree of constancy is the
increase in the territory of the left parietal lobe produced by the more marked
depression of its lower frontier line (Sylvian fissure). That this is in any way
associated with right-handedness or with the localisation of the active speech
centre in the left hemisphere I am not prepared to urge, because the same con-
dition is present inthe ape. It is true that some authorities! hold that the ape is
right-handed as well as man, but in the gardens of the Royal Zoological Society
of Ireland I have had a long and intimate experience of both anthropoid and lower
apes, and I have never been able to satisfy myself that they show any decided
preference for the use of one arm more than the other.

That differences do exist in the more intimate structural details of the two
hemispheres, which give to the left its functional superiority, there cannot be a
doubt ; but these have still to be discovered. Bastian has stated that the grey
cortex on the left side has a higher specific gravity, but this statement has not as
yet received corroboration at the hands of other observers.

I have already mentioned that man’s special endowment, the faculty of speech,
is associated with striking changes in that part of the cerebral surface in which the
motor centre for articulate speech is located. It is questionable whether the acquisi-
tion of any other system of associated muscular movements has been accompanied
by a more evident cortical change. The centre in question is placed in the lower
and back part of the frontal lobe. We have seen that the insular district is covered
over in the hinder three fourths of its extent by the fronto-parietal and temporal
opercula, and thus submerged below the surface and hidden from view. The
brain of the ape and also of the microcephalic idiot with defective speech goes no
further in its development. The front part of the insular district remains uncovered
and exposed to view on the surface of the cerebrum. In man, however, two addi-
tional opercula grow out and ultimately cover over the fore part of the insula.
These opercula belong to the lower and back part of the frontal lobe, and are to be
looked upon as being more or less directly called into evidence in connection with
the acquisition of articulate speech.

The active speech centre is placed in the left cerebral hemisphere. We speak

-' Ogle, ‘On Dextral Pre-eminence,’ Trans. Med. Chirurg. Soc,, 1871; Aimé Pére,
Les Courbures latérales normales au rachis hwmain. Toulouse, 1900.

786 REPORT—1901,

from the left side of the brain, and yet when the corresponding region ! on the right
side is examined it is found to go through the same developmental steps.

The stimulus which must have been given to general cerebral growth in the
association areas by the gradual acquisition of speech can hardly be exaggerated.

During the whole course of his evolution there is no possession which man
has contrived to acquire which has exercised a stronger influence on his higher
development than the power of articulate speech. This priceless gift, ‘the most
human manifestation of humanity ’"—(Huxley )—was not obtained through the exer-
tions of any one individual or group of individuals. It is the result of a slow
process of natural growth, and there is no race, no matter how low, savage, or
uncultured, which does not possess the power of communicating its ideas by means
of speech. ‘If in the present state of the world,’ says Charma, ‘some philosopher
were to wonder how man ever began to build those houses, palaces, and vessels
which we see around us, we should answer that these were not the things that
man began with. The savage who first tied the branches of shrubs to make him-
self a shelter was not an architect, and he who first floated on the trunk of a tree
was not the creator of navigation.’ And so it is with speech. Rude and imperfect
in its beginnings, it has gradually been elaborated by the successive generations
that have practised it.

The manner in which the faculty of speech originally assumed shape in the
early progenitors of man has been much discussed by Philologists and Psychologists,
and there is little agreement on the subject. It is obvious that all the more
intelligent animals share with man the power of giving expression to certain of
the simpler conditions of mind both by vocal sounds and by bodily gestures.
These vocal sounds are of the interjectional order, and are expressive of emotions
or sensations. Thus the dog is said, as a result of its domestication, to have
acquired the power of emitting four or five different tones, each indicative of a
special mental condition and each fully understood by its companions. The
common barn-door fowl has also been credited with from nine to twelve distinct
vocal sounds, each of which is capable of a special interpretation by its fellows
or its chickens. The gestures employed by the lower animals may in certain
cases be facial, as expressed by the grimaces of a monkey, or changes in bodily
attitude, as we see continually in the dog.

I think that it may not be unreasonably inferred that in the distant past the
remote progenitors of man relied upon equally lowly means of communicating
with their fellows, and that it was from such humble beginnings that speech has
been slowly evolved.

There cannot be a doubt that this method of communicating by vocal sounds,
facial expression, and bodily gestures is capable of much elaboration; and, further,
it is possible, as some hold, that it may have attained a considerable degree of per-
fection before articulate speech began to take form and gradually replace it.
Much of it indeed remains with us to the present day. A shrug of the shoulders
way be more eloquent than the most carefully prepared phrase ; an appropriate
expression of face, accompanied by a suitable ejaculation, may be more withering
than a flood of invective. Captain Burton tells us of a tribe of North American
Indians whose vocabulary is so scanty that they can hardly carry on a conversa-
tion in the dark. ‘This and other facts have led Mr. Tylor, to whom we owe so
much in connection with the early history of man, to remark: ‘The array of
evidence in favour of the existence of tribes whose language is incomplete without
the help of gesture-signs, even for things of ordinary import, is very remarkable’ :
and, further, ‘that this constitutes a telling argument in favour of the theory that
gesture-lancuage is the original utterance of mankind out of which speech has
developed itself more or less fully among different tribes.’ It is a significant fact
also, as the same author points out, that gesture-language is, to a large extent, the
same all the world over. ‘

* Rudinger and others have tried on very unsubstantial grounds to prove that
there is a difference in this region on the two sides of the brain. There is, of course.
as a Tule, marked asymmetry; but I do not think that it can be said with truth that
the cortical development of the region is greater on the left side than on the right._

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 787

Many of the words employed in early speech were undoubtedly formed, in the
first instance, through the tendency of man to imitate the natural sounds he heard
around him. To these sounds, with various modifications, was assigned a special
conventional value, aud they were then added to the growing vocabulary. By
this means a very decided forward step was taken, and now primitive man became
capable of giving utterance to his perceptions by imitative sounds.

Max Miller, although bitterly opposed to the line of thought adopted by the
‘Imitative School’ of philologists, has expressed their views so well that I am
tempted to use the words he employed in explaining what he satirically branded
as the ‘ Bow-wow Theory.’ He says: ‘It is supposed that man, being yet mute,
heard the voices of the birds, dogs, and cows, the roaring of the sea, the rustling of
the forest, the murmur of the brook, and the whisper of the breeze. He tried to
imitate these sounds, and finding his mimicking cries useful as signs of the object
from which they proceeded, he followed up the idea and elaborated language,’

Hood? humorously and unconsciously illustrates this doctrine by a verse
descriptive of an Englishman, ignorant of French, endeayouring to obtain a meal
in France :—

*“ Moo!” I cried for milk;
If I wanted bread
My jaws I set agoing ;
And asked for new-laid eggs
By clapping hands and crowing.’

But, although much of early articulate speech may have arisen by the development
of interjectional sounds and the reproduction, by the human vocal organs, of
natural sounds, it is very unlikely that these afforded the only sources from which
words were originally derived. Romanes insists upon this, and, in support of his
argument, refers to cases where children invent a language in which apparently
imitative sounds take no part. He likewise alludes to the well-known fact that
deaf mutes occasionally devise Gefinite sounds which stand for the names of
friends. In the light of such evidence, he very properly asks, ‘ Why should it be
held impossible for primitive man to have done the same?’

The value of spoken language, as an instrument of thought, is universally
admitted, and it is a matter incapable of contradiction that the higher intellectual
efforts of man would be absolutely impossible were it not for the support which is
afforded by articulate speech. Darwin expresses this well when he says: ‘A
complex train of thought can no more be carried on without the aid of words,
whether spoken or silent, than a long calculation without the use of figures or
symbols.’ Such being the case, I think we may conclude that the acquisition of
speech has been a dominant factor in determining the high development of the
human brain. Speech and mental activity go hand in hand. The one has reacted
on the other. The mental effort required for the coining of a new word has been -
immediately followed by an increased possibility of further intellectual achieve-
ment through the additional range given to the mental powers by the enlarged
vocabulary. The two processes, mutually supporting each other and leading to
progress in the two directions, have unquestionably yielded the chief stimulus to
brain development.

More than one Philologist has insisted that ‘language begins where inter-
jection ends.’ For my part I would say that the first word uttered expressive of
an external object marked a new era in the history of our early progenitors, At
this point the simian or brute-like stage in their developmental career came to au
end and the human dynasty endowed with all its intellectual possibilities began.
This is no new thought. Romanes clearly states that in the absence of articulation
he considers it improbable that man would have made much psychological]
advance upon the anthropoid ape, and in another place he remarks that ‘a man-
like creature became human by the power of speech.’ .

The period in the evolution of man at which this important step was taken is

* Quoted from The Origin of Language, by Hensleigh Wedgwood, 1866.

788 REPORT—1901.

a vexed question and one in the solution of which we have little solid ground to
go upon beyond the material changes produced in the brain and the consideration
of the time that these might reasonably be supposed to take in their development.

Darwin was inclined to believe that articulate speech came at an early period
in the history of the stem-form of man. Romanes gives a realistic picture of an
individual decidedly superior to the anthropoid ape, but distinctly below the exist-
ing savages. This hypothetical form, half-simian, half-human, was, according to
his sponsor, probably erect ; he had arrived at the power of shaping flints as tools,
and was a great adept at communicating with his fellows by gesture, vocal tones,
and facial grimaces.

With this accomplished ancestor in his mental eye it is not surprising that
Romanes was inclined to consider that articulate speech may have come at a later
period than is generally supposed.

At the time that Romanes gave expression to these views he was not acquainted
with the very marked structural peculiarities which distinguish the human brain
in the region of the speech centre. I do not refer to the development of the brain
in other districts, because possibly Romanes might have held that the numerous
accomplishments of his speechless ancestor might be sufficient to account for this ;
I merely allude to changes which may reasonably be held to have taken place in
direct connection with the gradual acquisition of speech.

These structural characters constitute one of the leading peculiarities of the
human cerebral cortex, and are totally absent in the brain of the anthropoid ape
and of the speechless microcephalic idiot.

Further, it is significant that in certain anthropoid brains a slight advance in
the same direction may occasionally be faintly traced, whilst in certain human
brains a distinct backward step is sometimes noticeable. The path which has led
to this special development is thus in some measure delineated.

It is certain that these structural additions to the human brain are no recent
acquisition by the stem-form of man, but are the result of a slow evolutionary
growth—a growth which has been stimulated by the laborious efforts of countless
generations to arrive at the perfect co-ordination of all the muscular factors which
are called into play in the production of articulate speech.

Assuming that the acquisition of speech has afforded the chief stimulus to the
general development of the brain, and thereby giving ita rank high above any
other factor which has operated in the evolution of man, it would be wrong to lose
sight of the fact that the first step in this upward movement must have been taken
by the brain itself. Some cerebral variation—probably trifling and insignificant
at the start, and yet pregnant with the most far-reaching possibilities—has in the
stem-form of man contributed that condition which has rendered speech possible.
This variation, strengthened and fostered by natural selection, has in the end led
to the great double result of a large brain with wide and extensive association
areas and articulate speech, the two results being brought about by the mutual
reaction of the one process upon the other.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

l. The Cartilage of the External Ear in the Monotremata in relation to
the Human Ear. By Professor J. CLevann, JR.

2. On the Origin of the Cartilage of the Stapes and on its Continuity with
the Hyoid Arch. By J. F. Gumurtt, YD.

The series of sections exhibited showed that in the human subject the whole
of the cartilage of the stapes is developed independently of the periotic capsule,
and that it belongs to the hyoid bar. The sections also illustrate the condition at
different stages of that part of the hyoid bar which lies between the stapes and
the styloid process. Au examination of all the sections in the different series

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 789

supports the view that the incus represents the primitive suspensorial element,
Z.e., the hyo-mandibular.

3. The President’s Address was delivered.—See p. 776.

4. Some Notes on the Morphology of Transverse Vertebral Processes.
By Professor A. Macauister, W.D., LL.D., FR.

The application of this term in the description of the several regions of the
human spine is unsatisfactory, and the author has endeavoured to determine, by
embryological evidence, the morphological relations of the several parts of the
neural arch, The factors which cause the differentiation are the juxtaposition of
the rib and the variable relations of the arch to the surrounding muscles.

5, A Note on the Third Occipital Condyle.
By Professor A. Macauister, W.D., LL.D., FBS.

There are two structures confused under this name—one a mesial ossification
in the sheath of the notochord, and the second a lateral, usually paired, form of
process, caused by the deficiency of the mesial part of the hypochordal element of
the hindmost occipital vertebra, with thickening of the lateral portion of the arch.

6. Notes on a Human Skull found in Peat in Bed of the River Orwell,
Ipswich. By Miss Nina F, Layarp.

This skull was obtained in January last from the captain of a dredger employed
on the river Orwell at Ipswich. It was found when deepening the channel in
May of last year. After working out the overlying mud a bed of peat was
reached. This was in such a dry condition that it choked the machinery. As
nearly as could be estimated, the skull was found embedded in the peat at a depth
of about 4 feet. After being dredged up it was rescued by the captain, and for
nine months remained hoisted on a pole in the dredger, exposed to the wind and
weather. The skull was very black when first found, but in course of time
became bleached. Some oil dropping upon it from the machinery above gave it
its present brown appearance. One side of the skull is much worn away by
exposure to the air and moisture, while the other side is almost perfect.

In February last the writer presented the skull, which was exhibited, to the
Royal College of Surgeons, and Professor Stewart has made the following
measurements :—C., 530; L., 188; B., 140; Bi, 745; H., 133; Hi. 707; B.N.,
101; Ow., 37; Oh., 29; Oi., 784; Ca., 1,570.

7. Interim Report of the Committee on Anthropological Teaching.
8. Interim Report of the Committee on the Preservation and Registration

of Photographs of Anthropological Interest.

1901. 3F

790 REPORT—1901.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1, Notes on the Excavation of an ancient Kitchen Midden recently
discovered on the St. Ford Links, near Elie, Fife. By Roserr
Munro, 1/.D.}

After narrating the circumstances which led to the discovery of the midden,
and describing the details of its subsequent excavation by the proprietor,
W. Baird, Esq., the author proceeds to give a description of the relics, pointing
out their analogy to other Scottish remains, and concludes by briefly stating some
of the conclusions suggested by the archeological facts recorded. The points of
interest may be thus summarised :—

(1) The midden was composed of a bed of dark earthy matter, about two feet
thick, containing ashes, charcoal, decayed bones and horns of various domestic and
wild animals, a few sea-shells, and some relics of human occupancy. It lay over
a bed of fine sand, within the twenty-five feet raised beach, and at a depth of from
two to five feet beneath a grassy mound (formerly a sand-dune). Its shape was
oblong, some sixteen paces in length (north to south) by eleven in breadth, and
its margins were precisely, sometimes abruptly, defined from the surrounding
blown sand,

(2) The chief relics are two ornamental toilet combs (fragmentary), a bone
spindle-whorl turned on the lathe, a few bone pens and implements of deer-horn, a
curious vessel made from the leg bone of an ox, an eel-spear-head, and a chisel of
iron, a small portion of thin bronze, and two fragments of a flat dish of ‘false
Samian ’ ware.

(3) From a comparison of these relics with some of those found on the Scottish
Crannogs the author dates the midden and its makers, approximately, to the
eighth century, and gives reasons for supposing that it was the site of a wooden
house.

(4) The presence of an unusually large number of water-worn pebbles which
had been subjected to fire, together with the absence of culinary pottery, querns,
and hammer-stones, suggest that the occupants were not agriculturists, but
pastorals and hunters, who cooked their meat in wooden dishes, boiling water by
means of stones previously made red-hot in an open fire.

(5) The osseous remains were very abundant, but greatly decayed. Among the
animals represented by them the following were identified by Dr, R. Traquair,
F.R.S., viz.ox (two varieties, one being the longifrons), sheep, pig, horse, fox,
dog, red- and roe-deer, three portions of bones of some species of whale, one of
which showed the marks of a sharp axe.

2. Report on the Excavations of the Roman City at Silchester,
See Reports, p. 425.

3. Excavations at Ardoch. By J. H. Cunninanam, Sec.S.A.Scot.

This paper, after a brief description of the earthworks at the Roman station of
Ardoch, in Perthshire, gives an account of the excavations which were carried on
there in 1896-97 by the Scottish Society of Antiquaries. The following were the
chief results obtained in the course of the operations: (1) The structure of the
main rampart resembled that of the Antonine ‘ Wall,’ (2) Fragments of charcoal

1 This paper will be published in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries
jor Scotland (1900-1901).

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H, 791

and pottery. were generally found in a layer about thirty inches below the surface,
and about the same height above causeway and gravelled surfaces, thus indicating
two occupations. (3) From traces of wooden piles systematically placed in rows
it was inferred that the structures within the main rampart had been made of
wood, and had been laid out on a ground plan similar to that found in other
camps. (4) About seventy doubly conical pellets of burnt clay, supposed to have
been made red-hot and thrown into the lamp to set fire to the buildings, were
collected throughout the site. (5) The relics were on the whole similar to those
found on other Roman sites, but the fragments of sculptured or inscribed stones
were few and unimportant, and the bulk of the pottery consisted of pieces of large
vessels used for kitchen service, fragments of the finer vessels being decidedly
scarce. (6) The small mounds, generally known as the ‘ pretorium,’ were shown
to belong to a medieval chapel, probably built not earlier than 1400 4.p. The
excavations are fully described in the ‘ Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries
for Scotland, vol. xxxii, 1897-98.

4, Rxcavations at the Roman Camp at Inchtuthill, in Perthshire.
By Tuomas Ross, JLD., PS, A.Scot.

Inchtuthill Roman Camp, Perthshire, is situated on the north bank of the Tay,
about six miles down the river from Dunkeld, in the parish of Caputh, the
nearest railway station being Murthly.

Inchtuthill is a plateau elevated about 60 feet above the surrounding low-
lying fields, which atno distant date were probably covered with water. The Inch
is of a triangular shape, about one mile from east to west by about three-quarters
of a mile from north to south. About three-fourths of its area is cut off from the
camp by a rampart and ditch. The camp, situated in front of Delvine House, is
square and occupies an area of fully fifty acres.

It is defended by a single rampart and ditch, and on the south the rampart is
double. On the north the defence is the steep bank of 60 feet. Four circular
ovens were found in the east ditch.

The wa principalis leads through the centre of the camp and down to the
river on one side, and to the edge of the bank at the other. There is a south
gate.

At a distance of about 180 yards eastwards there is a smaller camp over-
looking the river, defended on three sides by a rampart and ditch. It extends to
about five acres. No gateway or entrance was found.

A destroyed work defending the via principalis was found near the river.

In the south-east side of the Inch very complete remains of baths were found,
with two brick-built hypocausts and a stokery; one cold-water bath, 12 feet by
7 feet, with steps and lead pipe zz s¢tw; hot air flue; cement floors, one showing
indications of having been tiled ; various chambers, with four circular apses.

At the extreme south-west horn of the Inch there is a very strong fort,
extending to about three acres, of which space more than one-half is taken up by
the defences, These are against the camp, and consist of five parallel rows of
ditches and ramparts of uncommon depth and height. This is probably a native
work.

The ‘ finds’ consisted of the usual Roman pottery bricks, tiles, lumps of lead,
a leaden ring 44 inches by 3} inches, one Roman coin, and in the fort a rough
sooty stone hearth, &c.

The work connected with the exploration of the camp has been carried out
under the direction and care of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and the
pee of the undertaking has been generously borne by the Hon. John Aber-
cromby.

Inchtuthill is part of the estate of Delvine, the property of Sir Alexander Muir
Mackenzie, Bart., to whom we are greatly indebted for so kindly granting fer-
mission to make the excavations, and also for the great personal interest he has
taken in the work,

3 F

792 REPORT—1901.

5, Haternal Circumstances bearing on the Age of Ogham Writing in
Ireland. By R. A. 8S. MAcatistEr.

The question whether Ogham writing is of Christian or Pagan origin is not yet
settled. There are, however, some monuments whose situations or special
characteristics seem to have a bearing on the problem. Such are the stone at
Glenfahan, Co. Kerry, which though itself Christian bears what seems to be a
non-Christian occult formula of some sort; certain monuments found associated
with tumuli, stone circles, and alignments; and a recently discovered stone at
Dromlusk, Co. Kerry, which displays apparently non-Christian symbolism.

6. Report on Explorations in Crete.—See Reports, p. 440.

7. The Neolithic Settlement at Knossos and its Place in the History of
Early Hgean Culture. By Arvuur J. Evans, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

The bill of Kephala at Knossos, which contained the remains of the Palace of
Minos and early houses going back to the pre-Mycenzean or Kamiares period of Crete,
proves to have been the scene of a much earlier and very extensive Neolithic settlement.
The exploration of this by the author, in addition to the work on the later remains
of the ‘ Minoan’ Palace, has been greatly aided by the grant from the Association
in 1900. The remains were contained in a stratum of light clay underlying the
later prehistoric buildings, and which seems to have been formed by the disinte-
gration of successive generations of wattle and daub huts and their clay platforms.
This clay stratum, which had been a good deal re-used for later foundations, showed
a mean thickness on the top of the hill of about five metres. In some places it was
over seven metres thick, and went down to a depth of about ten metres below the
surface. It contained an abundance of primitive dark hand-made pottery, often
punctuated and incised, and with white chalky inlaying, more rarely chrome-
coloured. The ornamentation was angular and of textile derivation. Stone imple-
ments abounded of greenstone, serpentine, diorite, hematite, jadeite, and other
materials. Among these were over 300 celts or axes, besides chisels, adzes,
hammers, and other implements. The most characteristic implements, however,
were the stone maces, the occurrence of which was especially important as bringing
the Cretan Stone age into near relation with that of Anatolia—and indeed of
Western Asia in general—where, as in the early deposits of Babylonia, stone
maces formed a marked feature. This characteristic was shared by pre-dynastic
and proto-dynastic Egypt. Another interesting feature among the remains were
the small human images of clay and marble which supplied the ancestors and
prototypes of the stone images found in the early Metal-age deposits of Crete and
the Cyclades.* Their Anatolian analogies were pointed out, and reasons were
adduced for their ultimate derivation, through intermediate types, from clay figures
of a Babylonian Mother-Goddess, such as those lately found in the very ancient
deposits at Nippur.

The Neolithic settlement of Knossos was the first settlement of that period yet
explored in the Greek world, and in many ways threw an entirely new light on
the beginning of civilisation in that area. The contents showed a marked contrast
to the earliest Metal-age remains, such as those from the deposit of Hagios Onuphrios
in Crete,the date of which was approximately fixed by their association with Egyptian
relics and the indigenous copies of them from 2800 to 2200 z.c. There were
here no later vase-forms of the high-necked and spouted class, no traces of painted
pottery or metal, and no single example of the spiraliform decoration which in the
early Metal-age deposits is found fully developed. This negative phenomenon
strongly weighed in favour of the view that the Aigean spiral system was introduced

? To be published more fully in Man, 1902.
* Figured in Man, 1901, p. 146.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 793

during this later period with other decorative types from the Egypt of the Middle
Kingdom, where it had already attained a high development.

The Neolithic stratum of Knossos itself actually underlay later buildings
belonging to three distinct prehistwric classes :—

1. The ‘ Kamares,’ or Early Metal-age Period of Crete, illustrated by the con-
tents of some of the earlier houses. The painted pottery in these was in some
cases a mere translation into colour of the incised and punctuated Neolithic designs.
This period is approximately dated from the relics found in the Hagios Onuphrios
deposit and the Cretan vase fragments found in Egypt in a XIIth Dynasty associa-
tion from e. 2800 to 2200 B.c.

2. The Transitional Period, between the ‘ Kamires’ age and the Mycenezan. It
is probable that the earliest elements of the Palace itself belong to this period,
including an Egyptian monument ascribed to the close of the XIIth or Early
XIIIth Dynasty, c. 2000 B.c.

3. The Mycenzan Period proper, the flourishing epoch of which is approxi-
mately fixed by the correspondence of some of the wall paintings with those
representing the Keftiu on Egyptian tombs, c. 1550 B.c.

Considering the distinct gap in development which still separates the latest
elements of the culture represented by the Neolithic stratum of Knossos from the
fully developed Kamiares style, it would be rash to bring down the lowest limits of
the settlement later than about 3000 B.c. On the other hand, the great depth of
the deposit must carry its higher limit back to a very much more remote date.
The continued exploration of the Neolithic remains of Knossos is necessary for the
full elucidation of many of the problems suggested by these discoveries.

8. Explorations at Zakro in Eastern Crete. By D. G. Hocarru, IZA.

The excavation at Zakro in Hast Crete has been concluded so recently that I
must confine myself to a plain statement of the raw material rendered available
for study thereby. In estimating the final result it will be necessary to take
account of positive and negative evidence, not yet to hand from two other East
Cretan sites, lately excavated, Praesos and Gorynia. Zakro lies in the south-
eastern angle of the island, and was chosen for research because it falls in the
Eteocretan country, anciently reputed to be inhabited by aborigines, and because
its safe bay must always have been a main port of call for craft sailing between the
/Mgean coasts and Africa, The small plain of Zakro, entirely hemmed in by rugged
hills, is full of early remains, beginning in the later pre-Mycenzan period and
ending with the close of the age ot bronze. No implements of iron were fuund in
it at all,and no Hellenic pottery. The town, therefore, owed its existence toa com-
’ merce which ceased or passed elsewhere from the Geometric age onward. The
earliest settlement was on a rugged spur; and although almost all trace of its
structures have disappeared, it has left abundant evidence of itself in the contents
of a pit about eighteen feet deep. This was found half-full of broken vases in
stone and clay, largely of the singuiar ‘ Kamares’ class, not previously found in
Eastern Crete. These, however, are mainly of a highly developed technique, and
their commonest schemes of ornament reappear unchanged on vases of distinctively
*Mycenzan’ fabric. In fact, Kamares shapes and decoration are more closely
related to Mycenzean at Zakro than had been suspected. But the absence of both
neolithic antecedents and the earlier kinds of painted ware from this site suggests
that its civilisation did not develop on the spot, but was brought by colonists,
alg partly Cretan, partly foreign. The fine quality of ware in this pit and the

act that, though of various periods, it was apparently all thrown in at one
moment leads me to suspect that the pit contained the clearings of an early
shrine.

At a later period the settlement extended over a lower spur nearer the sea,
and there very massive and large houses were erected and mhabited till the verge
of the Geometric period. Their outer walls are Cyclopean, but their inner parti-
tions are of bricks of unusual size. Complete plans were obtained of two of the

994, REPORT—1901.

largest houses ; and parts of several others were explored, including the lower por-
tion of what was probably the residence of the local chief or governor. These
yielded a great deal of pottery, ranging from the acme of the Mycenzan period
to its close, and the types furnish a better criterion of date than we have possessed
hitherto in Crete. Numerous bronze implements were found, but these yield in
interest to those from Gorynia. Two tablets in the linear ‘Cretan’ script show
that this system was known, though probably little used, and not indigenous, in East
Crete. None were found couched in the pictograpbic system so often represented
on East Cretan gems. Finally a hoard of 600 clay impressions of lost signet
gems was brought to light. These display 150 different types and afford a price-
less record of Mycenzean glyptic art and religious symbolism. Monstrous combina-
tions of human and bestial forms occur in great variety, half a dozen, which are
bull-headed, suggesting varieties of the Mirotaur type. The comparison of all this
mass of new material with the symbols of Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and other cults,
which cannot fail to be fruitful, has yet to be made, Cist burials were discovered
in eaves farther inland, whose grave furniture seems to support certain negative
evidence obtained in the Upper Zakro district and at Praesos, in showing that the
aboriginal civilisation of East Crete was independent of both the ‘ Kamares’ and
Mycenzean civilisations. If these last were foreign to the Eteocretan country, it
seems improbable that the Eteocretan language, as represented by the Praesos
inscriptions, will prove to be that expressed by the linear script on the Knossian
tablets ; and the hope that these will be deciphered becomes fainter.

9. Some Results of Recent Hxcavations in Palestine.
By R. A. 8. Maca.isTer.

Excavations have been carried out by the Palestine Exploration Fund at Tell
Zakariya, Tell es-Sifi, Tell ej-Judeideh, and Tell Sandahannah, in the west of
Judea, during the last two years. Remains extending over a space of time of
some fifteen centuries have been unearthed, divisible into two well-defined
pre-Israelite periods, and also the Jewish, Seleucidan, and Roman periods The
general result has been to throw considerable light on various questions respecting
the civilisation and religion of the inhabitants at different times.

The great caves of Bét Jibrin and its neighbourhood have also been system-
atically explored, and some light shed on the problem of their origin and purpose.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on the Age of Stone Circles.—See Reports, p. 427.

2. On the Chronology of the Stone Age of Man, with especial Reference to
his Co-cxistence with an Ice Age.| By W. Auten Sturce, M.D.

' To be published in Jun, 1902.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 795

3. Naturally Chipped llints for Comparison with certain Forms
of alleged Artificial Chipping. By G. Correry.

The author exhibited a series of flints from the Larne raised beach and other
beaches on the north coast of Ireland showing the manner in which chipping is
effected in the action of the waves. Some of the chipping was quite fresh,
probably done by a recent gale, and admirably illustrated the chipping on older
flints. He compared the chipping with that on fragments of flint from river-
drift gravels at Bedford and with the chipping of the ‘Plateaux flints,’ and
contended that the evidence. pointed to the same or a similar cause in both cases.

4. Prehistoric Man in the Island of Arran.' By Esen. Duncan, JLD.,
and Tuomas H. Bryce, W.4., ILD.

The island of Arran has many sepulchral memorials of its prehistoric in-
habitants, but save the stone circles on Manchrie Moor, explored by James Bryce,
LL.D., in 1861, none seems to have been examined except by the casual antiquary
or reclaiming agriculturist.

In 1896 Dr. Duncan explored a cairn at Torlin, and found a skull, dolicho-
cephalic in its proportions, and a number of bones, but no implements or pottery
to fix the age of the interment. On his invitation Dr. Bryce joined him in a more
exhaustive examination last summer, after he had obtained the sanction of the
factor, J. Auldjo Jameson, Esq., W.S. During the spring and summer of this
year by aid of a grant from the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Dr. Bryce
made a considerable series of further explorations. The comparative results of the
whole series of investigations may be summed up in the tabular statement annexed.

The table shows that the mere presence of stone implements atfords no
test of the archwological horizon, but that the pottery found in what have been
called ‘ Megalithic cists serially arranged’ clearly distinguishes these structures as
of earlier age than the short cists either in cairns or circles, and one may with fair
certainty affirm that the interments discovered in them belong to a race still in
the stage of Neolithic culture.

Only at Clachaig and Torlin were human bones discovered in such preservation
as to permit of examination. At Sliddery and Shiskin all traces of the interment
had disappeared, but in spite of a large amount of wood charcoal found, the absence
of any trace of burnt bone makes it probable that the interments in these cists also
were by inhumation.

Each large cist contained the huddled remains of six to ten individuals of both
sexes and all ages, from the infant to the aged person. ‘The bones lay in chaos in
the corners at different levels, suggesting either that the bodies were dismembered
before burial, or that they were placed in a sitting attitude in the corners so that
when the soft parts fell away the bones collapsed in confused heaps.

The long bones recovered were much broken. No male femur is entire, but
making allowance for the absent lower end one bone gives a proportionate stature
of 5 ft. 4 in. The bones taken to be female are remarkable for their shortness and
slenderness. Two entire femora made the stature 4 ft. 10 in. All the male
femora are platymeric, and have a prominent luna aspera; all the tibize more or
less platycnemic.

The skulls—three male, one female—and three calvaria, of doubtful sex, are of
the same general type. They are of large capacity, of gently curved contour,
with slightly marked glabella and supraciliary ridges. The form is elongated ;
the sides are flattened, with slightly marked parietal eminences; the occiput is
round and prominent to a marked degree; the outline in the norma occipitalis is
pentagonal, with elevated sagittal suture and roof fairly sharply sloping to join
the vertical sides. In the norma verticalis the zygomatic arches just show, and
the shape is either ellipsoidal or ovoid.

1 To be published in full: the archzological evidence in Proc. Soc, Ant. Scot.
the anthropometry in Journ, Anthrop. Inst., xxxii.

REPORT—-1901.

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TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 797

The cephalic indices of the whole specimens are 66°6, 70, 75, and 75:5, so that
two belong to the dolichocephalic group, two to the lowest term of the mesati-
cephalic group; the three calvaria unquestionably belong to the same series.

The face is orthognathous and leptoprosopic in the male, chamzoprosopic in
the female skull. The nose is leptorhine in two, mesorhine in two, the orbits micro-
seme in all. The mandible has a well-marked chin and moderately marked
angle. The teeth are moderate and much worn on the crowns.

These skulls are in distinct contrast to the specimen discovered by Dr. James
Bryce in the stone circle on Manchrie Moor. It is not sufliciently entire for
measurement, but to the eye in the norma verticalis the breadth bears a consider-
ably larger proportion to the length than in the skulls discovered by us.

Thus in the ‘ Megalithic cists serially arranged’ in Arran individuals of a race
were interred with anatomical characters closely resembling those of the long
barrows in England, and two of the specimens exactly realise Wilson’s description
of a kumbecephalic skull.

5. The Bones of Hen Nekht.| By Cuarues 8. Myers, JA.

Hen Nekht is the earliest king of whom the remains have been found. He
reigned over Egypt during the third dynasty, about 4000 8.c. Mr. John Garstang,
who discovered the tomb last season, asked me to undertake the measurement
and description of the bones. I am indebted to him for permission to give the
British Association my results to-day, before they are more fully incorporated in
the official report of his excavations, which is to be published by the Egyptian
Research Account. The bones recovered are the skull, the tibie, a left humerus,
left femur, left clavicle, broken fibule, pelvis, and scapule. ‘The vertebra and
fragments of other bones were not brought away.

The skull is extraordinarily massive and capacious. The cranial leneth-
breadth index is 79°3, the nasal index 51:9, the orbital index 82°2. The face seems
orthognathous. The long bones reflect the character of the skull. They are
remarkably long and strongly ridged.

The bones are those of an unusually tall man. The coefficients, however, for
determining stature from the length of the long bones differ considerably in indivi-
duals as well as in races. The height of Hen Nekht may probably be estimated at
1,870 millimetres. Such a stature would very likely have been considered gigantic
by the king’s historians.

Manetho records as the last two kings of the second dynasty Sesochris and
Cheneres, whose reigns amounted to seventy-eight years. LEratosthenes, another
historian, after apparently omitting the second dynasty, places Momcheiri,
reigning seventy-nine years, as head of the Mempbite (third) dynasty. Possibly
Sesochris and Cheneres were one and the same king, to whom Eratosthenes gave
the name of Momcheiri. Manetho describes Sesochris as a giant jive cubits in
height and three palms [in breadth—omitted in one of the texts]. Eratosthenes
describes Momcheiri as repiooopeAns and asa Memphite. A marked discrepancy
occurs in all lists between the close of the second Thinite and the opening of the
third or Memphite dynasty. Possibly with the introduction of stone buildings
and pyramids, and with the change of the seat of government from This to
Memphis, a new ruling race arose at Memphis with the third dynasty, of whose
fines, one, tall among his own people, was reckoned a giant by his Egyptian
subjects.

Whether or not Hen Nekht, Momcheiri, and Sesochris are identical may be
disputed, but there can be little doubt that the stature of the last has been
exaggerated by Manetho.

The features of Hen Nekht’s skull agree far closer with those of the dynastic
than with those of the prehistoric times, according to Mr. Randall-Maclver’s
measurements.

The proportions borne by the long bones of Hen Nekht to one another and

1 Published more fully in Man, 1901, No. 127.

798 REPORT—-1901,

to his probable stature correspond more nearly with those observed in Negro than
in European skeletons. Similar measurements made on a number of skeletons of
the prehistoric and early empire period show in most cases the same correspond-
ence. But further research is here necessary.

6. Paleolithic Implement with alleged Thong-marks.
By Miss Nina F, Layarp.

This fine Paleolithic hatchet was found in Levington Road, Ipswich, at a
depth of about five feet. In the natural depressions of the flint the original
surface of the nodule escaped being worked away when the hatchet was shaped,
leaving a rough surface. This surface consists of more than one layer, the outer-
most of which appears to have been removed by friction.

7. On a Piece of Yew from the Forest Bed on the East Coast of England,
apparently cut by Man. By F. D. Lone.

This object. was found by the author with other pieces of yew in a section of
cliff exposed after a high tide in the Kessingland Freshwater Bed, belonging to
the Cromer Forest Bed Series. Some days afterwards, in cleaning the piece of yew,
he discovered two oblique cuts upon it, made by some implement much sharper
and thinner than the large manufactured instruments (Paleolithic or Neolithic)
with which we are familiar, He believes that the circumstances exclude the idea
that these cuts are of recent origin.

8. Exhibition of Manufactured Objects from Irish Caves.
Ly G. Corrry.

9. On the Temporary Visswres of the Human Cerebral Hemispheres, with
Observations on the Development of the Hippocampal Fissure and
Hippocampal Formation. By Professor J. Symincton, M.D., Queen’s
College, Belfast.

This paper discussed the views recently published by Hochstetter, who main-
tains that the so-called temporary or transitory fissures of the human cerebral
hemispheres, which have been described by so many anatomists as existing
towards the end of the third and during the fourth months of feetal life, are not
present in the fresh brain, but are the products of commencing maceration and
putrefication. Professsor Symington admitted that the frequency of the oecur-
rence and the depth of these fissures had been exaggerated, but he showed a
number of photographs of specimens, both macroscopic and microscopic, in support
of the view that they did occur in well-preserved material. He admitted,
however, that the arcuate fissure, even if not an artificial product, had no
morphological significance, and that its posterior part had nothing to do with the
hippocampal fissure. He also exhibited a series of sections of the brain of a
human foetus in which the hippocampal fissure and the hippocampal formation
could be traced from near the temporal pole of the hemisphere upwards and
forwards towards the frontal end of the brain dorsal to the developing transverse
commissures,

Attention was directed to the interest of these facts in connection with the
position of the hippocampal fissure and formation in the marsupialia and mono-
. tremata where they occupy a similar position throughout life. These observations
also support the opinion, hitherto based mainly on comparative anatomy, that the
rudimentary grey and white matter existing on the dorsal aspect of the adult
human corpus callosum is the remains of a hippocampal formation.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION II. 759

10. On Supra-sternal Bones in the Human Subject.
By Principal Mackay, M.D., LL.D.

ll. Lhe Frequency and Pigmentation Value of Surnames of School Children
in East Aberdeenshire. By J. F. Tocunr, I.C., and J. Gray, B.Sc.

In the course of a pigmentation survey carried out by us in Kast Aberdeen-
shire in 1896 and 1897 we obtained the statistics of the surnames and pigmentation
of 14,561 (practically the whole) school children there. An analysis of the
physical characteristics apart from the surnames has already been published.’
The present paper deals with the distribution of the frequencies of surnames and
their correlation with pigmentation. We have found that among the 14,561
children there are 751 different surnames. The frequency of these surnames
varies between 1 and 267, Milne being the most frequent, the next in order being
Smith, Taylor, Stephen, and Bruce. If the surnames are arranged in order of
frequency a curve representing the frequency takes the form roughly of a
rectangular hyperbola. The distribution of surnames is very unequal: for
example, one-half of the population has to be content with 124 per cent. of the
surnames, while one-half of the surnames is monopolised by 950 persons.
Hereditary surnames were not in common use in Scotland until the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries. There is a presumption, therefore, that the present pos-
sessors of surnames inherit some of the physical characteristics of ancestors of that
date. It becomes necessary to investigate the origin of surnames. We have divided
them broadly into two classes: (1) Lowland, including names of Anglo-Saxon,
Norman, and Scandinavian origin; (2) Highland, including names derived from
the names of Highland clans. Of the 751 surnames, sixty-three were Highland,
representing 13-14 per cent. of the population. It is interesting to note that in
a previous investigation? we came to the conclusion, from an analysis of the
measurements of the adult population, that the Highland element was present to
the extent of 14 per cent. in East Aberdeenshire. We have calculated the
pigmentation value of the hair and eyes for the fifty-nine most frequent surnames,
and arranged them in series according to pigmentation. We find that there is a wide
variability in the pigmentation of different surnames, pointing to the conclusion
that septs or clans, as represented by surnames, tend to retain distinct physical
characteristics. Amongst the darkest in the series we find surnames common in
fishing communities. This supports the tradition that the fishing population on
the east coast of Scotland is of Belgian origin, since the Belgians are the darkest
people of Northern Europe. We find that the pigmentation of Highland
surnames corresponds closely with the pigmentation in their districts of origin.
An example of this is seen in the blond Frasers, having their origin in the blond
Inverness district, and dark Robertsons and Gordons in dark Perthshire and West
Aberdeenshire. The surnames of Wallace, Pirie, Grant, Park, and Birnie, we
find, have strong blond tendencies, while the surnames of Cordiner, Cruickshank,
Stephen, Strachan, Buchan, Paterson, and Whyte are darkest in our list. ‘The
surnames having the largest percentage of red hair are Rennie, Scott, Grant, and
Thomson, and those having the least percentage are Johnston, Walker, Burnett,
Forbes, and Watson.

The validity of these conclusions depends on whether they are confirmed by
a complete survey of the whole of Scotland, which, we hope, may be carried out
at an early date.

1 Journ. Anthrop. Inst., vol. Xxx. pp. 104-125,
* See Brit. Assoc. Report, Bradford, 1900.

800 REPORT—1901.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. On the Functions of the Maternal Uncle in Torres Straits.
By W. H. BR. Rivers, J.D.

In the western tribes of Torres Straits descent is at the present time strictly
paternal, and yet customs exist among these people which show that in some respects
the relationship between maternal uncle and nephew is regarded as nearer than that
between father and son. The system of kinship is of the kind known as ‘classifi-
catory,’ and the customs to be described apply not only to the brothers of the
mother, in the strict sense, but to all those males of the clan of the same genera-
tion as the mother whom the latter would call brother.

A man will cease fighting at once when told to do so by his maternal uncle.
The power of the uncle is so great that a fight between the natives of two hostile
islands (Mabuiag and Moa) might be stopped if a man on one side saw his sister’s
son among his enemies.

This power of stopping a fight is not possessed to the same extent by the father
or mother, and a man may continue to fight even after the father or mother has
given certain indications of the nearness of the bond between them and the son.
‘The maternal uncle, on the other hand, stops a fight by a mere word.

The brother-in-law (mz) has also the power of stopping a fight, but in this
case it is the duty of the man who has been stopped to make a present to the
brother-in-law. No such present is made to the uncle.

Another indication of the closeness of the relationship between maternal uncle
and nephew is that the latter may take, lose, spoil, or destroy anything belonging
to his uncle (even a new canoe, probably the most valuable possession a man can
have) without a word of reproach from the latter. I was told that, even if the
nephew was quite a small boy, he could do what he liked in his uncle’s house—
could break or spoil any of his uncle’s property and the uncle would say nothing.

As a boy grew up he went about more with his uncle than with his father,
and I was told that he cared more for his uncle. At the ceremonies connected
with the initiation of the boy into manhood, it was the maternal uncles who had
especial care and complete control of the boy, and imparted to him the traditions
and institutions of the tribe. When the boy married, the father provided the
necessary presents; but the actual payment was made by the maternal uncle, to
whom the presents were given by the boy’s father.

One point of interest in these customs is that they are found in a tribe in
which descent is now paternal, and must probably be regarded as vestiges of a
previous condition in which descent was maternal, and the brothers of the mother
were regarded as nearer kin than the father.

Another point of more special interest is to be found in the similarity between
one of these customs and the ‘ vasu’ institution of Fiji. This institution, which
has been spoken of as the ‘ keynote of Fijian despotism,’ may be regarded as an
extreme development of the custom which in Torres Straits permits a nephew to
take anything belonging to his maternal uncle. In Fiji this custom has grown to
such an extent that the nephew of a king may be ‘ vasu’ to all his uncle’s subjects,
and may, with impunity, despoil his uncle’s subjects of all their most valued
possessions.

2. On the Functions of the Son-in-Law and Brother-in-Law in
Torres Straits. By W. H. R. Rivers, U.D.

In both the eastern and western tribes of Torres Straits, as in so many parts
of the world, a man is not allowed to utter the names of his wife’s relatives. He
does not speak to his father-in-law, and carries out any necessary communication

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 801

through his wife. If, for any reason, it should become necessary to speak to his
father-in-law, he talks in a low voice and mild manner.

In the western tribe this disability is associated with certain duties and privi-
leges. The brother-in-law has the power of stopping a fight, but apparently not to
so marked an extent as in the case of the maternal uncle.

When a man dies the duty of looking after the body and the mourners falls
largely on the brother-in-law (¢mz). If the man has died away from home it is the
duty of the ‘imi’ to announce the death to the widow and brothers of the deceased, and
the ‘imi’ gives the signal for the crying ‘ keening’ to commence. He prepares the
body and carries it to the grave. He stops the crying, gives food to the mourners,
and fills the pipe of the brother of the dead man. If no brother-in-law is present
these duties devolve on the father in-law (aa), or, if no ‘ira’ is present, on the
sister-in-law (xgaubat). Owing, however, to the large number of brothers-in-law
provided by the classificatory system of kinship, this rarely happens.

The brother-in-law has also definite duties in connection with fishing, and has
a definite place in the fore part of the canoe. It is his duty to hoist the sail, to
heave the anchor, to bale out water, to light the fire and prepare food, and to
spear the dugong or turtle. He has, in fact, to do all the hard work, while the
owner or captain of the boat has little to do beyond giving orders. In special
kinds of fishing, as in that in which the sucking fish is used—of which Dr, Haddon
has given an account—certain of the operations are carried out by the brother-
in-law.

At a dauce a man does not wear his own mask (Ara) but that of his brother-
in-law.

It seems probable that these customs may be regarded as vestiges of a condi-
tion which does not now exist in Torres Straits, but is found in many parts of the
world, viz., a condition in which a man lives with and serves the family of his
wife.

These customs, and those connected with the maternal uncle, agree in pointing
to the existence. at some time, in Torres Straits of a stage in the development of
the family in which the husband was a relatively unimportant appendage, and the
head of the family was the brother of the wife; a stage of development which is
still to be found in some parts of the world, as among the Seri Indians, recently
investigated by McGee.

[The full account of this and the preceding Paper will be published in the
Report of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits.”]

3. Some Emotions in the Murray Islander. By Cuartes S. Myers.

A belief is widely spread that in the degree of their control over the impulses
of their emotions lies the essential difference between the civilised and uncivilised
mind, and that the emotions of a savage are accordingly a series of powerful
stimuli, directly and automatically releasing their appropriate actions without the
effective intrusion of thought, reason, or self-consciousness.

The writer’s experiences, as member of Dr. Haddon’s Cambridge Anthropo-
logical Expedition to the Torres Straits and Borneo, have led him to doubt
whether such a view is particularly or even broadly true. He found that the
general conduct of the Murray Islanders, an undoubtedly vivacious and excitable
people, was comparable to that of other similarly emotional country folk, e.g., the
rural population of South Europe. He believes that such differences as exist are
due not so much to distinctive mental constitution as to the varying sanctions
and customs of society.

The intense excitement prevailing at the games of the Murray Islanders
perhaps atoned for their remarkable disregard for orderly competition; a feature
which is perhaps to be connected with the feeble fighting powers and the social
equality of these people in the past.

' See also Man, 1901, pp. 136, 137.

802: REPORT—1901,

Lack of concentration has been generally considered a characteristic of uncivil~
ised races, Probably no conditions are more absorbing than the deeply rooted
emotions of love, hatred, anger, and fear. Fear of his neighbour was very
common among the Murray Islanders. No human life, no crop of food, was
ever lost save through the sorcery practised by some enemy thereon. HExtra-
ordinary mental depression, even death, is reported to haye followed an islander’s
belief that some one had used magic against him.

The feeling of shame was awakened under conditions which are astonishing to
us. The birth of twins was a matter of great reproach both to the father and to
the mother. Shame was likewise excited if a man mentioned the name of any of
his wife’s relatives.

Just as social custom jn Murray Island encouraged the play of shame, so it
appears to have lessened the force of parental affection. Infanticide used formerly
to prevail. To this day the practice is retained of frequently giving away infants
for adoption a few days after birth, so that they grow up ignorant of their true
father and mother.

So far as was noticed, the expression of the emotions in no way differed from
what has been obseryed among Huropeans,

Certain psychological experiments demonstrated great differences in tempera.
ment among the various islanders.

4, Notes on Some Customs of the Fellahin of West Palestine,
By R. A. 8. MAcaAnistTEr.

The paper consists of brief notes on tatu, native feasts, marriage ceremonies,
and other details in the daily life and customs of the Fellahin.

5, Report on the Ethnological Survey af Canada.—See Reports, p. 409.

6. Dekanawideh, the Law-giver of the Caniengahakas,'
By Joun OstsaTeEKHA Brant SER.

The author, himself a Canadian Mohawk, discusses the significance of the name
Jroquois, which he derives from I-ih: rongwe : ‘self’ (7.e., ‘genuine,’ ‘ real’) ‘ man,’
in allusion to the boasted superiority of the Iroquois over their neighbours. He
recounts the traditional origin of the ancient system of government still in use
among the Six Nations of Canada, and the symbolic form in which it was handed
down by its originator, Dekanawideh. The purpose of the gens system and of
the matriarchal element in the constitution is explained, and their practical
workings are described. The paper concludes with an account of the symbolic
forms of debate which are observed in the great tribal and grand Council, and
with an estimate of the influence of these institutions upon the Mohawk ideals and
character.

7. The Tehwelche Indians of Patagonia. By HesketH PRICHARD.

The author describes the anthropological results of the ‘ Express’ Expedition
to Patagonia among the Tehuelche Indians, a nomad people living in fo/dos,
Their physical characteristics, past history, and curious customs are de-
scribed, with details of their marriage customs and of the position of women
among them. The outlines of their religion are given, and their fear of the
cordillera is discussed. A description of the Galichu tollows. The native methods
of hunting, guanaco, and of training horses are detailed. The author examines
the Tehuelches’ ideas of distance, and their attitude towards the white man, and

1 Published in full in Man, 1901, p. 134.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 803

concludes by an account of their relations with the traders. A note is added on
the native mode of burial.

8, The Lengua Indians of the Gran Chaco. By Srymourn Hawrrry,

The author describes the country and the distribution of the Lengua Indians—
their physical type, language, social organisation, mode of life, industries and
religion—and notes the effects of contact with Paraguayan and European civilisa-
tion. The paper will be published in full in the ‘ Journal of the Anthropological
Tnstitute,’ vol. xxxi.

9. Report on the Skeat Expedition to the Malay Peninsula.
See Reports, p. 411.

10. Lhe Wild Tribes of the Malay Peninsula.' By W. W. Skea, MA.

1, The Malay Peninsula, its position in S.E. Asia. Distribution of British and
Siamese possessions therein.
2. The wild tribes. Martin’s classification :—

(a) Dark, frizzly-haired Negrito tribes, called Semang, residing in the northern
districts.

(6) Lighter wavy-haired tribes called Sakai, in southern districts.

(c) Mixed tribes in contact with Malay settlements (also in southern districts ),

3. Description of Semangs (type a) as follows :—

_ Height of men, about 4 ft. 9 in.; women, about 33 inches shorter.

Colour of skin, very dark brown, passing into black.

Head, between long and round (mesaticephalic) ; forehead, low and rounded,
projecting over the root of the nose, which is short and very flat or spreading ;
eyes round, open, bright, and straight (not oblique) ; iris, rich deep brown ; lips
moderate and mouth rather large ; chin but little developed, and slight prognathism.

Hair very dark brownish-black (never blue-black, as among Malays and
Chinese), curling closely to the scalp.

4. Description of Sakais (type 6) as follows :—

Height does not materially differ from that of the Semangs,

Colour of skin, much lighter than that of the Semangs, with reddish tinge
about breast and extremities.

Head, long (dolichocephalic) ; among the purest Sakai markedly so; eyes rest-
less, not bright, semi-closed. Face inclined to be long, but broad at the cheek-
bones, with pointed chin; elliptical; forehead flat, but brow often beetling, the
notch above the nose being very deep ; nose small, often slightly tilted and broad,
with deep-set nostrils; beard consisting of a few long frizzly chin-hairs, remark-
ably like that of the Veddas of Ceylon, to whom, at first sight, the Sakai present
considerable resemblance.

Hair, lank and wavy, often worn in a great ‘ shock.’

5. Specimens of the types referred to above.

6. Food of the wild tribes mainly vegetable (wild roots and fruits), eked out
by any sort of animal food procurable.

7. Hunting and trapping. The blowgun and the bow. The former is a long
slender tube or blowpipe composed, when possible, of a single joint or internode of
bamboo, over six feet long, which, for protection, is inserted in a similar (slightly
larger) tube or case. Method of using it. Darts, poisoned with the sap of the
upas tree (Antiaris), or the upas creeper (Strychnos), and made to break off in the
wound. Range and effect of these darts.

* To be published in full in Journ. Anthrop. Inst., vol. xxxii.

804 REPORT—1901.

8. Clothing of the Wild Tribes—Cloth manufactured from beaten tree-bark.
Methods of wearing this cloth. Girdle manufactured from the rhizomorph of a
fungus. Necklaces and magic combs worn in their hair by women as a protection
against fever and snake-bite, &c.

9, Huts and shelters of the wild tribes——The tree-hut, lean-to, beehive-
shelter, and palm-leaf hut.

10. Musical instruments, festivals, and songs. The nose-flute. Head-dresses,
leaf-festoons and leaf-bouquets, said to be worn to entrap demons.

11. Chiefs and medicine-men. The exorcism of demons. The tiger-man, or
lian.

12. Marriages: the so-called ant-heap ceremony.

13. Burials: the soul-hut erected beside the grave of the deceased. __

14. Ideas of a future life: the moon as the Island of Fruits, as Wild Man’s

Paradise.

11. Anthropological Notes on Sai Kau, a Siamo-Malayan Village in the
State of Nawnchik (Tojan). By Netson ANNANDALE, B.A., and
HeErsert C. Roprinson.

12. A Provisional Classification of the Swords of the Sarawak Tribes.'
By R. SHEForD, J/.A.

The short swords or parangs of the Sarawak tribes are divisible into ten
principal varieties: The parang ilang or malat of the Kayans, Kenyahs, Kalabits,
Punans, and allied tribes; the niabor, langgai tinggang, jimpul, and bayw of the
Sea-Dyaks; the pakayun of the Muruts; the parang pedang of the Malays and
Milanos; the Jatok of the Malays and Milanos; the duko and the pandat of the
Land-Dyaks.

The blade of the parang ilang or malat differs from all others in being concave
on the inner side, convex on the outer side; the blade also curves slightly out-
wards, A zoomorphic pattern is usually present on the outer side of the blade,
rarely on the inner side. The back of the blade is shorter than the edge, so that
the blade appears as if it had been obliquely truncated: this truncate edge may be
termed the ‘slope.’ The character of the slope varies very considerably, and on
these variations the natives base a complicated classification of this type of weapon.
The handle is usually of stag’s horn: it is very elaborately carved and decorated
with tufts of dyed hair. The sheath is composed of two grooved slats of wood
(as is also the case in all the other varieties of parangs), tightly bound together
with lashings of rattan and decorated with hair; a small bark pocket is lashed to
the inner side of the sheath, and contains a small knife.

The niabor is the characteristic weapon of the Sea-Dyaks. The blade is
strongly curved, and the back and edge pass insensibly to a point, so that there is
no slope; there is a prominent finger-guard. The handle is much flattened
laterally, and is invariably carved with a phyllomorphic pattern.

The langgai tingyung is practically a niabor with the handle of a parang ilang;
the term langgai tinggang, meaning the longest tail-feather of a hornbill, is applied
to this weapon by reason of a broad groove which runs along the blade on each
side, fancifully supposed to be feather-like in appearance.

The jimpul is of recent origin, and may be considered as a hybrid between
the langgai tinggang and parang ilang. The blade has flat sides, thus resembling
the two preceding types of parangs; but the back and edge do not pass insensibly
to a point, but there is a short and abrupt slope. An incised phyllomorphic
design typically decorates both sides of the blade near its insertion into the
handle, but of late years the Sea-Dyaks have taken to copying Kayan and Kenyah
zoomorphic designs in the ornamentation of their weapons. The handle is of the
parang ilang type.

1 To be published in full in Jowrn. Anthrop. Inst., vol. xxxi.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 805

The bayw is a double-edged sword; the centre of the blade on each side is
grooved and ornamented with an incised pattern.

The pakayun is a long, narrow curved blade, which is never ornamented with a
design. The handle is invariably made of wood, and is quite characteristic in
shape ; the grip of the handle is supplied by a cylinder of brass expanding at the
insertion of the blade into a circular lip, which serves as a finger-guard.

The parang pedang is largely used in agriculture. The blade is long, very
strongly curved, and very broad at the end, tapering rapidly to the point of
insertion into the handle. The handle is of wood, and of a distinctive shape.

The latok is characterised by the open angle which the shoulder of the blade
and the handle form with the rest of the blade. The cutting part of the blade is
not curved, the back is slightly shorter than the edge, and there is a short curved
slope. The back is very thick, so that the blade is wedge-shaped in section ; the
shoulder is square or polygonal in section. The weapon is held in both hands by
the handle and shoulder, and forms a very efficient chopping implement.

The buko is similar in shape to the latok, but is a much slighter weapon, and
the handle is carved in deep relief with a phyllomorphic pattern, whereas the
handle of the latok is not ornamented with carving.

The pandat is the war-parang of the Land-Dyaks: it is remarkable in having
no handle, the elongated and angled shoulder serving the purpose. A hole passes
through the middle of the shoulder, and in this is inserted a short cross-piece of
iron. The termination of the blade is cut with a V-shaped notch, forming a
re-entering angle ; occasionally the limbs of this angle are produced into hooks and
projections. The sheath is decorated with tinfoil, on which is hammered
geometrical and phyllomorphic designs.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 18,
The following Papers were read :—

1. Personal Identification: A Description of Dr. Alphonse Bertillon’s System
of Identifying Fugitive Offenders, called by him ‘Le Portrait Parlé’
By Wituram M. Dovetas, Superintendent of Police, Glasgow.

Identification is the basis of all police work, and it is necessary to have a
system or systems which will meet the twofold purpose of individualising persons
at large as well as persons in custody. Dr. Alphonse Bertillon, chief of the Judicial
Identification Service in Paris, has elaborated a system which is divided into
three parts, viz., anthropometric signalment, descriptive signalment, and signal-
ment by peculiar marks. The descriptive signalment is the one by which a
criminal may be recognised among the multitude of human beings ; the anthropo-
metric intervenes to establish his identity and reconstitute his previous criminal
history if he is a recidivist; and the peculiar marks serve to place beyond doubt
the results obtained by the other two. The groundwork of Bertillon’s descriptive
system is the selection for description of characteristics which have the most
fixity in the individual and the most variability in different people, and the
application to the descriptive terms of the method of limits of approximation. The
descriptive information is divided into three sections: I. Chromatic characters ;
II. Morphological characters, having special headings on card ; III. Morphological
characters without special headings. The first embraces the colour of the eyes,
shades of beard and hair and complexion ; the second, the forehead, nose, ear, and
build; and the third, the lips, chin, contour of head, nature, abundance, and
implaxtation of hair and beard, eyebrows, eyelids, wrinkles, neck, attitude,
general demeanour, voice, language, clothing, and social status. For the purpose
of describing peculiar marks the body is divided into six sections, on each of
which there are datum points to locate the marks, the nature, form, dimension,

1901, 3a

806 REPORT—1901.

and direction of which are noted in addition to localisation. The practicability
of the system for police purposes has been tested by the writer, and it has heen
demonstrated that men of ordinary intelligence can master its apparent intricacies
and apply it successfully.

2. Notes on the Proposed Ethnographic Survey of India. By W, Crooks,

3. Horn and Bone Implements found in Ipswich.
By Miss Nina F. Layarp.

These implements of horn and bone found in Ipswich came from several parts
of the town, and from various depths.

Among the cut antlers is one from the bed of the river Orwell, which resembles
the horn picks exhibited in the Guildhall Museum.

The rest of the examples shown, though certainly suggestive of a pick, are
perhaps too awkward for this use, though in one case the tip has been sharpened.

Ten of these horns (eight of them cut) were found lying together at a depth of
5 to 6 feet in one of the main streets of Ipswich. Among them is a very rude
knife-handle.

All the horns already mentioned appear to be of much more recent date than
four others which were found in grayel at a depth of 2°3 feet, of which, however,
12 feet were of made-up earth.

In other parts of the same excavations numerous Romano-British relics were
discovered, but at a much higher level, and always in dark earth.

Other implements from the same gravel were exhibited, and also a large antler
found with a skeleton beside which lay a portion of a Saxon comb. These were
found quite separate from the rest, 4 feet below the surface of the ground.

A pair of bone skates, found in College Street, Ipswich, was also shown below
the foundations of some very old houses that were being pulled down, at a depth
of 10 feet, in the old river bed.

4. Hints of Evolution in Tradition. By Dayiy MacRitcHir,

The author quotes the recent discoveries of pithecoid men in Central Africa,
and infers from this instance that similar undeveloped types of mankind may have
survived in other parts of the world until comparatively recent times. In support
of this view he quotes the Welsh tale of Ki/hweh and Olwen, with its descriptions
of arboreal progression and of hairy men. The ‘half men’ of the same tale he
compares with the Scandinavian ‘half-trolls’ and with the Halvermannekens of
Flemish tradition. Shakespeare’s conception of Caliban he regards as founded
upon similar reminiscences, while the medimval descriptions of ‘Ogres’ are
largely based upon traditions of the ‘ Ugrian’ Huns, with projecting canines and
cannibal propensities.

Other instances of simian traits preserved in popular tradition are :—(1) The
excessively long arms attributed to the Scandinavian dwarfs and to the Picts of
the Scottish Border. (2) The excessive hairiness of the ‘satyrs’ of classical and
Biblical tradition, and of the Northern ‘brownies’ (e.y., in Isaiah xxxiv. 14 the
Heb. sagnir = LXX. cdrupos = Vulg., pilosus = A.V. satyr (inIsa. xiii. 21 the Bishops’
Bible and Rogers have ape) = fenodyree, ‘ brownie,’ in the Manx-Gaelic version of
1819 = fiadh-dhwine, ‘wild man,’ in other Gaelic versions), Compare the simian
place-names Affenberg, Affenthal, &c. (8) The small stature of many apes and of
the African pygmies is paralleled by the Welsh xar (=either ‘ pygmy ’ or ‘ape’)
and the Gaelic abhac, and by the descriptions of the ‘ brownies’ and other ‘ little
people.’ (4) The infrahuman stupidity of very low races; by that of the Scottish
‘brownie’; by words like Gael. amadan, for a ‘changeling’; by the English
oaf (=elf, Fy. aulfe), and the Old German 6p ( =elf), defined by Grimm as ‘an

—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 807

awkward, silly fellow, one whom the elves have been at’; and by the Gothic tumbo,
‘giant ’= Lat. stupidus.

5. Magic, Religion, and Science. By J, 8. Stuart GLennie.

On Wednesday, September 11, the Committee resolved that the following
letter of congratulation be addressed to Professor Rudolf Virchow on the occasion
of his eightieth birthday :—!

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

The Section of Anthropology to Professor RupoLF VrRcHow.

It seldom falls to the lot of one man to establish a position as you have done as
a leader in two great branches of Science. Throughout the world you are generally
recognised as the founder of Modern Pathology, whilst in the domain of Anthro-
pology your services have been hardly less remarkable. Wherever anthropologists
meet together your name is mentioned with the respect and reverence that are due
to a great master.

At the present moment the British Association for the Advancement of Science
is holding its annual meeting in Glasgow, and the members of the Anthropological
Section, aware that you celebrate your eightieth birthday on October 14, desire to
convey to you their affectionate greetings, and to express the hope that you may be
spared to add yet further to the indebtedness which they owe to you as a worker in
the same field.

Signed on behalf of the Committee of the Anthropological Section,

D, J. CUNNINGHAM, President.
J. L, MyRus, Recorder.

Glasgow, September 11, 1901.

' The Address was presented by Lord Lister to Professor Virchow at the Celebra-
tion which was held in Berlin on October 14.

3G 2

808 REPORT—1901.

Section IL—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExprrmentaLt PATHOLoGy and
EXPERIMENTAL PsyCHOLOGY),

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTIoN— Professor Jonn G, McKenprick, M.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The President delivered the following Address :—

WHEN the British Association met in Glasgow twenty-five years ago I had
the honour of presiding over Physiology, which was then only a sub-section of
Section D. The progress of the science during the quarter of a century has been
such as to entitle it to the dignity of a Section of its own, and I feel it to be a
great honour to be again put in charge of the subject. While twenty-five years
form a considerable portion of the life of a man, from some points of view they
constitute only a short period in the life of a science. But just as the growth
of an organism does not always proceed at the same rate, so is it with the growth
of a science. There are times when the application of new methods or the pro-
mulgation of a new theory causes rapid development, and there are other times
when progress seems to be slow. But even in these quiet periods there may be
steady progress in the accumulation of facts, and in the critical survey of old
questions from newer points of view. So far as physiology is concerned, the last
quarter of a century has been singularly fruitful, not merely in the gathering in
of accurate data by scientific methods of research, but in the way of getting a
deeper insight into many of the problems of life. Thus our knowledge ot the
phenomena of muscular contraction, of the changes in the secreting cell, of the
interdependence of organs illustrated by what we now speak of as internal secre-
tion, of the events that occur in the fecundated ovum and in the actively growing
cell, of the remarkable processes connected with the activity of an electrical
organ, and of the physiological anatomy of the central nervous organs, is very
different from what it was twenty-five years ago, Our knowledge is now more
accurate, it goes deeper into the subject, and it has more of the character of
scientific truth. For a long period the generalisations of physiology were so
vague, and apparently so much of the nature of more or less happy guesses, that
our brethren the physicists and chemists scarcely admitted the subject into the
circle of the sciences. Even now we are sometimes reproached with our inability
to give a complete solution of a physiological problem, such as, for example, what
happens in a muscle when it contracts; and not long ago physiologists were
taunted by the remark that the average duration of a physiological theory was
about three years. But this view of the matter can only be entertained by those
who know very little about the science. They do not forma just conception of
the difficulties that surround all physiological investigation, difficulties far tran-
scending those relating to research in dead matter; nor do they recollect that
many of the more common phenomena of dead matter are still inadequately

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 809

explained, What, for example, is the real nature of elasticity ; what occurs in
dissolving a little sugar or common salt in water ; what is electrical conductivity ?
In no domain of science, except in mathematics, is our knowledge absolute ; and
physiology shares with the other sciences the possession of problems that, if I
may use a paradox, seem to be more insoluble the nearer we approach their
solution.

The body of one of the higher animals—say that of man—is a highly complex
mechanism, consisting of systems of organs, of individual organs, and of tissues.
Physiologists have been able to give an explanation of the more obvious pheno-
mena. ‘Thus locomotion, the circulation of the blood, respiration, digestion, the
mechanism of the senses, and the general phenomena of the nervous system have
all been investigated, and in a general way they are understood. ‘The same state-
ment may be made as to the majority of individual organs. It is when we come
to the phenomena in the living tissues that we find ourselves in difticulties. The
changes happening in any living cell. let it be a connective tissue corpuscle, or a
secreting cell, or a nerve-cell, are still imperfectly understood ; and yet it is upon
these changes that the phenomena of life depend. This has led the more thoughtful
physiologists in recent years back again to the study of the cell and of the simple
tissues that are formed from cells. Further, it is now recognised that if we are to
give an adequate explanation of the phenomena of life, we should study these,
not in the body of one of the lower organisms, as was at one time the fashion,
where there is little if any differentiation of function—the whole body of an
amceboid organism showing capacities for locomotion, respiration, digestion, &¢.—
but in the specialised tissue of one of the higher animals. Thus the muscle-cell
is specialised for contraction, and varieties of epithelium have highly specialised
functions.

But when cells are examined with the highest microscopic powers, and with the
aid of the highly elaborated methods of modern histology, we do not seem to have °
advanced very tar towards an explanation of the ultimate phenomena. ‘There
is the same feeling in the mind of the physiologist when he attacks the cell from
the chemical side. By using large numbers of cellular elements, or by the more
modern and fruitful methods of micro-chemistry, he resolves the cell-substance
into proteids, carbohydrates, fats, saline matter, and water, with possibly other
substances derived from the chemical changes happening in the cell while it was
alive; but he obtains little information as to how these proximate constituents, as
they are called, are built up into the living substance of the cell. But if we con-
sider the matter it will be evident that the phenomena of life depend on changes
occurring in the interactions of particles of matter far too small even to be seen by
the microscope. The physicist and the chemist have not been content with the
investigation of large masses of dead matter, but to explain many phenomena they
have had recourse to the conceptions of molecules and atoms and of the dynamical
laws that regulate their movements. Thus the conception of a gas as consisting of
molecules having a to-and-fro motion, first advanced by Kronig in 1856 and by
Clausius in 1857, has enabled physicists to explain in a satisfactory manner the
general phenomena of gases, such as pressure, viscosity, diffusion, &c. In physio-
logy few attempts have been made in this direction, probably because it was felt
that data had not been collected in sufficient numbers and with sufficient accuracy
to warrant any hypothesis of the molecular structure of living matter, and
physiologists have been content with the microscopic and chemical examination of
cells, of protoplasm, and of the simpler tissues formed from cells. An exception to
this general remark is the well-known hypothesis of Du Bois-Reymond as to the
existence in muscle of molecules having certain electrical properties, by which he
endeavoured to explain the more obvious electrical phenomena of muscle and
nerve. The conception of gemmules by Darwin and of biophors by Weismann
are examples also of a hypothetical method of discussing certain vital phenomena.

Of all the properties of living matter assimilation must no doubt be regarded
as the most fundamental. On it depend all vital phenomena. Many physiologists
have endeavoured to give an explanation of assimilation by comparing it with
crystallisation. But the two processes are very different. The crystal grows by

810 REPORT—1901.

the addition of new molecules to its surface, but the molecules have already been
formed in the solution in which the crystal grows. The molecules are not formed
by the crystal; they are simply added to it by a physical force. But assimilation
is a different phenomenon. Like a crystal, living matter grows in a nutritive
medium, but the molecules which cause the growth do not already exist in the
medium. The living matter does not increase by the addition of molecules
already made, but by the creation and absorption of new molecules. Other
physiologists have attempted to explain assimilation by osmotic action. But
osmosis is a purely physical phenomenon. When a substance traverses an organic
membrane, it does not become a new substance. There is no change in its con-
stitution. While osmotic action must undoubtedly perform an important réle in
the phenomena of assimilation, as we see it in all growth, it cannot fully explain
it. But if assimilation is an action of a chemical nature, we can suppose that the
molecules of the living matter in certain conditions split up and then act on the
molecules of the nutritive medium, detaching atomic groups from these molecules
and combining with them to form new molecules similar to those of the original
living matter, but possibly not absolutely alike.

Physiologists, however, have often endeavoured to find the cause of assimilation
in morphological structure, the structure of the living substance and of the cell.
But when we inquire into its nature we find it to be essentially, one might almost
say exclusively, a chemical phenomenon, and a chemical phenomenon cannot be
explained by morphological structure. A chemical phenomenon depends on the
molecular structure and affinities of the atoms of matterin which the phenomenon
occurs. Assimilation is not determined by the physical or structural character of
protoplasm. or of the cell, or any part of it, but on the chemical constitution of
living matter, that is to say upon the structure of its molecules. This view of
the subject has led some thinkers, and notably Ermano Giglio-Tos of Turin, in a
remarkable book entitled ‘ Les Problémes de la Vie,’ to form the conception of a
biomolecule, or living molecule, that is to say the smallest quantity of living
matter that can exhibit some of the chemical phenomena of life, such as respiratory
exchange, the function of chlorophyll, the starch-forming function, and functions
of disassimilation and secretion.

Living matter, when examined by the highest powers, presents some of the
characters of an emulsion; that is to say, it is composed of minute particles with
fluid matter between them. These minute particles, built up of biomolecules,
have been termed by Tos diomones. Biomones, in their turn, form biomonads or
bioplasm, or molecular or granular protoplasm, and this again forms the cell. It
may be said that these terms are only new names for things that have been long
recognised, but it subserves clear thinking to decide upon common terms which all
may use. The cell theory undoubtedly has served its day, but it is remarkable
that as cytology progresses the physiological importance of different parts of the
cell seems to diminish, and it is necessary to give to the constitution of living
matter a much wider and more general explanation. The conception of a biomone,
that is a minute particle, showing the chemical phenomena of life, enables one to
understand how vital phenomena may be manifested without, for example, the
existence of a nucleus. The granules in protoplasm, or, as Tos terms them,
biomonads, are built up of biomones—and one can conceive that the little colony is
symbiotic ; that is to say that each part is necessary, and each part co-operates with
the rest. But when we come to the ultimate analysis, the distinctive character
of different kinds of protoplasm, or cytoplasm, or archoplasm, or corpuscles—call
the material by any name the most convenient and expressive, depends on the
chemical nature of the substance.

These remarks are all in the direction of showing that as research progresses,
and as we get a deeper insight, we find that the phenomena of life are never found
in structureless matter. It may appear to be morphologically structureless, even
to the highest powers, but in a molecular sense it is structural. The progress of
histology also points in the same direction. How often, in former years, were
we in the habit of describing appearances in tissues as structureless or ‘ finely
molecular,’ which we now know, by better methods shows numerous details of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 811

structure! Think of all the phenomena of karyokinesis, of tie changes in the
chromatin that have been observed in cells, of the fibrous structure of the so-called
grey matter of the nerve centres, of the complicated appearances seen in nerve
cells, and indeed in almost all cells. Then progress has been made in the investiga-
tion of the chemical constitution of cells. The new school of what one may call the
micro-chemists—and I need only mention the name of Dr. Maccallum, of Toronto,
as an example of a worker in this difficult department of science—seems to me to
be worthy of the attention of all the younger physiologists. I have a strong
belief that a careful investigation of the chemical constitution of cells and of living
matter, conducted by micro-chemical methods, would be of great value, and might
throw some light, not only on the nature of living matter, but on the pathological
changes in cells on which disease depends. Morphological examination seems to
have been carried nearly as far as it can go; and here I would mention
the morphological examination of malignant tumours, and what is now needed is
the detection of those subtle chemical changes that lie far beyond the province of
the microscope.

The conception, however, of the existence in living matter of molecules has not
escaped some astute physicists. The subject is discussed with his usual suggestive-
ness by Clerk Maxwell inthe article Atom in the ‘ Encyclopzdia Britannica’ in the
volume published in 1875, and he places before the physiologist a curious dilemma.
After referring to estimates of the diameter of a molecule made by Loschmidt in
1865, by Stoney in 1868, and by Lord Kelvin (then Sir W. Thomson) in 1870,
Clerk Maxwell writes :—

‘The diameter and the mass of a molecule, as estimated by these methods, are,
‘of course, very small, but by no means infinitely so. About two millions of
molecules of hydrogen in a row would oecupy a millimetre, and about two
hundred million million million of them would weigh a milligramme. These
numbers must be considered as exceedingly rough guesses ; they must be corrected
by more extensive and accurate experiments as science advances; but the main
result, which appears to be well established, is that the determination of the mass
of a molecule is a legitimate object of scientific research, and that this mass is by
no means immeasurably small.

‘ Loschmidt illustrates these molecular measurements by a comparison with the
smallest magnitudes visible by means of a microscope. Nobert, he tells us, can
draw 4,000 lines in the breadth of a millimetre. The intervals between these lines
can be observed with a good microscope. A cube, whose side is the 4,000th of a
millimetre, may be taken as the minimum visible for observers of the present day.
Such a cube would contain from 60 to 100 million molecules of oxygen or of nitro-
gen; but since the molecules of organised substances contain on an average about
fifty of the more elementary atoms, we may assume that the smallest organised
particle visible under the microscope contains about two million molecules of
organic matter. At least half of every living organism consists of water, so that
the smallest living being visible under the microscope does not contain more than
about a million organic molecules. Some exceedingly simple organism may be
supposed built up of not more than a million similar molecules, It is impossible,
however, to conceive so small a number sufficient to form a being furnished with a
whole system of specialised organs.

‘Thus molecular science sets us face to face with physiological theories. It
forbids the physiologist from imagining that structural details of infinitely small
dimensions can furnish an explanation of the infinite variety which exists in the
properties and functions of the most minute organisms.

* A microscopic germ is, we know, capable of development into a highly organised
animal. Another germ, equally microscopic, becomes when developed an animal of
a totally different kind. Do all the differences, infinite in number, which distin-
guish the one animal from the other arise each from some difference in the structure
of the respective germs? Even if we admit this as possible, we shall be called upon
by the advocates of pangenesis to admit still greater marvels. For the micro-
scopic germ, according to this theory, is no mere individual but a representative
body, containing members collected from every rank of the long-drawn ramificaticn

812 REPORT—1901.

of the ancestral tree, the number of these members being amply sufficient not
only to furnish the hereditary characteristics of every organ of the body and every
habit of the animal from birth to death, but also to afford a stock of latent
gemmules to be passed on in an inactive state from germ to germ, till at last the
ancestral peculiarity which it represents is revived in some remote descendant.
‘Some of the exponents of this theory of heredity have attempted to elude the
difficulty of placing a whole world of wonders within a body so small and so
devoid of visible structure as a germ by using the phrase structureless germs.
Now one material system. can differ from another only in the configuration and
motion which it has at a given instant. To explain differences of function and
development of a germ without assuming differences of structure is, therefore, to
admit that the properties of a germ are not those of a purely material system.’

The dilemma thus put by Clerk Maxwell is (first) that the germ cannot be
structureless, otherwise it could not develop into a future being, with its
thousands of characteristics; or (second) if it is structural it is too small to
contain a sufficient number of molecules to account for all the characteristics that
are transmitted. A third alternative might be suggested, namely, that the germ
is not a purely material system, an alternative that is tantamount to abandoning
all attempts to solve the problem by the methods of science.

It is interesting to inquire how far the argument of Clerk Maxwell holds good
in the light of the knowledge we now possess. First, as regards the minimum
visible. The smallest particle of matter that can now be seen with the
powerful objectives and compensating eyepieces of the present day is between
the zacbao and the sgp5qq of an inch, or g5455 Of a millimetre in diameter,
that is to say, five times smaller than the estimate of Helmholtz of 745 of a
millimetre. The diffraction of light in the microscope forbids the possibility of
seeing still smaller objects, and when we are informed by the physicists that the
thickness of an atom or molecule of the substances investigated is not much less
than a millionth of a millimetre, we see how far short the limits of visibility
fall of the ultimate structure of matter.

Suppose, then, we can see with the highest powers of the microscope a
minute particle having a diameter of zy 5455 of a millimetre, it is possible
to conceive that some of the phenomena of vitality may be exhibited by a
body even of such small dimensions. Some of the objects now studied by the
bacteriologist are probably of this minute size, and it is possible that some may
be so small that they can never be seen. It has been observed that certain
fluids derived from the culture of micro-organisms may be filtered through special
filters, so that no particles are seen with the highest powers, and yet those fluids
have properties that cannot be explained by supposing that they contain toxic
substances in solution, but rather by the assumption that they contain a greater
or less number of organic particles so smal] as to be microscopically invisible.'

1 The evidence upon this point is derived from pathological sources. I am
indebted to my friend Dr. James Ritchie, of the Pathological Institute of Oxford,
for the following notes :

Notes on Organisms too small to be seen by the Microscope.

The filters used in the work performed in the investigation of such organisms are
of several kinds and patterns. They are tubes or solid cylinders made of either
(a) kieselguhr as in the Berkefeld filter, or () of unglazed porcelain as in the
Chamberland and Kitasato filters. They are of varying degrees of porosity accord-
ing to the fineness of the material used. The most porous, z.c., those which will
let through the largest particles, are the Berkefeld; next comes the Chamberland
‘F’ pattern; next the Chamberland ‘ B’ pattern and the Kitasate tubes. All such
filters are used either by forcing the liquid through by pressure or by inserting
them into a filter flask which can be exhausted. The finer kinds will keep back all
known bacteria. Further, as showing their mode of action, the finer kinds will not
allow all the constituents of such a fluid as blood serum to pass through; a certain
amount of albumen is kept back. The three diseases which have been investigated

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 815

The evidence is briefly as follows: micro-organisms ptoduce chemical sub-
stances or toxines which have certain physiological effects; these toxines caunot
increase without the presence of micro-organisms; if, then, the micro-organisms

in which there appears to be evidence of the presence of organisms too small to be
seen by the microscope are foot-and-mouth disease, the contagious pleuro-pneumonia
of cattle, and South African horse-sickness.

(1) Foot-and-mouth Disease Loeffler and Frosch! have shown that the lymph
from the vesicles in the mouth of an infected animal if filtered through a Berkefeld
filter still in a dose of +, c.c. killed a calf in the same time as the unfiltered lymph.
This experiment was controlled as to the impermeability of the filter by infecting
the lymph before filtration by a culture of a very minute bacterium which did not
pass through the filter. The highest microscopic power failed to detect anything in
the filtrate. They found, however, that if the lymph were mixed with a fluid more
rich in albumen than the lymph itself, then the filtrate lost its infectiveness.

(2) Plewro-pneumonia.—Nocard ? found that the pleural effusion mixed with water
if filtered through a Berkefeld or a Chamberland ‘ F'’ was still infective, but in such
watery fluids it was arrested by the Chamberland ‘B’ and by the Kitasato. He
further found that there were in the infective filtrate refractile particles, which,
however, could not be resolved by a magnification of 2,000 diameters, but which he
considered might be the infective agents.

(3) Horse-sickness—McFadyean* found that the diluted blood of an infected
horse could pass through a Berkefeld and through a Chamberland ‘¥’ and still re-
main infective; and, further, that if the blood of a horse which had died from this
infection were filtered through a Chamberland ‘ B’ it was still infective and killed a
horse in the same time as the original filtrate. Again microscopically nothing could
be seen, and again the efficacy of the filters was controlled by mixing the blood to
be tested with putrefactive organisms which the filter kept back as usual. Nocard *
in one case says that blood can be freed of this infection by filtration, but
McFadyean’s experiments are very numerous and so carefully done that this one
negative instance may be explained by want of susceptibility in the animal used.

Of course the great difficulty is to be sure that the filters were efficient and had
no cracks, which such filters are very apt to have, but the work has been so carefully
controlled that this source of error may be excluded. The remaining source of ob-
jection is that the pathogenic agent might not be a bacterium but its toxine. The
most important experiments here are those of McFadyean, who filtered the blood of
horses infected with filtered blood and found it still infective; and also those of
Loeffler, who goes carefully into this question and finds that such an explanation is
not feasible. The formation of fresh toxine within an animal’s body, apart from the
actual presence of the bacteria which ordinarily form it, is unknown, and McFadyean’s
work—where with the second horse’s blood the period of fatal illness was practically
the same as with similar quantities of the filtrate from the first horse—I think,
clinches the matter.

Eucerpt from a Letter from Dr. Ritchic.

The only objection to the validity of the experiments I think is that it might be
a toxine that passes through. I briefly stated [in above notes] an answer to this
objection, namely, McFadyean’s work, when he inoculated a second horse from the
filtered blood of a horse that had itself been infected with filtered blood. Now it
might be urged even against this experiment that such a large quantity of poison
had been injected into the first horse that even when it had been diluted by all the
body fluids of that horse, and had been diminished by excretion for the eight or ten
days of the first horse’s life, there still remained a large quantity, and it was part of
this that killed the second horse. Now if this were the case, there evidently must
have been much less given to the second horse tian to the first ; and if this were so, the
duration of the fatal illness in the second horse would have been much longer. Now
this latter did not occur. They both died in about thesame time. In fact so different
were the doses given in McFadyean’s different experiments that if it were a toxine

1 Centralblatt f. Bakter., xxiii. 371.

2 Bulletin dela Société Centrale de Méd. Vétérinaire (N.S8.), xvii. 441.
3 Journ. Comparative Path., xiii. 1; xiv. 103.

4 Recueil de Méd. Vétérinaire, ser. viii., tome viii. 37.

814 REPORT—1901.

are removed by filtration, and if the toxine solution is very much diluted, the
solution when injected into a living animal should produce a weaker effect than
when the unfiltered fluid is introduced. This, however, is not the case. The
filtered fluid, in which no micro-organisms can be seen with the highest powers,
after some time, acts as virulently and rapidly as an unfiltered fluid, and the infer-
ence is justifiable that invisible micro-organisms are still present, as without these
it is difficult to account for the persistence of virulence. I am of opinion, there-
fore, that it is quite justifiable to assume that vitality may be associated with
such small particles, and that we have by no means reached what may be called
the vital unit when we examine either the most minute ceil or even the smallest
particle of protoplasm that can be seen. This supposition may ultimately be
of service in the framing of a theory of vital action.

Weismann in his ingenious speculations has imagined such a vital unit to
which he gives the name of a biophor, and he has even attempted numerical esti-
mates. Before giving his figures let us look at the matter in another way. Take
the average diameter cf a molecule as the millionth of a millimetre, and the
smallest particle visible as the 354,55 of a millimetre. Imagine this small
particle to be in the form of a cube. ‘Then there would be in the side of the cube,
in a row, fifty such molecules, or in the cube 50x 50 x 50=125,000 molecules.
But a molecule of organised matter contains about fifty elementary atoms. So
that the 125,000 molecules in groups of about fifty would number 1239°° = 2,500
organic particles. Suppose, as was done by Clerk Maxwell, one half to be water ;
there would remain 1,250 organic particles. The smallest particle that can be
seen by the microscope may thus contain as many as 1,250 molecules of such a
substance as a proteid.

Weismann’s estimates as to the dimensions of the vital unit to which he gives
the name of biophor may be shortly stated. He takes the diameter of a molecule
at saohcon of a millimetre (instead of the one millionth) and he assumes that the
biophor contains 1,000 molecules. Suppose the biophor to be cubical, it would
contain ten in a tow, or 10x 10x 10=1,000. Then the diameter of the biophor
would be the sum of ten molecules, or s5p4gq0 % LO=a50tsa0 OF aodooo Of a
millimetre. Two hundred biophors would therefore measure 32°55 OT zoo MM.
or 1 » (micron = ;,455 mm.). Thus a cube one side of which was 1 » would
contain 200 x 200 x 200=8,000,000 biophors. A human red blood corpuscle
measures about 7:7 «; suppose it to be cubed, it would contain as many as
3,652,264,000 biophors. If the biophor had a diameter of zoao4o00 mm. the
number would be much smaller.

Now if the smallest particle that can be seen (35455 mm.) may contain 1,250
molecules, let us consider how many exist in a biophor, which we may imagine as
a little cube, each side of which is 35755 mm. There would then be five in a
row of such molecules, or in the cube 5x 5x 5=125 molecules; and if the half
consisted of water about sixty molecules.

Let us apply these figures to the minute particles of matter connected with the
hereditary transmission of qualities. The diameter of the germinal vesicle of the
ovum is ;4; of a millimetre. Imagine this a little cube. Taking the diameter of
an atom at syatoo00 Of a millimetre, and assuming that about fifty exist in each
organic molecule (proteid, &c.), the cube would contain at least 25,000,000,000,000
organic molecules. Again, the head of the spermatozoid, which is all that is
needed for the fecundation of an ovum, has a diameter of about 345, mm. Imagine
it to be cubed; it would then contain 25,000,000,000 organic molecules. When
the two are fused together, as in fecundation, the ovum starts on its life with over
25,000,000,000,000 organic molecules. If we assume that one half consists of water,
then we may say that the fecundated ovum may contain as many as about

that he was using the periods of fatal iJlness ought to have varied, which they did
not do very much. Taking everything into account, while infection by a toxine
cannot be absolutely excluded, still in the cases of foot-and-mouth disease and horse-
sickness the experiments I think strongly indicate that it is actually some form of
life which passes through the filter.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 815

12,000,000,000,000 organic molecules. The organic molecules we are considering
are such as build up living matter, namely, proteids, fats, carbohydrates, saline
substances, and water. There is, however, no satisfactory evidence that they exist
as such in living matter, and it may be that they are formed when living matter
dies. Thus the molecule of living matter may be a much more complicated
molecule than even that of such a complex proteid as hemoglobin, so that it may
contain 10,000 atoms. But even if this were the case the fecundated ovum might
yet contain 1,200,000,000 of such complex molecules. Clerk Maxwell’s argument
that there were too few organic molecules in an ovum to account for the transmission
of hereditary peculiarities does not apparently hold good. Instead of the number
of organic molecules in the germinal vesicle of an ovum numbering something like
a million, the fecundated ovum probably contains millions of millions. Thus the
imagination can conceive of complicated arrangements of these molecules suitable for
the development of all the parts of a highly complicated organism, and a sufficient
number, in my opinion, to satisfy all the demands of a theory of heredity. Such a
thing as a structureless germ cannot exist. Hach germ must contain peculiarities
of structure sufficient to account for the evolution of the new being, and the germ
must therefore he considered as a material system.

Further, the conception of the physicist is that molecules are more or less in a
state of movement, and the most advanced thinkers are striving towards a kinetic
theory of molecules and of atoms of solid matter which will be as fruitful as the
kinetic theory of gases. The ultimate elements of bodies are not freely movable
each by itself; the elements ave bound together by mutual forces, so that atoms
are combined to form molecules. Thus there may be two kinds of motion, atomic
and molecular. By molecular motion is meant ‘the translatory motion of the
centroid of the atoms that form the molecule, while as atomic motion we count all
the motions which the atoms can individually execute without breaking up the
molecule. Atomic motion includes, therefore, not only the oscillations that take
place within the molecule, but also the rotation of the atoms about the centroid of
the molecule.’ *

Thus it is conceivable that certain vital activities may be determined by the
motion that takes place in the molecules of what we speak of as living matter.
It may be different from some of the motions known to physicists, and it is con-
ceivable that in the state we call living there may be the transmission to dead
matter, the molecules of which have already a kind of motion, of a form of
motion swi generis. The imagination fails to follow the possible movements of
molecules in a particle of living protoplasm. We cannot grasp the wondrous
spectacle of the starry heayens with its myriads of orbs all in motion, each motion
being rigorously determined. But if we could see into the structure of living
matter, we would find another universe of molecules in movement, and here again
we would also find the rigor of law. On the character and complexity of these
movements will depend the physical and chemical phenomena manifested by this
living matter. The chemical irritability of living matter which is perhaps one
of its most remarkable characteristics, the rapid series of chemical exchanges
going on between its own parts and between itself and the matter surrounding
it, the changes in surface tension, in elasticity, and the changes in electrical
condition, are all in some way associated with the movements of the molecules of
which it is constructed. It will only be when we have grasped the significance of
these molecular movements that we will be able to give a rational explanation of
the ultimate phenomena of the living state. Just as the physicists of to-day are
striving towards a dynamical conception of the phenomena of dead matter, so I
believe the physiologists of to-morrow (a far off to-morrow) will be striving
towards a dynamical conception of life founded on a molecular physiology.

I offer these remarks with much diffidence, and I am well aware that much
that I have said may be regarded as purely speculative. They may, however,
stimulate thought, and if they do so they will have served a good purpose. Meyer
writes as follows in the introduction to his great work on ‘The Kinetic Theory of

1 Meyer, Kinetic Theory of Gases. Translated by Baynes, London, 1899, p. 6.

816 REPORT—1 901.

Gases,’ p. 4:—‘ It would, however, be a considerable restriction of investigation
to follow out only those laws of nature which have a general application and are
free from hypothesis; for mathematical physics has won most of its successes in
the opposite way, namely, by starting from an unproved and unprovable, but
probable, hypothesis, analytically following out its consequences in every direction,
and determining its value by comparison of these conclusions with the result of
experiment.’

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Use of the Telephone for investigating the Rhythmic Phenomena
in Muscle. By Sir Joun Burpon Sanperson, Bart., 7B.

2. An Huperiment on the ‘ Motor’ Cortex of the Monkey.
By Professor C. 8. Suerrineron, £.2.S.

3. Arsenical Pigmentation. By Professor J. A. WAnxtyn, I.R.C.S.

The publication of Bunsen’s splendid researches on ‘ A New Series of Organic
Compounds containing Nitrogen as a Constituent’ was prefaced by a very
remarkable pronouncement in ‘Poggendorff’s Annalen’ in the year 1837. The
curious liquid known as Cadet’s fuming liquor, and discovered in 1760, had for
many years been mentioned in the then current chemical literature, and in
accordance with the views then prevalent among chemists was looked upon as a
compound of acetic acid with arsenic. Bunsen’s researches had completely set
aside that view of the constitution of the liquid, and in bringing his results before
the chemical world Bunsen announced that the compounds of arsenic resembled
the compounds of nitrogen rather than the compounds of the common metals.
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen had been called the organic elements.
Bunsen hinted that arsenic belonged to the organic elements, and maintained
that oxide of kakodyl (which exists in Cadet’s fuming liquor) and kakodylic
acid (which is obtained by oxidising Cadet’s fuming liquor) are organic com-
pounds in which arsenic has been substituted for nitrogen.

The utmost diversity prevails among organic compounds containing nitrogen :
some are virulently poisonous and others are harmless; some are colourless and
others are dye-stutfs ; and a like diversity is found in the compounds of arsenic.

On the present occasion I wish to call attention to an organic arsenical com-
pound, which is a red pigment discovered by Bunsen about sixty years ago, and
named ‘ Erytrarsin.’ According to Bunsen’s analysis, its composition is expressed
in the formula C,H,,As,O,.

It is described by Bunsen as being very difficult to obtain, being one of the
oxidation products of kakodyl; but the conditions under which it is produced are
so little understood that from 100 grammes of oxide of kakodyl the yield of
erytrarsin was only half a gramme. Apparently, however, it would seem that
traces of it are frequently, and perhaps always, formed during the preparation of
kakodyl.

In a recent preparation of kakodyl in an unusual manner in my laboratory I
have obtained it, and if I am not deceived the yield is not quite so small as when
kakodyl is produced in the usual way. The solid hydride of arsenic is said to be
a pink solid. Arsenical films, as is well known, vary greatly in tints: they may
be black or various shades of brown, and even yellow. Under certain circum-
stances it would seem that arsenic enters into combination with carbon and forms
a black substance. There is also the well-known yellow sulphuret. In fine,
arsenic and its compounds afford abundant scope for great variety of coloration
in cases of arsenical pigmentation.

Kakodyl (which is a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and arsenic) is a liquid

|

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 817

which possesses the property of being spontaneously inflammable. At the time
of its discovery in 1887 kakodyl afforded the only known example of a liquid
which at once burst into flame on exposure to the air. The gas phosphoretted
hydrogen (which takes fire spontaneously) was known to chemists, and the solid
phosphorus was also known. Since the discovery of kakodyl a crowd of spon-
taneously inflammable substances have come to light. Twelve years later on—
1848-1849—the singular substances zine methyl and zinc ethyl were discovered
in Bunsen’s laboratory by the late Sir Edward Frankland; and after another ten
years (also in Bunsen’s laboratory) Wanklyn added to the list potassium ethyl,
sodium ethyl, lithium ethyl, calcium ethyl, and strontium ethyl.

Spontaneous inflammability implies that the substance exerts chemical action
energetically and with facility.

Kakodyl of the year 1837 fired spontaneously, and also combined at once with
sulphur, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. But kakodyl did not decompose water.
Zinc ethyl (1847-48) not only combined with all the elements just mentioned, but
it was powerful enough to decompose water instantaneously.

Sodium ethyl (1857-58) displayed energy enough to decompose carbonic acid
itself instantaneously, and at ordinary temperatures.

4, The Physical Properties of Caseinogen Salts in Solution.
By W. A. Osporne, D.Sc.

5. Colour Vision. By F. W. Evriper-Green, JZD., FRCS.

The hypothesis which I have brought forward for discussion at this meeting
is that light falling upon the retina liberates the visual purple from the rods and
a photograph is formed. . The decomposition of the visual purple by light chemi-
cally stimulates the ends of the cones and a visual impulse is set up, which is con-
veyed through the optic nerve fibres to the brain. [assume that the visual impulses
caused by the different rays of light differ in character just as the rays of light
differ in wave length. Then in the impulse itself we have the physiological basis
of light, and in the quality of the impulse the physiological basis of colour. I
have assumed that the quality of the impulse is perceived by a special perceptive
centre within the power of perceiving differences possessed by that centre or
portions of that centre.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13,

The following Papers were read :—

1. A Demonstration of Apparatus employed in Researches on the Subject of
Phonetics. By Professor J. G. McKenpricst, /.2.S.

2. Restoration of Voluntary Movement after Alteration of the Nerve-
supply by Nerve-crossing, or Anastomosis. By R. Kennepy, J.D.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The Section did not meet.

818 REPORT—1901.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16,
The following Papers were read :—

1. Note on the Action of Oxalates upon the Relationship of Calciwm Salts
to Muscle. By W. Brovir Bropin, JLB.

2. Can Solutions of Native Proteids exert Osmotic Pressure ?
By Professor E. WaymoutH Rem, F.R.S.

3. An Ionic Effect in the Small Intestine.
By Professor E. WaymoutH Rein, F'.2.S,

4, Has the Spleen a Hemopovretic Function? By D. Nor Paton,
Lovett Guuuanp, L. J. 8. Fow ier.

5. The Measurement of Visual Illusion.
By Dr. W. H. R. Rivers.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Observations with Galton’s Whistle, By C. S. Myrrs.

2. Demonstration of a Model showing the Mechanism of the Frog’s
Tongue. By Professor Marcus Hartoe,

The following Reports ‘were received by the Committee :—

1. Report on the Micro-chemistry of Cells.—See Reports, p. 445.
2. Interim Report on the Physiological Effects of Peptone.

3. The Chemistry of Bone Marrow,—See Reports, p. 447,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 819

Section K.—BOTANY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEctION.—Professor I. BAytpy BALrovr, D.Sce., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The President delivered the following Address :—

I sHouLD be wanting in my duty, alike to you and to our science, were I at the
outset of our proceedings to pass over without notice the circumstances of environ-
ment in which we assemble to-day. In this, the first year of the century, our
Section meets for the first time in Scotland, and finds itself housed in this magni-
ficent Botanical Institute, which, through the energy and deyotion of Professor
Bower, has been added this year to the equipment of Botany in this country. A
few months ago the Institute was opened in the happiest auspices and with all the
distinction that the presence of our veteran botanist, Sir Joseph Hooker, supported
by two other ex-Presidents of the Royal Society—Lord Lister and Lord Kelvin—
could give to the ceremony. I am sure we will cordially echo the words of good-
will that were spoken on that occasion. It must be to all of us a matter of con-
gratulation that Botany has now provided for it in Glasgow this Institute both
for its teaching and for the investigation of its inner secrets, and we may with
confidence hope that the output of valuable additions to our knowledge of plant-
life which has marked Glasgow during the tenure of office of its present dis-
tinguished Professor of Botany, and in which he himself has borne so large a share,
will not only continue but will increase in a ratio not incommensurate with the
facilities that are now provided.

The subject of my address is the group of Angiosperms. I will speak gene-
rally of some points in their construction from the point of view of their position as
the dominant vegetation of the earth’s surface at the present time, and more par-
ticularly of their relationship to water, as it is one which has much to do with
their holding the position they now have. I wish, however, in the first place to
refer to

The Communal Organisation of Angiosperms.

No fact of the construction of the plant-body that has been established within
recent years is of greater importance than that of the continuity of protoplasm in
pluricellular plants. As has been the case with so many epoch-making discoveries,
we owe our first knowledge of this to the work of a British botanist. The de-
monstration by Gardiner of the existence of intercellular protoplasmic connections
is the foundation of our modern notion of the constitution of the pluricellular
plant-body and of the far-reaching conception of the communal organisation of
Angiosperms and of all other Metaphyta.'' It has settled, once and for all,

! Metaphyta and its antonym Protophyta are well-established names for groups of
polyergic and monergic plants respectively. The recent appropriation of Metaphyta
asa group name for Vasculares, i.c., plants derived from the second antithetic
generation, and of Protophyta for Cellulares, 7.e., plants derived from the first anti-
thetic generation, is unfortunate.

820 REPORT—1901.

phytomeric hypotheses, We now realise that in an Angiospermthe living plurinu-
cleated protoplasm is spread over a skeletal support furnished by the cell-chambers
of shoot and root. The energid of each living cell is connected with the adjacent
energids by the protoplasmic threads piercing the separating cell-membrane. The
protoplasm thus forms a continuous whole in the plant. According to their
position in the organism the energids become devoted to the formation of special
tissues for the building up of the various organs. Each one of them, however,
whilst its actual destiny is ultimately determined by its relationships to the others,
is, so long as its fate as a permanent element is not fixed, a potential protophyte,
that is to say, it has within it all the capacities of the plant-organism to which it
belongs.

Their construction out of this assemblage of protophytes—this colonial, or
perhaps better communal, organisation—gives to Angiosperms their power of dis-
carding effete and old parts of the plant-body without mutilation, of allowing these
to pass out of the region of active life yet to remain without damage to the
organism as part of the body, of renewing and replacing members as required.
The response of the plant to the various horticultural operations of pruning, pro-
pagation by cuttings, and so forth is an outcome of this constitution. It is this
which gives them the power of developing reproductive organs at any part of the
plant-body, to cast them off when their work is done, and to renew them again and
again. This dispersion of the reproductive capacity in the Angiosperm is one of
the most striking of the properties it possesses, and is perhaps in no way better
shown than in the development of stool-shoots. There the energids of the cam-
bium, which normally produce the permanent tissue of wood and bark, and thereby
add periodically to the girth of a tree, give origin when the relationships
are changed by the cutting over of its bole to a callus from which stool-shoots
arise as new growths, which may ultimately produce flower and reproductive
organs.

* Another outcome of this organisation of the Angiosperm is its power of
extension and itslongevity. It is potentially immortal. How far this expecta-
tion of life of a plant is realised in nature we have no evidence to show. Possibly
we may presage the longest life in thecase of perennial herbs. Trees and shrubs
by their exposure in the air are liable to injury which must militate against long
life, and yet cases of trees of great age are well known to you all.

It is this feature of the life of Angiosperms which marks them out sharply in
contrast with the higher members of the animal kingdom. There we have indi-
viduality, and consequently comparatively short life. Let me emphasise this,

Of the Vegetable Kingdom and the Animal Kingdom.

The root-difference between plants and animals is one of nutrition. Plants are
autotrophic, animals heterotrophic.

Whatever has been the origin of the two kingdoms, we must trace the differ-
entiation of plants to their acquisition of chlorophyll as a medium for the absorp-
tion of the energy of the sun. The imprint of its operation is borne in the
construction of all higher plants and distinguishes them from animals, The
vegetative mechanism of the plant has been elaborated upon lines enabling it to
obtain the materials of its food from gases and liquids which it absorbs from its
environment. For the plant the primary requisite has been a sufficient surface of
exposure in the medium whence it could obtain energy along with the gases and
liquids of its food. To this end the fixed habit is an obvious advantage, for the
question of bulk within the limits of nutrition becomes thereby not a matter of
moment; and an upward and a downward extension gives opportunity for the
creation of a larger expanse of absorptive surface. Thus it has come about that
the plant-organism has developed that polarity which finds expression in the pro-
fuse root-system and shoot-system with their localised growing points of the
highest forms of to-day. That the communal organisation is well fitted to this
mode of life requires no exposition.

The nutritive mechanism of animals, on the other hand, has become one for

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 821

tlie ingestion of solids which it obtains by preying upon the bodies of plants and
other animals. The exigencies of its feeding have compelled the adoption by the
animal of the habit of locomotion, the development of an apparatus for the capture
of its prey, and of an alimentary canal for its introduction to the body, fer its
digestion, and for the final ejection of the unused matter along with the waste
of the body. This has involved the concentration and the specialisation of the
individual.

All this is, however, to you botanists but the commonplace of your laboratories
and lecture halls. But I have thought that it should be said, because this
fundamental difference of organisation between the two kingdoms is apt to be
forgotten in discussions of problems of evolution, more particularly those of trans-
mission of characters and the effect of environment. This is especially so when
they are approached from the zoological side. Were the point always recognised we
should not have zoologists finding similarity between bud-variation in a flowering
plant and the change in colour of the hair of a mammal.

Of Origin and Dominance of the Angiospermous Type.

It is now usually admitted that all plants, like all animals, have been derived
from aquatic ancestors, and that the trend of evolution has been in the direction
of the establishment of a vegetation adapted to a life on land. Of this evolution
the Angiosperms as we see them to-day are the highest expression. Can we say
anything about the origin of the angiospermous type? As the problem presents
itself to me we can only mark time at present.

From the geological record we obtain no help. The earliest traces of
Angiosperms in rocks of the middle Mesozoic period enable us to say little regard-
ing them except that the fragments give evidence of an organisation as complete
as that possessed by the Angiosperms of the present day. The gap between the
angiospermous and other types of vegetation is a wide one, and no links are known.
Until further research provides specimens in a better state of preservation and
showing structure we can hope for little assistance from the geological record ;
and when we consider the circumstances in which the angiospermous plants as a
whole grow the prospect of such finds does not appear to be very bright.

The appeal to ontogeny likewise gives us little information. Comparative
study does not establish connection with, only differentiates more and more, the
types of the Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. The strong likeness of the
pro-embryo after the primary segmentation of many Angiosperms to the pro-embryo
of many Bryophytes has appeared a sufficient reason to some botanists for ascribing
a bryophytous parentage to the Angiosperms. Indeed it has been said that ‘the
monocotylous embryo is the direct homologue of the sporogonium of the moss, the
cotyledon being homologous with the spore-producing portion of this out of which
it originated.’ This anaphytic cunception of the monocotylous embryo seems to
me to have as little real foundation as the hypothesis of its origin. The pro-
embryonic resemblance is interesting, but it may as well be homoplastic as
genetic.

But if the information available to us does not permit of our building up a
pedigree for the Angiosperms, we are on surer ground when we endeayour to fix
upon characters which have enabled the group to become established as the
dominant vegetation of our epoch. Before the era at which we have first know-
ledge of Angiosperms the earth’s surface was, we know, clad with a dense vegeta-
tion composed of members of the various classes of Pteridophytes and Gymuosperms.
These appear to have existed in all the growth-forms which we know now amongst
the Angiosperms—Herb, Shrub, Tree, Liane. Yet they are now represented
amongst living plants by only a few remanent forms. Hordes of distinct forms and
whole classes have disappeared, giving place to plants of the angiospermous type.
There must then be some feature or features of advantage in this type over those
of the groups that previously occupied the ground, and through which it became
dominant.

__In considering this point we must bear in mind the well-known climatic
differences—particularly in the distribution of water-that distinguishes our epoch

1901. 3a

822 REPORT—1901.

from those in which these extinct plants throve. The factors which determine the
success or otherwise of an organism or group of organisms at any period must
always be complex, and no exception can be claimed for plants in their struggle
for mastery. But looking at the succession of plant-life in the world in relation
to the known diminution of water-surface and increase of land-area, and the
consequent differentiation of climates, we cannot but be convinced that of these
factors water is one which has had supreme influence upon the evolution of the
facies of the plant-life that we see to-day. I think the statement is warranted
that the Angiosperms have become dominant in great measure because in their
construction the problem of the plant’s relationship to water on a land-area has
been solved more satisfactorily than in the case of the groups that preceded
them.

The seed-character—and the flower which it involves—distinguishes the
Angiosperms. What, then, are the relationships to water which the formation of
seed implies and through which the Angiosperm has advantage ?

Two prominent risks in its relation to water attach to the process of sexual
reproduction in a plant of the type of heterosporous Pteridophytes. Firstly, that
of failure of moisture on the scil sufficient to promote germination of the spores ;
secondly, that of failure of moisture on the soil sufficient for the passage of the
spermatozoid to the ovum. In addition there is the risk of failure of the fall of
microspores and megaspores together upon the soil. In the Angiosperms such
risks are practically abolished in the formation of flower. The stigmatic surface
of the style itself provides a secretion—the more copious in a dry and sunny
atmosphere—to moisten the pollen-grain and stimulate germination, and for the
spontaneous movement of the spermatozoid is substituted the passive carriage of
the male gamete to the ovum by the agency of the pollen-tube. Possible failure
of pollination is, too, provided against by the complex mechanism of the flower in
the highest forms in relation to insect-visits. The sexual act, then, might, we
conceive, gradually become more and more difficult of consummation to the
Pteridophyte as the area of dry land increased. To the seed-plant it was more
secure by its independence of the presence of free water. The failure of perform-
ance of the function of sexual reproduction may have hastened the disappearance
of Pteridophytes before the advance of the Angiosperms.

But if this flower-mechanism relieves the Angiosperm from risks in the per-
formance of the sexual act, it imposes a new duty upon the plant, that of nursing
the embryo within the sporangium. This involves a water-supply of a kind not
demanded in the Pteridophytes, and we may gain some idea of the importance of
this by a comparison of the trivial vascular system required to supply through the
stamen the pollen-grain, with the copious system that traverses the gynzeceum for
the ovules, It is, however, to the ovule—the immediate nursery of the embryo—
that we must look for special indications of this water-relationship of which I
speak.
; Perhaps no organ has given rise to more discussion than this characteristic one
of flowering plants. To most of us I believe the controversy over its axial or foliar
nature will be, ina measure, historical only, All recent investigations of sporangia—
and to no one does Botany owe more in this respect than to Bower—tend to confirm
the view that it is, and always has been, an organ sw generis. To that category
the nucellus of the ovule is now pretty generally admitted. It is the body of a
sporangium. But the nature of the terumentary system and of the funicle which
give the ovule so distinctive a character is still the subject of disagreement."

I do not share a view which sees in the integuments or other parts of the ovule
anything of an axial or of a foliar nature. To me the funicle is a sporangiophore—

1 Scott’s discovery of a bracteal investment to the megasporangium in Lepido-
carpon is an interesting one in relation to the question of the enclosure of sporangia.
Tt shows how in the Lepidodendree a covering of the sporangium could be developed,
much in the same way as a carpellary envelope in Angiosperms. Whether the
ovular integument or the ovarian covering in Angiosperms was the earlier develop-
ment is open to discussion. Iam disposed to give precedence to the ovular coat.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 825

a sporangial stalk—and the tegumentary system is an outgrowth of the sporangial
primordium of somewhat variable origin and development, whose first function it
is to carry and store water for the embryo, and then also to serve as a food-
reseryoir. The whole construction is adapted to the function claimed for it. The
well-developed vascular system from the placenta traverses the funicle, but the
subsequent fate of the nucellus forbids its passing through this, and the needs in
respect of water (and what it carries) of the embryo and of the other further
developments that proceed in the embryo-sac are provided for by the production
of the tegumentary outgrowths into which the vascular system may, if necessary,
be continued and spread out.

That the tegumentary covering has’ this function we have direct proof in its
penetration by haustoria, derived either from the embryo itself or from the embryo-
sac, which absorb from it water and food for the developing embryo. These
haustoria appear to be much more elaborate and more widespread than has been
supposed, and a definite correlation has been established in many cases between
them and the integuments. The thicker the integument the better developed is
the haustorium. In some ovules where no vascular system appears in the
integument, the chalazal haustorium is prominent, and it can therefore at once tap
the main water-supply of the ovule. We Imow also of cellular ingrowths pro-
ceeding from the vicinity of the vascular system of the raphe to the interior of the
embryo-sac, and these, too, may have a conducting function. All these point to a
water and nutritive function in the integuments. The protective function of the
tegumentary system to which attention has been chiefly directed must be primarily
only slight. It only becomes prominent as the seed is formed, and then changes
consonant therewith, and with its changed function, proceed within it. Nor can
Wwe now, with our increased knowledge of the ways in which the pollen-tube may
reach the embryo-sac, consider the function of the integuments in forming the
micropylar canal as one of so much importance to the reproductive act as was
formerly supposed. We obtain, I think, a better conception of the ovule in the
view that the primary function of the tegumentary system is that of a water-jacket
and food-store, and that it has been developed in response to the special demands
for water involved in the seed-habit.!

To the question why there are two integuments in some cases and only one in
others we can only reply that our Inmowledge of ovular structure and changes is
yet too slight to permit of a definite opinion being expressed. We find that there
is a remarkable concurrence of the unitegminous ovule with a gamopetalous corolla
in the flower, for the character apparently holds for the whole of the gamopetalous
Dicotyledones excepting Primulales. On the other hand, not all Polypetale have
bitegminous ovules, whilst bitegmeny is usualin Monocotyledones. Recently the
character has been used by Van Tieghem as one of prominence in his new classifica-
tion of the families of Dicotyledones. But it is not so constant an one as his
groups of Unitegminez and Bitegminez would lead one to suppose. The
degree in which it is inconstant we cannot yet fix, because we know details of so
few genera. We do know, however, that all genera in one family are not always
alike in respect of it. In Ranunculacee, for instance, the most of the genera with
radial flowers are unitegminous, whilst those with dorsiventral flowers are
bitegminous. Again, in Rosacez, the Potentillm are unitegminous, as is Rosa,
whilst Pomez and Prunex are bitegminous; and of the Spirxez, Neillia is
unitegminous, but the closely allied Spireea is bitegminous.? In other cases the

1 To discuss the morphological interpretations of the funicle and integument that
have been advanced would carry me beyond the scope of this address. I do not
know that an axial hypothesis for any part of the ovule isnow maintained. The foliar
interpretation of the funicle and integuments as against their sporangial nature is
supported by two distinct schools of botanists. One approaches the subject from the
standpoint of the anaphytose of the earlier years of last century, and appeals largely
to teratology ; the other from that of vascular anatomy. I do not accept the
starting-point of either the one or the other. :

2 Spirea is, however, exalbuminous, whilst Neillia is albuminous,

38H 2

824 REPORT—1901.

character confirms distinctions; as, for instance, in separating the unitegminous
Betuleze and Corylez from the bitegminous Quercinee. The explanation of all
these constructions may, I suggest, be sought for with better prospect of success
in the water-relationship and food-relationship of the integuments to the embryo
than in protective function and relations to pollination. 1+ is, perhaps, not without
significance from this point of view that in, for instance, the Gamopetale such
protective function as attaches to the tegumentary system in the seed is reduced
or extinguished through the development of indehiscent fruits, accompanied in many
Ageregate and higher Heteromerz by the sinking of the gynzceum in the torus,
and in many Bicarpelletee by its enclosure in a persistent accrescent calyx.

All the information at our disposal seems to indicate that the tegumentary
system of the ovule is extremely adaptive, and that its characters are not of them-
selves of much phyletic import. An extended examination of its characters as an
organ of the nature I have depicted in relation to embryogeny is greatly needed.
It is made all the more interesting by the questions of development of endosperm
opened by the discovery of ‘ double fertilisation.’ There is no more promising field
of investigation than this, for it must yield results infinitely more interesting
than the technicalities of formal morphology which have been for too long the
stimulus to ovular research. J am tempted to go further and to say that it might
supply an explanation of that most puzzling of subjects, the forms and curvature
of the ovule. The common assumption that these have relation to pollination and
make the advent of the pollen-tube at the micropyle easier is not altogether satis-
factory. For the curvature not infrequently seems to place the micropyle ina
position the opposite of favourable, and there is an absence of curvature in cases
where it would appear to be desirable.

I will not dwell upon the subject of the seed itself as an advantage to the
Angiosperm. Its construction follows upon the successful water-relation pre-
viously secured. We all know how its manifold adaptations to dissemination
bring about its fortuitous deposition upon various soils, and the embryo is placed
well guarded within the seed-coat ready to take advantage of the moment when
moisture is sufficient for its germination.

Whilst the seed-habit is the character which has primarily given to Angio-
sperms their advantage as a land-type,! their vegetative organs also show an
advance in their relationship to water upon those of the forms they have sup-
planted. I have already remarked that the growth-forms of the vegetation of the
present day are the same as those of old. That means that the early as well as
the later groups of vegetation have solved in much the same way, so far as general
form is concerned, the problem of the exposure in the atmosphere of a large
assimilating area with a sufficient mechanical support and adequate water-supply.
That wherever a water-carrying system is found in these growth-forms it dominates
the anatomy is witness to the importance of the water-relationships I wish to
emphasise,

There are two features in the water-carrying system of Angiosperms in which
they are superior to the older types—namely, their general monostely and their
vasa.

_ No one will contest that polystely is a less perfect mechanism for water-carriage
ina massive plant than is monostely. The limitation imposed by it to an inere-
ment in the area of carriage contrasts unfavourably with the openness in this
respect possessed by monostely. In the moister climatic conditions of the age of
domination of Pteridophytes polystely may have well sufficed for the water-needs
of the plants, especially of the dwarfer forms; but even then, as we know, mono-
stely was the habit in many of the larger tree-forms, and the development of a

‘ Gymnosperms, sharing with Angiosperms the seed-habit, have in that had
advantage over Pteridophytes. But their flower-mechanism is much less perfect.
The reasons for their being bested as a class by Angiosperms must be complex.
Gymnosperms, as a whole as we know them, are less adaptive than Angiosperms.
The decadence of the cycadean line of descent may have been helped by their con-
servatism in the methods of water-carriage in the vegetative organs. The coniferous
type has held its own in the Northern Hemisphere.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. €25

cambium enabled them to provide for continued additions to their carrying system,
Where such monostely and secondary growth occurred in these older types their
adaptation in these respects to water-carriage was on lines similar to those of our
dominant Dicotyledones and was effective in giving them dominance in their
epoch. There is no more interesting page in the history of evolution than that—
and we owe it in large measure to the labours of Scott and Seward—upon which
is depicted the struggle of some polystelic forms amongst these old plants to
achieve the structural facilities more easily attained through monostelic construc-
tion. The existence of polystely ina few Angiosperms only confirms the advantage
which the whole group has derived from its monostely. Such polystelic forms
amongst them as’we know have many of them special water-adaptations, and in
no case can they be said to be progressive types.

I do not need to remind you that vasa are not the exclusive possession of the
angiospermous type, but they are the conspicuous feature of their carrying system,
whilst the tracheid is the leading one in the older type of vegetation. All ana-
tomical evidence indicates that vasa give greater facility to rapid transport
of water than do other elements, and we may, therefore, conclude that they have
been adjuvants in enabling the Angiosperm to meet effectively the demand made
upon it by the drier atmospheric conditions.

I now pass on to consider from the same standpoint the classes which make up
the group of Angiosperms.

Of the Classes of Angiosperms.

There has been for long a general recognition of two classes amongst the
Angiosperms—Dicotyledones and Monocotyledones—separated one from the other
by definitive characters which I need not specially depict here. Recently, how-
ever, we have seen an attempt made by Van Tieghem to establish another class
that of Liorhizal Dicotyledones—for which is claimed a rank equal to that of the
Dicotyledones and Monocotyledones. Were this valid it would be a matter of
supreme importance, for whatever be the relationship between Dicotyledones and
Monocotyledones there can be no doubt of their having developed as distinct
groups within the whole period of which we have knowledge of them, and the
existence of a third class intermediate or outside of them might lead to interesting
- conclusions. It is worth while, therefore, to consider the evidence on which this
class is founded. It includes two of our recognised families—the Nymphzeaceze
and the Graminee.

What is the exact position and the affinities df the Nymphzacez amongst
Angiosperms is no new theme of discussion. That they have characters resem-
bling those of Monocotyledones? has been often insisted on. Van Tieghem
lays stress on what he considers the monocotylous differentiation of the root-apex
and the derivation of the piliferous layer from the same meristem-initials as the
cortex, whilst in the embryo he finds the two cotyledons of Dicotyledones. But
the most recent observations of the embryogeny of the family go to show that the
embryo is that of the monocotylous plants, the apparent dicotylous character
being the result of the splitting of one cotyledon. If this be so the position of
Nympheeaceve will be amongst the Monocotyledones, a position the root-characters
in Van Tieghem’s view will support. But whether this be confirmed by further
research or no—and a complete reinyestigation of their embryogeny and develop-
ment is much wanted—what we may say at present is that it is not in features
such as this one of the root-apex—which is, after all, not so simple and uniform
as Van Tieghem would have it—that we are likely to find phyletic diagnostic
characters of groups.

The reason for the inclusion of the Graminee in this new group is the
assumed presence of asecond cotyledon. The construction of the embryo of grasses
is peculiar, as is well known, and has for a long time been a main support of the

1 The anatomical characters upon which this resemblance was chiefly based are
now known to be of another nature.

826 REPORT—1901.

hypothesis that the Monocotyledones are derived from the Dicotyledones; for
here alone, since the dicotylous character of forms like the Dioscorese was shown
to be untenable, was there a structure which could be interpreted as evidence of
a reduced second cotyledon. The idea that the epiblast is such a structure was
enunciated by Poiteau at the beginning of the last century, and along with
hypotheses of the nature of the other parts of the grass-embryo has been a subject
of vigorous discussion since that time. The controversy is not yet closed. Whilst
we have Van Tieghem now adopting the view of the cotylar nature of the epi-
blast and using it as a character of fundamental taxonomic importance, we have
others who as strongly uphold the interpretation of it, first formulated by
Gaertner, a3 a winged appendage of the scutellum, which is considered to be the
cotylar lamella. And, again, there are those who take the view that it is a mere
outgrowth of the hypocotylar body of the embryo and without any cotylar
homology. Our interpretation of the part must depend primarily upon the stand-
point from which we view the embryo of Angiosperms. This I shall discuss
presently. All Ineed say here, @ propos of the class of Liorhizal Dicotyledones, is
that whatever the epiblast be—and for my part I am disposed to regard this
simple cellular structure as merely an outgrowth with a water-function from the
embryonal corm—a dispassionate consideration must lead us to hold that it is a
bold step to use a character the morphological value of which can be so variously
interpreted as one of primary importance for separation of a group of Angiosperms,
Moreover, we must remember that the feature of the epiblast is not one of uni-
versal occurrence in the Graminese., If we take a well-defined tribe like the
Hordese, as framed by Bentham and Hooker, we find that of eight of its twelve
genera which have been examined for this feature five have the epiblast and three
want it. And surely the fact of its presence in Triticum and absence in Secale,
its presence in Elymus and absence in Hordeum, is strong evidence that the
epiblast is not a character of such importance as it would have were it a reduced
cotyledon as is asserted.

Tt appears to me, therefore, that this third class of Angiosperms has no sound
foundation, no more, perhaps less, than Dictyogens and Rhizogens which appeared
as parallel groups with Endogens and Exogens in Lindley’s old classification.
Our present knowledge allows the recognition of only two classes of the angio-
spermous type—the Dicotyledones and the Monocotyledones.

Of Dicotyledones and Monocotyledones.

The relationship of these two groups is involved in the origin of the angio-
spermous type. They may have had a common origin or they may have arisen
separately ; and if the former the Dicotyledones may have been a subsequent
offshoot from the Monocotyledones, or the reverse may have beeu the case. Each
of these possibilities has its supporters. Were I to maintain an opinion it would
be that the two classes have arisen on separate lines of descent. The embryo-
characters, as well as those of the epicotyl, can, I think, be shown to be funda-
mentally different and to afford no basis for an assumed phyletic connection. The
difference between Hepatic and Musci, to take a parallel case in a lower grade,
are not more conspicuous. The parallel sequence in development in the two
classes are no more than one would expect, and may be regarded as homoplastic.
To the question which group is the older I would answer that the Dicotyledones
are by far the most adaptive and progressive if—as is not necessarily the case—
this can be taken as evidence of their more recent origin. This, however, is not
the matter I intend to discuss here. I wish rather to inquire if there are any
features broadly characterising the groups to which, as in the case of Angiosperms
as a whole, we may look for help to an explanation of the predominance
at this time of the type of Dicotyledones. I think there are, but they are
not to be found in the reproductive system. That is constructed on suffi-
ciently similar lines in each class, The features I refer to are to be found in
the construction of the vegetative system both in the embryo and in the adult.
That of the former gives the dicotylous plant an advantage in its start on life ;

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K, 827

that of the latter, both in shoot-system and root-system, is better adapted in
Dicotyledones in relation to water-supply.

I specially differentiate the embryo-condition from the adult because in our
consideration of these higher plants we are apt to overlook the two distinct stages
into which their life is divided, and which call for altogether different adaptations.
There is, firstly, the life in the seed and in germination; and secondly, there is
the life after germination. The conditions and the manner of life are not alike
in the two stages. In the first the plant is heterotrophic, in the second it is
autotrophic. The functions of the portion of the plant which lives the life
within the seed, and which bears the incipient epicotyl and primary root as small,
at times hardly developed, parts, are to absorb food, either before germination, as
in exalbuminous seeds, or during germination in albuminous seeds, to rupture the
seed-coat, and to place the plumular bud and the primary root in a satisfactory
position for their growth and subsequent elongation, The functions of the adult
may be summarised as the development and maintenance of a large assimilating
and absorbing area preparatory to reproduction.

We ought, I think, to look upon the embryo as a protocorm ! of embryonic
tissue adapted to a seed-life. Under the influence of its heterotrophic nutrition
and seed-environment it may develop organs not represented in the adult plant as
we see in, for instance, the embryonal intraovular and extraovular haustoria it
often possesses. There is no reason to assume that there must be homologies
between the protocorm and the adult outside an axial part with its polarity.
There may be homologous organs. But neither in ontogeny nor in phylogeny
is there sufficient evidence to show that the parts of the embryo are a reduction of
those of the adult.’

The protocorm has, I believe, developed along different lines in the Dicotyledones
and Monocotyledones. This has been to the advantage of the former in the
provision that has been made for rapid as opposed to sluggish further develop-
ment, Confining ourselves to the general case, the axial portion of the proto-
corm of the Dicotyledon, the hypocotyl, bears a pair of lateral outgrowths,
the cotyledons, and terminates in the plumular bud and in the primary
root respectively. The cotyledons are its suctorial organs, and the hypocotyl
does the work of rupturing the seed and placing the plumular bud and root by
a rapid elongation* which commonly brings the plumular bud above ground,
protected, it may he, by the cotyledons. These latter may then become the
first assimilating organs unlike or like to the epicotylar leaves. In the Mono-
cotyledones the axial portion of the protocorm has usually no suctorial outgrowths.
Its apex and usually its base also are of limited growth. The plumular bud is a
lateral development, and the primary root often an internal one. The suctorial
function is performed by the apex of the protocorm, termed here also the

1 The term has already been used for the embryo of Orchidex, where the axis is
tuberous as is the structure to which the term has been given in Lycopodinee. But
tuberousness is not an essential for the designation corm.

* I cannot pursue the subject here, nor discuss the view of the cotyledons as
either ancestral leaf-forms or arrested epicotylar leaves. The analogies with existing
Pteridophytes that are cited are not pertinent, for there is no evidence that Angio-
sperms have that ancestry, or indeed that their phylogeny was through forms with
free embryos, Nor is the fact of resemblance between cotyledons and epicotylar
leaves and the existence of transitions between them convincing. That the
cotyledons, primarily suctorial organs, should change their function and become
leaf-like under the new conditions after germination is no more peculiar than that
the hypocotyl should take the form of an epicotylar internode, from which it is
intrinsically different as the frequent development upon it of hypocotylar buds
throughout its extent shows.

* In relation to this function it is noteworthy that the hypocotyl relatively
seldom in the exalbuminous seed of Dicotyledones becomes the reservoir of food-
material, whereas in Monocotyledones the axis of the embryo is the usual seat of
deposition, '

828 REPORT—1901.

cotyledon.! The rupture of the seed and the placing of the plumule along with
the primary root—for the axis of the corm does not elongate between them—are
the work of the base of the suctorial portion of the corm.

The whole arrangement in Monocotyledones is in marked contrast with that of
the Dicotyledones. Instead of the free axial elongation begun in the protocorm
and continued upwards and downwards in the epicotyl and primary root, there is
limited axial growth of the protocorm with lateral outgrowth of the plumular bud
and arrest of the primary root. These differences in the protocorm are, I think,
primary, and they point to independent origins of the two groups. The advan-
tage lies, as I have said, with the Dicotyledones, and we find that the features of
development of the protocorm are continued in the adult. There is a marked con-
trast between the free internodal growth of the shoots of Dicotyledones with their
copious root-system and the contracted stem-growth and the arrested root-system
in Monocotyledones. Itsis interesting to note further how the monocotylous type
has developed so largely upon restricted lines in the way of short rhizomatous,
often tuberous, growth, whilst the dicotylous gives us the characteristic growth-
form tree.

When we compare the tree-type of the Dicotyledones with that of the Mono-
cotyledones we see at once the feature I refer to in the adult, which has given the
advantage to the dicotylous type in respect of its water-supply. In Dicotyledones
we have a much-branched stem ending with numerous shoots with long internodes
and small apices, and bearing many small leaves which are mainly deciduous. In
the monocotylous tree, of which we may take the palm as a type, there is a
straight stem with short internodes, a large apex bearing few large leaves not
often renewed; if there be branching it takes more or less the form of a fork.
The whole of this external configuration bears relationship to the internal structure.
In the Dicotyledon the open bundles of the central vascular system provide
through their cambium for a continued increase of the water-carrying system and
medullary rays, which, although it is to many a heresy, I hold to have profound
influence upon the movement of water in trees. The buttressing of the branches
is also secured, and thus is rendered possible a large assimilating area made up of
a vast number of small individual surfaces, each one of which can be readily
thrown off. In the Monocotyledones, on the other hand, the distribution of a
large number of closed vascular bundles in a matrix without a cambium involves
the provision of a broad terminal cone, gives no support, outside interstitial
growth, to lateral branches, which are consequently when developed placed
so as to give an equipose, and the assimilating surface has to be concentrated in a
few large leaves. The possession of cambium has enabled the Dicotyledones to
meet ina much better way the requirements of water-supply and strength in
correlation with feeding.

The general uniformity and effectiveness of the scheme of cambial growth is a
remarkable feature in the dicotylous type; but there is still a wide field of investi-

' Luse the term purely as an objective designation, and in the original meaning
of the suctorial organ in the embryo. ‘This terminal cotyledon in the Monocotyle-
dones is not a leaf nor the homologue of the lateral cotyledones in the Dicotyledones.
The ‘ traceable and direct developmental history in the formation’ of the two organs
is clear, and they are not alike. To those who hold the contrary view a terminal leaf
is no obstacle. I think, however, the question of lateral or terminal is of importance
in organography. The ‘sympodial leaf-from-leaf evolution,’ described in the first
epicotylar stages of Juncus, Pistia, and other plants, demands examination with the
aid of modern methods. All cases of vegetative organs in which the distinctions
between organs are said to break down are worthy of being looked at in the light
of their relation to their nutritive environment. How nutrition affects plant-form
we do not yet understand. Its effects are familiar, both in vegetative and repro-
ductive organs. The grosser cases, in parasites, show in the extremes an abolition
of most of the landmarks of morphology—‘ the whole scheme of formation of organs
is jumbled.’ Heterotrophic ‘jumbles’ do not, however, deny the ordinary morpho-
logical categories. Pseudo-terminal reproductive organs are to be expected under the
cessation of growth with which their development is concurrent,

oe

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 829

gation in the relationships of size and distribution of vasa both to the other
structural elements of the stem and to the form of the plant in relation to its
environment. So far as I know the monocotylous tree-forms, there has been an
attempt in two different directions to provide an increased water-varrying system
in them. There is the familiar one of the secondary cortical cambium in Draceena
and other genera. In them the cambium merely repeats in its products the con-
struction of the primary stem, and does not provide so copious an increase of carrying
area as does the system in dicotylous plants. And then in such plants as Barba-
cenia, many Bromeliaceze, perhaps Kingia, we have an arrangement reminiscent of
the superficial root-system which is found in many polystelic arborescent Pterido-
phytes of the present day. There is a copious growth of adventitious roots from
the central vascular cylinder, and these pass down within the cortex, and from
its cells are no doubt able to draw water for the upper parts of the stem.’ Ulti-
mately many of these roots reach the soil. At best, however, neither of these
systems has been satisfactory. All that can be said for them is that they have
enabled the monocotylous trees in which they are found to hold their own in
xerophilous conditions.

Of Phyla within Dicotyledones and Monocotyledones.

A brief reference only to the groups within the Dicotyledones and Monocotyle-
dones must conclude these remarks. Whilst there is a wonderful concurrence in
the opinion of botanists as to the natural groups—real phyla, whether termed
cohorts, alliances, or series—into which many of the families of both Dicotyledones
and Monocotyledones fall, there is irreconcilable divergence of view as to their
genetic sequence or sequences. And this is not surprising when we remember that
we know nothing of the starting point or points of the classes themselves; and
have, moreover, no critical mark by which to diagnose a primitive from a reduced
feature in many of the flower constructions to which, as characteristic of Angiosperms,
importance is attached. The desire to establish a monophyletic sequence of these
phyla is natural, and finds expression in pedigrees of Dicotyledones issuing from,
it may be, Ranales or Piperales, of Monocotyledones from, say, A pocarpee or Arales,
But all such attempts appear to me, in the present state of our knowledge, to be in
vain. We see in the phyla, as we know them, culminating series in our epoch in
lines of descent; some, for instance Myrtales or Lamiales, progressive; others,
like Primulales or Pandales, apparently not so. We also recognise that these
series group themselves in many cases as branches of broader lines of descent; for
example, in the Bicarpellatz: of Gamopetale, in the Helobiese of Monocotyledones.
To a greater or less degree such relationships are traceable now, and as we obtain
more knowledge of the angiospermous plant-life of the world they will be widened.
But this is a different thing from the carrying back the pedigree of every phylum
of dicotylous and monocotylous plants to one or other of the existing ones, which
may possess what are taken to be elementary characters. We have, so far as I
know, no evidence to sanction the belief, or even the expectation, that there is
extant any family of Dicotyledones or Monocotyledones which represents, even
approximately, a primitive type in either class, The stem in each has gone. We
have the twigs upon a few broken branches.

Amongst the phyla we cannot discern any one type that can be described as the
dominant one. The multifarious adaptability of the angiospermous type has
given us diverse forms, suited, as far as we discern, no less well to the varied
environments of our epoch. Yet we are able to differentiate certain of them
which take precedence alike in point of number of species and in area of distribu-
tion. If we seek for some general character that marks these advanced groups
we find it in the tendency to greater investiture of the ovule, both in Dicotyledones
and Monocotyledones. This is brought about in different ways; for instance, by
the sinking of the gynzeceum in the torus as in Composite, by inclusion within a

' T leave it to Palzophytologists to say whether this construction may sometimes
account for the profusion of roots alongside of stem-structure in fossil-sections.

830 REPORT—1901.

persistent calyx as in Labiate, or within bracts as in Graminess. This feature, it
will be observed, emphasises that which I have put in the forefront, as leading to
the establishment of the angiospermous type. That it must give greater security
to the embryo in relation to its water-supply is obvious, although it has evidently
also direct connection with seed-dispersal. Another general character observed in
these higher groups is the greater security for economical pollination afforded by
the adaptations in relation to insect-visits. At the same time the case of the
Gramineze shows us that other adaptations in this respect are not incompatible
with prominence. —

I will not dwell upon the influence of water upon the vegetative organs in
Dicotyledones and Monocotyledones, Of all the factors of environment its effects
are best known because most easily seen. The examination of plants from the
standpoint of their relation to water—bearing in mind that this is physiological,
and not merely physical—has already thrown a flood of light upon their forms and
upon their distribution, and offers a fertile field of investigation for the future,

‘Water has been, then, a dominating influence at all periods in the evolution of
our vegetation. The picture of its claim in this respect which I have presented to
you is drawn in the broadest outline, and with the intention more of recalling
points of view from which familiar facts in the life of plants may be looked at.
It is just occasions like this which give the opportunity of telling to a competent
audience of the impressions received by one’s most recent glimpse in the
kaleidoscope of plant-life. It is in this spirit I offer my imperfect sketch,

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. The International Association of Botanists. By Dr. J. P. Lotsy.

2. Cytology of the Cyanophycee. By Harotp Waamr.

The researches of Scott, Zacharias, and others have definitely revealed the fact
that the contents of the cells of the Cyanophyces are differentiated into two dis-
tinct portions, an outer peripheral layer in which the colouring matters are placed
and a central colourless portion which is usually spoken of as the ‘ central body.’
The central body is regarded by many observers, and notably by Biitschli, as a
true nucleus. So far as my own observations go, it appears to me to resemble the
nuclei of higher organisms in that it is composed of a chromatic network, but
differs from them in the absence of a nuclear membrane and nucleolus. Staining
and other reactions show that chromatin is present, but in most cases only in
small quantities. The presence of phosphorus in the central body can also be
demonstrated, as Macallum has shown, by means of the molybdate, phenyl-
hydrazin reaction.

In the process of division the cell begins to divide and new cell walls formed
independently of the division of the nucleus.

In the process of nuclear division the chromatin threads become drawn out
longitudinally and parallel to one another, and are then divided transversely.
Some of the division stages, especially in elongate cells, resemble stages in true
karyokinetie division.

Various staining methods can be employed to render the structure of the
central body visible, but it is more clearly demonstrated in some species than
others.

The colouring matter is not distributed evenly through the peripheral layer.
It occurs in the form of granules or fibrils. The structure of the peripheral layer
recalls that of the chromatophores found in other organisms. It consists of a
colourless and a coloured portion, and the coloured portion appears, as before men-
tioned, fibrillar or granular.

The investigation of the cell structure of the Cyanophycee is not interfered
with to any considerable extent by plasmolysis phenomena,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 831

The action of artificial digestive fluid is not very reliable as affording a clue to
the nature of the central body, although it often helps to render its structure more
clearly visible when the cells are subsequently stained.

3. Some Botanical Photographs from the Malay Peninsula.
By R. H. Yapp.

4. The Diameter Increment of Trees. By A. W. Borruwicx, B.Sc.

There are two methods by which the rate of growth in thickness or diameter
increment of trees can be ascertained. One of these methods is to measure
annually or at certain intervals the diameter or circumference by means of tree
eallipers or a tape. The only other method of investigating the diameter incre-
ment on standing trees is by means of a very useful instrument known as Pressler’s
increment-borer. By means of this instrument cylinders of wood, about a quarter
of an inch in diameter and from two to six inches long—according to species—can
be extracted, and upon those the breadth of the year-rings measured. In order to
allow for any irregularity of growth it is safer to take the mean of four cylinders,
one from each end of two diameters at right angles to each other. The great
difference between the two methods is that the latter requires only a few minutes,
while the former requires years to give reliable results. It is therefore of some
interest and importance to know how the results got by both methods agree. But
unfortunately, in very few cases have careful measurements extending over a lone
period of time been carried out. In fact, in the whole history of British arbori-
culture there is no other place where more extensive and careful records have been
kept than in the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. So far back as the year
1875 the late Sir Robert Christison began a series of systematic girth measure-
ments on marked trees in the garden, and since his death in the year 1882 these
observations have been carried on by Dr. David Christison, who has recently
Tate some of his interesting results in the ‘Notes from the Royal Botanic

xarden,’

Through the kindness of Professor Bayley Balfour I have had the rare oppor-
tunity of testing whether the increment-borer would yield the same, or approxi-
mately the same, results as the tape. On comparing the results obtained by both
methods it was extremely interesting to find how closely they coincided. The
actual figures are not the same, because the borings were not taken at the same
level as the tape measurements. They were purposely taken slightly higher or
lower, as seemed expedient, in order not to interfere with the marked circum-
ference measured by Dr. Christison. Although the actual figures for each year
do not coincide, the mean or average for a period of five or ten years does
correspond very closely.

5. On the Absorption of Ammonia from Polluted Sea-water by the Ulva
latissima. Sy Professor Letts, D.Sc, Ph.D., and Joun Haw-
THORNE, 5.A.

In a previous research' it was shown that the occurrence of this sea-weed in
quantity in a given locality is associated with the pollution of the sea-water by
sewage, the evidence being of three kinds: (1) The high proportion of nitrogen
contained in the tissues of the u/va; (2) an examination of certain localities in
which the sea-weed occurs in abundance, and of others from which it is virtually
absent ; and (3) experiments on the assimilation of nitrogenous compounds by the
growing wva from sea-water artificially polluted.

Commencing these latter experiments somewhat cautiously, it was first

1 B.A, Report,1900, and Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1901, p. 268.

832 REPORT—1901.

proved that all the ammonia was removed from a sample of sea-water considered
to be somewhat highly polluted (0°046 part ammonia per 100,000) by a few
days’ contact with the sea-weed. Next it was found that the absorption occurred
in less than twenty-four hours, while later experiments have shown that the
remarkable power of assimilating ammonia which the sea-weed possesses had been
altogether underestimated, as well as the rapidity with which the absorption
occurs. ‘The method of experiment was that previously employed. A sample of
the polluted sea-water was first analysed and placed in a glass dish. Next a frond
of the ulva was immersed in it, and finally portions of the sea-water withdrawn
and again analysed after suitable intervals. Two different series of experiments
were made, the first with a solution of ammonium chloride in pure sea-water, and
the second with a mixture of sea-water and the effluent resulting from the
treatment of sewage by the so-called ‘Bacteria Beds.’ All the experiments in the
first series were made with the same piece of sea-weed, which had an area of
about 200 square inches; and a similar remark applies to the second series, in
which, however, several pieces of sea-weed were used having a total area of about
600 square inches. Individual experiments in both series were made to test the
absorptive power of the z/va in relation to concentration (of the ammonia), as well
as the effects of light and darkness, The following table gives the chief results
obtained :—

Absorption af Ammonia by Ulva latissima from—

|
Solution of Ammonium Chloride and Sea-water Mixture of Bacteria Bed Effluent and Sea-water |
(Area of Fronds 200 Square Inches) (Area of Fronds 600 Square Inches) |
(Volume of Mixture, 2} Litres) (Volume of Mixture, 24 Litres) |
4 Sereil
Parts | Percentage of Ammonia =| Parts Percentage of Ammonia
42| of Am- | Absorbed after HS of Am- Absorbed after
«, &| monia | ‘S| monia
Sol ado BS 100,000
62! 100,000 , a be | S| 100.0 Heh ab ins |
A Sotliquid) 2 | 2 | 2 | 8 g Ay lofliquial 8 | 3 | 2 z\ Eg |
f]) origin- | SN Oy ie) cera: sla In |o @ origin-| 4/9) 8/ 8] 8 In
aly |2|R |) Re ls | aly | |e) |e |
present | ™ | % | co a ae a 'A_ | present aay bisa pes | 3
1A eo re 81 | 91 i 1m} 0°084 | 64 | 82 | 91 | |
! "085 | 5 ‘ — | — as OF f 82 | 91} — | — : |
5a| 0-180 | 58 | 88 | 96} 97 | —j \Davtght. «| gx} oie | 59 | 86 | 96 | 98 | 90 Daylight.
4a] 0:085 | 37 | 77 | 87 | 91 | — iaiaiess 3n| 0080 | 18} 45 | 58 |} — | a)" |
7a| 0-90 | 29 | 44 | 56 | 67 | 75$ (Darkness. | gn} o-n9s | 58 | 79 | 87 | 94 96+ Darkness.
ae eee coe ge| 0532 | 43 | 63 | 73| 98 | —) | |
| | |

The general conclusions to be drawn from the experiments are as follows :—

(1) The absorption of ammonia by the sea-weed is very rapid, and with the
mixtures used practically all the ammonia was absorbed in five hours (with one
exception, when 75 per cent. was lost).

(2) The amount absorbed is greatest during the first hour of contact, and then
rapidly falls off.

(3) Although the concentration of the ammonia exercises some effect on the
proportion absorbed, it is by no means so considerable as might have been expected.

(4) The sea-weed absorbs ammonia both in daylight and in darkness, but the
proportion in the latter case is rather less than in the former,

(5) The effects of an increased area of the sea-weed on the proportion of
ammonia absorbed are not so great as might have been expected.

These results may be of practical importance in those districts where a serious
nuisance results from the decay of large quantities of the wlva which have been
washed ashore, or which have accumulated in shallow water. For it seems probable
that by allowing the effluent from the bacterial treatment of sewage (which
treatment gets rid of much of the ammonia originally present) to remain in
contact with the growing wlva in specially constructed ponds containing sea-water,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Kk. 833

before discharging it into the sea itself, the ammonia or nitrate will be absorbed, and
that the mixture of effluent and sea-water will then no longer provide nourishment
for the wlva in the sea itself, and that consequently the sea-weed will be so much
reduced in quantity in the district as to cease to give rise to a nuisance.

The stimulating effects of the ammonia or effluent were evident from the rapid
evolution of oxygen from the surface of the sea-weed, which always occurred about
fifteen minutes after the addition of the polluting substance, and forms a pretty
experiment. f ;

In two cases the dissolved gases were extracted from the sea-water in which
the wlva was immersed (by boiling out with dilute sulphuric acid 7m vacuo) imme-
diately after adding the polluting material, and again some hours later, and
analyses made. The following results were obtained :—

Experiment 54 (Daylight).

Immediately after adding
Ammonium Chloride

(0°180 part per 100,000) Four Hours Later.
(c.c. per Litre at N.T.P.)
T=14-4 T=15:9
CO,... 21°69 5 : : : ; : é 15°90
Opetel oy ere ae te Peake a Brel
SY Cae ene ae ee 9°88
Loss of CO,= 5°79 c.c, Gain of 0,=3'43 c.c,

(About 2 c.c. of evolved oxygen gas were also collected.)

Experiment 88 (Darkness).
Immediately after adding

Effluent Four Hours Later.
(20 per cent.)
T= 14:6 T'=14'8
CO... «. 63°59 , : A ; : ; ‘i 66°44
Oo ea Giol ‘ F : ; ‘ i ; 3°85
Nee SO : ‘ : p : F ? 11:74
Gain of CO, = 2°85 c.c. Loss of O,= 2°46 c.c.

In 5a the wlva had been iv contact with the sea-water for a considerable time,
whereas in 88 fresh sea-water was used.

The above analyses are interesting in several ways. First, in Experiment 5a,
the amount of oxygen found is greatly in excess of the value given by Dittmar
in the ‘ Challenger’ Reports for the volume of oxygen which one litre of sea-
water can take up when saturated with constantly renewed air at the existing
temperature, Dittmar’s figure for 15° C. being 5°83 c.c. The action of the wlva
is therefore, in a sense, to supersaturate the sea-water with oxygen under the
existing conditions.

Secondly, the amount of carbonic anhydride found (in the same experiment) is
much less than that present in normal sea-water, Dittmar’s average for the total
volume in sea-water being about 48 c.c. per litre, of which in all probability some
40 c.c, are in the form of soluble bicarbonate of calcium or magnesium. It is
evident therefore that the «va gains its carbon from the carbonic anhydride of
these salts.

Thirdly, the results of the experiment in darkness demonstrate in an interest-
ing manner the true respiration of the wlva, carbonic anhydride being evolved in
practically the same amount as the oxygen disappearing.

6. Notes on Stellaria holostea and Allied Species. By JoHN PatTERson.

Biology.—The shoots appear in early spring before the development of the
grasses. The leaves are arranged parallel to the stem axis in bud condition. They
open out and grasp the leaves of the grasses and other herbage as these develop,

834 REPORT—1901.

being thus delicately balanced. The ieaves are elastic and tend to return to their
original position when displaced.

The young shoots are rigid, but the older parts become elastic and flexible, so
that the stem is kept erect by the leaves clinging to other plants, and falls down
when detached. When the plant withers in autumn the stems fall to the ground
and continue their growth by buds which arise alternately in the axils of some of
the leaves; the branches are thus able to extend over a large area in a manner
which would be impossible if they remained erect.

Anatomy.—The epidermis has cuticularised walls. The cortex is turgid, con-
sisting of large cells with strengthening tissue at the corners, which act like pillars,
keeping the central cylinder stretched out.

The endodermis is very distinct. The pericycle and tissue formed from it are
several cells thick.

There are six vascular bundles separated by primary medullary rays.
There are pith cells, but the stem is hollow in the centre. In an older stem the
cortex withers and becomes detached from the central cylinder, though the
ruptured endodermis cells still persist, and the central cylinder then contracts and
the vascular bundles become consolidated, whilst the primary medullary rays
become more or less obliterated. A continuous cork sheath, several layers thick,
is then formed from the pericycle. Adventitious roots arise at the nodes of the
older stems.

The arrangements in Séellaria graminea, S. uliginosa, S. media, S, nemorum,
S. glauca, and other Caryophyllacee are shortly compared.

7. The Morphology of the ‘ Flowers’ of Cephalotaxus.
By W. C. WorsDE.L.

Mate ‘ Flowers,

Comparison of structure with that of the allied genera Ginkgo, Taxus, Torreya,
Phyllocladus. “istory of views on subject: Eichler and Celakovshy.

Female ‘ Flowers,

Account of comparative structure of normal ‘ flower.’ History of views on sub-
ject: Lichler, Strasburger, Van Tieghem, Celakovsky. Author considers the view
on the morphology held by last-mentioned writer as the only tenable one.

_ Original observations on proliferated inflorescences and ‘ flowers.’ Proliferation
of both primary and secondary (‘floral’) axes occurs. Latter consists in elongation
_ ofan axillary axis on which the two ovules are situated laterally, and which may
produce rudimentary foliar organs both above and below insertion of ovules.
Ovules may also appear as rudimentary foliar organs borne on the axillary axis.
This fact appears to author to refute the axial theory of ovule of Kichler and
Strasburger, and to support the foliolar theory of same put forward by Celakovsky.
Value of metamorphogenesis as an aid to determining morphology of any recondite
structure is illustrated in case of Cephalotaxus.

8. The Morphology of the Ovule. An Historical Sketch.
By W. C. WorsDELL.

Three principal views as to morphology of ovule have been held :—

1. Axial Theory.

On this theory the ovule is an organ of axial structure, the nucellus represent-
ing a bud, and the integuments the first-formed foliar organs thereof. Chief pro-
pounders of this view, vor Mohl (1851), Schacht (1859), Endlicher and Unger
(1843), Alex. Brawn (1860). : }

ae

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K, 835

2. Folhiolar Theory.

On this theory the ovule is homologous with a Jdeaflet of a carpel, viz., the
integuments with the terminal and two lateral segments of the leaflet, and the
nucellus with an emergence borne on the upper or ventral surface of the former ;
the nucellus is thus directly homologous with an eusporangium, such as that of
Angiopteris. Primitive position of nucellus or sporangium is termnal to leaflet,
as is case in normal ovule, where the homologue of leaflet of carpel takes the
form of one or two urceolate envelopes. Case of Ferns where sporangium is
usually borne on lower surface of leaflet is an instance of progressive metamor-
phosis from the primitive condition; here the green leaflet, or its receptacular
representative, is the homologue of the outer integument of the ovule, and the in-
dusium of the inner integument of the latter. The leptosporangium of most
ferns is the result merely of the ultimate subdivision of the eusporangium, and is
homologous with a ¢richome. The abnormalities resulting from the metamorpho-
genesis of the parts of the ovule are the decisive and only reliable sources for
determining the true morphology of the ovule. Chief propounders of this theory

are Brongniart (the founder, 1834); Cramer (1864), Celakovshy (1874-1900),

Eichler (1875), Warming (1878). Of these, Gelakovsky is responsible for the
formulation of the theory as above summarised.

5. Sui generis Theory.

This theory holds that the sporangium, with its homologue the nucellus, is an
organ sué generis, and cannot be included under any of the morphological categories
of stem, root, leaf, or trichome. The integuments are new structures arising on the
sporangium or nucellus. The abnormalities are of no permanent value for deter-
mining the morphological relationships of the parts concerned. The chief up-
holders of this view are Sachs (1874), Goebel (1887), Schmitz (1872), Strasburger
(1879), Bower (1894).

9. The Histology of the Sieve Tubes of Pinus. By A. W. Hit.

The sieve tubes of Gymnosperms have been previously investigated by De
Bary, Janczewski, Russow, Keinitz-Gerloff, and Strasburger especially with refer-
ence to the structure of the sieve plate and the mode of communication between
adjoining sieve tubes.

The present researches have proved that the results obtained by Russow are, in
the main, correct ; for it has been found, as he describes, that the mature sieve
plate is traversed by groups of callus rods, which are interrupted at the middle
lamella by median nodules, and that each callus rod contains from three to seven
striz—or spots if examined in surface view—which are strings of slime.

With questions of development Russow was not very successful, and it is with
them that the chief interest of the research lies.

The youngest sieve plates or pit-closing membranes, which could be examined,
showed ‘connecting threads’ like those in ordinary tissue; but in the so-called
‘boundary cells ’—2.e., the youngest thick-walled sieve tubes—a change takes place,
namely, the appearance of the callus. Callus first appears on one surface of the
sieve plate, at the places where the groups of ‘connecting threads’ occur, and it
gradually spreads as a rod along a group of the threads to the middle lamella; a
similar change then takes place on the other side of the lamella. The lamella
itself, however, is not converted into callus, but a refractive median nodule appears
separating the two portions of the callus rod.

Accompanying this change the protoplasmic threads become converted into
slime strings. A similar state of things obtains in part with the sieves between
the sieve tubes and the albuminous cells.

The changes just described are without doubt due to the action of fer-
ments, which travelling along the threads convert them into slime strings and
at the same time alter the cellulose portion of the pit-closing membrane in their

836 REPORT —1901.

neighbourhood into callus, forming the callus rods. The subsequent increase of
the callus to form the callus cushions is due to the activity of the protoplasm.

10, Report on Fertilisation in Phwophycec.—See Reports, p. 448.

ll. Report on the Morphology, Ecology, and Taxonomy
of the Podostemacec.—See Reports, p. 447.

PRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
The following Papers were read :—

1, On Correlation in the Growth of Roots and Shoots.
By Professor L. Kyy.

_ The objections made to the author's former paper on the same subject! by
Heering ® are here criticised. If in his first paper he only gave the final result of
his experiments and not the detailed steps by which the first result was brought
about, he did so because the removal of the root or of the shoot from the seed-
lings must at first cause a shock to the organism and disturb its development,
quite independent of any correlation. This anticipation was shown to be true by
the careful studies of Townsend.?

Of the experiments which he made after the publication of his first paper he
quotes one with respect to cuttings of Ampelopsis quinguefolia. From this
experiment it follows that, just as in the cuttings of Salix acuminata and
S. purpurea, the continual removal of the young shoots was soon followed by a
less vigorous development of roots, and vice versa. There is, however, this differ-
ence to be noted, that, whereas in Saliz the retarding influence is to be detected
first in the roots, in Ampelopsis there are the shoots, which in this case proved
themselves to be more sensitive than the roots.

The paper will be published in full in the ‘ Annals of Botany.

2. Lhe Bromesand their Brown Rust. By Prof. MarsHatt Waxp, F.2.S.

The author has been for some time occupied with the grasses of the genus
Bromus and the behaviour of the uredo of the brown rust (Puccinia dispersa)
upon them. The work has entailed careful examination of the seeds and seedlings
ofa large number of European and foreign Bromes and critical analyses of the
anatomical and morphological characters used in the systematic botany of the
group,

The plan of the investigation includes the nature of infection and conditions
of attack, and all discoverable relations between host and parasite.

The germination of the grass seeds has led to interesting points. They can be
treated antiseptically in various ways and grown as pure cultures in nutritive
solutions in glass tubes of various shapes, designed either to allow of the continuous
aération of the plantlet by a current of filtered air drawn through by aspirators, or
not.

Such pure cultures of the grass were then infected with uredo-spores, and in ten
to twelve days gave rise to pure cultures of the uredo, which germinated and infected
other similarly pure cultures of the grass inoculated with them. Control cultures

1 Ann, Bot., viii, 1894, p. 265, 2 Jahrb. f. w. Bot., s3iz. 1896, p 132.
* Ann. Bot., 31. 1897, p. 609 £.

a7

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 837

in tubes, but not infected, gave rise to no uredo, even if raised from the seeds of
diseased plants. The pustules of uredo only originate at that spot on the leaves
where the uredo-spores were sown.

These results lend no support, therefore, to any hypothesis of internal or
seminal infection.

Long series of sowings were made to test the conditions of germination of
the uredo-spores, for, strange as it may seem, little attention has been paid to this
matter. The minima and maxima temperatures of germination are about 10° C. and
27°5C. respectively, the optimum being about 18°C. Many failures in infections
are due to the non-germination of the spores in hot weather.

The effects of light, of other organisms (¢.g., Algwe), of various extracts, and of
the age of spores, &c., were also examined.

The uredo-spores may be frozen for ten minutes, but will not recover after two
hours’ freezing.

Infection experiments on pot plants were made—several hundreds in all—
on twenty-one species or varieties of Bromus.

The general results are, put very shortly, as follows: Although the uredo
examined is in all morphological respects absolutely identical on all the species of
Bromus on which it occurs, nevertheless if spores gathered from B. sterilis are
sown on B. mollis the infection fails, whereas spores of the same batch sown on
B. sterilis infect normally and rapidly. And similarly in other cases. Spores from
B. mollis readily infect B. mollis, and (less certainly) its allies B. secalinus and
B. velutinus, B. arvensis and others of the Serrafalcus group; but they fail on B.
mavimus, B. tectorum, B. sterilis, B. madritensis, &c.—the Stenobromus group—and
so with other cases,

[TABLEs I, and II.]

In the annexed tables (I. and II.) are tabulated the results obtained in seven
of the experimental series, The tables explain themselves, but it may be well to
note that the species of Bromus employed as host-plants have here been arranged
in similar order throughout in order to facilitate comparison. Thus B. erectus to
B, ciliatus are representatives of the first group (Festucoides); B. tectorum to
B. maximus, inclusive, of the second group (Stenobromus); B. secalinus to B.
macrostachys, inclusive, of the third group (Serrafalcus) ; and B. unioloides, with
which &. Schraderi is synonymous, of the fifth group (Ceratochioa). The author
has not yet had time to examine B. arduennensis (fourth group), and in a few
cases the series of experiments are too few for any statements of value as to details.
But it seems clear that the general statement is sufficiently proved as regards
groups 2 and 3 at least.

The series selected for tabulation in the foregoing tables are only a few taken
from the numerous sets of similar experiments. ‘This is hardly the place for
reproduction of many other details, but in order to give some idea of the enormous
amount of labour involved in such an investigation, another table (III.) is appended
giving a summary of all the series of this season’s pot-plants under normal condi-
tions only, exclusive cf experiments with tubes and with extraordinary conditions
such as diminished mineral supplies, and so forth.

Here, again, it will be seen that the general accuracy of the conclusions put
forth is fully evident, though a detailed examination of the series—conditions of
infection, incubation, &c.—is necessary for the explanation of one or two apparent
discrepancies—e.y., to explain why the percentage of failures was so high with B.
velutinus infected with spores from B. secalinus. These matters must be left for
future treatment, and in some cases for further experiments next season.

[TABLE III.]

Thus, in the annexed Table III. we see that eighty-five plants of B. madlis were
inoculated with uredo-spores derived from B. modZis, of which sixty (over 70 per
cent.) gave positive results, z.¢., actuallydeveloped pustules at the spots inoculated ;
but it should be noted that in many cases here recorded as failures--hecause I put

1901. 31

838 REPORT—1901.

as negative all cases where no pustules appear—distinct flecks were formed on the
leaves ; eighty-four plants of the same species (L. mollis) were inoculated with spores
derived from B. stertlis but none succeeded, and eight were tried with spores from
B. secalinus, of which three (37°5 per cent.) succeeded and five failed.

Again, looking at B. sterzdis, we find that eighty-six out of ninety attempts to
infect this species with spores from B. mollis failed, whereas sixty-eight out of
eighty-four (81 per cent.) attempts to inoculate the same species succeeded when
the spores used were derived also from ZB. sterilis. All the eighteen plants inocu-
lated with spores from ZL. secalinus proved immune.

Having regard to the morphological groups of these Bromes, it is found that
any given species or variety is most easily infected by spores which have been
grown on the same species or variety, less certainly by spores from allied species,
and not at all successfully by spores from a species in another group. Some in-
teresting details regarding the relations between host and parasite in infection are
also to hand. :

Three stages of development on the part of. the uredo must be distinguished :
(1) The germination of the spore and development of the germ-tube; (2) the en-
trance of the latter as an infection-tube through the stoma of the grass; and (3)
the growth of the latter into a branched mycelium in the intercellular spaces of
the host, into the cells of which it sends haustoria, and finally—about the tenth
day after sowing—again puts forth spores as it breaks out through the stomata in
the form of the well-known rust-pustules. This last period may be termed the
incubation period.

The author finds that various exigencies, especially of the weather, affect the
fungus during each of these three periods.

Infection may fail because the temperature is too high or too low during the
germination period, or the germ-tubes may dry up, or be killed in other ways.

On reaching a stoma the successful entrance of the germ-tube, as an infecting
tube, depends on yarious factors, of which the specific nature of the Brome attacked
is an important one. Taking spores derived from ZB. mollis, for example, their
germ-tubes appear to so corrode and destroy the tissues of B. sterilis that the spot
where the sowing is made turns black and dies, and no successful infection occurred ;
on B. maximus, B. inermis, and others, on the other hand, no successful attack is,
as a rule, established at all.

Even when the infecting tube has established an entrance, several events may
intervene to prevent successful infection; z.c.,the formation of a normal inter-
cellular mycelium which dominates the tissues and ultimately breaks forth from
the stomata again as pustules with fresh crops of uredo-spores.

If the host is starved of carbohydrates by partial etiolation, or of minerals by
lack of supplies in the soil, or by interference with the transpiration, &c., the
mycelium—even in a species normally quite suitable to the parasite—only drags
on a miserable existence and has not strength to form spores. In such cases
nothing further results than the development of pale, feeble flecks on the leaf.
The same thing occurs in some partially immune species, even though flourishing,
one owing to the refusal of the cells to allow the mycelium to dominate
their lite,

These antagonistic reactions of the host-plant are not due to any structural
peculiarities discoverable by the microscope; nor is it a simple matter of the
excretion of any poisonous soiuble constituent of the sap, judging from the experi-
ments in which uredo-spores derived, for example, from B. mollis germinated
satisfactorily in both boiled and unboiled aqueous extracts of the leaves ot B. sterilis,
which had been previously filtered through stone filters under pressure. In addi-
tion to the case of successful and normal infection, therefore, three distinct cases
of failure to infect can be distinguished: (1) in which the preliminary establish-
ment of an infecting mycelium is assured, but this remains dormant, z.e., fails to
dominate the living cells of the leaf, and only a pale yellowish fleck results; (2) in
which the attack of the germ-tube is so vigorous that it kills the guard-cells and
tissues, and produces a black corrosion spot. in which the parasite can make no
progress ; (3) complete immunity ; the parasite fails to get any hold on the leaf

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 839

at all, and the latter is as green and healthy-looking at the end of the normal
incubation period as before inoculation.

These observations lend no support to either the Mycoplasm theory of Eriksson,
or to any theory which attempts to explain outbreaks of rust to intra-seminal
infection handed down fromm parent to offspring, and the author believes that the
difficulties hitherto met with in understanding the sudden epidemics of these
rust-diseases will disappear as we gain exact information of the conditions of
germination, infection, and incubation of the disease-producing parasite ; as also
of its habits of lurking in the older leaves of the grass in spots where the produc-
tion of a very few spores—quite invisible on a casual overhauling of the grass—
prepares the way for more extensive infection as the weather changes.

On the other hand, they throw considerable light on the question of adaptive
parasitism, and show that the previous nutrition of the uredo-spores affects their
parasitic power, with regard to another host-species, in much the same way that
the previous nutrition affects any other disease germ—e.y., certain bacteria—or
even saprophytes—e.y., certain yeasts and fungi. If only one in a million of the
spores once manages to gain a hold on a species or variety hitherto immune, its spore
progeny can now successfully attack that species or variety ; and in proportion as it
becomes more and more specially adapted to life in the tissues of this new host
will it find difficulties in going back to its old host or forwards to another, and
so on.

3. The Past History of the Yew in Great Britain and Ireland.}
By Professor H. Conwentz, Danzig.

Many years ago the author studied the distribution of this species, and he has
inquired as to the causes of its disappearance in nearly all the countries of the
middle and north of Europe; also in the British Isles. It is his opinion that
there are three points which prove a previous wider distribution, viz., sub-fossil
remains, prehistoric and historic antiquities, and place-names. By microscopical
examination he has found a great number of sub-fossil yew trees from submerged
forests and other localities in England and Ireland. Then he has examined the
prehistoric wooden boxes, buckets, &c., in the British Museum, London, in the
Science and Art Museum, Dublin, &c., and he has identified more than thirty
with Tavs. Attention is drawn to the names of uninhabited places, which in
‘former times were very often called after indigenous trees. He has made out a
number of some hundreds of English, Scottish, and especially of Irish place-
names from the yew which are not unworthy of being considered by botanists.
Guided by the names of such localities in Germany, he has dug into the ground,
and has found sub-fossil remains of the yew. Therefore he has suggested
researches of this kind also in the British Isles, and he would be glad to get small
pieces of bog wood for examination.

The genus is not of a considerable geological age, as nearly all Tertiary
remains described under the name of Taxus are not yew.

4. Onthe Distribution of Certain Forest Trees in Scotland, as shown by the
Investigation of Post-Glacial Deposits. By W.N. Niven.

The information has been chiefly obtained from occasional references in many
topographical books of Scotland to the discovery of various trees in particular

districts.
The following are some of the volumes (about seventy in number) from which

information has heen derived :—

‘New Statistical Account.’ 15 volumes. 1848,
‘Old Statistical Account.’ 21 volumes. 1791-99.

! The paper will be published by the Royal Irish Academy.
312

840 REPORT—1901.

‘A Practical Treatise on Peat Moss.’ Anderson. 1794.

‘Edinburgh Philosophical Journal’ Volumes iii., vii.

‘Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.’ Volume ix.

‘Transactions of the Inverness Scientific Society.’ Volume iii.

‘Vertebrate Fauna of Moray.’

‘Caimgorm Club Journal.’

‘ Pennant’s Tour in Scotland.” 1769,

‘ Woods, Forests, and Estates of Perthshire.’ Thos, Hunter.

‘Transactions of the Buchan Field Club.’ Volume iv.

‘Transactions of the Dumfries and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian
Society.’

f Kennls of Scottish Natural History.’ Nos. 23-26.

‘Tour through Orlmey and Shetland.’ George Low. 1774,

“My Schools and Schoolmasters.’ Hugh Miller.

‘Edinburgh and its Neighbourhood. Hugh Miller.

‘Origin of the British Flora.’ Clement Reid.

‘Great Ice Age.’ Prof. James Geikie.

‘Prehistoric Exrope.’ Prof. James Geile.

And others.

The following trees have been discovered :—Hawthorn, elder, common ash,
birch, alder, hazel, oak, willow, yew, and fir, all of which, with the exception of
the ash, are considered natives of Scotland. The cones of the silver fir have been
dug out of the peat in Orkney, but this tree is not now indigenous to Scotland.
Several shrubs, including the juniper and raspberry, as well as many flowering
plants, have also been discovered. ;

On a map prepared by the author the localities are marked where the various
trees have been found. The records are probably not complete, but are sufficient
to show the distribution.

It will be seen that there are few parts of Scotland, however treeless at the
present day, that were not in remote, and even in comparatively recent times
covered with woodlands, ‘This is also shown by the place-names. As regards
the special trees :—

The oak is very widely distributed. Its most northern occurrence is Caithness-
shire, and it is recorded in every other county. It has even been found in the
peat bogs in the now treeless islands of Lewis and Tiree.

Tt is interesting to note that many of the oaks have been found at high altitudes,
e.g., 800 feet above sea-level (parish of Croy, Inverness-shire), and of considerable
size, e.g., 70 feet in length (Drumcrief).

The Scots fir, probably the Pinws sylvestris, is another widely distributed tree.
Tt is common in the Northern Counties, in the Orkneys and Lewis, in all the
Midland Counties, with the exception of Forfar and FVife, but in the Southern
Counties it is only recorded in Renfrew, Edinburgh, Roxburgh, Dumfries, and
Wigtown.

The hazel has been found in the submerged forests, and in many other parts of
the mainland, as well as in the Orkney and Shetland Islands and in many of the
Western Isles. No record has been found of its occurrence in Sutherland, but
throughout the Midlands it is fairly plentiful, and in the Lowlands it has been
noted in all the counties, with the exception of Haddington, Linlithgow, Selkirk,
Dumfries, and Wigtown.

The birch is recorded in the Orkney and Shetland Islands, and in the majority
of the counties from Caithness to Wigtown.

Regarding the other trees few records have been discovered. The alder is
yecorded from Lewis, Banff, Aberdeen, Kincardine, Perth, Fife, Argyll, Lanark,
and Edinburgh. Willows (species unknown) are noted in both Caithness and
Sutherland. They have also been obtained from the peat bogsin Renfrew, Lanark,
and Roxburgh. The ash is generally regarded as a probable native in the south
of Scotland.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 841

Hugh Miller, in ‘Edinburgh and its Neighbourhood,’ makes reference to finding
‘ what appears to be ash’ in the brickclays of Portobello, It is also recorded from
the mosses in Ballantrae, Ayrshire,! and Bowden Parish, Roxburghshire.* Then,
again, many of the implements found in Southern Crannogs are reported to be
made of ash wood, but it must also be regarded as indigenous in Northern Scotland
if we accept its occurrence in the Bay of Keiss, Caithness-shire, mentioned by the
writer on Caithness in the ‘ New Statistical Account’ (vol. xv. p. 129).

The only records of the occurrence of the hawthorn, yew, and elder have been
obtained from Edinburghshire.

Tn conclusion, the evidence, which is obtained by the examination of the various
post-Glacial deposits, indicates in a very clear manner that the trees recorded should
be considered truly indigenous to Scotland.

5, Professor J. ReyNoups Green, IZA., FR.S., delivered a Lecture on
Flesh-eating Plants,

6. Contributions to our Knowledge of the Gametophyte in the Ophioglossales
and Lycopodiales. Dy Wiuuiam EH. Lane, .B., D.Sc.

1. The prothalli of Ophioglossum pendulum and Helminthostachys zeylanica.

The wholly saprophytic prothallus of O. pendulum was found in humus collected
by epiphytic ferns in Ceylon. It is at first button-shaped, but by branching the
older prothalli come to consist of a number of short cylindrical branches radiating
into the humus. The apices are smooth and convex; the surface of the older
parts is covered with short unicellular hairs. Rhizoids are absent. The young
prothallus and the branches are radially symmetrical. In the older parts all the
cells except the superficial layers contain an endophytic fungus ; nearer the apex
the central strand of tissue becomes free from fungus. The prothallus is moncecious,
The antheridia are sunken, with a slightly convex outer wall one layer of cells
thick; in surface view this shows a triangular opercular cell. The neck of the
archegonium, which projects very slightly, consists of about sixteen cells in four
rows. The central series in all archegonia yet observed consists of ovum anda
single canal cell. A basal cell is present.

The prothalli of Helminthostachys were found a few inches below the surface
of the soil in a frequently flooded jungle in Ceylon. The sporophyte is also
abundant in drier situations, but young plants found there were of vegetative
origin, The prothalli, which have not been observed to branch, are radially
symmetrical. The smallest were stout cylindrical structures the lower part ot
which was darker in tint and bore rhizoids; the upper bore the sexual organs,
which arise acropetally behind the conical apical region. In the vegetative region
the internal cells contain a mycorhizal fungus ; in older prothalli this may extend
into the lower part of the sexual region. In prothalli which bear archegonia the
vegetative region is relatively more developed, and in both these and the male
prothalli it becomes more or less lobed. An imperfect distinction of male and
female prothalli appears to be the rule, but both archegonia and antheridia may
occur on the same prothallus. The antheridia are large and sunken; the slightly
convex outer wall is two-layered except at the places where dehiscence may occur,
which consist of single large cells. The archegonia have a neck, consisting of four
rows of cells, which projects considerably. The details of their structure have
not as yet been made out,

2. On the mode of occurrence of the prothallus of Lycopodium selayo at Clova.

The sporophyte of this plant is very common on moors, screes, and crags in the
Clova valley, and in these situations seems to be reproduced almost entirely by

) New Statistical Account, vol. v, p. 417. ? Ibid, vol. iii. p. 36,

842 REPORT—1901.

means of bulbils. On the sometimes submerged margin of Loch Brandy, however,
numerous sexually produced plants and prothalli can be found growing in the soil
between the stones. The difference in the conditions under which the sporophyte
ean exist and those necessary for the successful germination of the spores is
analogous to what has been found to be the case for Helminthostachys,

8. On some large prothalli of Lycopodium cernuum.

The prothalli of this plant, described by Treub, were of small size, one of the
largest measuring 2 mm. in height by 1 mm. across. On the banks of roads close
to Kuala Lumpur much larger prethalli were found. They were calke-like
structures, of a deep velvety green colour, about 2 mm. in vertical thickness, but
measuring sometimes 6 mm. across: they were attached to the soil by numerous
rhizoids springing from the flat base. Such specimens have lost all trace of the
definite form which sometimes characterises the smaller prothalli, and are of
interest for comparison with the large prothallus next described.

4, On the prothallus of Pstlotum.

The prothallus of this plant was searched for without success in Ceylon. The
sporophyte occurred on tree-fern trunks on Maxwell’s Hill in Perak, and a single
prothallus was found there embedded among the roots of the tree-fern close to a
Psilotum plant. No other plants grew on this tree-fern, and, although a few
species of Lycopodium occur sparingly in the locality, there seems a strong
probability in favour of this specimen being the prothallus of Pstlotum. The
specimen measured one quarter of an inch in height by ;°; inch across at the
widest part. It consists of a cylindrical lower region covered with rhizoids ;
near the lower end of this is a well-marked conical projection (primary tubercle).
The upper part widens out suddenly, and its thick overhanging margin bears
numerous antheridia. The summit of the prothallus is depressed and smooth. In
general form the prothallus resembles some small specimens of Lyecopodiwn
cernuum, but the upper region, from which assimilating lobes are absent, finds its
closest analogue in prothalli of L. elavatum.

7. Note on an Ophioglossum collected by Mr. Ridley.
By Professor F. O. Bowser, /.2.S.

Professor Bower exhibited a specimen of Ophioglossum simplex, n.sp., collected
by Mr. Ridley in Sumatra and handed to the author by Professor P. Groom. It
appears to be entirely without the steri/e leaf-lobe, though the fertile spike is
characteristically that of an Ophioglossum. If it is actually demonstrated that
the sterile lobe is really absent, this peculiar plant may give rise to considerable
morphological discussion.

8. Abnormal Secondary Thickening in Kendrickia Walkeri, /Took. /.
By Miss A. M. Crark.

1. Kendrickia Walkeri, Hook. f., one of the Melastomacez, is a tropical
epiphytic climbiny shrub,

2. The anatomy of the young stem is typical of the family Melastomaceze.

3. Ata fairly early stage numerous small patches and several large wedge-
shaped areas of thin-walled unlignified wood-parenchyma are cut off from the
inner side of the completely circular cambium ring.

4. Tylosis is of frequent occurrence, and the tylosed cells may develop into
sclerotic cells inside the vessels and tracheids.

5. Later the unlignified wood-parenchyma cells at the central margin of the
‘wedge area take upon themselves new growth accompanied by cell division.

The product of this new growth proceeds to split the axial woody ring into a
yarying number of portions, partly by forcing a way between rows of adjoining

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 843

tracheids and partly by tyloses into tracheids and vessels, utilising the space
contained in the lumen, with subsequent destruction of the identity of these wood
elements.

6. Later the quiescent cambium lying between the original internal phloém and
the axial woody ring takes upon itself new growth, and proceeds to lay down
xylem on the one side and phloém on the other.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14,

The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16,

A joint Discussion with Section L on ‘The Teaching of Botany’ was opened
by the reading of the following Papers :—

i. The Teaching of Botany in Schools. By Harotp WacEr.

Discussion is invited on the following topics :—Place of botany in the school
curriculum as compared with chemistry and physics, Its importance as an
educational subject ; as a training in scientific method. Amount of time ayail-
able for it.

Choice of botanical topics suitable for schools. Right selection important. It
is not possible or desirable to explore the whole field of botany, ‘ Intelligent
knowledge of a few truths’ required rather than an imperfect acquaintance with
a yast number of facts. Among the various topics which will be found useful in
the school course, experimental plant physiology, especially in connection with
nutrition, respiration, and transpiration, is probably one of the most valuable. It
affords an excellent training in observation, experimental manipulation, drawing
conclusions from facts observed, weighing evidence for and against them, and in
neatness and accuracy.

Equipment. Simple laboratory and fittings. Class-room accommodation,
Apparatus.

Methods of teaching. The pupil should be led through his own experiments
and observations to come to conclusions for himself. The work done in the
laboratory should precede any discussion of it in the class-room. Experimental
work should not be merely illustrative of the lecture or text-book. As Spencer
says, pupils ‘should be told as little as possible and induced to discover as much
as possible.’ Records of experiments. Importance of drawing. Time required
by the teacher for the preparation of experimental lessons. Field work. Collect-
ing and collections. Models,

ii. The Teaching of Botany in Universities.
Notes by Professor F. O. Bownr.

Preliminaries.—As matters stand at present, no previous study of botany by
the student on entry to the university can be presupposed ; a knowledge of plants
by field collection is, however, most desirable, as well as by such teaching as
suggested by Mr. Wager in schools ; but microscopic work in schools is not to be
encouraged : the time would be better employed in acquiring even the rudiments
of French and German. Thus under present conditions any junior class in
botany in a university will necessarily be mixed, as regards previous knowledge and
scientific method, as much as in intellectual power of the individuals. In

84.4 REPORT—1901.

lecturing aim not at the highest nor the lowest intellects, but so as to keep those
about 20 per cent. down, with their minds at full stretch.

Protest against so-called ‘ elementary biology’ as an introduction to the study
of botany. lt was merely a weak concession to circumstances.

Elementary course should be attended by all, even by those who already
profess some knowledge of the subject acquired at school, for this course should
be a general and methodical foundaticn for the study on the advanced stage,
morphological, anatomical, physiological, and systematic. The length of the
course should be not less than fifty lectures and a hundred hours of laboratory
work closely connected with the subject-matter of the lectures. Observation with
the simple lens and drawing the results should bulk more largely than it does at
present in laboratory teaching. Microscopic observation has been overdone.

Advanced courses should treat of special branches of the science, and not try to
be generally encyclopzedic. Each course should lead the student of that special
branch up to the limit of present knowledge, with ample reference to, and present-
ment of, current memoirs; thus the pupil will be introduced to the special litera-
ture of the science, and learn how to extend it. Laboratory and herbarium and
museum work, ranging over as wide an area of illustration as possible, should
accompany each special course.

Advanced students should be left largely to themselves, and thus learn to think
and act independently: the object of the student attending advanced courses
should be not so much to acquire information, as to learn scientific method, and
how to investigate. Microtomes should be accessories, not the divinities, of the
laboratory.

Research.—All are not, and cannot be, investigators. Professors should be
discreet in encouraging research. At present the results of investigation are given
too prominent a place in selection for preferment. Hence the rush to ‘ investi-
gate’ whether fit for it or not. The result is many barren publications, and some
disappointed lives.

Research should not be begun too early, nor be pursued to the exclusion of
continued general improvement in the science. Professors should have no com-
punction in stopping the unfit.

The presentment of the results of research in good literary form is a first duty
of the investigator; there is too much voiding of mere laboratory notes, and too
much prolix writing; an abstract should always be given. Advocate the study
of classical papers as models.

In the above notes no mention has been made of the general administrative
duties of a professor apart from the teaching of botany,

The following Papers were read :—

1. Notes on Preserving and Preparing Plants for Museum Purposes.
By Hi. F.. Taae.

With the object of rendering the preparations educationally more useful, it has
been the practice in preparing specimens for the Museum of the Royal Botanic
Garden, Edinburgh, to name the different organs by means of labels and pointers
attached to the specimen.

A preparation of the kind was exhibited in 1896, but the many inquiries made
since regarding the preparation of the specimens prompted a general description
of the methods employed along with a statement of the results of some experiments
which led to the adoption of these methods.

I. Methods of Preserving.—Noticing first the characters of plant specimen we
may wish preserved, the separation of these into characters of colour and characters
of form coincides with the separation of the methods of preserving into two groups
—preserving by drying and preserving by means of liquid media. Drying the
plant has proved the only method satisfactory for the preservation of the colours
of plants, but fails commonly when applied to the preservation of the natural form,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 845

Liquid preservatives are invaluable for the preservation of the form, but their use
involves a sacrifice of the natural colours,

Characters of colour, however, have not as a rule the same morphological im-
portance as have characters of form, so that preserving by drying is rarely
resorted to.

Turning to liquid preservatives, all do not preserve the form of plants equally
well, and it is important to distinguish those preserving only the form and shape
of the separate parts from those preserving, not only the form of the separate
organs, but the relationships of the parts to one another also. Expressed con-
eretely, the separate leaves on a twig, their shape, substance, and form, may be
well preserved in a given medium; but unless there is also preserved the correct
angle at which the leaves stand out from the stem, and their relationships to one
another in leaf symmetry, then the preservation of the form of the specimen is of
a limited kind. Again, the value from this point of view of any preservative
differs somewhat according to the character of the specimens to be preserved.
These may be grouped as follows :—

1. Herbaceous plants and organs which in the natural state owe their shape
and firmness to the turgescence of the cells more than to special strengthening
tissues. Such specimens flag and become soft when that turgescence is lost. Lor
these strong alcohol has given by far the best results. It penetrates quickly
and fixes by dehydration the shape and position of the parts before changes due to
loss of turgescence occur. Formaline may preserve well the form of the separate
parts, but the specimen remains soft and the organs flaccid and drooping.

2. Woody structures, twigs, roots, &c. For these alcohol or an aqueovs
medium answers equally well. The choice of one or another is determined by a
consideration of the ultimate method of exhibition.

3. Succulent plants, succulent fruits, and all bulky specimens containing rela-
tively large quantities of water. Alcohol if employed for these often causes
contraction. Formaline or some other aqueous medium is to be preferred, as such
penetrate less readily and exert a less energetic attraction for the contained water.

II. Bleaching.—Specimens which darken in the alcohol or formaline in which
they are preserved are bleached by one or other of the following methods :—
(a) By immersion in hot or boiling water; (b) by means of acid alcohol; (c) by
the use of bleaching solution (hypochlorite of lime). To prevent as far as possible
the darkening in alcohol the specimens are immersed in the preservative as soon as
gathered, and when possible exposed at once to direct sunlight.

Ill. Mounting.—The specimens are attached to thin clear glass by means of
photoxylin or gelatine, the glass being cut to fit the rectangular vessel in which
the specimens are to be exhibited. The back of the vessel is painted a suitable
colour, or coloured glass 1s placed behind the clear glass. Never is the specimen
mounted direct upon blue or opal glass, as this renders impossible a change
of background should the continued bleaching or darkening of the specimen
demand it.

The naming of the parts of the specimen is accomplished as follows :—

1. The parts named are pointed out upon the specimen itself by means of
pointers made of thin glass tubes containing colouring matter to render them
conspicuous ; or

2. A photograph or drawing of the specimen is made, and the names of the
parts indicated upon this. ;

2. The Anatomy of Ceratopteris thalictroides (Brongniart).
By Sysitie O, Forp, Newnham College, Cambridge.

Ceratopteris thalictroides is the single member of the Parkeriaceew. It is an
annual aquatic fern which occurs in the tropics, either rooted in the mud or
floating freely.

The stem is much reduced ; sterile as well as fertile leayes are found, both

846 REPORT—1901.

kinds bearing numerous vegetative buds. The sporangia are scattered on the under
side of the fertile leaves, and have no true indusium. The roots in the mature
plant arise from the bases of the petioles.

The vascular bundles in the petiole are arranged in two concentric rings, the
outer ring being the larger; each individual bundle has a bi-collateral structure.

The stem is polystelic, an outer ring of large steles and an inner group of
smaller ones being found. The structure of each bundle is bi-collateral. In
young stems the steles are all the same size, the bundles of the first leaves and
roots of the young plant being in close connection with those in the stem. The
apex of the stem is in the form of a cone with a three-sided apical cell.

The roots have a single stele and several air-passages. The latter arise as-
splits between cells at a short distance below the three-sided apical cell.

The vegetative buds arise from a single cell. The apical cone is at first very
broad, with a three-sided apical cell. In older buds the apex gradually narrows.

Ceratopteris has more strongly marked affinities with the Polypodiacez than
with any other of the Leptosporangiate ferns. It has slighter affinities with the
Marsiliaces, and may possibly be intermediate in position between these two
orders.

3. An Apparatus for Studying the Rate of Flow of Solutions in Plant
Stems. By Ricuarp J. Anperson, J/.A., M.D., Professor of Natural
History, Queen's College, Galway.

The agents producing the circulation of fluids in plants have been regarded as
mainly physical. Osmosis, capillarity, the removal of the fluid by transpiration,
chemical changes in the tissues and fluids, and, if some biological factors be
added that work out the details of distribution, the agents are well-nigh cata-
logued. Vital force, if one may use the term, and the change from liquid to
gas, and the reversing of this process, have failed to explain the rise of fluid
in stems to a height of 200 to 300 feet above the earth. It is therefore of
interest to study the conditions under which solutions traverse stems, Two
methods of studying the laws of transmission naturally suggest themselves. A
water-head may be secured by placing a box at a level sufficiently high to secure
the desired pressure and a portion of the stem to be examined connected by a
suitable tube to the reservoir; or, imitating the force of transpiration, a suction
force set up by means of an aspirating reservoir may be employed. I have used
the following method: A rod four feet long is fixed at its centre to a rotating
axis. The axis is caused to revolve by a motor (electric preferably). Two stems,
as nearly alike as possible, five-eighths of an inch in diameter at the thickest end
and eight inches long, are taken and connected each to two small bottles or tubes
by caoutchouec. Each bottle has a tube, or second neck, leading to the outer air
to maintain the pressure uniform in the bottles. The tube at the stem pole of one
of the specimens to be examined and that at the root pole of the other are to be
three-quarters filled with weak solution of yellow prussiate of potassium in each
case, or a solution of eosin. A solution of perchloride of iron can be used to test
the stems in the former case. The two stem specimens are now to be fixed to
each side of the rod with the bottles containing the fluids nearest the centre and
at the same distance. An axial reservoir may be substituted for the two inner
bottles. This has been completed, but I have not yet used it. Stems of Ausculus,
Syringa, and Philadelphus have been employed. Solutions pass freely through
stems of Syringa, if the bark be retained, when the rod moves at the rate of ninety
revolutions per minute. In some experiments the flow from the radical to the
apical pole seemed freer. The fluid passed much less freely after removal of the
bark. These statements are only provisional. The following interesting ques-
tions arise: (a) The rate of flow in different stems; (b) the comparison of the
flow from the radical pole of one stem with the flow from the apical pole of
another ; (c) the comparison of the conducting power of the barked stem with
the stem in which the bark is intact; (d) the conducting powers of the different

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 847

tissues ; (e) the influence of lateral pressure; (/) the difference for different
fluids.

4, On the Anatomy of Todea, with an Account of the Geological History
of the Osmundacee. By A. C. Srwarp, /.R.S., and Miss Sypinte
O. Forp.

The anatomical structure of the genus Osmenda has been dealt with by several
writers, and more particularly by Zanetti in an able paper published in the
‘Botanische Zeitung’ for 1895, but the other genus of the Osmundaces has not
received equal attention at the hands of anatomists. Our work, which was under-
taken with a view to discover in what respects Todea differs from Osmunda,
includes the examination of Todea barbara and T. superba, as well as the investi-
gation of series of microtome sections of young plants. The family Osmundace:e
is usually regarded as to some extent intermediate between the Eusporangiate
and Leptosporangiate ferns, and in many respects the two genera Osmunda and
Todea are of interest in regard to the phylogeny of the various divisions of the
Filicine,

The stem of Todea barbara is traversed by a single stele composed of xylem
groups surrounding a central pith and separated from one another by medullary
rays: these groups vary considerably inshape and number at different levels. There
may be as few as two or as many as eight xylem strands in one transverse section
of the stem, while in Osmunda regalis the number is considerably greater. The
xylem strands are surrounded by parenchyma, and the sieve-tube zone occupies
the same position as in Osmunda. This zone, which is continuous in O, regalis, is
oceasionally discontinuous in Yodea opposite some of the xylem strands. The
comparatively large sieve-tubes occur in triangular patches at the outer end of
each medullary ray. A characteristic band of tangentially elongated elements
succeeds the sieve-tube zone, and this is followed externally by a parenchymatous
band, the outermost layer of which constitutes the endodermis. The paper deals
with the phyllotaxis of Todea barbara, the origin of the leaf-traces, and the gradual
alteration in structure which the collateral leaf-trace undergoes as it passes out from
the stele of the stem as a horse-shoe shaped strand with one protoxylem group
and gradually assumes the form of the broadly U-shaped concentric stele or the
petiole with its numerous protoxylem groups. The anatomy of ‘seedling’ plants
of Todea is found to agree with that of Osmunda regalis plantlets as described by
Leclere du Sablon. As bearing on the questions of relative antiquity and phylogeny
of the members of the Filices, we have endeavoured to give an account of the
geological history of the Osmundacee.

5. The Glossopteris Flora of Australia.
By E. A. N. Arser, B.A., Trinity College, Cambridge.

The Glossopteris flora is one of the most remarkable and widely distributed of
fossil floras. Typical members, such as the fern-like plants Gossopteris and
Gangamopteris, with the Hquisetalean genus Phyllotheca, occur in rocks of
Permo-Carboniferous age in India, Australia, South Africa, and South America,
pointing to the former existence of a southern continent whose flora was for the
most part distinct from that of the same age in Europe and North America.

In the Newcastle beds of New South Wales all the typical members of the
flora occur without any admixture of northern types (e.g., Lepidodendron and
Sigillaria), as has been recorded from similar beds in South Africa and South
America. The flora of the Newcastle rocks is interesting botanically both on
account of the wide distribution of the chief members, which show points of
identity and unity in type with those of the Lower Gondwana of India and the
Permian of Russia, and also from the morphological characters presented by many
of the plants themselves. The collection, which forms the subject of these
remarks, is in the Geological Museum, Cambridge, and is noteworthy as being one
of the earliest (1839-44) formed of fossil plants from the continent of Australia,

848 REPORT—-1901.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17,
The following Papers were read :-—

1. Heterogenesis in Conifers. By Dr. T. P. Lotsy.

I am going to give a demonstration of a very interesting fact which is called
heterogenesis by Korschinsky in a lengthy paper which, originally published in
Russian, is now published in German in the last number of ‘ Flora.’

Heterogenesis, mutation, and spontaneous variation are all words for the same
meaning, but the interesting fact about them is that they seem to form at least
one way in which new species can arise. I am first going to show you one
of the original specimens of Capsella Hecgeri, kindly given to me by Professor
Count Solms-Laubach. ‘You will all have read his paper on this subject in the
‘Botanische Zeitung,’ and so I have only to remind you that this species was
discovered in Lindau by Professor Heeger, in the midst of a large community of
Capsella bursa pastoris, and there can be very little doubt that this species has
suddenly arisen from Capsella bursa pastoris. I need not remind you of the fact
that Capsella Heegeri is true to seed: it reproduces Capsella Heegeri, and does
not revert to Capsella bursa pastoris.

Much more elaborate work, though on the question of the origin of species by
means of spontaneous variation, has, as you all know, been done by Hugo de Vries,
who is just publishing his important ‘ Mutationstheorie.’

I need not remind you of his results, especially with Gnothera Lamarckiana,
which species he cultivated for more than fifteen years, and of which he obtained
a number of new species, all suddenly arisen. In his book he calls attention to
the fact that a species apparently can exist for very long periods without ever
forming new species by means of sudden variations, and that then a period may
come during which that species does form new species. If this is true, it goes
without saying that species which are in the period in which they form spontaneous
variations should be observed very carefully, and it is therefore that I want to
call your attention to two genera of Conifers which are in a period of spontaneous
variation, a period in which they do form mutants, to use the terminology of
de Vries, which mutants may be true to seed. I do not say that they are, as the
plants have not yet produced any.

The first species is Cupressus Lawsoniana. Among a large number of seedlings
at least one plant arose which was very different indeed, as you see here—the
Cupressus. Lawsoniana JWisseli—and among another lot one which was more
different yet, the Cupressus Lawsoniana lycopodioides. The first one arose in the
horticultural establishment of v. d. Wessel in Esse, and the other in that of
vy. d. Elst in Dedemsraart, both in Holland. I do not hesitate to say that these
plants, if their common origin were not known, would he described as true
species.

The other plant I want to show youis Thuja occidentalis Spaethi, which arose
in the same sudden way in the horticultural establishment of Spaeth in Rixdorf,
near Berlin,

While I do not want to state that the plants here shown are new species, I
yet dare say that a careful observation of these two genera at as many different
portions of the world as possible may well be advised, and this is the sole object
of my communication.

I should think that especially Cupressus Lawsoniana is worthy of a good deal
of regard in this respect, more so than Thuja occidentalis in fact, inasmuch as I
feel confident that the new forms of these two species have nothing to do with
‘ Jugendformen,’ while perhaps some retinospora question might step in in the case
of Thuja occidentalis Spaethi.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 849

2. On « Primitive Type of Structure in Calamiies,
By D, H. Scort, 1.4., Ph.D., FBS.

Palawontological research has afforded evidence that the Horsetails and Lyco-
pods—groups now so distinct—had a common origin. The class Sphenoplryllales,
restricted, so far as we know, to the Paleozoic epoch, combines in an unmistakable
manner the characters of Equisetales and Lycopodiales, while at the same time
presenting peculiar features of its own. Broadly speaking, it isin the external
morphology and in the reproductive structures that the Equisetales are
approached, while the anatomy has an evidently Lycopodiaceous character.

The synthetic nature of the Sphenophyllales, indicated clearly enough in the
type-genus Sphenophyllwm itself, comes out still more obviously in the new genus
Cheirostrobus. Tere the general morphology of the strobilus, the form and
structure of the sporangiophores and of the sporangia themselves are all of
a Calamarian type, while the anatomy of the axis is as clearly Lycopodiaceous in
character.

So far nothing has been found to bridge the gulf which separates the anatomy
of the Oalamariew (Paleozoic Equisetales) from that of the Sphenophyllales or
the Lycopods. The most ancient known genus of Calamariee—Archeocalamites
—approaches the Sphenophyllales in the superposition of the foliar whorls and
in the dichotomous subdivision of the leaves, points on which Professor Potonié,
especially, has laid stress. Anatomically, however, according to the researches of
Dr. Renault and Count Solms-Laubach, it was an ordinary Calamite, differing in
no essential respect from those of the Coal-measures. The stem of Archwocalamites,
like that of its later allies, had a large pith, surrounded by a ring of collateral
vascular bundles, the wood of which, primary as well as secondary, was wholly
centrifugal in development, the first-formed tracheides lying on the border of the
pith, at the points marked by the carinal canals. In Sphenophyllum, on the
other hand, the whole of the primary wood was centripetally developed, and there
was no pith. In Chetrostrobus the same holds good, except that an insignificant
portion of the primary wood may possibly have been added in a centrifugal
direction. In Lycopods there may or may not be a pith, but the whole
(Lycopodium, Psilotum, Lepidodendron) or the greater part (Z'mestpteris) of the
primary wood is centripetal.

The Calamite which forms the subject of the present communication occurs in
the well-known Burntisland beds of the Calciferous Sandstone Series, at the base
of the Carboniferous Formation. The material is calcified, and the structure
excellently preserved, though the specimens so far discovered are small and
fragmentary. Their interest depends on the fact that each vascular bundle
possesses a distinct arc of centripetal wood on the side towards the pith. The
carinal canals are present, as in an ordinary Calamite, and contain, as usual, the
remains of the disorganised protoxylem. They do not, however, as in other
Kquisetales, form the inner limit of the wood, but xylem of a considerable
thickness, and consisting of typical tracheides, extends into the pith on the inner
side of the canal, which is thus completely enclosed by the wood. Hence, starting
from the spiral trackeides of the protoxylem, there was here a considerable
development of xylem in a centripetal as well as in a centrifugal direction. That
the organ was a stem, and not a root, is proved, not only by the presence of the
earinal canals, but by the occurrence of nodes, at which the outgoing leaf-traces
are clearly seen.

This appears to be the first case of centripetal wood observed in a Calamarian
stem, and thus serves to furnish a new link between the Paleozoic Equisetales and
the Sphenophyllales, and through them with the Lycopods.

The specimens have not as yet supplied any evidence as to the superposition or
alternation of the verticils, so we are not at present in a position to determine the
genus to whivh they belonged. Provisionally, until further investigation has
cleared up this question, the new stem may bear the name of Calamites petty-
curensts, from the locality where it occurs.:

850 REPORT—1901.

3. Remarks upon the Nature of the Stele of Equisetum.
By D. T. GWyNNE-V AUGHAN.

The vascular bundles of Egwisetwm are usually compared with those of a
monostelic phanerogam both in structural detail and with regard to their course
out into the leaf. The following observations made upon the stems of Z. Telma-
teja, &c., show that this comparison cannot be satisfactorily maintained.

It was found that of the three strands of xylem present in each bundle of the
internode, the carinal strand alone passes out at the node as a leaf-trace. The two
lateral strands join on to the xylem of the nodal ring, and in certain species (LZ.
hiemaile, and better still in Z. gigantewm) they may be traced as externally pro-
jecting ridges over the nodal xylem into the internode above. In passing through
the node they diverge from one another so that in the internode they are found on
the adjacent sides of two different bundles. At the node above they approach
each other, and in the next internode they both occur in the same bundle once
again. The leaf-trace protoxylem, having entered the bundle, runs downwards for
one internode between the two lateral strands; at the node below it divides into
two branches which curve to the right and the left in order to fuse with the
neighbouring leaf-traces that enter at this node.

So the xylem of the so-called vascular bundle of Eguisetum consists of three
strands, two of which are lateral and cauline, while the median, or carinal, strand
is common to both stem and leaf. The fact that only a small portion passes out as
a leaf-trace, and not the bundle as a whole, constitutes an essential point of differ-
ence between it and the bundle of a phanerogam.

The tracheides in each strand are very few, and consequently it is difficult to
determine the direction of their development. However, as regards the leaf-trace
and the carinal strand, it appears clear that they are not exarch but endarch, or
perhaps slightly mesarch on the adaxial side. ‘The lateral strands, as a whole, are
differentiated later than the carina] strand (as might be expected from the close
relation of the latter to the leaves), but they do not seem to be a continuation of
its centrifugal development. On the contrary, in Z. gigantewm, where as many as
ten to fifteen elements are present in each lateral strand, the smallest of them are
invariably at the outer extremity, and they gradually increase in size inwards.
Longitudinal sections show that the largest tracheides are coarsely reticulate
with large pits and very broad bands of thickening between them; in the
smaller elements the reticulation becomes finer and more regular, and in the
smallest it closely resembles true spiral thickening. To state definitely whether
the lateral strands are exarch or not was not possible, because no incompletely
differentiated portions of the stem were available; so the question must remain at
present undecided, although the mature structure certainly gives a strong impres-
sion of centripetal development. Potonié! has established a comparison between the
secondary vascular tissues of the Calamarie and the Sphenophyllacee by mentally
doing away with the central mass of primary xylem that exists in the latter. By
inverting this procedure, and considering it possible that the ancestors of the
Equisetums may have possessed a xylem that extended to the centre of the stem,
one is led to derive their structure, as it exists at present, from the modification of
a stele with a solid central mass of centripetal xylem such as that of Sphenophyllum,
or of certain Lepidodendreze. To illustrate the nature of the modifications that
such a stele would have to undergo, a series of parallel developments may be
pointed out within the latter group (Lepidodendron Rhodumnense, Selaginoides,
Harcourtii, Sigillarva spinosa, and Menardi), in which parenchyma appears in the
xylem, and gradually increases in quantity until only an attenuated peripheral ring
of xylem remains, which then becomes more or less broken up into separate
strands.

It is suggested that the lateral xylem strands in the vascular bundies of the
existing Equisetums may perhaps be taken to represent the last remnants of a
primitive central mass, and that this would he entirely in agreement with their
apparently centripetal development, and in particular with theit cauline course.

1 Phlanzenpalaeontoiogie, p. 205.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 851

4. Die Stlur- und Culm-Flora des Harzes. Von Professor H. Poronth.

5. On two Malayan ‘ Myrmecophilous’ Ferns. By R. H. Yarr.

Polypodium (Lecanopteris) carnosum (Blume) and Polypodium sinuosum
(Wall) are two epiphytic Ferns which occur almost exclusively in the Malay
Peninsula and Archipelago.

Their creeping rhizomes are thick and fleshy, the ventral surface closely
adhering to the substratum, the dorsal bearing the leaves, which are articulated,
upon large conical leaf-cushions. Branching is lateral, and is so frequent in the
case of Polypodium carnosum that thick compact masses of interlacing stems are
formed, which completely encircle the branches of the tree on which it grows.

The fleshy stems of both Ferns are traversed by an extensive system of hollow
spaces, which, like the galleries of Myrmecodia and Hydrophytum, are invariably
inhabited by colonies of ants. These ‘ant-galleries’ are arranged on a perfectly

definite plan the details of which differ to some extent in the two Ferns. In both
cases, however, there is a single main ventral gallery, which runs in a longitudinal
direction through the stem, giving off a lateral gallery to each branch and a dorsal
one to each leaf-cushion. The galleries are formed by the breaking down of a
large-celled, thin-walled tissue, which in the youngest parts of the stem appears
to function as a water-reservoir.

Though undoubtedly closely allied species, these Ferns have been placed by
many authorities in different genera. This has been largely on account of the
curious position of the sori in Polypodium carnosum. In this Fern, and in one or
two of its immediate allies, the sori are borne on marginal lobes, which are
completely reflexed upon the upper surface of the frond. This arrangement is
possibly connected with spore distribution.

6. The Vegetation of Mount Ophir. By A. G. Tansuey.

7. On Certain Points in the Structure of the Seeds of Aithiotesta, Brongn.,
and Stephanospermum, Brongn. By Professor F. W. Ottver.

The author gave some account of the anatomy of the fossil gymnosperm seed,
named by Brongniart Stephanospermum akenioides, and of another seed, nearly
allied to the foregoing, which he provisionally recognised as thiotesta subglobosa,
Brongn. Attention was drawn to the mantle of tracheal tissue which invests the
nuceilus in both cases, The possible physiological significance of this tissue was
considered, and some suggestions were offered as to the conditions which led to
the evolution of the seed in this group. The author expressed the opinion that

there was considerable probability that the seed habit was at its origin a scerophilous
adaptation.

8. Natural Surgery in Leaves.
By Dr. F. ¥, Buackman and Miss Marrrant,

9. On the Relation between CO, Production and Vitality.
Sy Dr. F. F. Buackman and Miss Marraz,

85 REPORT—1901.

Li)

9. On the Strength and Resistance to Pressure of Certain Seeds and Myruits.
By G. F. Scorr Exuiot, JLA., B.Sc, F.CS., PEGS.

Everyone is familiar with the extraordinary hardness and toughness of many
common seeds and fruits, but the writer has failed to discover any definite and
detailed account of the amount of weight which such seeds can endure without
breaking. The experiments, of which an abstract is given, were generally
conducted with a spring balance weighing up to 50 lb., and carefully tested
beforehand. Those seeds and fruits which withstood a pressure of 50 lb. were
tested with a Wicksteed’s single-lever vertical testing machine, which, through
the great kindness of Professor J. G. Longbottom, M.E., M.I.M E., was placed at
the author’s disposal. In all cases the weight mentioned is that at which the
first sign of decided injury could be perceived. Many other seeds and fruits were
tried, but a very large number were found unsuitable, through the difficulty of
distinguishing the exact moment at which bursting occurred.

| eee Wisse a pounds ed
eave Average | Maximum | Minimum
)
| Fumaria officinalis Z., nutlet . F | 4 1:256 | 1°75 1
‘Cardamoms (Native)’ seeds . ; 23 7-09 15 oe
Mustard seeds =.» =» «| 50 48 | 675 3°75
Turnip seeds. ; : ale me 1635 2°25 1
Cabbage seeds. ; ; : : 50 216 | 3:25 1
Viola canina, Z., seeds . é . 10 2-1 a Wat 15
Orange seeds 12 32:08 46 26
| Cottonseed seeds F A : 50 9:04 Zu 11
Pomegranate, Punica granatum, Z.,

seeds . ‘ Hs ; 5 ee oO 14:3 ) os 10
Spindletree, Huonymus europzeus,

L., seeds : : : : reli ae 4°88 6°5 35
Hippophae rhamnoides, Z., seeds .| — 7485 | 105 4.
Lentils seeds . 5 ‘ : =| 7 22:428 25 20
Crab’s Eyes, Abrus precatorius, Z.,

seeds . ' ; ; 4 bf a 30 857 A4 18
Vicia Cracca, Z., seeds | 5 13+2 15 12

| Sweet Peasseeds . . « «| 8&1 3260 | 50 16
Calabar Bean, Physostigma veni- |

nosum, seed : i 5 a 1 49-50 / — =

| Castor oil, Ricinus communis, Z. .| 17 17:84 | 24 ‘

| Hempseed, Cannabis sativa, L. sf) 60) 4355 7 2
Hornbeam, Carpinus Betulus, Z., |

muUts) ae ‘ y j | 5 27:9 30 | 2b

Pinus stobus seeds . | 50 3°62 6 2

| Pe mortanayseeas uly ko weye Pict [Le 50 1 ew IN gets | 5

| P. austriaca seeds . = 4 ST ea 4575 | 65 | 3

| P. Pinaster seeds. ‘ A : 50 11°156 | 14 8
P. Cembra seeds’. : ; A 3 22°83 26 | 205
Picea excelsa seeds . - : “| 50 372 525 | 15
Yew, Taxus baccata, seeds 3 16 20 Pte ale’

| Carex pendula, Utricle . Fs | 25 2:18 45 3
Wheat (Red Fyfe), Caryopsis . | 50 20°42 30 12

| Wheat (White Fyfe), Caryopsis lemme) Belo 26 10

| &e. &e. | }

In the cases of the following seeds or fruits the breaking weight was over
50 lb. It was therefore not possible to test so large a number as the author
would have desired.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K,

oO
x
co

Weight in pounds

Number | Lara ass
[eremmred Average | Maximum | Minimum |
| Brazilnut (nut) . : F 1 | 5708 — | =
Brazil nut (seeds) - - - 4 9425 | 118 | 80
Sapucaia nuts, Lecythis ollaria, Z. . 3 | 82°33 | 100 ; 58
Prunus Padus, Z., Cocci . 5 ej) = 80:4 112 | 48
Plumstones Cocci . : . 5) PA OBR E: 99 | 64 |
‘Peachstones Australian’ Cocci Soe | Oie667 1200 253,
Cornus mas, Z., Cocci Bb ) 482°6 111 60 |
Manihot Glazioviiseeds. . . 3 | 11783 | 123 | 114
Hazelnuts, Corylus avellana, J,, | | |
nuts : | 7 5514 | 80 eee
Walnuts Cocci. ; ; ; Cie WN weg as: 80 ii °F
| Hickory nuts (Carya sp.), Cocci 4 | 46775 156 ' 135
Job’s Tears, Coix lachryma, Peri- | |
carp 4 66:25 | 90 40

The surface of the fruit or seed in actual contact with the glass at the moment
when breaking occurs is generally very small. In order to find the pressure per
square inch this surface was measured, and its area calculated in the following
manner. An object-glass was painted with a thin layer of black paint, and
pressed down upon the seed. ‘That part which was in contact was of course
covered by the paint ; a piece of white cardboard was then pressed down over the
seed under glass, and the area of the stain on the cardboard was calculated by the
help of a glass slide ruled in 100ths of an inch. It was found that the pressure
in pounds to the square inch was as follows :—

In the Cabbage seed, . about 166:2 lb. to square inch.
», Hemp seed. 5 Se SR alley 3
» Huonymus europzeus » 244 Ib. A

But of course a square inch of surface is never called into action under natural
conditions,

The resisting power depends chiefly upon the shape of the seed and the
character of the sclerenchymatous tissue. Generally speaking, the curve of the
transverse section of a seed shows an unmistakable resemblance to that of an
ordinary stonebridge. On the other hand, both the longitudinal vertical section
when the seed is lying a flat surface in a natural position) and the longitudinal
horizontal section are generally lanceolate to ovate in shape. These latter curves
are probably of great importance, but for a different purpose. It was found, e..,
difficult if not impossible to exert sufficient pressure on the seeds of orange and
Abrus precatorius, even when two surfaces of wood were employed to hold them,
the shape and the slippery or smooth coats of the seeds resulting in the seed
springing out and jumping off. It is possible to make orange seeds, e.y., jump
fifteen feet along a flat surface by a slight blow on the end. This peculiar shape
will probably enable the seeds to escape from the teeth of an animal, or perhaps
facilitate their passage through the alimentary tract. Some of the curyes of the
seeds employed are ilustrated in the paper.

Many special peculiarities of fruits and seeds are important aids to their
resisting power. In particular, the ridges on the cremocarps of Myrrhis and
Carraway, the peculiar three-cornered nut of Beechmast, the spongy pericarp of
Tropzolum, very greatly diminish any danger of injury by pressure from above,
as they yield to the pressure and do not break. When seeds are lying on bare
earth they are often simply pressed into the earth if any pressure is exerted upon
them. Thus, e.., four seeds of Hemp were placed upon a layer of earth only a
quarter of an inch deep, which was spread upon a glass plate. A weight of
56 lb. placed gently on these seeds simply buried them in the earth without
injuring them in any way.

1901, 3K

854 REPORT—1901.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Cutiewlar Structure of Kuphorbia Abdelkuri.
By Professor I, Baytry Batrour, 7.8.

Euphorbia Abdelkuri is an interesting succulent plant which has been brought
home from a small island in the vicinity of Sokotra by the Ogilvie-Forbes
Expedition. The outer surface of the plant in the fresh condition appears to be
covered with a crust which readily cracks off, and on examination this is found to
consist of a number of prisms. At first sight these may be taken for some form of
mineral incrustation, but they are not of this nature, but are formed by the cuticle
of the epidermal cells. This does not form an uninterrupted layer over the
epidermis, but the cuticle of each cell is separable from that of the adjacent ones,
and the prisms are merely blocks of cuticle, each one belonging to a single cell.
This is a construction different from that which is ordinarily met with in plants

with thick cuticular layer.

2. Some Observations wpon the Vascular Anatomy of the Cyatheacee,
By D. T. Gwynne- VAUGHAN.

In a number of Dicksonias with creeping or ‘prostrate stems it is shown that:
the vascular system is solenostelic, the leaf-traces departing as a single strand
curved into the form of a horseshoe, with its concavity facing towards the median
line of the rhizome—Dicksonia adiantoides, cicutaria, davallioides, apifolia, and
puncetiloba.

In D. apiifolia it is found that along the free margin of the leaf-gap there is a
considerable increase in the amount of xylem in the solenostele, causing it to
project somewhat towards the centre of the stem.

‘A similar marginal enlargement also occurs in D. adiantoides; and here it is
continued past the leaf-gap, forming a ridge on the internal surface of the soleno-
stele, running from one leaf-gap margin to another. In the internode this pro-
jecting portion of the xylem becomes separated off from the rest and surrounded
by a phloém of its own; however, it remains always included within the same
endodermis.

In Dicksonia rubiginosa the typical vascular ring is interrupted by gaps other

than those due to the leaf-traces, and it may therefore be termed polystelic. In
addition there are two or three small accessory steles lying within the vascular
ring. Throughout the internode the course of these internal steles is quite free
from the vascular ring, but at each node one of them approaches the free margin
of the leaf-gap, and completely fuses with it, separating off again after the leaf
gap has become filled up.

Pteris elata var. Karsteniana has a typically solenostelic vascular ring, and
also possesses internal accessory steles, which behave in a manner quite similar to
those of Dichksonia rubiginosa; but they are relatively larger, and frequently they
all fuse up together so as to form a second, inner, completely closed vascular
ring.
‘It is suggested that the several internal steles and vascular rings that occur in
the Saccolomas and in Matonia pectinata are also of the same origin and nature
as those described above.

The relation of the internal accessory steles in certain Cyatheas to those of

the above-mentioned ferns is also discussed.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 855

3. On the Anatomy of Dana and other Maraitiacec.
By Gworcr BReBNer.

Various species of the Marattiaceze were studied for the comparative anatomy
of the adult structure, and Danea simplicifolia, Rudge, for the development of
the vascular system.

1. Development of the vascular system of Danea simplicifolia, Rudge.

The primary vascular axis is a simple concentric stele. The xylem consists of
a central mass of small scalariform tracheids, without any conjunctive parenchyma,
The phloém consists of a layer of small sieve-tubes separated from the xylem by a
layer of parenchyma. The pericycle may be absent or only imperfectly repre-
sented. There is a definite endodermis, but the constituent cells are not clearly
always the innermost ones of the extrastelar parenchyma.

When the cotyledon-trace is about to be given off the xylem of this vascular
axis, or ‘ protostele,’ is separated into more or less: unequal portions by a layer of
parenchyma. The parenchyma increases in amount, and ultimately the cotyledon-
trace is separated from the central stele. The cotyledon-trace is collateral. The
next few leaf-traces are given off in the same manner, and are likewise collateral.
The stele resumes its simple ‘protostelic’ appearance. Cauline roots occur, but not
regularly.

As further leaf-traces depart from, and root-traces join, the vascular axis, the
primitive structure is gradually modified, and it may become more or less
crescentic, forming an incomplete, or even complete, gamostelic ring. The spaces
left by the departure of the leaf-traces now constitute leaf-gaps. The vascular
tissue of this stage may be described as a ‘siphonostele with leaf-gaps.’

The time of appearance of the first mucilage canal varies. The earliest occur.
rence noted was after the third leaf-trace had been differentiated. ;

In one seedling a curious ligament of phloém was observed, which pursued an
Oblique course upwards and connected the two horns of a crescentic vascular mass.
This strand of phloém interrupted the course of the central mucilage canal.

At first the leaf-traces are simple and collateral; later they are simple and
concentric; still later each trace divides into a pair of strands as it recedes from
the axis. At a higher level the leaf-trace consists of a pair of strands each of
which takes its departure separately.

A remarkable deviation in the early stages of development was shown by one
seedling. A mass of parenchyma early made its appearance in the centre of the
xylem, simulating a pith. Careful examination showed that this was due to
abortion of the cotyledon and its trace, and exceptionally early preparation for the
departure of the three succeeding leaf-traces.

2. Stele of the Marattiaces.

The structure of the ‘stele,’ as seen in transverse section, is singularly uniform
in essential histological details throughout the group, It may be said to be of the
fern type, but there is no endodermis (i.c., in the case of well-grown plants), and’
the pericycle is not characteristically present,

The protoxylem is usually endarch—at any rate in the frond—but it may be
mesarch.

The protophloém is internal, This was first demonstrated in the steles of the
stem by Miss Shove.’ It has since been found to be internal in the steles of the
frond of two species of Danea and of Marattia alata, There can be little doubt
that the internal position of the protophloém is general for the steles of both stem
and frond in this group of ferns,

3, Apical growth.

All the fresh evidence obtained while studying the seedlings of Danea
simplicifolia is in fayour of an initial group, consisting of a few cells, both in stem
and root,

| Annals Bot., vol. xiy. 1900, p, 497,

s 3K 2

856 REPORT-—1901.

4, Roots.

Nothing new has been observed in the roots of the Marattiacee. In the
roots of Danea simplicifolia there is what might be called a fibrous pith, which
is early differentiated, even before the main mass of the xylem has begun to he
lignified.

4, A Chapter of Plant-evolution : Jurassic Floras.
By A. C. Sewarp, F.L.S.

From the cliffs on the Dorsetshire coast to the moorlands and headlands of
East Yorkshire England is traversed diagonally by a band of Jurassic strata, and
outlying patches of Jurassic rocks occur in West Somerset, Gloucestershire,
Worcestershire, Cumberland, and elsewhere. Sediments of the same age occur
also in Sutherlandshire, in the islands of Skye and Mull, and in other parts of Scot-
land. After the fillmg up of the inland lakes of the Triassic period, the land
gradually subsided and was invaded by a shallow sea in which a thin band of
Rheetic sediments was deposited in the British area. The vegetation of this
period is represented by the rich floras of Scania, Franconia, and other districts,
but in Britain by a few meagre and imperfect records. The rocks formed on the
floor of the deeper Liassic sea have afforded several Cycadean fronds and fragments
of coniferous trees drifted from neighbouring land. From the estuarine beds
intercalated in the series of marine strata of the Oolitic period, an abundant flora
has been obtained from Yorkshire and elsewhere. The roofing slates of Stones-
field, described by Plot in his ‘ Natural History of Oxfordshire’ in 1677, have
yielded numerous fragments of plants, which may be the relics of the vegetation
of an island in the Jurassic sea, From the Oxford clay, Corallian beds, and the
Kimeridge clay a comparatively small number of plants have been obtained, while
from the overlying Portlandian and Purbeck series the well-known Cycadean
stems and the abundance of silicified coniferous wood demonstrate the prominent
réle played by gymnospermous plants in the vegetation of the land, which had
gradually encroached on the Jurassic ocean. Finally, a rich flora, preserved in
the freshwater Wealden sediments, affords a striking proof of the slow change
in the character of the vegetation since the Inferior Oolite period.

The chief features in the floras ranging from the Rheetic to the Wealden are
briefly described ; an attempt is made to determine the dominant types during this
long succession of stages in the earth’s history, and to estimate the progress of
plant-evolution from the close of the Triassic period to the appearance of
Angiosperms in rocks of Lower Cretaceous age.

5. On the Structure and Origin of Jet. By A. C. Szwarp, /.R.S,

The hard jet of Whitby appears to have been used in Britain in pre-Roman
days; it is alluded to by Caedmon and mentioned in 1350 in the Records of
St. Hilda’s Abbey. It was formerly extensively mined in the cliffs of the York-
shire coast, near Whitby and elsewhere; in Eskdale, Danby Dale, and in several
of the dales that intersect the East Yorkshire moorlands. The hard jet occurs in
the Ammonites serpentinus zone of the Upper Lias, frequently in the form of
flattened masses or layers, which in rare cases have been found to reach a length
of 6 feet. Parkinson in his ‘ Organic Remains of a Former World’ (1811) speaks
of jet, in some cases, as pure bituminised vegetable matter, and the majority of
writers regard it as having been found as a product of alteration of plant tissues.
On the other hand it has been described as ‘ the result of the segregation of the
bitumen’ in the intervals of the jet shales, which has sometimes formed pseudo-
morphs after blocks of wood.’ y The author has recently examined several sections
of Yorkshire jet in the British Museum, which he believes demonstrate the origin
of this substance from the alteration of coniferous wood and, in part at least, of
wood of the Araucarian type.

1 Tate’and Blake, The Yorkshire Lias, 1876.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 857

The occurrence of specimens of silicified wood having a covering layer of jet
is spoken of by Young in his ‘History of Whitby’ (1817). Sections cut from
specimens which consist in part of petrified wood and in part of jet enable us to
trace a gradual passage from well-preserved Araucarian wood to pure jet, which
affords little or no evidence of its ligneous origin. The conclusion arrived at is
that the Whitby jet owes its origin to the alteration of coniferous wood. The
fact that jet frequently occurs in the form of flattened blocks of wood in all
probability admits of the natural explanation that the jet has been derived from
the wood, the form of which it has assumed, and not that the jet wes formed
elsewhere and permeated the tissues of the wood as a fluid bitumen.

6. On Government Planting in the Isle of Man. 4
By G. P. Hucues, L.A.G.S.

In August last the author, by permission from Mr. Drinkwater, Crown Lands
teceiver in the Isle of Man, inspected, with the head forester, the three plantings
of about 1,000 acres commenced by Six Henry Lock in the year 1882, and added
to ona larger scale by his successor, the late Mr. George Calley, when Senior
Commissioner in the Department of Crown Lands.

The author was informed in an interview with Mr. Watt, of Carlisle, the
contractor who supplied the trees and planters, that the number of trees per
acre was 5,000, consisting of oak, Douglas birch, beech, silver, Scotch, aud Russian
pine, and larch. He employed eighty of his nurserymen from Carlisle, erecting
houses and supplying their food on the spot, the cost being 9/7. per acre, inde-
pendent of a five-foot stone wall, which must have added one third to the cost.

The land had no surface value, being overgrown by whins, heath, and fern upon
shale and impervious rock.

Pruning and weeding from the young trees up to now havo been imperative,
but over one half of the planted area may be dispensed with, the trees having
mastered the situation. On the more exposed parts the trees had suffered from
the winds and were dwarfed, but by mutual shelter these trees, ranging to an
elevation of mountain 1,000 feet high, havea healthy appearance, showing that they
have established roots and promise to become trees. On a level with the lower
elevation planted, the Araucaria imbricata and many sub-tropical trees are
thriving in the open at Guba Castle, having tree shelter. The writer made the
observation that, though shelter, the prospective possession by the Government of
forested lands for national emergencies, and the employment of labour for the
islanders were leading influences with the Department of Crown Lands, the
inhabitants and visitors to the island were much indebted for the climatic and
pictorial effects, which add to the amenities of the place as a summer and
winter health resort. The thinning of these plantations should shortly com-
mence, and should become a profit to the Government, and a great convenience to
the adjoining mines and industries of the island. In the House of Commons the
work of the Department of Crown Lands was censured by a few cheese-paring
economists, but im the Isle of Man, so far as could be judged, their work was
a lesson of sound judgment and exact administration with tenacity of purpose
resulting in the assurance of success in the near future and an enduring monu-
ment to the patriotic forethought of the eminent Commissioners by whom they
were originally planned.

7. On Spore-formation in Yeasts. By T. Barker.

8. On a Diplodia parasitic on Cacao and on the Sugar Cane.
Ly A, Howanp.

9. Ow Abnormal Catkins of the Hazel. By Professor F, E. Wuiss, B.Sc.

858 REPORT—-1901.

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE Sucrion—The Right Hon. Sir Jonn HK,
Gorsr, KC.) MP.) BRS:

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER. 12.
The President delivered the following Address :—

THE invitation of the British Association to preside over the Section of
Education, established this year for the first time, has been given to me as a
representative of that Government Department which controls the larger, but
perhaps not the most efficient, part of the Education of the United Kingdom. The
most suitable subject for my opening Address would therefore seem to be the
proper function of National Authority, whether central or local, in the education
of the people; what is the limit of its obligations; what is the part of Education
in which it can lead the way; what is the region in which more powerful influ-
ences are at work, and in which it must take care not to hinder their operation ;
and what are the dangers to real education inseparable from a general national
system, I shall avoid questions of the division of functions between Central and
Local Authorities, beset with so many bitter controversies, which are political rather
than educational.

In the first place, so far as the mass of the youth of a country is concerned, the
Public Instructor can only play a secondary part in the most important part of the
education of the young—the development of character. The character of a people
is by far its most important attribute. It has a great deal more moment in the
affairs of the world, and is a much more vital factor in the promotion of national
power and influence, and in the spread of Empire, than either physical or mental
endowments. The character of each generation depends in the main upon the
character of the generation which precedes it; of other causes in operation the
effect is comparatively small. A generation may bea little better or a little worse
than its forefathers, but it cannot materially ditfer from them. Improvement and
degeneracy are alike slow. The chief causes which produce formation of character
are met with in the homes of the people. They are of great variety and mostly
too subtle to be controlled. Religious belief, ideas, ineradicable often in maturer
life, imbibed from the early instruction of parents, the principles of morality current
amongst brothers and sisters and playmates, popular superstitions, national and
local prejudices, have a far deeper and more permanent effect upon character
than the instruction given in schools or colleges. The teacher, it is true, exercises
his influence among the rest. Men and women of all sorts, from university pro-
fessors to village dames, have stamped some part of their own character upon a
large proportion of their disciples. But this is a power that must grow feebler as
the number of scholars is increased. In the enormous schools and classes in which
the public instruction of the greater part of the children of the people is given
the influence on character of the individual teacher is reduced to a minimum. The
old village dame might teach her half-dozen children to be kind and brave

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 859

and to speak the truth, even if she failed to teach them to read and write. The
head master of a school of 2,000, or the teacher of a class of eighty, may be an
incomparably better intellectual instructor, but it is impossible for him to exercise
much individual influence over the great mass of his scholars.

There are, however, certain children for the formation of whose characters the
nation is directly responsible—deserted children, destitute orphans, and children
whose parents are criminals or paupers. It is the duty and interest of the nation
to provide for the moral education of such children and to supply artificially the
influences of individual care and love. The neglect of this obligation is as injurious
to the public as to the children, Homes and schools are cheaper than prisons and
workhouses. Such a practice as that of permitting dissolute pauper parents to
remove their children from public control to spend the summer in vice and beggary
at races and fairs, to be returned in the autumn, corrupt in body and mind, to
spread disease and vice amongst other children of the State, would not be tolerated
in a community intelligently alive to its own interest.

A profound, though indirect and untraceable, influence upon the moral educa-
tion of a people is exercised by all national administration and legislation. Hvery-
thing which tends to make the existing generation wiser, happier, or better has an
indirect influence on the children, Better dwellings, unadulterated food, recreation
grounds, temperance, sanitation, will all affect the character of the rising genera-
tion. Regulations for public instruction also influence character. A military
spirit may be evoked by the kind of physical instruction given. Brutality may be
developed by the sort of punishments enjoined or permitted. But all such causes
have a comparatively slight effect upon national character, which is in the main
the product for good or evil of more powerful causes which operate, not in the
school, but in the home.

For the physical and mental development of children it is now admitted to be
the interest and duty of a nation in its collective capacity to see that proper
schools are provided in which a certain minimum of primary instruction should be
free and compulsory for all, and, further, secondary instruction should be available
for those fitted to profit by it. But there are differences of opinion as to the age
at which primary instruction should begin and end; as to the subjects it should
embrace ; as to the qualifications which should entitle to further secondary
instruction ; and as to how far this should be free or how far paid for by the
scholar or his parents.

The age at which school attendance should begin and end is in most countries
determined by economic, rather than educational, considerations. Somebody
must take charge of infants in order that mothers may be at leisure to work;
the demand for child labour empties schools for older children. In the United
Kingdom minding babies of three years old and upwards has become a national
function. But the infant ‘school,’ as it is called, should be conducted as a
nursery, not as a place of learning. The chief employment of the children should
be play. No strain should be put on either muscle or brain, They should be
treated with patient kindness, not beaten with canes. It is in the school for
older children, to which admission should not be until seven years of age,
that the work of serious instruction should begin, and that at first for not more
than two or three hoursa day. There is no worse mistake than to attempt by
too early pressure to cure the evil of too early emancipation from school. Beyond
the mechanical accomplishments of reading, writing, and ciphering, essential to
any intellectual progress in after life, and dry facts of history and grammar, by
which alone they are too often supplemented, it is for the interest of the com-
munity that other subjects should be taught. Some effort should be made to
develop such faculties of mind and body as are latent in the scholars. The
same system is not applicable to all; the school teaching should fit in with the
life and surroundings of the child. Variety, not uniformity, should be the rule.
Unfortunately the various methods by which children’s minds and bodies can be
encouraged to grow and expand are still imperfectly understood by many of
those who direct or impart public instruction, Examinations are still too
often regarded as the best instrument for promoting mental progress; and a large

860 REPORT—1901.

proportion of the children in schools, both elementary and secondary, are not really
educated at all—they are only prepared for examinations. ‘The delicately ex-
panding intellect is crammed with ill-understood and ill-digested facts, because it
is the best way of preparing the scholar to undergo an Examination-test, Learning
to be used for gaining marks is stored in the mind by a mechanical effort of
memory, and is forgotten as soon as the Class-list is published. Intellectual
faculties of much greater importance than knowledge, however extensive—as
useful to the child whose schooling will cease at fourteen as to the child for whom
elementary instruction is but the first step in the ladder of learning—are almost
wholly neglected.

The power of research—the art of acquiring information for oneself—on which
the most advanced science depends, may by a proper system be cultivated in the
youngest scholar of the most elementary school. Curiosity and the desire to find
out the reason of things is a natural, and to the ignorant an inconvenient, pro-
pensity of almost every child; and there lies before the instructor the whole realm
of Nature knowledge in which this propensity can be cultivated. If children in
village schools spent less of their early youth in learning mechanically to read,
write, and cipher, and more in searching hedgerows and ditch-bottoms for flowers,
insects, or other natural objects, their intelligence would be developed by active
research, and they would better learn to read, write, and cipher in the end. The
faculty of finding out things for oneself is one of the most valuable with which a
child can be endowed. There is hardly a calling or business in life in which it is
not better to know how to search out information than to possess it already
stored, Everything, moreover, which is discovered sticks in the memory and
becomes a more secure possession for life than facts lazily imbibed from books and
lectures. The faculty of turning to practical uses knowledge possessed might be more
cultivated in Primary Schools. It can to a limited extent, but to a limited extent
only, be tested by examination. Essays, compositions, problems in mathematics
and science, call forth the power of using acquired knowledge. Mere acquisition
of knowledge does not necessarily confer the power to make use of it. In actual
life a very scanty store of knowledge, coupled with the capacity to apply it
adroitly, is of more value thay boundless information which the possessor cannot
turn to practical use. Some measures should be taken to cultivate taste in
Primary Schools. Children are keen admirers. They can be early taught to
look for and appreciate what is beautiful in drawing and painting, in poetry and
music, in nature, and in life and character. The effect of such learning on manners
has been observed from remote antiquity.

Physical exercises are a proper subject for Primary Schools, especially in the
artificial life led by children in great cities: both those which develop chests and
limbs, atrophied by impure air and the want of healthy games, and those which
discipline the hand and the eye—the latter to perceive and appreciate more of
what is seen, the former to obey more readily and exactly the impulses of the
will, Advantage should be taken of the fact that the children come daily under
the observation of a quasi-public officer—the school teacher—to secure them
protection, to which they are already entitled by law, against hunger, nakedness,
dirt, over-work, and other kinds of cruelty and neglect. Children’s ailments and
diseases should by periodic inspection be detected: the milder ones, such as sores
and chilblains, treated on the spot, the more serious removed to the care of
parents or hospitals. Diseases of the eye and all maladies that would impair
the capacity of a child to earn its living should in the interest of the community
receive prompt attention and the most skilivl treatment available. Special
schools for children who are crippled, blind, deaf, feeble-minded, or otherwise
afflicted should be provided at the public cost, from motives, not of mere philan-
thropy, but of enlightened self-interest. So far as they improve the capacity of
such children they lighten the burden on the community.

I make no apology for having dwelt thus long upon the necessity of a sound
system of Primary Instruction: that is the only foundation upon which a
national system of advanced education can be built. Without it our efforts and
our money will be thrown away. But while primary instruction should be

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 861

provided for, and even enforced upon, all, advanced instruction is for the few.
it is the interest of the commonwealth at large that every boy and girl showing
capacities above the average should be caught and given the best opportunities
for developing those capacities. It is not its interest to scatter broadcast a huge
system of higher instruction for anyone who chooses to take advantage of it,
however unfit to receive it. Such a course is a waste of public resources. The
broadcast education is necessarily of an inferior character, as the expenditure
which public opinion will at present sanction is only sufficient to provide
education of a really high calibre for those whose ultimate attainments will
repay the nation for its outlay on their instruction. It is essential that these few
should not belong to one class or caste, but should be selected from the mass of
the people, and be really the intellectual édite of the rising generation. It must,
however, be confessed that the arrangements for selecting these choice scholars to
whom it is remunerative for the community to give advanced instruction are most
imperfect. No ‘capacity-catching machine’ has been invented which does not
perform its function most imperfectly: it lets go some it ought to keep, and it
keeps some it ought to let go. Competitive examination, besides spoiling more or
less the education of all the competitors, fails to pick out those capable of the
greatest development. It is the smartest, who are also sometimes the shallowest,
who succeed. ‘ Whoever thinks in an examination,’ an eminent Cambridge tutor
used to say, ‘is lost.’ Nor is position in class obtained by early progress in learning
an infallible guide. The dunce of the school sometimes becomes the profound
thinker of later life. Some of the most brilliant geniuses in art and science have
only developed in manhood. They would never in their boyhood have gained a
county scholarship in a competitive examination.

In Primary Schools, while minor varieties are admissible, those, for instance,
between town and country, the public instruction provided is mainly of one type;
but any useful scheme of higher education must embrace a great variety of
methods and courses of instruction. There are roughly at the outset two main
divisions of higher education—the one directed to the pursuit of knowledge for
its own sake, of which the practical result cannot yet be foreseen, whereby the
‘scholar’ and the votary of pure science is evolved; the other directed to the
acquisition and application of special knowledge by which the craftsman, the
designer, and the teacher are produced. The former of these is called Secondary,
the latter Technical, Education. Both have numerous subdivisions which trend
in special directions.

The varieties of secondary education in the former of these main divisions
would have to be determined generally by considerations of age. There must be
different courses of study for those whose education is to terminate at sixteen,
at eighteen, and at twenty-two or twenty-three. Within each of these divisions,
also, there would be at least two types of instruction, mainly according as the
student devcted himself chiefly to literature and language, or to mathematics and
science. But a general characteristic of all Secondary Schools is that their express
aim is much more individual than that of the Primary School: it is to develop
the potential capacity of cach individual scholar to the highest point, rather
than to give, as does the Elementary School, much the same modicum to all. For
these reasons if is essential to have small classes, a highly educated staff, and
methods of instruction very different from those of the Primary School. In the
formation of character the old Secondary Schools of Great Britain have held their
own with any in the world. In the rapid development of new Secondary Schools
in our cities it is most desirable that this great tradition of British Public School
life should be introduced and maintained. It is not unscientific to conclude that
the special gift of colonising and administering dependencies, so characteristic of
the people of the United Kingdom, is the result of that system of self-government
to which every boy in our higher Public Schools is early initiated. But while
we boast of the excellence of our higher schools on the character-forming side of
their work, we must frankly admit that there is room for improvement on their
intellectual side. Classics and mathematics have engrossed too large a share of
attention ; science, as part of a general liberal education, has been but recently

862 _ -ReporT—1901.

admitted, and is still imperfectly estimated. ‘oo little time is devoted to it as a
school subject: its investigations and its results are misunderstood and under-
valued. ‘Tradition in most schools, nearly always literary, alters slowly, and the
revolutionary methods of science find all the prejudices of antiquity arrayed
against them. Even in scientific studies, lack of time and the obligation to
prepare scholars to pass examinations cause too much attention to be paid to
theory, and too little to practice, though itis by the latter that the power of
original research and of original application of acquired knowledge is best brought
out. The acquisition of modern languages was in bygone generations almost
entirely neglected. In many schools the time given to this subject is still inade-
quate, the method of teaching antiquated, the results unsatisfactory. But the
absolute necessity of such knowledge in literature, in science, and in commerce is
already producing a most salutary reform.

The variety of types of secondary instruction demanded by the various needs
and prospects of scholars requires a corresponding variety in the provision of
schools. This cannot be settled by a rule-of-three method, as is done in the case
of primary instruction, We cannot say that such and such an area being of such
a size and of such a population requires so many Secondary Schools of such a
capacity. Account must be taken in every place of the respective demands for
respective types and grades of secondary education ; and existing provision must
be considered.

It must not, however, be forgotten that a national system of education has its
drawbacks as well as its advantages. The most fatal danger is the tendency of
public instruction to suppress or absorb all other agencies, however long esta-
blished, however excellent their work, and to substitute one uniform mechanical
system, destructive alike to present life and future progress. In our country,
where there are public schools of the highest repute carried on for the most part
under ancient endowments, private schools of individuals and associations, and
Universities entirely independent of the Government, there is reasonable hope that
with proper care this peril may be escaped. But its existence should never be
forgotten. Universal efficiency in all establishments that profess to educate any
section of the people may properly be required ; but the variety, the individuality,
and the independence of schools of every sort, primary and secondary, higher and
lower, should be jealously guarded. Such attributes once lost can never be
restored.

There still remains for our consideration the second division of Higher Educa-
tion, viz., the applied or technological side. It is in this branch of Education that
Great Britain is most behind the rest of the world ; and the nation in its efforts to
make up the lost ground fails to recognise the fact that real technical instruction
(of whatever type) cannot possibly be assimilated by a student unless a proper
foundation has been laid previously by a thorough grounding of elementary and
secondary instruction. Our efforts at reform are abrupt and disconnected. A panic
from time to time sets in as to our backwardness in some particular branch of
commerce or industry. There isa sudden rush to supply the need, Classes and
schools spring up like mushrooms, which profess to give instruction in the lacking
branch of applied science to scholars who have no elementary knowledge of the
particular science, and whose general capacities have never been sutliciently
developed. Students are invited to climb the higher rungs of the ladder of
learning who have never trod the lower. But science cannot be taught to those
who cannot read, nor commerce to those who cannot write. A few elementary
lessons in shorthand and book-keeping will not fit the British people to compete
with the commercial enterprise of Germany. Such sudden and random attempts
to reform our system of technical education are time and money wasted. There
are grades and types in technological instruction, and progress can ‘only be slow.
It is useless to accept in the higher branches a student who does not come with
a solid foundation on which to build: In such institutions as the Polytechnies at
Zurich and Charlottenburg we find the students exclusively drawn from those
who have already completed the highest branches of general education; in this
country there is hardly a single institution where this could be said of more than

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 865

‘a mere fraction of its students. The middle grades of technological instruction
suffer from a similar defect. Boys are entered at technical institutions whose
only previous instruction has been at elementary schools and evening classes ;
whose intellectual faculties have not been developed to the requisite point ; and
who have to be retaught the elements to fit them for the higher instruction. In
fact there is no scientific conception of what this kind of instruction is to accom-
plish, and of its proper and necessary basis of general education.

Yet this is just the division of Higher Education in which Public Authority
finds a field for its operations practically unoccupied. There are no
ancient institutions which there is risk of supplanting. The variety of the
subject itself is such that there is little danger cf sinking into a uniform and
mechanical system. What is required is first a scientific, well-thought-out
plan and then its prompt and effective execution. A proper provision of the
various grades and types of technological instruction should be organised in every
place. The aim of each institution should be clear; and the intellectual equip-
ment essential for admission to each should be laid down and enforced. The
principles of true economy, from the national point of view, must not be lost sight
of, Provision can only be made (since it must be of the highest type to be of the
slightest use) for those really qualified to profit by it to the point of benefiting
the community. Evening classes with no standard for admission and no
test of efficiency may be valuable from a social point of view as providing
innocent occupation and amusement, but they are doing little to raise the tech-
nical capacity of the nation. So far from ‘developing a popular demand for
higher instruction’ they may be preventing its proper growth by perpetuating the
popular misconception of what real technical instruction is, and of the sacrifices we
must make if our people are to compete on equal terms with other nations in the
commerce of the world. The progress made under such a system would at first
be slow; the number of students would be few until improvements in our systems
of primary and secondary instruction afforded more abundant material on which
to work; but our foundation would be on a rock, and every addition we were able
to make would be permanent, and contribute to the final completion of the
edifice.

It is the special function of the British Association to inculcate ‘a scientific
view of things’ in every department of life. There is nothing in which scientific
‘conception is at the present moment more urgently required than in Natioval
Education ; and there is this peculiar difficulty in the problem, that any attempt to
construct a national system inevitably arouses burning controversies, economical,
religious, and political. It is only a society like this, with an established philo-
sophical character, that can afford to reduce popular cries about education (which
ignore what education really is, and perpetuate the absurdity that it consists in
attending classes, passing examinations, and obtaining certificates) to their true
proportions. If this Association could succeed in establishing in the minds of the
people a scientific conception of a National Education System, such as has already
been evolved by most of the nations of Europe, the States of America, and our
own Colonies, it would have rendered a service of inestimable value to the
British nation.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Organisation of Secondary Education.
By Sir Henry E. Roscor, RS.

2. The Mechanism for Education in Scotland. By Joun ApAms.

In Scotland the School Board system is universal. The whole country is
divided up into School Board areas. It is true that there are a number of Volun-
tary schools throughout the country, mainly connected with the Episcopalian

864 REPORT—1901.

and Roman Catholic Churches, but these make up less than twelve per cent. of
the whole.

Between the years of five and fourteen education is compulsory, but exemption
may be obtained in whole or in part on passing certain examinations.

In Scotland the line of division between primary and secondary schools is not
nearly so clear as in England. ‘Public School’ means in Scotland any school,
whether primary or secondary, that is under the management of a School Board.
By the Education (Scotland) Act, 1872, eleven schools were scheduled as Higher
Class Public Schools. There are now thirty such schools, all of them placed entirely
under the control of School Boards ‘ with a view to promote the higher education
of the country.’ The fundamental difference between these and all the other
public schools of Scotland is that the Higher Class Schools are debarred from
‘ earning the annual parliamentary grant. All the other public schools are usually
referred to as ‘grant-earning.’ Voluntary schools are also grant-earning, since
they receive all the grants of the ordinary public schools, with the addition of an
annual grant of three shillings per pupil in average attendance.

The Higher Class Public Schools are supported by contributions from the
municipal authorities of the district, according to ancient custom, by certain
endowments varying with each case, by fees, and by the rates. If need be, the
School Board may charge all the expenses of a Higher Class School on the rates,
except the salaries of teachers. The Board has great freedom in dealing with the
Higher Class Schools. It determines the qualifications to be demanded from the
teachers, and has the power of causing candidates for the post of teacher to be
examined, This power is rarely, if ever, exercised. The qualification demanded is
usually the possession of a University degree. These schools are examined
annually.

The grant-earning schools are subject to many more restrictions. Only duly
certificated teachers cari be employed, and certain rigid rules about registration,
accommodation, time-tables, religious instruction, have to be attended to. The
annual grant depends upon the report made by an inspector representing the
Scotch Education Department. As to the subjects studied, however, there is no
rigid line marking off the grant-earning schools from the others. The tradition of
the Scottish Parish School is that each school is fit to prepare a lad to go direct
from school to university, and in the north-east of Scotland—thanks to the Dick
and Milne Bequests—the tradition is justified to this day. Speaking broadly,
however, the grant-earning school contents itself with efficient elementary work.
The Merit Certificate represents the attainments aimed at in the elementary public
schools. To gain this certificate the pupil must give evidence of a thorough
grounding in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and must have a good working
knowledge of elementary English, nature knowledge, and the more practical
aspects of geography, with some general acquaintance with British history. But
wherever there is the least desire for higher education, arrangements are made
to carry the pupil beyond the Merit Certificate stage. This may be done in either
of two ways: (1) An Advanced Department may be formed, in which pupils who
have gained the Merit Certificate may be taught, in classes of not more than forty,
the subjects of English, geography, history, arithmetic, and as a rule drawing;
and in addition such of the following subjects as are found suitable under the cir-
cumstances: languages, mathematics, science. (2) A Higher Grade Department
may be established, or a whole school in a district may be set apart as a Higher
Grade School. In these schools or departments there must be a duly qualified
teacher for every thirty or fewer pupils on the roll, and there must be a well-
defined course of instruction approved by the Department, and extending over not
less than three years. The education in such schools may be predominantly
scientific or predominantly commercial, or they may give a course specially adapted
for girls, or for any special class of pupils. Considerable latitude is permitted in
proposing courses of study, even classical subjects being permitted as a subordinate
part of a course that otherwise satisfies the department. But stringent conditions
are laid down to prevent scrappiness.

As matters stand, Advanced Departments and Higher Grade Schools are meant

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 865

to be ends in themselves. The pupil when finished with them is regarded as
having completed his education. The Higher Class Schools seek to prepare their
pupils for the University, though naturally a Jarge proportion of their pupils do
not carry on their studies beyond the school. The Leaving Certificate Hxami-
nation holds the same relation to the Higher Class School that the Merit Certificate
holds to the Elementary Grant-earning School. In the meantime the subjects of
the Leaving Certificate Examination may be taken singly, but certificates are now
being issued also in groups, this grouping implying school attendance as well as
mere passing of examinations. Subject for subject these Leaving Certificates are
accepted by the Universities as exempting from the corresponding subjects in the
University Preliminary Examination. Probably in a few years the Leaving
Certificate will practically take the place of the University Preliminary Exami-
nation.

Besides the Higher Class Public Schools there are the usual endowed schools
and company schools, which exceed in number and rival in efficiency the School
Board schools. By the Technical Schools (Scotland) Act, 1887, and subsequent
amendments, School Boards have the power of founding and maintaining at the
expense of the ratepayers technical schools in subjects needed in their districts.

There are thirty-nine Secondary Education Committees, each representing a
county, a burgh, or a parish—mostly counties—whose function is to distribute
certain moneys that are set apart by the Government each year for the purpose of
assisting secondary education. The Scotch Education Department is represented
on each of these Committees by one of His Majesty’s Inspectors of Schools. Those
Committees wield a very important influence by the methods in which they allocate
the funds. The County Councils, too, have the power of aiding secondary or
technical education out of certain grants made to them for various local purposes.
There is a general desire for some unification of all the different authorities that
thus influence, sometimes in opposite ways, the course of Secondary Education in
Scotland. Some recommend the handing over of Education to the County
Councils, to be dealt with along with the other matters of local government ;
others desire an extension of the School Board area, leaving the control of all
educational matters, whether primary or secondary, in the hands of School Boards
representing counties or other large areas.

3. Organisation of Education in Glasgow. By Dr. W. Jacks.

4. The Training of the Practical Man.
By Dr. Joun G. Kerr, Head Master of Allan Glen’s School, Glasgow.

The author quoted Carlyle to the effect that ‘the grand result of schooling
was a mind with just vision to discern, with free force to do,’ and considered
whether the system of education at present provided was in the direction of
encouraging that independent thought and action which marked the practical
man in the best sense. The kindergarten and the primary school, in Dr. Kerr’s
opinion, were now offering a liberal discipline, and the conditions under which
the merit certificate was obtained secured breadth of general and practical
training. That there were in the Glasgow area last year over 20,000 enrolments
for special courses of instruction in evening continuation schools was fair proof of
the efficiency of the primary school system. Considering those pupils who
passed into secondary schools and the average duration of secondary school life,
Dr. Kerr pointed out that the superiority of Germany was to some extent due to
its military system and to the operation of ‘the certificate for one year's military
service,’ for that certificate not only reduced military service, but qualified for
businesses, opened the way to higher studies, and stamped the educated classes.
Tf our secondary school work was to grow there must be inducements to keep
promising pupils at school. The agencies which were at present concerned with
the preliminary training of those who were to be engaged in industries and

866 REPORT—1901.

manufactures were higher grade schools and schools of science. The methods
followed were explained, and Dr. Kerr declared that most valuable results might
be anticipated from the highly practical training they provided. He argued in
favour of the institution of maintenance scholarships, which would merely be
payments during the period of preparation for capable citizenship, and he con-
tended that the able youth who had to face such a trade as engineering should
not be required to work through five years’ apprenticeship in the shops if the
school training which he had received justified a reduction. With increased
school training the genuinely capable youth would make the very most of his
workshop experiences, would more easily find his way to higher positions, and be
likely to do better national service than could be expected from the less educated
youth who had been hurried into hard manual work before a basis of knowledge
had been laid or good intellectual habits acquired.

Dr. Kerr anticipated no serious objections to diminished apprenticeship from
the trades unions, and the capitalist employer would not be altogether influenced
in his attitude by the profitableness of apprenticeship labour. It was the case
that many apprentices of ability were discouraged, and it was true that many
other promising youths of scientific and mechanical turn kept clear of apprentice-
ship. But Britain could not afford to let capacity go to waste, and accordingly
every effort should be made to discover and train for industries youths of first-
class brain-power. France, in applying prudent and skilful methods of eliminating
the unfit from point to point in the higher practical schools, had set an example
which might be followed with profit.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Future Work of the Section.
By Professor H. E. Armsrrona, 7.2.9.

2. The Experimental Method of Teaching.
By Professor L. C. Miatr, /.R.S.

3. On the Scope of the Science of Education.
By Professor H. L. Wrruers.

At the outset of the work of the new Section of Educational Science it is of
extreme importance that we should come to some working agreement about its
scope. There is grave risk of our being overwhelmed by a multitude of interesting
problems, some of which cannot properly be attacked before we have settled our
procedure and arranged our topics in some sort of order of priority and propor-
tional importance. In that case our discussions are likely to be no more conyincing
than the debates of the many scores of clubs and societies which are already pour-
ing out an endless stream of papers and treatises on educational subjects. We
must begin with the matters which are most fundamental and central, and leaye
for a while those which are subordinate and marginal,

We start with the claim that there is such a study as the science of education.
A study does not become a science until it is systematic, orderly, and continuous;
until the field of its investigations is marked out ; and until the terms which it uses
are defined with some precision. Until this point is reached everything remains a
matter of opinion and prejudice, and no genuine advance in thought is possible.
We must admit that this point has not yet been reached in the British study of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 867

education, and it is the difficult and responsible duty of this Section to attempt to
place our study upon an objective and truly scientific basis.

The necessity for a scientific study of education has been brought home to the
British Association by the force of events. Discussions have arisen from time to
time in the various Sections as to the true methods of teaching different subjects of
seience. In the Section of Chemistry much valuable work has been done, under
the lead of Professor Armstrong, by means of a committee working in co-opera-
tion with practical teachers. Much also has been accomplished by the Geo-
graphical Section for the reform of methods of instruction in geography.

There can be no doubt that this plan of treating education in separate de-
partments makes an admirable introduction to further investigation, but it is
clearly inadequate in scope and faulty in method unless it be carried into a much
wider field. ‘To begin with, the different Sections of the Association only touch
a small part of the whole sphere of education. They leave out almost all that is
imphed in the training of the character and the feelings, the cultivation of the
power of expression through language, and the enlargement of sympathy that
comes through the study of literature. Secondly, such a method of dealing with
single subjects by themselves is unsound both in logic and in practice. The
practical schoolmaster is attacked by specialists in an endless number of subjects,
each one of whom demands that his own speciality shall be taught, and taught
thoroughly. The schoolmaster cannot possibly teach them all; he must make
some selection among them. On what rational grounds is he to do this? His
school time-table shows his practical answer; he divides the twenty-five hours a
week which he has to distribute among the different parts of the curriculum in
certain proportions, giving, let us say, five hours to mathematics, two to history,
five to the study of the mother tongue and its literature, and so forth. If he has
any well-considered and intelligible account to give of his time-table, that account
must be rendered in the terms of some theory of the comparative importance of
the various subjects to his pupils. This implies some conception of an ordered
system of knowledge as a whole, quite apart from the individual claims of special-
ists. This theory of the curriculum is an important part of the science of educa-
tion. Again, if we turn to the question of methods of instruction we cannot
solve the problems which they raise by referring to the different subjects in isola-
tion. For instance, are we to teach geometry demonstratively in the method of
Euclid, or concretely and through physical applications? We can get no sure
answer by appealing to the mathematical specialists, They will tell us that it
depends what our object is in teaching geometry ; what mental powers we wish to
train ; what later applications we intend to make of the geometrical faculty when
acquired. That is, we find ourselves referred partly to a consideration of the total
aim and purpose of our education and partly to its technical bearings. And these
are not mathematical considerations at all. Similarly, if we are asked how we
are to teach a language, let us say French, we cannot give a satisfactory answer in
terms of French linguistic science alone. We must reply that it depends upon our
purpose in teaching French, whether, that is, we desire to make it a key to knowledge
of one of the foremost literatures in Europe, or whether we desire to give a power to
conduct commercial correspondence in French, or whether we aim at both of these
ends and many others that might be named. There is no such thing as a method
in the abstract. A method is a means to an end, and varies indefinitely in relation
to that end.

It is clear, therefore, that the science of teaching is not the same thing as the
teaching of science. The study which belongs to Section L must be, in a sense,
independent of the subjects studied in the other Sections, although, in another
sense, it is closely bound up with them. The great work which the Section can
do is to introduce some kind of order into the confusion which rages at present in
educational controversy. It can achieve this only by simplifying and concen-
trating its field of work, by defining its scope, and by aiming at an orderly and
systematic treatment of its main topics.

We may best arrive at an idea of the scope of educational science by consider-
ing the following questions : What is it that the educator should study and practise

868 REPORT— 1901.

apart altogether from the two or three departments of knowledge in which he may |
happen to bea specialist ? What are the chief topics in regard to which he ought
to seek after clear ideas and sound action ?

We must begin, must we not? with a rough working definition of education
itself. Education is a living process in virtue of which the partly developed
young of the human species are adjusted by nourishment and exercise to the
environment in which, when fully grown, they will have to continue to live.
That environment is partly physical and partly human. ~

Healthy activity in relation to nature and man may serve as a working defini-
tion of our end, and in order to obtain this for children we must aim at clear ideas
about the following points :—

(a) Physical health in the home and in school.

(b) A sound correspondence, implying health of brain and nerves, between the
mind of the child and the natural phenomena which surround it, and which
form the background of human life.

(c) A cultivation in the child of human sympathy with the community of
which he is to form a part; a power to express that sympathy in clear language; an
understanding of human nature and of the art and literature in which that human
nature has most characteristically embodied itself; some knowlege of human history.
and of the gradual process by which mankind has attained to the position in which
we find it. All this must be accompanied by constant habituation to healthy
activity with other human beings in the social relations of home and school.

These appear to be the indispensable conditions of adjustment of the growing
child to his environment. To aid that adjustment it is evident that the educator
must clear up his ideas on many points. Of these the most important and most
central might be specified as follows :—

(i.) The hygiene of human growth, with special reference to the healthy func-
tions of growing brains and nerves.

(ii.) The theory of the curriculum, which must include a consideration of the
comparative value for growing children of different subjects of study, and of the
order and mutual relation in which these subjects should be presented to the
adolescent mind,

(iii.) The theory of method, which must embrace a study of the conditions
under which the maximum of mental and moral activity can be attained without
overstrain. It will therefore comprise an inyestigation into the symptoms and
causes of brain fatigue. It will consider the circumstances under which the
interest and self-activity of children are best roused and maintained. It will
require a series of practical experiments conducted by trained observers under the
ordinary conditions of school life.

(iv.) The study of the conditions under which desirable qualities of character
are produced, such, for instance, as courage, kindness, initiative, firmness of will,
and the like. Under this head would come the scientifie study of play, of imita-
tion, of the influence of suggestion, and so forth, as well as of the influence of the
school community and school institutions.

In these four topics, which may be summed up as physical and mental
hygiene, the theory of the curriculum, the theory of method, and the theory of
character, might be found a rough working scheme of the scope of educational
science. When we have arrived at some sort of agreement upon them we shall
have to consider the forms of administration and organisation most likely to foster
desirable conditions. For this we shall need a comparative study of educational
institutions, including those of foreign nations and those which have existed in
the past. After this we may proceed to the corollaries and riders of our main
topics, such, for instance, as the problem of how best to prepare children for par-
ticular trades and professions, such as engineering or law, and in especial how to
train those who are going to be educators, for the effective practice of the scientific
principles of their profession, j

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 869

4. Some Considerations bearing on the Practical Study of Educational
Science. By P. A. Barnett, IA.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

A Joint Discussion with Section A on the Teaching of Mathematics,
opened by Professor Joun Perry, F.R.S.1

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

1. Joint Discussion with Section K on the Teaching of Botany.
See p. 843.

2. Joint Discussion with Section F on Commercial Hducation,
opened by Mr. L. L. Price.—See p. 751.

3. Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.
See Reports, p. 458.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
The following Papers were read :—

l. The Influence of Universities and Examining Bodies upon the Work
of Elementary Schools. By the Right Reverend Jonny Prrcivat, D.D.,
Lord Bishop of Hereford.—See Reports, p. 448.

2. Liberal Education for Boys leaving School at Sixteen or Seventeen.
By H. W. Eve, JA.

It is generally admitted that a complete classical education under the best
conditions, properly supplemented by other subjects, is thoroughly good of its
kind. For those who have not adequate time the problem of devising a good
curriculum is difficult. It is necessary to guard, on the one hand, against a
curriculum too exclusively practical, and on the other against the waste of time
on a half-finished classical education, generally including no Greek. Too often
the result is that time and energy are spent on gaining a very imperfect Inow-
ledge of Latin, which might have been more profitably devoted to other subjects.
The Latin learnt at school is never kept up: it contributes but little to the forma-
tion of intellectual tastes, so necessary as an antidote to trivial and vulgar pur-
suits. What is really wanted is a secondary education at once practical and
liberal, and that in a world much changed within the lifetime of men not yet
old. Science must fill an important place in such an education: not only must

' Published with an account of the Discussion which followed the reading of
the Paper, Macmillan & Co., London, 1901.

1901. 3L

870 REPORT—1901.

some familiarity with scientific method be acquired, but also a good deal of that
scientific knowledge which is essential for intelligent general reading. Add to
the time required for mathematics and science what is needed for English, history,
and geography, and two modern languages, and but little time is left for Latin.
German, too much neglected in English schools, is essential both on practical and
on general grounds, and should take the place of Latin. Nor would there be any
appreciable loss in point of discipline and training. Modern languages, though
easier than the classical languages, present quite enough difficulties for the
average boy, and he has at the end of his course something to show for his
efforts. Much depends on effective scholarly teaching and on the selection of
reading-books requiring sustained thought.

el

—_

INDEX.

References to reports and papers printed in extenso are given in Italics.
An Asterisk * indicates that the title only of the communication is given.
The mark + indicates the same, but a reference is given to the Journal or Newspaper

where the paper is published in extenso.

BJECTS and rules of the Association,
Xxix.

List of Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and
Local Secretaries, 1831-1901, xl.

List of Trustees and General Officers,
1831-1901, liii.

List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of Sections, liv.

List of evening Discourses from 1842,
Ixxii.

Lectures to the Operative Classes, lxxvi.

Officers of Sections present at Glasgow,
Ixxvii.

Committee of Recommendations at
Glasgow, lxxix.

Treasurer’s account, Ixxx.

Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the annual meetings, Ixxxii.
Officers and Council for 1901-1902, lxxiv.
Report of the Council to the General

Committee at Glasgow, lxxxvi.
Resolutions passed by the General
Committee at Glasgow :

(1) Committees receiving grants of
money, xc.

(2) Committees not receiving grants
of money, xcvi.

(3) Resolution relating to Com-

: mittee on traction of vehicles,
xcix.

(4) Papers ordered to be printed in
extenso, XCix. :

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes in 1901, c.

Places of meeting in 1902 and 1908, ci.

General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, cii.

General meetings, cxx.

Address by the President, Principal
A. W. Richer, F.B.S., 3.

ABNEY (Sir W. De W.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 79.

ACKROYD (W.) on the inverse relation of
chlorine to rainfall, 603.

—— on the distribution of chlorine in
Yorkshire, 603.

—— on the circulation of salt and its
geological bearings, 654.

ADAMS (John) on the mechanism for
education in Scotland, 863.

—— (Prof. W. G.) on practical electrical
standards, 31.

ADENEY (Dr. W. E.) on radiation from a
source of light in a magnetic field, 39.
Africa, the climatology of, Final report

on, 383.

Agriculture, British, Prof. R. Wallace
on, 747.

——, geology regarded in its economic
application to, J. R. Kilroe on, 643.
AITKEN (T.) on the resistance of road

vehicles to traction, 402.

ALLEN (H. 8.) on the effect of errors in
ruling on the appearance of a diffrac-
tion grating, 568.

*Allotropic silver, the potential differ-
ences of, J. A. Craw on, 549.

Alloys, Report on the nature of, 75.

—, aluminium-tin, W. Carrick An-
derson and G. Lean on, 606.

, aluminium-antimony, and alumi-
nium-copper, W. Campbell on, 606.

Aluminium, the commercial importance
of, Prof. E. Wilson on, 771.

Aluminium-tin alloys, W. Carrick An-
derson and G. Lean on, 606.

* re -antimony alloys, W. Campbell on,

Fae -copper alloys, W. Campbell on,

Ammonia, the action of, on metals at
high temperatures, Dr,G. G. Henderson
and G. T. Beilby on, 605.

3L2

872

Analytic functions, irregular points of,
Prof. G. Mittag-Leffler on, 549.

ANDERSON (Miss A. M.) on the effect of
legislation regulating women’s labour,
399.

—— (Prof. R. J.) on the relationships of
the premaxilla in bears, 681.

on an apparatus for studying the
rate of flow of solutions in plant stems,
846.

—— (Dr. Tempest) on the collection

of photographs of geological interest |

én the United Kingdom, 339.

(W. Carrick) and G. LEAN on
aluminium-tin alloys, 606.

Andes, exploration of lakes in the,
Hesketh Prichard on, 721.

*ANNANDALE (Nelson) and H. C.

ROBINSON, Anthropological notes on |
Sai Kau, a Siamo-Malayan village, by, |

804.

“Antarctic expedition, self-recording
instruments for the, some results ob-
tained with, Dr. R. T. Glazebrook on,
579.

*_______, Dr. J. S. Keltie on the, 725.
+__ __ Dr. H. R. Mill on the, 725.
*___ __.,, the Scottish National, the

methods and plans of, W. 8. Bruce
on, 725.

Anthropo-geography, Argentine, F. P.
Moreno on, 720.

*Anthropological photographs, Interim
report on, 789.

*«___ teaching, Interim report on, 789.
Anthropology, Address by Prof. D. J.
Cunningham to the Section of, 776.
Amper (E. A. N.) on the Glossopteris

flora of Australia, 847.

Argentine anthropo-geography, F. P.
Moreno on, 720.

AmmMsTRONG (Dr. E. Frankland) on the
application of the equilibrium law to
the separation of crystals from complex
solutions and to the formation of oceanic
salt deposits, 262.

(®rof. H. E.) on isomorphous deriva-

tives of benzene, 78.

on the investigation of isomeric
aaphthalene derivatives, 152.

——on the teaching of science in ele-
mentary schools, 458.

*____ on the future work of the Section |

of Educational Science, 866.

Arran Island geology, recent discoveries |

in, W. Gunn on, 631.

, prehistoric man in, Dr. E.
Duncan and Dr. T. H. Bruce on, 795.
*Arsenic in beer and food, the detection

‘and estimation of, W. Thomson on, 613.
Arsenical pigmentation, Prof. J. A.
Wanklyn on, 816.
Artesian Water in Queensland, J. Logan
Jack on, 641.

REPORT—1901.

*Arthropods from the Upper Silurian,
Malcolm Laurie on, 665.

Astronomy, Address by H. H. Turner
to the Department of, 535.

*ATKINSON (E.) on food and land tenure,
748.

Atmosphere at sea, the systematic ex-
ploration of the, by means of kites,
A. Lawrence Rotch on, 724.

Atmospheric mean temperature in past
ages and the causes of glacial periods,
H. N. Dickson on, 722

Atoll, the fauna of an, C. F. Cooper on,
692.

Australia, the Glossopteris
E. A. N. Arber on, 847.

AVEBURY (Lord) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 458.

AVELING (T. C.) on the resistance of road
vehicles to traction, 402.

AYRTON (Prof. W. E.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 31.

flora of

BAILEY (Lieut.-Col.) on terrestrial sur-
Face waves, 398.

Batty (Prof. F.G.) on a new form of
potentiometer, 582.

BALFOuR (H.) on the age of stone circles,
427, 437.

—— (Prof. I. B.), Address to the Section
of Botany by, 819.

—— on the cuticular structure of Zw-
phorbia Abdelhuri, 854.

Barium sulphate and calcium fluoride,
the occurrence of, as cementing sub-
stances in the Elgin Trias, W. Mackie
on, 649.

*BARKER (T.) on spore-formation in
yeasts, 857.

— _(W. R.) on the excavation of caves
at Uphill, 352.

BARLOW (Guy) on the effects of magne-
tisation on the electrical conductivity
of iron and nickel, 581.

—— (W.) on the structure of crystals,
297.

BARNES (H. T.) and E. G. COKER ona
determination by a thermal method of
the variation of the critical velocity of
water with temperature, 579.

*BARNETT (P. A.) on the practical study
of educational science, 869.

*BARR (Mark) on machinery for en-
graving, 774.

BARRINGTON (R. M.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 364.

BarRRow (George) on variation in the
strata in the eastern Highlands, 633.
on the alterations of the Lias
shale by the Whyn dyke of Great

Ayton, in Yorkshire, 654,

INDEX.

BATHER (F. A.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 288.

—— on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 362.

BEADNELL (Hugh J. L.) on the Fayum
depression, and its new paleogene
vertebrate fauna, 659.

BEARE (Prof. T. Hudson) on the resist-
ance of road vehicles to traction, 402.

Bears, the relationships of the pre-
maxilla in, Prof. R. J. Anderson on,
681.

BEAUMONT (W. W.) on the resistance of
voad vehicles to traction, 402.

BEDFORD (T. G.) and C. F. GREEN on
a method of determining specific heats
of metals at low temperatures, 544.

_ Behaim, Martin, of Niirnberg, 1459-1507,
E. G. Ravenstein on, 714.

BEILBY (G. T.) on the minute structure
of metals, 604.

-—— and Dr. G. G. HENDERSON on the
action of ammonia on metals at high
temperatures, 605.

Belgian scientific expedition of Ka-
Tanga, apt. Lemaire on the, 722.

BELL (A. M.) on plants and Coleoptera
from a deposit of Pleistocene age at
Wolvercote, 645.

(C. N.) on an ethnological survey of

Canada, 409. %

(Robert) on the geography and
resources of Northern Ontario, 723.

- Ben Nevis, meteorological observations on,
Report on, 54.

Benzene, isomorphous derivatives of, Re-
port on, 78.

Benzenoid amines, relations between
physical constants and constitution in,
W.R. Hodgkinson and L. Limpach on,
608.

- Benzil, the condensation of, with dibenzyl
ketone, Dr. G. G. Henderson and R. H.
Corstorphine on, 607.

BERKELEY (Earl of) on the structure of
erystals, 297.

Bertillon’s system of personal identifica-
tion, W. M. Douglas on, 805.

BEVAN (Rev. J. O.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 465.

Bibliography of spectroscopy, Final re-
port on the, 155.

- BINGLEY (Godfrey) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 339.

BINNIE (Sir Alexander) on the résistance
of road vehicles to traction, 402.

* Biological Association at Plymouth, the
Marine, Report on investigations made
at the laboratory of, 376.

. Bird migration in Great Britain and
Ireland, Fourth interim report on, 364.

- Birth-rate, the decline of the, in Great
Britain, E, Cannan on, 749.

873

Birth-rate, the significance of the decline
in the English, Charles S. Devas on,
750.

*BLACKMAN (Dr. F. F.) and Miss Mat-
THAEI on natural surgery in leaves,
851.

*___. —— on the relation between COQ,
production and vitality, 851.

BLAKE (R. F.) and Prof. LETTs on the
chemical and biological changes oc-
curring during the treatment of sewage
by the so-called bacteria beds, 601.

BLANFORD (Dr. W. T.) on the zoology of
the Sandwich Islands, 352.

BLES (Kdward J.) on a method for re-
cording local faunas, 683.

BiytH (Prof. James) on the coherer,
583. ;

Bouton (H.) on the excavation of caves at
Ophill, 352.

Bone-beds of Pikermi, Attica, and in
N. Eubcea, A. Smith Woodward on,
656.

Bone marrow, Interim report on, 447.

Bonney (Prof. T. G.) on seismologieat
investigation, 40.

on the erratic blocks of the British
Tsles, 283.

— on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 339.

—— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 465.

BootH (C.) on the effect of legislation
regulating women’s labour, 399.

Bornean insects, R. Shelford on some,
689.

BORRADAILE (L. A.) on the land erus-
taceans of a coral island, 692.

BoRTHWICK (A. W.) on the diameter
increment of trees, 831.

BoskE (Prof. J. ©.) on the change of
conductivity of metallic particles under
cyclic electromotive variation, 534.

Botanical survey of Scotland, methods
and objects of a, W. G. Smith on, 720.

*Botanists, the International Association
of, Dr. J. P. Lotsy on, 830.

Botany, Address by Prof. I. B. Balfour to
the Section of, 819.

——- the teaching of, in schools, H. Wager
on, 843.

—— ——, in Universities, Prof. ¥. O.
Bower on, 843.

BoTtToMLey (Dr. J. T.) on practical elee-
trical standards, 31.

on radiation of heat and light from
a heated solid body, 562.

BouRINOT (Sir J. G.) on an ethnologica?
survey of Canada, 409.

BOURNE (G. C.) on investigations made at
the Marine Biological Association
laboratory at Plymouth, 376.

on the micro-chemistry of cells, 445,

874

Bower (Prof. F. 0.) on the morphology,
Sc., of the Podostemacee, 447.

— on fertilisation in Pheophycea,
448.

on an Ophioglossum collected by

Mr. Ridley in Sumatra, 842.

on the teaching of botany in Uni-
versities, 843.

Bow.ey (A. L.) on the effect of legis-
lation regulating women’s labour, 399.
on Glasgow wages in the nineteenth

century, 754.

BOYLE (David) on an ethnological survey
of Canada, 409.

Boys (C. Vernon) on determining magnetic
Sorce at sea, 29.

on seismological investigation, 40.

—— on the B.A. screm gauge, 407.

*___ and Prof. A. G. GREENHILL on
spherical trigonometry, 551.

BRABBOOK (EH. W.) on the effect of legis-
lation regulating women’s labawr, 399.

on an ethnological survey of Canada,

409.

on the Silchester excavation, 425.

BRAMWELL (Sir F. J.) on the B.A. screw
gauge, 407.

BRANT SERO (J. O.) on Dekanawideh,
the law-giver of the Cauiengahakas,
802.

BRAY (G.) on the movements of under-
ground waters of N.W. Yorkshire, 337.

BREBNER (George) on the anatomy of
Danea and other Marattiacez, 855.

*Bridged-rings, the synthetical formation
of, Prof. W. H. Perkin on, 607.

Bridges in China, R. Lockhart Jack on,
772.

British Protectorates, Report on a scheme
Sor the survey of, 396.

*BRODIE (W. Brodie) on the action of
oxalates upon the relationship of cal-
cium salts to muscle, 818.

Bromes and their brown rusts, Prof.
Marshall Ward on, 836.

BRoMWIcH (T. J. I’A.) on the equation
of secular inequalities, 553.

——- on the potential of a surface distri-
bution, 556.

Brown (Adrian J.) on enzyme action,
600.

—— (Prof. A. Crum) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 54.

(Horace T.) on the work of the Cor-

responding Societies Committee, 465.

CJ.) on the resistance of road vehicles
to traction, 402.

Bruce (W. §.) on the fishes of the
Coats Arctic Expedition, 687.

eg the fauna of Franz Josef Land,

*—__ on the methods and plans of the
Scottish National Antarctic Expedi-
tion, 725.

REPORT 1901.

BrusH (C. F.) and Prof. E. W. Morley
on a new gauge for small pressures,
544.

es on the transmission of heat
through water vapour, 546.

Brush grating, the law of the optical
action of a, Dr. J. Kerr on, 568.

Bryce (Dr. T. H.) on the heterotypical
division in the maturation phases of
the sexual cells, 685.

—— and Dr. EBEN. DUNCAN on prehis-
toric man in the island of Arran, 795.
BUCHAN (Dr. A.) on meteorological obser-

vations on Ben Nevis, 54.

BUDGETT (J. 8.) on the anatomy of
the larval Polypterus, 693.

BULLER (Dr. A. H. Reginald) on the fer-
tilisation process in Echinoidea, 356. ;

BURTON (F. M.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 283.

Cairngorms, E. H. Cunningham Craig
on, 654.

Calamites, a primitive type of structure
in, Dr. D. H. Scott on, 849.

CALLENDAR (Prof. H. L.) on practical
electrical standards, 31.

on the variation of the specific heat

of water, 34.

on underground temperature, 64.

Cambrian fossils of the N.W. Highlands,
B. N. Peach on the, 642.

*CAMPBELL (W.) on aluminium-anti-
mony and aluminium-copper alloys,
606.

Canada, ethnological survey of, Fifth
report on an, 409.

CANNAN (Edwin) on the decline of
natality in Great Britain, 749.

*Carbonic dioxide production and vitality
of plants, the relation between, Dr.
¥. F. Blackman and Miss Matthaei on,
851.

Carboniferous rocks, Report on life-zones
in the British, 288,

CARLILE (W. Warrand) on the postulates
of the standard of value, 741.

CARSLAW (H. 8.) on the applications
of Fourier’s series to mathematical
physics, 557.

CARTER (Rev. W. Lower) on the move-
ments of underground waters of N.W.
Yorkshire, 337.

Cartilage of the stapes, the origin of the,
and on its continuity with the hyoid
arch, Dr. J. F. Gemmill on, 788.

*Caseinogen salts in solution, the physi-
cal properties of, W. A. Osborne on,
817.

CASSEL (G.) on the theory of progressive
taxation, 745.

*Catkins, abnormal, of the hazel, Prof.
F. E. Weiss on, 857.

INDEX,

Caves in Ireland, Interim report on the
exploration of, 282.

—— at Uphill, Weston-super-Mare,
Report on the excavation of, 352.

*____ Irish, manufactured objects from,
G. Coffey on, 798.

Cells, Report onthe micro-chemistry of 445.

Cells, photoelectric, Prof. G. M. Minchin
on, 531.

Cephalopoda, the statocysts of, Dr. R.
Hamblyn Harris on, 355.

Cephalotaxus, the morphology of the
flowers of, W. C. Wordsdell on, 834.

Ceratopteris thalictroides, the anatomy
of, Sybille O. Ford on, 845.

Cerebral fissures, temporary, Prof. J.
Symington on the, 798.

Cetacea, a sacral region in, D. Hepburn
and D. Waterston on, 680.

*Chain driving, recent developments of,
C. R. Garrard on, 774.

CHAPMAN (Prof. 8. J.) on the effect of
legislation regulating women’s labour,
399.

Chemical constitution and absorption
spectra of organic bodies, Report on the
relation between, 208.

—— education, some points in, Prof. J.
Sakurai on, 612.

—— research, duty-free alcohol for,
W. T. Lawrence on, 597.

Chemistry, Address by Prof. Percy F.
Frankland to the Section of, 584.

China, bridges in, R. Lockhart Jack on,
772.

, travels in, R. Logan Jack on, 726.

CHISHOLM (Geo. G.) on geographical
conditions affecting British trade, 715.

Chlorine, the inverse relation of, to rain-
fall, W. Ackroyd on, 603.

——, the distribution in Yorkshire of,
W. Ackroyd on, 603.

CHURCH (Col. G. E.) on a scheme for the
survey of British Protectorates, 396.
*Cinnamic acids, the three stereomeric,

Prof. A. Michael on, 607.

CLARK (Archibald B.) on British colonial
policy in its economic aspect, 755.

(Miss A. M.) on abnormal second-
ary thickening in Kendrickia Walkeri,
842.

CLARKE (W. Eagle) on the migration of
birds : Skylark (Alauda arvensis), 365;
Swallom (Hirundo rustica), 372.

*CLELAND (Prof. J.) on the cartilage of
the external ear in the Monotremata
in relation to the human ear, 788.

CLEMENTS (O. P.) on the B.A. serew
gauge, 407.

Climatology of Africa, Final report on
the, 383.

Clyde valley and plains, the effects of
vegetation in the, G. F. Scott Elliot
on, 718.

875

Coal output from the Scottish coalfields,
R. W. Dron on the, 741.

Coal-tar industry, the relative progress
of the, in England and Germany dur-
ing the past fifteen years, A. G. Green
on, 252.

CoATES (H.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 339.

CoFFEY (G.) on the exploration of caves
in Ireland, 282.

—— on naturally chipped flints for com-
parison with certain forms of alleged
artificial chipping, 795.

*____ on manufactured objects from Irish
caves, 798.

COHEN (R. Waley) and W. N. SHaw on
the seasonal variation of the atmo-
spheric temperature of the British
Isles, and its relation to wind-direction,
558.

Coherer, A note on the, by Prof. J.
Blyth, 583.

CoKER (E. G.) and H. T. BARNES on a
determination by a thermal method of
the variation of the critical velocity of
water with temperature, 579.

CoLE (Prof. Grenville) on the explora-
tion of caves in Ireland, 282.

COLLET (Miss C. E.) on the effect of legis-
lation regulating women’s labour, 399.
Colloids and crystalloids, transitional
forms between, Dr. Gladstone and W.

Hibbert on, 604.

Colonial policy, British, in its economic
aspect, A. B. Clark on, 755.

Colour vision, Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green
on, 817. ‘

Conductivity of metallic particles, the
change of, under cyclic electro-motive
variation, Prof. J. C. Bose on, 534.

Congo, Portuguese, itineraries in, Rev. T.
Lewis on, 717.

Conifers, heterogenesis in, Dr. T. P. Lotsy
on, 848.

CoNWENTZ (Prof. H.) on thepast history
of the yew in Great Britain and Ire-
land, 839.

CooPER (C. Forster) on the fauna of an
atoll, 692,

COPELAND (Prof. R.) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 54.

Copper-bearing rocks of §. Australia,
F. P. Mennell on, 665.

Copper ores of Scotland in their geolo-
gical relation, J. G. Goodchild on,
647.

Coral island, the land crustaceans of a,
L. A. Borradaile on, 692.

islands of the Maldives, J S.
Gardiner on, 683.

—— reefs of the Indian regions, Second
report on, 363.

CORBETT (Cameron) on the real inci-
dence of local rates, 757.

876

CORNISH (Dr. Vaughan) on terrestrial
surface waves, 398.
—— on the size of waves as observed at
sea, 773.
Corresponding Societies Committee:
Report, 465.
Conference at Glasgow, 466.
List of Corresponding Societies, 487.
Papers published by Local Societies,
490.
CORSTORPHINE (R. H.) and Dr. G. G.
HENDERSON on the condensation of
benzil with dibenzyl ketone, 607.
CorTIz (Rev. A. L.) on the drift in
longitude of groups of facule on the
sun’s surface, 542.
*Cosmography, the representation of the
heavens in the study of, A. Galeron
on, 727.
COTTRELL (F.G.) on the theory of the
Lippmann electrometer and related
phenomena, 548.
Covellite, the occurrence of, in associa-
tion with malachite in the sandstone
of Kingsteps, W. Mackie on, 65].
CRAIG (E. H. Cunningham) on cairn-
gorms, 654.
*CRAW (J. A.) on the effect of non-
electrolytes on the Lippmann electro-
meter curve, 549.
*_____ on the determination of the surface
tension of mercury by the method of
ripples, 549.
*— on the potential differences of
allotropic silver, 549.
CREAK (Capt. E. W.) on determining
magnetic force at sea, 29.
CREB (T.§8.), A business man on supply
and demand by, 748.
*CREMIEU (Dr. V.) sur les effets de la
convection électrique, 531.
—— on a new point of view about gravi-
tation and a proposed experiment, 561.
Crete, Report on explorations in, 440.
the Neolithic settlement at Knossos
in, A. J. Evans on, 792.
— explorations at Zakro in, D. G.
Hogarth on, 793.
Crick (G. C.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 288.
CROMPTON (Col. R. E.) on the resistance
of road vehicles to traction, 402.
— onthe B.A. screw gauge, 407.
—— Address to the Section of Engi-
neering by, 761.
CROOK (C. V.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 339.
CROOKE (W.) on the Natural History
and Ethnography of the Malay Penin-
sula, 411.

—— on the proposed ethnographic sur-
vey of India, 806.

Crustaceans, land, of a coral island, L. A.
Borradaile on the, 692.

*

REPORT—1901.

Crystal structure, Report on the develop-
ment of the geometrical theories of, 297.

Crystals, the application of the equili-
brium law to the separation of, from
complex solutions, Dr. E. F. Armstrong
on, 262.

“___ dredged from the Clyde near

Helensburgh, J. 8. Flett on, 635.

CULLEN (Rev. J.) and Lt.-Col. CuNNING-
HAM on idoneal numbers, 552.

CUNNINGHAM (Lt.-Col. Allan) on tables
of certain mathematical funetions, 54.

and Rev. J. CULLEN on idoneal

numbers, 552.

and H. J. WOODALL on the deter-
mination of successive high primes, 553.

— (Prof. D. J.) on the exploration of
caves in Ireland, 282.

——., Address to the Section of Anthro-
pology by, 776.

— (J. H.) on excavations at Ardoch,
790.

Cyanophycee, the cytology of the, H.
Wager on, 830.

Cyathacez, the vascular anatomy of the,
D. T. Gwynne- Vaughan on, 854.

Danza and other Marattiacez, the ana-
tomy of, G. Brebner on, 855.

DARWIN (Prof. G. H.) on seismological
investigation, 40.

—— on Poincaré’s pear-shaped figure of
equilibrium of rotating fluid, 550.

—— (Horace) on seismological investi-
gation, 40.

on earth movements at the Ridgenay
Fault, 52.

—— (Maj. L.) on seismological investiga-
tion, 40.

DAWKINS (Prof. Boyd) on the excavation
of caves at Uphill, 352.

—— on the age of stone circles, 427.

DAWSON (the late Dr. G. M.) on an
ethnological survey of Canada, 409.

DEACON (G. F.) on underground tem-
perature, 64.

Dekanawideh, the law-giver of the
Caniengahakas, J. O. Brant Sero on,
802.

DENDY (Miss Mary) on feebleness of *
mind, pauperism, and crime, 758.

DENISON (F. Napier) on the seismograph
as a sensitive barometer, 577.

DE RANCH (C. E.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 283.

DEVAS (Charles 8.) on the significance
of the decline in the English birth-rate,
750.

DEWAR (Prof. J.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 79.

DICKINSON (Joseph) on underground
temperature, 64.

INDEX.

-DICKSON (H. N.) on the plankton and
physical conditions of the English

Channel during 1899-1900, 353.

— on changes of the land level of the
Phlegrean Fields, 382.

—— on the climatology of Africa, 383.

—— on ascheme for the survey of British
Protectorates, 396.

—— on the mean temperature of the
atmosphere and the causes of glacial
periods, 722.

Differential equations and the Puiseux
diagram, R. W. H. T. Hudson on, 555.

Diffraction grating, the effect of errors in
ruling on the appearance of a, H.S.
Allen on, 568.

*DILLON (J.) on recording soundings by
photography, 773.

Diorite associated with granite at As-
souan, A. Somervail on, 663.

*Diplodia parasitic on cacao and on the
sugar cane, A. Howard on, 857.

fDiscussion: On the teaching of mathe-
matics, 869.

*____on the proposed new unit of
pressure (see p. 71), 562.

*____ on glass used for scientific purposes,
568.

— on economics and commercial edu-
cation, 751.

*____ on housing, 753.

on the teaching of botany, 843.

DOBBIE (Prof. J. J.) on absorption spec-
tra and chemical composition of or-
ganic bodies, 208.

DovuGLas (Wm. M.) on personal identi-
fication, Dr. A. Bertillon’s system, 805.

Dron (Robert W.) on the output of coal
from the Scottish coalfields, 741.

Duncan (Dr. Eben.) and Dr. T. H.
BRYCE on prehistoric man in the
island of Arran, 795.

*DuNLOP (J. S.), Prof. A. GRAY, and A.
Woop on elastic fatigue, as shown by
metals and woods, 529.

DuNSTAN (Prof. W. R.) on the teach-
ing of science in elementary schools,
458.

Duty-free alcohol for chemical research,
W. T. Lawrence on, 597.

DWERRYHOUSE (A. R.) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 283.

—— on the movements of underground
naters of N.W. Yorkshire, 337.

.*Ear, the cartilage of the external, in
the Monotremata in relation to the

_ human ear, Prof. J. Cleland on, 788.

Earthquakes: see Seismological Investi-
gation.

Earth’s curvature, the experimental
demonstration of the, H. Yule Oldham
cn, 725.

877

Echinoidea, the fertilisation process in,
Dr. A. H. R. Buller on, 35€.

Economic Science and Statistics, Ad-
dress by Sir R. Giffen to the Section of,
728.

EDGEWoORTH (Prof. F. Y.) on the effect
of legislation regulating women’s labour,
399.

EDRIDGE-GREEN (Dr. F. W.) on colour
vision, 817.

Education, chemical, some points ia,
Prof. J. Sakurai on, 612.

——, commercial, and economics, L. L.
Price on, 751.

% in Glasgow, organisation of, Dr.
W. Jacks on, 865.

——, liberal, for boys leaving school at
sixteen or seventeen, H. W. Eve on, 869.

——in Scotland, the mechanism for,
John Adams on, 863.

———, the scope of the science of, Prof.
H. L. Withers on, 866.

*___, secondary, the organisation of,
Sir H. E. Roscoe on, 863.

Educational Science, Address by Sir J. E.
Gorst to the Section of, 858.

* ——, Section of, the future work of
the, Dr. H. E. Armstrong on, 866. ~-

*____ ___., the practical study of, P. A,
Barnett on, 869.

EDWARDS (E. J.) on the critical point in
rolled steel joists, 774.

Egyptian king, Hen Nekht, the bones of
the, C. S. Myers on, 797.

*Elastic fatigue as shown by metals and
woods, Prof. A. Gray, J. 8. Dunlop,
and A. Wood on, 529.

*Electric convection, the magnetic effects
of, Dr. V. Crémieu on, 531.

—— waves, interference and polarisation
of, Prof. Dr. G. Quincke on, 39.

Electrical measurements, experiments for
improving the construction of practical
standards for, Report on, 31.

Appendix: a comparison of the
silver deposited in voltameters
containing different solvents, by
S. Skinner, 32.

Electricity, the discharge of, through
mercury vapour, Prof. A. Schuster on,
531.

Electrolysis of alkali salt vapour, the
laws of, H. A. Wilson on, 547.

*Hlectrolytic conductivity of halogen acid
solutions, Dr. J. Gibson on, 613.

*Electrometercurve, the Lippmann, effect
of non-electrolytes on, J. A. Craw on,
549.

——-, the Lippmann, the theory of, F. G.
Cottrell on, 548.

ELLINGER (Barnard) on thirty years’
export trade, British and Irish produce,
1870-1899, 744,

878

ELPHINSTONE (G. K. B.) on the B.A.
screw gauge, 407.

Engineering, Address by Col. R. E.
Crompton to the Section of, 761.

English Channel, plankton and physical
conditions in 1899-1900 of the, Interim
report on the, 353.

*Engraving, machinery for, Mark Barr
on, 774.

Enzyme action, Adrian J. Brown on, 600.

Equisetum, the nature of the stele of,
D. T. Gwynne- Vaughan on, 850.

Erratic blocks of the British Isles, Report
on the, 283.

Ether, the necessity of postulating an,
B. Hopkinson on, 534.

*Ethnographic survey of India, the pro-
posed, W. Crooke on, 806.

Ethnography and Natural History of the
Malay Peninsula, Report on the, 411.

Ethnological Survey of Canada, Fifth
report on an, 409.

Euphorbia Abdelhuri, the cuticular struc-
ture of, Prof. I. B. Balfour on, 854.

EVANS (A. H.) on making a digest of the
observations on the migration of birds,
364.

— (A. J.) on the Silchester excavation,
425.

—— on the age of stone circles, 427.

on explorations in Crete, 440.

—— on the Neolithic settlement at
Knossos, and its place in the history of
early Mgean culture, 792.

— (Sir J.) on the age of stone circles,
427,

on explorations in Crete, 440.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 465.

EvE (H. W.) on liberal education for
boys leaving school at sixteen or seven-
teen, 869.

EVERETT (Prof. J. D.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 31.

on underground temperature, 64.

—— on resolving power in the micro-
scope and telescope, 569.

Evolution of man, hints of, in tradition,
D. MacRitchie on, 806.

Ewanrt (Prof .J. Cossar), Address to the
Section of Zoology by, 666.

*___ on zebras and zebra hybrids, 691.

Ewine (Prof. J. A.) on seismological
imvestigation, 40.

*Experimental method of teaching, Prof.
L. C. Miall on the, 866.

Export trade, thirty years’ (1870-99),
British and Irish produce, Barnard
Ellinger on, 744.

Faculz on the sun’s surface, the drift in
longitude of groups of, Rev. A. L.
Cortie on, 542.

REPORT—1901.

FAIRLEY (T.) on the movements of under-
ground waters of N.W. Yorkshire, 337.

Farm labour colonies, recent results of,
Harold E. Moore on, 757.

FARMER (Prof. J. B.) on the morphology,
Sc., of the Podostemacee, 447.

—— on fertilisation in Pheophycce,
448,

(R. C.) on the methods for the deter-
mination of hydrolytic dissociation of
salt-solutions, 240.

Fault, relative movement of strata at the
Ridgeway, H. Darwin on the, 52.

Fauna of Franz Josef Land, W. 8S. Bruce
on, 687.

Faunas, local, a method of recording,
E. J. Bles on, 683.

Fayum depression, and its new paleogene
fauna, H. J. L. Beadnell on, 659

Feebleness of mind, pauperism, and
crime, Miss Mary Dendy on, 758.

Fellahin of W. Palestine, some customs
of the, R, A. 8. Macalister on, 802.

Ferns, two Malayan ‘ myrmecophilous,’
R. H. Yapp on, 851.

*Fishes, the distribution of, in the Car-
boniferous rocks and Old Red Sand-
stone in Scotland, Dr. R. H. Traquair
ou, 640,

—— of the Coats Arctic Expedition,
W. 8S. Bruce on, 687.

FITZGERALD (the late Prof. G. F.) on
radiation from a source of light in a
magnetic field, 39.

FITZPATRICK (Rev. T. C.) on practical
electrical standards, 31.

Fjords of Norway, the physical history
of the, Prof. EK. Hull on, 660.

Flame coloration and spectrum of nickel
compounds, P. J. Hartog on the, 613.
FLEMING (Dr. J. A.) on practical elec-

trical standards, 31.

*Flesh-eating plants, Prof. J. Reynolds

Green on, 841.

| FLETCHER (L.) on the structure of erys-

tals, 297.

*FLETT (John §S.) on crystals dredged
from the Clyde near Helensburgh,
with analyses by Dr. W. Pollard, 635.

—— and Prof. J. GEIKIE on the granite
of Tulloch Burn, Ayrshire, 634.

Flints, naturally chipped, for comparison
with certain forms of alleged artificial
chipping, G. Coffey on, 795.

FLOYER (KE. A.) on terrestrial surface
maves, 398.

FLUX (Prof. A. W.) on the effect of legis-
lation regulating women’s labour, 399.
*Food and land tenure, E. Atkinson on,

748.

Foorp (A. H.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 288.

*Foraminifera, dimorphism in, J. J.
Lister on, 688.

INDEX.

*ForBES (G.) on the position of a planet
beyond Neptune, 543.

* __ on a portable folding range-finder,
for use with infantry, 774.

Forp (Sybille 0.) on the anatomy of
Ceratopteris thalictroides, 845.

—— and A. C. SEWARD on the anatomy
of Zudea, with an account of the
geological history of the Osmundacez,
847.

Forest Trees in Scotland, the distribution
of certain, as shown by the investiga-
tion of Post-Glacial deposits, W. N.
Niven on, 839.

Forth Valley, the Scottish Natural His-
tory Society’s scheme for the investi-
gation of the, Marion Newbigin on,
719.

*Fossil plants from Berwickshire, R.
Kidston on, 643.

—— —— and Coleoptera from a deposit
of Pleistocene age at Wolvercote, A. M,
Bell on, 645.

remains, the investigation of, by
serial sections, Prof. W. J. Sollas on,
643.

*Fossils in the La Plata Museum, Photo-
graphs of, exhibited by Dr. F. P.
Moreno, 696.

Foster (A. Le Neve) on the B.A. screw
gauge, 407.

—— (Dr. OC. Le Neve) on underground
temperature, 64.

— (Prof. G. C.) on practical electrical
standards, 31.

Fourier problem of the steady tempera-
tures in a thin rod, J. W. Peck on the,
555.

Fourier’s series, the applications of, to
mathematical physics, H. 8. Carslaw
on, 557.

*Fow ur (L. J.S.), D. NoEL PATON, and
L. GULLAND on the question whether
the spleen has a hemopoietic function,
818.

Fox (H.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 288.

FRANKLAND (Prof. Percy F.), Address to
the Section of Chemistry by, 584.

*Frog’s tongue, the mechanism of the,
Prof. M. Hartog and N. Maskelyne on,
688.

wa ——, a model showing the mechan-
ism of the, Prof. M. Hartog on, 818.

*GALERON (A.) on the representation of
the heavens in the study of cosmo-
graphy, 727.

GALLOWAY (W.) on underground tempera-
ture, 64.

GALTON (Francis) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 465.

879

*Gulton’s whistle, observations with, C. 8.
Myers on, 818.

Gametophyte in the Ophioglossales and
Lycopodiales, W. H. Lang on, 841.

GANONG (Dr. W. F.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 409.

GARDINER (J. Stanley) on the coral
islands of the Maldives, 683

*GARRARD (C. R.) onrecent developments
of chain driving, 774.

GARSON (Dr. J. G.) on the age of stone
circles, 427, 438.

—— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 465.

GARSTANG (W.) on the plankton and
physical conditions of the English
Channel during 1899-1900, 353.

on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Laboratory at Plymouth,
376.

GARWooD (E. J.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 288.

on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 339.

Gauge for small screws, the British
Association, Report on, 407.

—— for small pressures, a new, Prof.
E. W. Morley and C. F. Brush on, 544.

GEIKIE (Sir Arch.) on wndergrownd tem-
perature, 64.

*____ on time intervals in the volcanic
history of the Inner Hebrides, 636.

(Prof. J.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 39.

—— and J. S. FLETT on the granite of
Tulloch Burn, Ayrshire, 634.

GEMMILL (Dr. J. F.) on Eechinonema
grayi, a large nematode from the
perivisceral cavity of the sea-urchin,
691.

— on the origin of the cartilage of the
stapes and on its continuity with the
hyoid arch, 788.

Geographical conditions affectiag British
trade, 715.

—— environment, the influence of, on
political evolution, Alleyne Ireland on,
716.

Geography, Address by Dr. H. R. Mill to
the Section of, 698.

Geological photographs of interest in the
United Kingdom, Report on, 339.

Geology, Address by John Horne to the
Section of, 615.

Germinal selection, the theory of, in
relation to the facts of inheritance,
Prof. J. A. Thomson on, 685.

GIBBS (Prof. Wolcott) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 79.

GiBson (Prof. Harvey) on fertilisation in
Pheophycee, 448,

880

*GIBSON (Dr. J.) on the electrolytic con-
ductivity of halogen acid solutions, 613.

GiFFEN (Sir Robert), Address to the
Section of Economic Science and Sta-
tistics by, 728.

GILSON (Prof. G.) on a new sounding and
ground-collecting apparatus, 696.

GINSBURG (Benedict W.) on shipping
subsidies, 743.

Glacial periods, the mean temperature of
the atmosphere and the causes of,
H. N. Dickson on, 722.

Glacier-dammed lakes in the Cheviois,
P. F. Kendall and H. B. Muff on, 646.

GLADSTONE (G.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 458.

and Dr. J. H. GLADSTONE on hydra-

tion of tin, including the action of

light, 603.

(Dr. J. H.) on the teaching of science

in elementary schools, 458.

and G. GLADSTONE on hydration of
tin, including the action of light, 603.

——— and W. HIBBERT on transitional
forms between colloidsand crystalloids,
604.

GLAISHER (J.) on underground tempera-
ture, 64.

— (Dr. J. W. L.) on tables of certain
mathematical functions, 54.

Glasgow wages in the nineteenth century

' A. L. Bowley on, 754.

*Glass used for scientific purposes, Dr.
R. T. Glazebrook on, 568.

GLAZHBROOK (Dr. R. T.) on practical
electrical standards, 31.

on the B.A. screw gauge, 407.

*____on the buildings of the National
Physical Laboratory, 530.

*__ on glass used for scientific pur-
poses, 568.

*____ on some results obtained with the
self-recording instruments for the
Antarctic expedition, 579.

*GLENNIE (J. S. Stuart) on magic, reli-
gion and science, 807.

Glossopteris flora of Australia, E. A. N.
Arber on, 847.

GopMAN (F. Du Cane) on the zoology of
the Sandnich Isiands, 352.

Gold, alluvial, in the Kildonan Field, the
source of the, J. M. Maclaren on, 651.

' —— in veins, the influence of organic
matter on the deposition of, J. M.
Maclaren on, 652.

GoopcHILD (J. G.), on the collection
of photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 339.

~——on the Scottish ores of copper in
their geological relations, 647.

—— on a revised list of minerals known
to occur in Scotland, 648.

GORHAM (J. Marshall) on the B.A. serew
gauge, 407.

REPORT—1901.

Gorst (Sir J. E.), Address to the Sec-
tion of Educational Science by, 858.

GoTcH (Prof. F.) on bone marron, 447.

Government planting in the Isle of Man,
G. P. Hughes on, 857.

GRAHAM KERR (J.) on the coral reefs of
the Indian region, 363.

—— on the origin of the paired limbs
of the Vertebrata, 693.

Granite of Tulloch Burn, Ayrshire, Prof.
J. Geikie and J. 8. Flett on, 634.

Gravel-flats of Surrey and Berkshire, the
origin of the, H. W. Monckton on, 662.

Gravitation, an experiment proposed for
producing a sudden variation in, Dr.
V. Crémieu on, 561.

Gravitational matter, the clustering of,
in any part of the universe, Lord
Kelvin on, 563.

*GRAY (Prof. A.) on the relation between
temperature and internal viscosities
of solids, 529.

*_____ on the influence of a magnetic field
on the viscosity of magnetisable
liquids, 582.

*____ 9n the influence of a magnetic field
on the viscosity of magnetisable
solids, 582,

*___, J. S. DUNLOP, and A. Woop on
elastic fatigue as shown by metals
and woods, 529.

. and Dr. W. STEWART on a new
electromagnet and an echelon spectro-
scope for magneto-optic observations,
569.

— (H. St. George) on the excavations
of the stone circle at Arbor Low, 427.
——- (J.) and J. F. TocHER on the fre-
quency and pigmentation value of
surnames of school children in East

Aberdeenshire, 799.

(W.) on the collection of photographs
of geological interest in the United
Kingdom, 339.

GREEN (Arthur G.) on the relative pro-
gress of the coal-tar industry in Eng-
land and Germany during the past
Jifteen years, 252.

— (C. F.) and T. G. BEDFORD on a
method of determining specific heats
of metals at low temperatures, 544.

*_____ (Prof. J. Reynolds) on flesh-eating
plants, 841.

GREENHILL (Prof. A. G.) on tables of
certain mathematical functions, 54.

*___ on the simple pendulum without
approximation, 551.

*_____ and C. V. Boys on spherical trigo-
nometry, 551.

GRIFFITHS (E. H.) on practical electri-
cal standards, 31.

on the nature of alloys, 75.

on the freezing points of certain

dilute solutions, 530.

*

INDEX.

Ground-collecting and sounding appara-
tus, Prof. G. Gilson on a, 696.

GUILLAUME (Dr. C. E.) sur lunité de
pression, 71.

*GULLAND (Lovell), D. NorEL PATON,
and L. J. 8. FOWLER on the question
whether the spleen has a hemopoietic
function, 818.

Gulls artificially hatched, the behaviour
of young, Prof. J. A. Thomson on, 378.

GuNN (Wm.) on recent discoveries in
Arran geology, 631.

GUNTHER (R. T.) on changes of the land
level of the Phlegrean Fields, 382.

GWYNNE-V AUGHAN (D. T.) on the nature
of the stele of Equisetum, 850.

——on the vascular anatomy of the
Cyathacez, 854.

Gymuosperm seeds, fossil, Prof. F. W.
Oliver on, 851.

HADDON (Prof. A. C.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 409.

*Hair, mammalian, microscopic prepara-
tions, F. H. Marshall on, 692.

HALLIBURTON (Prof. W. D.) on the
micro-chemistry of cells, 443.

HAMBLYN-HARRIS (Dr. R.) on the stato-
cysts of Cephalopoda, 355.

*Hardness of materials, measurement of
the, by indentation by a steel sphere,
T. A. Hearson on, 774.

HARKER (Alfred) on the sequence of
Tertiary igneous eruptions in Skye,
636.

HARMER (S. F.) on the coral reefs of
the Indian region, 363.

HARRISON (Rev. S. N.) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 283.

HARTLAND (HE. 8.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 409.

HARTLEY (Prof. W. N.) on absorption
spectra and chemical constitution of
organic bodies, 208.

—on wave-length tables of the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 79.

*HARTOG (Prof. Marcus) on a model
showirg the mechanism of the frog’s
tongue, 818.

* ____and N. MASKELYNE on the me-
chanism of the freg’s tongue, 688.

(P. J.) on the flame coloration
and spectrum of nickel compounds,
613.

HARVIE-BROWN (J. A.) on making a
digest of the observations on the migra-
tion of birds, 364.

HAWTHORNE (J.) and Prof. Lurts on
the absorption of ammonia from pol-
luted sea-water by Ulva latissima, 831.

HAWTREY (Seymour) on the Lengua
Indians of the Gran Chaco, 803.

|
|

881

*HEARSON (T. A.) on measurement of
the hardness of materials by indenta-
tion by a steel sphere, 774.

Heat, the transmission of, through water
vapour, Prof. E. W. Morley and C, F.
Brush on, 546.

*Hebrides, the Inner, time intervals in
the voleanic history of, Sir A. Geikie
on, 636.

HEDGES (Killingworth) on the protec-
tion of buildings from lightning, 770.

HELE-SHAW (Prof. H. 8S.) on the resist-
ance of road vehicles to traction,
402.

HENDERSON (Dr. G.G.and G. T. BEILBY)
on the action of ammonia on metals
at high temperatures, 605.

—-— and R. H. CORSTORPHINE on the
condensation of benzil with dibenzyl
ketone, 607.

HEPBURN (David) and DAVID WATER-
STON on the pelvic cavity of the por-
poise as a guide to the determination
of a sacral region in Cetacea, 680.

*HERBERTSON (Dr. A. J.) on a morpho-
logical map of Europe, 715.

HERDMAN (Prof. W. A.) on the plankton
and physical conditions of the English
Channel during 1899-1900, 353.

—— on the occupation of a table at
the Zoological Station at Naples, 354.
HERSCHEL (Prof. A. 8.) on underground

temperature, 64.

Heterogenesis in conifers, Dr. T. P.
Lotsy on, 848.

HEWITT (C. J.) on the B.A. screw gauge,
407.

HnEycocK (C. T.) on the nature of alloys,
75.

HIBBERT (Walter) and Dr. GLADSTONE
on transitional forms between colloids
and crystalloids, 604. °

HIcKs (Prof. W. M.) on tables of certain
mathematical functions, 54.

— on the Michelson-Morley effect,
562.

Hickson (Prof. 8. J.) on the zoology of
the Sandwich Islands, 352.

on the occupation of a table at the
Loological Station at Naples, 354.

Highlands, eastern, variation in the
strata in the, G. Barrow on, 633.

——, N.W., the Cambrian fossils of the,
B. N. Peach on, 642.

—---, southern, the crystalline schists of
the, P. Macnair on, 633.

HIuu (A. W.) on the histology of the
sieve tubes of Pinus, 835

(Dr. Leonard) on bone marron,
447,

HILu-Tour (C.) on an ethnological survey
of Canada, 409.

HIND (Dr. Wheelton) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 238.

~

882

HINDE (Dr. G. J.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 288.

Hinks (A. R.) on the possibility of
systematic error in photographs of a
moving object, 540.

— on the essentials of a machine for
the accurate measurement of celestial
photographs, 541.

Hippocampal fissure and formation, Prof.
J. Symington on the, 798.

HODGKINSON (W. R.) and L. LimpacH
on some relations between physical
constants and constitution in ben-

- zenoid amines, Part III., 608.

HoGartH (D. G.) on explorations in
Crete, 440.

r— on explorations at Zakro, in Eastern
Crete, 793.

Houpicu (Sir T. H.) on a scheme for
the survey of British Protectorates,
396.

Hortmss (T. V.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 465.

HooKeER (R. H.) on the correlation of
the marriage rate and trade, 750.

HopkKINSON (B.) on the necessity of
postulating an ether, 534.

(J.) on the work of the Correspond-
ing Societies Committee, 465.

HorRNE (J.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 283.

——, Address to the Section of Geology
by, 615.

Hornblende porphyrites of Victoria
(Australia), J. Stirling on, 663.

*Housing, Prof. W. Smart on, 753.

HovustToun (R. A.) and J. W. PEcK on
magnetisation of electrolytic nickel,
582.

*HOWARD (A.) on a Diplodia parasitic
on cacao and on the sugar-cane, 857.
Howes (Prof. G. B.) on the occupation

of a table at the Zoological Station at
Naples, 354.
Hoye (W. E.) on the compilation of

an index generum et specierwm
animalium, 362.
*____ on a new form of Iuminous organ,

689.

Hupson (R. W.H.T.) on the Puiseux
diagram and differential equations,
555.

HuGHES (G P.) on Government planting
in the Isle of Man, 857.

HULL (Prof. E.) on underground tempe-
rature, 64.

— on the physical history of the
Norwegian Fjords, 660.

Humber, the source of warp in the,
W. 4H. Wheeler on, 652.

Hunt (A. Roope) on terrestrial surface-
waves, 398.

HUNTER (A. F.) on an ethnological survey
of Canada, 468.

’
ah
via

4, te ; heh’ - b. 44

i

REPORT—1901.

HuTcHISON (Dr. BR.) on bone-marron,
447,

Hydrostatic pressure, Prof. W. Ramsay
and G. Senter on, 529.

Hydrolytic dissociation of salt-solutions,
the methods for the determination of,
Dr. R. C. Farmer on, 240.

Identification, personal, Dr. A. Bertillon’s
system, W. M. Douglas on, 805.

Idoneal numbers, Lt.-Col. A. Cunning-
ham and Rev. J. Cullen on, 552.

Igneous eruption in Skye, Tertiary, the
sequence of, A. Harker on, 636.

Implements found in Ipswich, horn and
bone, Miss N. F. Layard on, 806.

Index generum et specierum animalium,
Report on the compilation by C. Davies
Sherborn of an, 362.

*India, the proposed ethnographic sur-
vey of, W. Crooke on, 806.

Inheritance, the theory of germinal selec-
tion in relation to the facts of, Prof.
J. A. Thomson on, 685.

Insects, some Bornean, R. Shelford on,
689.

Interference and polarisation of electric
naves, Prof. Dr. G. Quincke on, 39.

of light from independent sources,
Dr. G. J. Stoney on the, 570.

*Tonic effect in the small intestine, Prof.
E. Waymouth Reid on an, 818.

*Ions, the nomenclature of the, Prof.
James Walker on the, 613.

IRELAND (Alleyne) on the influence of
geographical environment on political
evolution, 716.

Iron and nickel, the effects of magne-
tisation on the electrical conductivity
of, Guy Barlow on, 581.

Irwin (Miss M. H.) on the present
position of woman as a worker, 756.
Tsomeric naphthalene derivatives, Four-
teenth report on the investigation of,

152.

JACK (R. Lockhart) on recent observa-
tions on bridges in Western China,
172.

—— (R. Logan) on artesian water in
Queensland, 641.

on travels in China, 726.

*JACKS (Dr. W.) on the organisation of
education in Glasgow, 865.

JAPP (Prof. F. R.) on absorption spectra
and chemical constitution of organic
bodies, 208.

Jet, the structure and origin of, A. C.
Seward on, 856.

Joists, rolled steel, the critical point in,
E. J. Edwards on, 774.

INDEX.

JONES (Rev. E.) on the movements of
underground waters of N.W. Yorkshire,
337.

JupD (Prof. J. W.) on seismological in-
vestigation, 40.

on the coral reefs of the Indian
region, 363.

Jurassic floras, a chapter in plant-evolu-
tion, A. C. Seward on, 856,

KELTIE (Dr. J. Scott) on changes of the
land level of the Phlegrean Fields, 382.

on terrestrial surface-waves, 398.

*____ on the National Antarctic Expe-
dition, 725.

KELVIN (Lord) on determining magnetic
Sorce at sea, 29.

on practical electrical standards,

31.

on seismological investigation, 40.

—— on tables of certain mathematical
Functions, 54.

— on underground temperature, 64.

on the B.A. screm gauge, 407.

—— on the clustering of gravitational
matter in any part of the universe,
563.

KENDALL (Prof. P. F.) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 283.

on life-zones in the British Carbo-

niferous rocks, 288.

on the movements of underground

waters of N.W. Yorkshire, 337.

and H. B. Murr on evidences of
ancient glacier-dammed lakes in the
Cheviots, 646.

Kendrichia Watheri, abnormal secondary
thickening in, Miss A. M. Clark on,
842.

*KENNEDY (Dr. R.) on restoration of
voluntary movement after alteration
of the nerve-supply by nerve-crossing,
or anastomosis, 817.

Kerr (Dr. J.) on the Brush grating and
the law of its optical action, 568.

(Dr. Jobn G.) on the training of the
practical man, 865.

KIDSTON (R.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 288.

on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 339.

— on some fossil plants from Berwick-
shire, 643.

KILROE (Jas. BR) on geology regarded
in its economic application to agri-
culture by means of soil maps, 643.

— and A. McHENRy on the relations
of the Old Red Sandstone of N.W. Ire-
Jand to adjacent metamorphic rocks,
and its similarity to the ‘Yorridon
Rocks of Sutherlandshire, 636,

883

KILROE (Jas. R.) and A. McHrnry on
the relation of the Silurian and Ordo-
vician rocks of N.W. Ireland to the
great metamorphic series, 636.

KINAHAN (G. H.) on the Irish Primary
Rocks, and their associated granitic
and metamorphic beds, 637.

—— on some Irish laccolithic hills, 640.

KIRKBY (J. W.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 288.

Kitchen Midden near Elie, Fife, the
excavation of an ancient, R. Munro on,
790.

Knossos, the Neolithic settlement at, and
its place in the history of early Hgean
culture, 792.

Knott (Prof. C. G.) on seismological
investigation, 40.

Knox (HE. F. Vesey) on the economic
effect of the Tramways Act, 1870, 753.

KNUBLEY (Rev. E. P.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 364.

Kny (Prof. L.) on correlation in the
growth of roots and shoots, 836.

Laccolithic hills, some Irish, G. H. Kina-
han on, 640.

LAMPLUGH (G. W.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 288.

Lane (W. H.) on the gametophyte in
the Ophioglossales and Lycopodiales,
841.

LANKESTER (Prof. E. Ray) on the plank-
ton and physical conditions of the
English Channel during 1899-1900, 353.

on the occupation of a table at
the Zoological Station at Naples, 354.

—- on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Laboratory at Plymouth,
376.

on the micro-chemistry of cells, 445.

Teak (Dr. J.) on the law of radiation,

62.

LAUDER (Alex.) on absorption spectra
and chemical composition of organic
bodies, 208.

*LAURIE (Malcolm) on some Arthropods
from the Upper Silurian, 665.

LAWRENCE (W. T.) on duty-free alcohol
for chemical research, 597.

LAYARD (Miss Nina) on a human skull-
found in peat in the bed of the river
Orwell, 789.

—— on a Paleolithic implement with
alleged thong-marks, 798.

—— on horn and boneimplements found
in Ipswich, 806.

Leaf-arrestor for a water supply, Earl of
Rosse on, 769.

LEAN (George) and W. CARRICK ANDER-
SON on aluminium-tin alloys, 606.

884

*Leaves, natural surgery in, Dr. F. F.
Blackman and Miss Matthaei on, 851.

LEBOUR (Prof. G. A.) on underground
temperature, 64.

—— on life-zones in the British Car-
boniferous rocks, 288.

LuEs (Dr. C. H.) on determining magnetic
force at sea, 29.

Lengua Indians of the Gran Chaco, 8.
Hawtrey on, 803.

LEMAIRE (Capt.) on the Belgian scien-
tific expedition of Ka-Tanga, 722.

Luts (Prof. E. H) and R. F. BLAKE
on chemical and biological changes
occurring during the treatment of
sewage by the so-called bacteria beds,
601.

__ and J. HAWTHORNE on the absorp-
tion of ammonia from polluted sea-
water by Ulva latissima, 831.

Lewis (A. L.) on the age of stone circles,
427.

—— (Rev. T.) on itineraries in Portu-
guese Congo, 717.

Lias shale, the alterations of the, by the
Whyn dyke of Great Ayton, in York-
shire, 654.

Life-zones in the British Carboniferous
rocks, Report on, 288.

Light, the action of, on the hydration of
tin, Dr. Gladstone and G. Gladstone
on, 603.

—— the influence of, on the clearing of
turbid solutions and the movement of
small suspended particles, Prof. Dr. @.
Quincke on, 60.

from independent sources, the in-

terference of, Dr. G. J. Stoney on, 570.

*Lighthouse light, a new scintillating,
J. R. Wigham on, 768.

Lightning, the protection of buildings
from, K. Hedges on, 770.

Limbs of vertebrates, the origin of the
paired, J. Graham Kerr on, 693.

Limpacu (L.) and W. R. HODGKINSON
on some relations between physical
constants and constitution in benze-
noid amines, 608.

Lister (J. J.) on the coral reefs of the
Indian region, 363.

*____ on dimorphism in Foraminifera,
688.

*LITTLE (Archibald) on the crux of the
Upper Yangtse, 727.

LiveIne (Prof. G. D.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 79.

LLoyD-MorGAN (Prof. C.) on the excava-
tion of caves at Uphill, 352.

LOocKYER (Sir J. N.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 79.

—— (W. J. S.) on a long period solar
yariation, 576.

REPORT—1901.

LopGs (Prof. A.) on tables of certain.
mathematical functions, 54,

—— (Dr. 0. J.) on practical electrical
standards, 31.

on radiation from a source of light
in a magnetic field, 39.

Lomas (J.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 283.

LONGE (F. D.) on a piece of yew from
the forest bed on the east coast of
England, apparently cut by man, 798.

*Lotsy (Dr. T. P.) on the International
Association of Botanists, 830.

on heterogenesis in conifers, 848.

*Luminous organ, a new form of, W. E
Hoyle on, 689.

Lunacy in Scotland, the growth and
geographical distribution of, Dr. J. F.
Sutherland on, 742.

MACALISTER (Prof. A.) on the Natural
History and Ethnography of the Malay
Peninsula, 411.

—_— on explorations in Crete, 440.

——— on the morphology of transverse
vertebral processes, 789.

—— on the third occipital condyle, 789.

—— (BR. A.8.) on external circumstances
bearing on the age of Ogham writing
in Ireland, 792.

on some results of recent excayva-
tions in Palestine, 794.

—— on some customs of the Fellahin of
W. Palestine, 802.

MACALLUM (Prof. A B.) on the micro-
chemistry of cells, 445.

MACDONALD (Mrs. J. R.) on the effect of
legislation regulating women’s labour,
399.

—— (Norman D.) on railway rolling
stock, present and future, 769.

McHenry (A.) on the exploration of
caves in Ireland, 282.

—— and J. R. KitRok on the relations
of the Old Red Sandstone of N.W.
Ireland to adjacent metamorphic rocks,
and its similarity to the Torridon Rocks
of Sutherlandshire, 636.

on the relation of Silurian and
Ordovician rocks of N.W. Ireland to
the great metamorphic series, 636.

McInTosH (Prof. W. C.) on the oceupa-
tion of a table at the Zoological Station
at Naples, 354.

*MACKAY (Principal) on supra-sternal
bones in the human subject, 799.

--— (T.) on the Poor Law and economic
order, 755.

McKennprtick (Prof. J. G.), Address to
the Section of Physiology by, 808.

+—-—- on apparatus employed in researches
on phonetics, 817.

INDEX.

MACKENZIE (Prof. J. J.) on the micro-
chemistry of cells, 445.

MAcKIE (Wm.) on the occurrence of
barium sulphate and calcium fluoride
as cementing substances in the Elgin
Trias, 648.

—— on the pebble-band of the Elgin
Trias and its wind-worn pebbles, 649.
on the occurrence of covellite in
association with malachite in the sand-

stone of Kingsteps, Nairn, 651.

McLACHLAN (R.) on the compilation of |

an wdex generum et specierum anima-
lium, 362.

McLAREN (Lord) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 54.

MACLAREN (J. Malcolm) on the source
of the alluvial gold of the Kildonan
field, Sutherland, 651.

—— on the influence of organic matter
on the deposition of gold in veins, 652.

‘McLeop (Prof. H.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 155.

MAcMAHON (Maj. P. A.) on tables of
certain mathematical functions, 54.

Address to the Section of Mathe-
matical and Physical Science by, 519.

*___on the partition of series, each
term of which is a quantic, 551.

MACNAIR (Peter) on the crystalline
schists of the southern Highlands, 633.

MACRITCHIE (David) on hints of evolu-
tion of man in tradition, 806.

MADAN (H. G.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 155.

*Magic, religion, and szience, J. 8. Stuart
Glennie on, 807.

Magnetic field, radiation from a source of
light in a, Report on, 39.

*_______, the influence of a, on the
viscosity of magnetisable liquids and
solids, Prof. A. Gray on, 582.

force at sea, Final report on deter-
mining, 29.

. Magnetisation, the effects of, on the
electrical conductivity of iron and
nickel, Guy Barlow on, 581.

-—- of electrolytic nickel, J. W. Peck
and R. A. Houstoun on, 582.

MAGNUS (Sir P.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 458.

Malaria, the story of, Major Ronald Ross
on, 695.

Malay Peninsula, Second report on the
Natural History and Ethnography of
the, 411.

——, the wild tribes of the, W. W. Skeat
on, 803.

, some botanical photographs from
the, R. H. Yapp on, 831.

Malayan ‘myrmecophilous’ ferns, R. H.
Yapp on, 851.

Maldive Coral Islands, J. S. Gardiner on,
683.

1901.

885

MALLOCK (A.) on the resistance of road
vehicles to traction, 402.

Man, the Isle of, Government planting
in, G. P. Hughes on, 857.

Man, prehistoric, in the island of Arran,
Dr. E. Duncan and Dr. T. H. Bryce on,
795.

Manometer, recording, for high-pressure
explosions, J. EH. Petavel on a, 768.

*Map on natural curvature by Elisée
Reclus, M. Reclus-Guyon on a, 721.

of Europe, morphological, Dr. A J.
Herbertson on a, 715.

Marattiacez, the anatomy of, G. Brebner
on, 855.

*MARCKWALD (Prof. W.) on radium, 601.

MARR (J. E.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 283.

on life-zones in the British Carboni-
Serous rocks, 288.

—~ on the movements of underground
waters of N.W. Yorkshire, 337. ;

Marriage-rate and trade, the correlation
of the, R. H. Hooker on, 750.

*MARSHALL (F. H.) exhibited abnormal
specimens of Nephrops, 692.

*___.. exhibited microscopic preparations
of mammalian hairs, 692.

*

| MASKELYNE (Prof. N. Story) on the

structure of crystals, 297.

| *_ (Nevil) and Prof. M. Harroe on

the mechanism of the frog’s tongue, 688.

| Mathematical functions, Fieport on tables

of certain, 54.

—— and Physical Science, Address by

‘

|| Oe

Major P. A. MacMahon to the Section
of, 519.

{ Mathematics, Discussion on the teaching
of, 869.

*Matter, the genesis of, Prof. A. Michael
on, 607.

, gravitational, the clustering of, in
any part of the universe, Lord Kelvin
on, 563.

*MATTHAEI (Miss) and Dr. F. F. BLAcK-

MAN on natural surgery in leaves, 851.

—— on the relation between CO,

production and vitality, 851.

| MATTHEY (G.) on practical electrical stan-

dards, 31.

MAvor (Prof. J.) on
survey of Canada, 409.

*Mechanical exhibits in the Glasgow
Exhibition, D. H. Morton on the, 768.

MELDOLA (Prof. R.) on seismological
investiyation, 40.

on the age of stone circles, 427.

—— on the nork of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 465.

MENNELL (F. P.) on the copper-bearing
rocks of 8. Australia, 665.

Mercury vapour, the discharge of elec-
tricity through, Prof. A. Schuster on,
531.

an ethnological

3M

886

Metals at high temperatures, the action
of ammonia on, Dr. G. G. Henderson
and G. T. Beilby on, 605.

——, the minute structure of, G. T.
Beilby on, 604.

Meteorological observations on Ben Nevis,
Report on, 54.

*____ phenomena in relation to changes
in the vertical, J. Milne on, 578.

*MIALL (Prof. L. C.) on the experimental
method of teaching, 866.

*MICHAEL (Prof. A.) on the three stereo-
meric cinnamic acids, 607.

*___ on the genesis of matter, 607.

*____ on the process of substitution, 607.

Michelson-Morley effect, W. M. Hicks on
the, 562.

Micro-chemistry of cells, Report on the,
445.

Microscope and telescope, resolving power
in the, Prof. J. D. Everett on, 569,

*Microtome, a new orienting apparatus
for the Cambridge, J. Rankin on, 697.

Miers (Prof. H. A.) on isomorphous de-
rivatives of benzene, 78.

—— on the structure of crystals, 297.

Migration of birds, Fourth interim report
of the Committee for making a digest of
the observations on the, 364.

Miu (Dr. H. R.) on changes of the land
level of the Phlegrean Fields, 382.

—— on the climatology of Africa, 383.

— —, Address to the Section of Geography
by, 698.

*____ with the ‘Discovery’ to Madeira,
725.

MILNE (Prof. J.) on seismological investi-
gation, 40.

*____ 0n meteorological phenomena in
relation to changes in the vertical, 578.

MINCHIN (Prof. G. M.) on photo-electric
cells, 531.

Minerals known to occur in Scotland, a
revised list of, J. G. Goodchild on, 648.

MiTtTaG-LEFFLER (Prof. G.) on a crite-
rion for the recognition of the irre-
gular points of analytic functions, 549.

Mo.uoy (Dr. Gerald) on radiation from
a source of light in a magnetic field, 39.

MoNcKTON (Horace W.) on the origin of
the gravel-flats of Surrey and Berk-
shire, 662.

Moore (Harold E.) on recent results of
farm labour colonies, 757.

*MoRENO (Dr. F. P.) exhibited photo-
graphs of fossils in the La Plata Mu-
seum, 696.

on Argentine anthropo-geography,
720.

Morey (Prof. E. W.) and C. F. Brusa
on a new gauge for small pressures,
544.

through water vapour, 546.

on the transmission of heat |

REPORT—1901.

MORRISON (Walter) on the movements o
underground waters of N.W. Yorkshire
337.

*MorTON (D. H.) on the mechanical
exhibitsin the Glasgow Exhibition, 768.

*Motor cortex of the monkey, an experi-
ment on the, Prof. C. S. Sherrington on,
816.

*Mount Ophir, the vegetation of, A. G.
Tansley on, 851.

Murr (H. B.) and P. F. KENDALL on
evidences of ancient glacier-dammed
lakes in the Cheviots, 646.

MUIRHEAD (Dr. A.) on practical electrical
standards, 31.

MuwRko (Dr. R.) on the age of stone circles,
427.

on the excavation of an ancient
Kitchen Midden near Elie, Fife, 790.

Murray (Sir John) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 54.

Murray Islander, some emotions in the,
C. 8. Myers on, 801.

*Muscle, the rhythmic phenomena of, the
use of the telephone for investigating,
Sir J. Burdon Sanderson on, 816.

Museums, preserving and _ preparing
plants for, H. F. Tagg on, 844.

Myers (Charles 8.) on the bones of Hen
Nekht, 797.

on some emotions in the Murray
Islander, 801.

2 on observations with Galton's
whistle, 818.

Mynres (J. L.) on the Silchester excava-
tion, 425.

—— on excavations in Crete, 440.

NAGEL (D. H.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 155.

Naphthalene derivatives, Fourteenth report
on the investigation of isomeric, 152.

Naples Zoological Station, Report on the
occupation of a table at the, 354.

Natality, the decline of, in Great Britain,
Edwin Cannan on, 749.

the significance of the, Charles
S. Devas on, 750.

*National Physical Laboratory, the
buildings of the, Dr. R. T. Glazebrook
on, 530.

Natural History and Ethnography of the
Malay Peninsula, Report on the, 411.
Nematode (Zehinonema grayi) from the
perivisceral cavity of the sea-urchin,

J. F. Gemmill on, 691.

*Nephrops, abnormal specimens of, F. H.
Marshall on, 692.

NEVILLE (F. H.) on the nature of alloys,
75

NEWBIGIN (Marion) on the Scottish
Natural History Society’s scheme for
the investigation of the Forth Valley,
(UG).

INDEX.

NEWTON (Prof. A.) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, 352.

— on making a digest of the observa-
tions on the migration of birds, 364.
(E. T.) on the excavation of caves at

Uphill, 352.

Nickel compounds, the flame coloration
and spectrum of, P. J. Hartog on, 613.

——, electrolytic, magnetisation of, J. W.
Peck and R. A. Houstoun on, 582.

Niven (W. N.) on the distribution of
certain forest trees in Scotland, as
shown by the investigation of Post-
Glacial deposits, 839.

Norwegian Fjords, the physical history
of the, Prof. E. Hull on, 660.

Numbers, idoneal, Lt.-Col. A. Cunningham
and Rev. J. Cullen on, 552.

Occipital condyle, the third, Prof. A.
Macalister on, 789.

Oceanic salt deposits, the formation of,
the application of the equilibriwm iaw
to, Dr. H. F. Armstrong on, 262.

Ogham writing in Ireland, the age of,
R. A. S. Macalister on, 792.

Old Red Sandstone of N. W. Ireland, the
relations of the, to the adjacent meta-
morphic rocks, J. R. Kilroe and A.
McHenry on, 636.

OLDHAM (H. Yule) on the experimental
demonstration of the curvature of the
earth’s surface, 725.

—— (R. D.) on seismological investigation,
40.

OLIvER (Prof. F. W.) on certain points
in the structure of the seeds of
Aithiotesta and Stephanospernum, 851.

Ontario, northern, the geography and
resources of, Robert Bell on, 723.

Oolite, Inferior, phosphatic layer in Skye
at the base of the, H. B. Woodward on
a, 635.

Ophioglossum collected by Mr. Ridley in
Sumatra, Prof. F. O. Bower on, 842.
Optical action of a Brush grating, Dr.

J. Kerr on, 568.

Ordovician and Silurian rocks of N.W.
Ireland, the relations of the, to the
great metamorphic series, A. Mc-
Henry and J. R. Kilroe on, 636.

*OSBORNE (Dr. W. A.) on the physical
properties of caseinogen salts in solu-
tion, 817.

Osmundacez, the geological history of
the, A. C. Seward and Sybille O. Ford
on, 847.

Ovule, the morphology of the, W. C.
Worsdell on, 834.

*Oxalates, the action of, upon the relation-
ship of calcium salts to muscle, W.
Brodie Brodie on, 818.

887

Paleolithic implement with alleged
thong-marks, Miss N. Layard on, 798.

Palestine, some results of recent excava-
tions in, R. A. S. Macalister on, 794.

*Panama Canal, P. B. Varilla on the, 769.

*Parasitic Diplodia on cacao and on the
sugar cane, A. Howard on, 857.

*Partition of series, each term of which
is a quantic, Major P. A. MacMahon on
the, 551.

Patagonian Indians, the
Hesketh Prichard on, 802.

PATERSON (John) on Stellaria holostea
and allied species, 833.

*PaTon (D. Noel), L. GULLAND, and
L. J. 8S. FowLeR on the question
whether the spleen has a hemopoietic
function, 818.

*PATTERSON (Dr. T. 8.) on the influence
of solvents on the rotation of optically
active compounds, 614.

Pauperism, crime, and feebleness of
mind, Miss Mary Dendy on, 758.

PEACH (B.N.) on life-zones in the British
Carioniferous rocks, 288.

—— on the Cambrian fossils of the N.W.
Highlands, 642.

Pebble-band of the Elgin Trias, W.
Mackie on the, 650.

Peck (J. W.) on the Fourier problem of
the steady temperatures in a thin rod,
555.

—— and R. A. HousToun on magnetisa-
tion of electrolytic nickel, 582.

PEEK (the late Sir Cuthbert E.) on the
work of the Corresponding Societies
Committee, 465.

Pelvis of the porpoise as a guide to the
determination of a sacral region in
Cetacea, D. Hepburn and D. Waterston
on the, 680.

*Pendulum, the simple, without ap-
proximation, Prof. Greenhill on, 551.
PENHALLOW (Prof. D. P.) on an ethno-

logical survey of Canada, 409.

*Peptone, Interim report on the effect of,
when introduced into the circulation,
815.

PERCIVAL (Rt. Rev. John) on the influence
of the Universities in school education,
448,

Perim Island and its geological relation
to the area of the Red Sea, Catherine
A. Raisin on, 640.

*PERKIN (Prof. W. H.) onthe synthetical
formation of bridged-rings, 607.

PERRY (Prof. J.) ox practical electrical
standards, 31.

—— on seismological investigation, 40.

+—— on the teaching of mathematics,
869.

PETAVEL (J. E.) on a recording mano-
meter for high-pressure explosions,
768.

Tehuelche,

3M 2

888

*Petroleum lamps for buoys and beacons,
J. R. Wigham on, 768.
Pheophycea, fertilisation

on, 448.

PHILLIPS (Prof. R. W.) on fertilisation
in Pheophycee, 448.

Phlegrean Fields, Report on changes of
the land level of the, 382.

JPhonetics, apparatus employed in re-
searches on, Prof. J. G. McKendrick
on, 817.

Phosphatic layer at the base of the
Inferior Oolite in Skye, H. B. Wood-
ward on a, 635.

-——nodules in the Upper Carboniferous
Limestone of W. Yorkshire and West-
moreland, John Rhodes on, 655.

Photoelectric cells, Prof. G. M. Minchin
on, 531.

Photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, Twelfth report on, 339.

*__ of anthropological interest, Interim
report on, 789.

——., celestial, the essentials of a machine
for the accurate measurement of, A. R.
Hinks on, 541.

of a moving object, the possibility
of systematic error in, A. R. Hinks on,
540.

Physical and Mathematical Science, Ad-
dress by Major P. A. MacMahon to the
Section of, 519.

Physiology, Address by Prof. J. G.
McKendrick to the Section of, 808.

Pikermi, Attica, the bone-beds of, and in
N. Eubcea, W. Smith Woodward on,
656.

Pinus, the histology of the sieve tubes
of, A. W. Hill on, 835.

*Planet beyond Neptune, G. Forbes on a,
543.

Plant-evolution, a chapter of, Jurassic
floras, A. C. Seward on, 856.

Plants for museums, preserving and pre-
paring, H. F. Tagg on, 844.

Pleistocene plants and Coleoptera at
Wolvercote, A. M. Bell on, 645.

PLUMMER (W. E. ) on seismological investi-
gation, 40.

Plymouth, Report on the occupation of a
table at the Marine Biological Labora-
tory, 376.

Podostemacee, Report on the morphology,
ecology, and taxonomy of the, 447.

Poincaré’s pear-shaped figure of equili-
brium of rotating fluid, G. H. Darwin
on, 550.

Polarisation and interference of electric
waves, Prof. Dr. G. Quincke on, 39.

Political evolution, the influence of
geographical environment on, Alleyne
Ireland on, 716.

Polypterus, the anatomy of the Jaryal,
J. 5, Budgett on, 693.

in, Lteport

REPORT—1901.

Poor Law and the economic order, T.
Mackay on, 755.

Potential of a surface distribution,
T. J. YA. Bromwich on, 556.

*___. differences of allotropic silver,
J. A. Craw on the, 549.

Potentiometer, a new form of, Prof. F. G.
Baily on, 582.

*Potonié (Prof. H.) Die Silur- und
Culm-Flora des Harzes von, 851.

Poyntine (Prof. J. H.) on seismological
investigation, 401.

PRAEGER (R. Lloyd) on the exploration
of caves in Ireland, 282.

PREECE (Sir W. H.) on practical electrical
standards, 31.

— on the B.A. screw gauge, 407.

Premaxilla in bears, the relationships of
the, Prof. R. J. Anderson on, 681.

Presidential Address at Glasgow by
Principal A. W. Riicher, 3.

Pressure, the unit of, Dr. C. LE. Guillaume
on, 71.

Pricz (L. L.) on the effect of legislation
regulating women’s labour, 399.

on economics and commercial edu-
cation, 751.

—— (W. A.) on the B.A. serew gauge,
407.

PRICHARD (Hesketh) on explorations of
Andean lakes, 721.

—— on the Tehuelche Indians of Pata-
gonia, 802.

Primary rocks, Irish, and their associated
granitic and metamorphic rocks, G. H.
Kinahan on, 637.

Primes, the determination of successive
high, Lieut.-Col. A. Cunningham and
H. J. Woodall on, 553.

* Proteids, whether solutions of native,
can exert osmotic pressure, Prof. E.
Waymouth Reid on the question, 818.

Puceinia dispersa on Bromes, Prof.
Marshall Ward on, 836.

Puiseux diagram and differential equa-
tions, R. W. H. T. Hudson on the,
555.

Queensland, artesian water in, J. Logan
Jack on, 641.

QUINCKE (Prof. Dr. G.) on the intenfer-
ence and polarisation of electric waves,
39.

—— on the clearing of turbid solutions,
and the movement of small suspended
particles by the influence of light, 60.

Radiation from a source of light in a
magnetic field, Report on, 39.

— of heat and light from a heated
solid body, Dr. J. T. Bottomley on,
562.

* the law of, Dr. J. Larmor on, 562.

INDEX.

* Radium, Prof. W. Marckwald on, 601.

Railway rolling stock, present and
future, Norman D. Macdonald on, 769.

Rainfall, the inverse relation of chlorine
to, W. Ackroyd on, 603.

RAISIN (Catherine A.) on Perim Island
and its relation to the area of the Red
Sea, 640.

RAMSAY (Prof. W.) and G. SENTER on
hydrostatic pressure, 529.

RANDLES (W. B.) on the anatomy and
histology of Trochus, 377.

* Range-finder, a portable folding, G.
Forbes on, 774.

* RANKIN (James) on a new orienting
apparatus for the Cambridge micro-
tome, 697.

Rates, local, the real incidence of,
Cameron Corbett on, 757.

RAVENSTEIN (E. G.) on the climatology
of Africa, 383.

—— ona scheme for the survey of British
Protectorates, 396.

— on Martin Behaim of Niirnberg,
1459-1507, 714.

RAYLEIGH (Lord) on practical electrical
standards, 31.

READ (C. H.) on the Natural History
and Ethnography of the Malay Penin-
sula, 411.

—— on the age of stone circles, 427.

—— on the work of the Corresponding

- Societies Committee, 465.

* RECLUS-GUYON (M.) on M. Elisée
Reclus’ map on natural curvature, 721.

REID (A. 8.) on the collection af photo-
graphs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 339. ‘

—— (Clement) on seismological investiga-
tion, 40.

*____ (Prof. E. Waymouth) on the
question whether solutions of native
proteids can exert osmotic pressure, 818.

*___ on an ionic effect in the small
intestine, 818.

RENNIE (J.) on practical
standards, 31.

Resolving power in the microscope and
telescope, Prof. J. D. Everett on, 569.

REYNOLDS (S. H.) on the excavation of
caves at Uphill, 352.

RHODES (John) on the occurrence of
phosphatic nodules and phosphate-
bearing rock in the Upper Carboni-
ferous Limestone, W. Yorkshire and
Westmoreland, 655.

—— on the discovery of a silicified
plant stem beneath the Millstone Grit
of Swarth Fell, 656.

RICHARDSON (Nelson) on seismological
tnwestigation, 40.

RIDGEWAY (Prof. W.) on the Natural
History and Ethnography of the Malay
Peninsula, 411.

electrical

889

RIDGEWAY (Prof. W.) on explorations in
Crete, 440,

* RIDEAL (Dr. G.) on humus and the
irreducible residue in the bacterial
treatment of sewage, 603.

*—— on sulphuric acid as a typhoid
disinfectant, 603.

Riae (E.) on the B.A. screw gauge, 407.

Rivers (Dr. W.H. BR.) on the functions
of the maternal uncle in Torres Straits,
800.

on the functions of the son-in-law
and brother-in-law in Torres Straits,
800.

s on the measurement of visual
illusion, 818.

Road vehicles, Report on the resistance
of, to traction, 402.

ROBERTS-AUSTEN (Sir W.C.) on practical
electrical standards, 31.

on the bibliography of spectroscopy,
155.

* ROBINSON (H.C.) and N. ANNANDALE,
Anthropological notes on Sai Kau, a
Siamo- Malayan village, 804.

Roman remains at Ardoch, Perthshire,
J. H. Cunningham on, 790.

~-.— camp at Inchtuthill, Perthshire, Dr.
T. Ross on, 791.

Roots and shoots, correlation in the
growth of, Prof. L. Kny on, 836.

Roscok (Sir H. E.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 79.

on the teaching of science in ele-
mentary schools, 458.

* ___ on the organisation of secondary
education, 863.

Ross (Major Ronald) on the story of
malaria, 695.

(Dr. T.) on excavations at the
Roman camp at Inchtuthill, Perth-
shire, 791.

Rosse (Earl of) on a leaf-arrestor, or
apparatus for removing leaves, &c.,
from a water supply, 769.

Rotating fluid, Poincaré’s pear-shaped
figure of equilibrium of, G. H. Darwin
on, 550.

RotcH (A. Lawrence) on the systematic
exploration of the atmosphere at sea
by means of kites, 724.

RUCKER (Principal), Presidential Ad-
dress at Glasgow by, 3.

—— on determining magnetic force at
sea, 29.

on practical electrical standards, 31.

RUDLER (F. W.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
465,

*Sai Kau, a Siamo-Malayan village, An-
thropological notes on, by N. Annan-
dale and H. C. Robinson, 804.

890

SAKURAI (Prof. Joji) on some points in
chemical education, 612.

SaLomons (Sir D.) on the resistance of
road vehicles to traction, 402.

Salt, the circulation of, and its geological
bearings, W. Ackroyd on, 654.

Salt solutions, the methods for the deter-
mination of hydrolytic dissociation of,
Dr. R. C. Farmer on, 240.

*SANDERSON (Sir J. Burdon) on the use
of the telephone for investigating the
rhythmic phenomena in muscle, 816.

Sandwich Islands, the zoology of the,
Eleventh report on, 352.

Sarawak swords, a provisional classifica-
tion of, R. Shelford on, 804.

ScuArmer (Prof. E. A.) on the micro-
chemistry of cells, 445.

on bone marrow, 447.

ScHARFF (Dr. R. F.) on the exploration
of caves in Treland, 282.

Schists, crystalline, of the southern
Highlands, P. Macnair on, 633.

School education, the influence of the
Universities on, Rt. Rev. J. Percival
on, 448.

SCHUSTER (Prof. A.) on determining mag-
netic force at sea, 29.

on practical electrical standards, 31.

—— on radiation from a source of light
in @ magnetic field, 39.

—— on wave-length tables of the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 79.

—— on the discharge of electricity
through mercury vapour, 531.

Science, the teaching of, in elementary
schools, Report on, 458.

ScLATER (Dr. P. L.) on the present state
of our knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandnich Islands, 352.

on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 32.

Scot (Dr. D. H.) on a primitive type of
structure in Calamites, 849.

ScotrT ELLIoT (G. F.) on the effects of
vegetation in the valley and plains of
the Clyde, 718.

on the strength and resistance to
pressure of certain seeds and fruits,
852.

Screw gauge, the British Association,
Report on, 407.

Secular inequalities, the equation of,
T. J. VA. Bromwich on, 553.

SEDGWICK (A.) on the occupation of a
table at the Zoological Station at
Naples, 354.

— on the coral reefs of the Indian
region, 363.

— on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Laboratory at Plymouth, 376.

Seeds of Athiotesta and Stephanosper-
mum, points in the structure of, Prof.
F. W. Oliver on, 851.

REPORT—1901.

Seeds and fruits, the strength and resist-
ance to pressure of certain, G. F.
Scott Elliot on, 852.

Seismograph as a sensitive barometer,
F. Napier Denison on the, 577.

Seismological investigation, Siath report
on, 40.

Semicarbazides, the existence of certain,
in more than one modification, Dr. G.
Young on, 609.

SENNETT (A. R.) on the resistance of
road vehicles to traction, 402.

SENTER (G.) and Prof. W. RAMSAY on
hydrostatic pressure, 529.

—— and M. W. TRAVERS on a compari-
son of the constant volume and con-
stant pressure scales for hydrogen
between 0° and — 190° C., 546.

Sewage, changes occurring in, treated in
bacteria beds, Prof. Letts and R. F.
Blake on, 601.

*___, humus and irreducible residue in
the bacterial treatment of, Dr. §.
Rideal on, 603.

SEWARD (A. C.) on a chapter of plant-
evolution: Jurassic floras, 856.

—— on the structure and origin of jet,
856.

—— and SYBILLE O. ForpD on the ana-
tomy of Yodea, with an account of the
geological history of the Osmundacee,
847.

Sexual cells, the heterotypical division
in the maturation phases of the, Dr.
T. H. Bryce on, 685.

-—— reproduction in relation to varia-
tion, J. Y. Simpson on, 688.

SHARP (D.) on the zoology of the Sand-
wich Islands, 352.

SHAw (W. N.) on practical electrical
standards, 31.

—— on the effect of sea temperature
upon the seasonal variation of air
temperature of the British Isles, 560.

—— on weather maps, 725.

—— and R. WALEY COHEN on the
seasonal variation of the atmospheric
temperature of the British Isles and
its relation to wind-direction, 558.

SHELFORD (R.) on some Bornean insects,
689.

—— on a provisional classification of
the swords of the Sarawak tribes,
804.

*SHERRINGTON (Prof. C. 8.) on an ex-
periment on the motor cortex of the
monkey, 816.

Shipping subsidies, Benedict W. Gins-
burg on, 743.

Sieve tubes of Pinus, the histology of
the, A. W. Hill on, 835.

Silchester excavation, Report on the, 425.

*Silurian and Carboniferous flora of the
Hartz, Prof. H. Potonié on, 851.

INDEX.

Silurian and Ordovician rocks of N.W.
Ireland, the relations of the, to the
great metamorphic series, J. R. Kilroe
and A. McHenry on, 636.

Simpson (J. Y.) on the relation of
binary fission and conjugation to
variation, 688.

Singkep commutator, David P. Todd on
the, 541.

Singular points of analytic functions, a
criterion for the recognition of, Prof.
Mittag-Leffler on, 549.

SkHAT (W. W.) on the Natural History
and Ethnography of the Malay Penin-
sula, 411.

—— on the wild tribes of the Malay
Peninsula, 803.

Skeleton, human, found in the stone circle
of Arbor Low, Dr. J. E. Garson on,
438.

—— of Hen Nekht, C. 8. Myers on the,
797.

SKINNER (S.) on a@ comparison of silver
deposited in voltameters containing
different solvents, 32.

Skull, human, found in peat in the bed
of the river Orwell, Miss N. Layard on,
789.

Skye, Tertiary igneous eruptions in, the
sequence of, A. Harker on, 636.

Smarr (Prof. W.) on the effect of legisla-
tion regulating women’s labour, 399.

« on housing, 753.

SmivuH (E. A.) on the present state of our
knowledge of the zovlogy of the Sandwich
Islands, 352.

road vehicles to traction, 402.

(G. F. Herbert) on the structure of
crystals, 297.

—— (Prof. Michie) on underground tem-
perature, 64.

—— (W. G.) on methods and objects of
a botanical survey of Scotland, 720.
SMITHELLS (Prof. A.) on the movements
of underground waters of N.W. York-

shire, 337.

on the teaching of Scienee in Ele-
mentary Schools, 458.

Sclid, hot, radiation of heat and light
from a, Dr. J. T. Bottomley on,
562.

Souuas (Prof. W. J.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 283.

— on the structure of crystals, 297.

—— on the investigation of fossil
remains by serial sections, 643.

Solutions, the flow of, in plant stems,
Prof. R. J. Anderson on, 846,

*____, the freezing points of certain
dilute, E. H. Griffiths on, 530.

*Solvents, the influence of, on the rota-
tion of optically active compounds, Dr.
T. S. Patterson on, 614.

(E. Shrapnell) on the resistance of |

|
|
|
|
|

891

SoMBRVAIL (Alex.) on the occurrence
of diorite associated with granite at
Assouan, Upper Egypt, 663.

Son- and brother-in-law, the functions of
the, in Torres Straits, Dr. Rivers on,
800.

Sounding and ground-collecting appara-
tus, Prof. G. Gilson on a, 696.

*Soundings, recording, by photography,
J. Dillon on, 773.

Specific heat of water, the variation of
the, Prof. H. L. Callendar on, 34.

—— heats of metals at low temperatures,
a method of determining, T. G. Bed-
ford and C. F. Green on, 544.

Spectra of the elements and compounds,
mave-length tables of the, Report on, 79.

—— absorption, and chemical constitu-
tion of organic bodies, Report on the
relation between, 208.

*Spectroscope, echelon, for magneto-
optic observation, Prof. A. Gray and
Dr. W. Stewart on an, 569.

Spectroscopy, the bibliography of, Finat
report on, 155.

*Spherical trigonometry, Prof. A. G.
Greenhill and C. V Boys on, 551.

*Spleen, Has the, a hemopoietic func-
tion? By D. Noel Paton, L. Gulland,
and L. J. S. Fowler, 818.

Standard of value, the postulates of the,
W. Warrand Carlile on, 741.

Star photographs, the determination of
constants of, Prof. H. H. Turner on,
543.

STATHER (J. W.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 283.

STEBBING (Rev. T. R. R.) on the compila-
tion of an index generwm et specierum
animalium, 362.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 465.

Stellaria helostea and allied species,
J. Paterson on, 833.

*STEWART (Dr. W.) and Prof. A. GRAY
on a new electro-magnet and an
echelon spectroscope for magneto-
optic observations, 569.

STIRLING (James) on some hornblende
porphyrites of Victoria (Australia),
663.

{Stone age of man, the chronology of
the, with special reference to his co-
existence with an Ice age, Dr. W.
Allen Sturge on, 794.

Stone Circles, Report on investigations of
the age of, 427.

implements excavated at Arbor Low,
H. Balfour on, 437.

Stoney (Dr. G. J.) on the interference
of light from independent sources,
570.

STRAHAN (A.) on underground tempera-
ture, 64.

892

STRAHAN (A.) on life-cones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 288.

TROH (A.) on the B.A. screw gauge, 407.
TROUD (Prof. W.) on determining mag-
netic force at sea, 29.

tSTURGE (Dr. W. Allen) on the chro-
nology of the Stone age of man, with
especial reference to his co-existence
with an Ice age, 794.

*Substitution, the process of, Prof. A.
Michael on, 607.

SULTE (B.) on an ethnological survey of
Canada, 409.

Sun, an eclipse of the, automatic appa-
ratus for observing, D. P. Todd on,
541.

Sun-spots, &c., a long period variation,
W. J.8. Lockyer on, 576.

Sun’s surface, the drift in longitude of
groups of facule on the, Rev. A. L.
Cortie on, 542.

Supply and demand, a business man on,
by T. S. Cree, 748.

*Suprasternal bones in man, Principal
Mackay on, 799.

*Surface tension of mercury, determina-
tion of the, by the method of ripples,
J. A. Craw on the, 549.

Surnames of school children in E. Aber-
deenshire, the frequency and pigmen-
tation value of, J. F. Tocher and J. Gra y
on, 799.

Survey of British Protectorates, Report |

on @ scheme for the, 396.

SUTHERLAND (Dr. J. F.) on the growth
and geographical distribution of lunacy
in Scotland, 742.

Swords of the Sarawak tribes, a pro-
visional classification of the, R. Shel-
ford on, 804.

SYMINGTON (Prof. J.) on the temporary
fissures of the human cerebral hemi-
spheres, and on the development of the
hippocampal fissure and hippocampal
formation, 798.

Lables, Report on mathematical (A new
Canon Arithmeticus), 54.

Tace (H. F.) on preserving and pre-
paring plants for museums, 844.

*TANSLEY (A. G.) on the vegetation of |

Mount Ophir, 851.

ire (W.) on the B.A. screw gauge,

Taxation, progressive, the theory of,
G. Cassel on, 745. :

TEALL (J. J. H.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 339.

*Telephone, the use of the, for investi-
gating the rhythmic phenomena in
oo” Sir J. Burdon Sanderson on,

REPORT—1901.

Temperature, underground, Tnenty-second
report on, 64.

of the atmosphere of the British
Isles, the effect of sea temperature on
the seasonal variation of the, W. N.
Shaw on, 560.

—— of the atmosphere of the British

Isles, the seasonal variation of the,

and its relation to wind-direction,

W.N. Shaw and R. W. Cohen on the,

558.

—— and internal viscosities of solids,

the relation between, Prof, A. Gray on,

529.

Temperatures in a thin rod, the Fourier
problem of the steady, J. W. Peck on,
555.

TENNANT (Mrs. H. J.) on the effect of
legislation regulating women’s labour,
399.

Terrestrial surface maves, Report on, 398.

Tertiary igneous eruptions in Skye, the
sequence of, A. Harker on, 636.

Thermometer, hydrogen, a comparison
of the constant volume and constant
pressure, between 0° and —190°C.,
M. W. Travers and G. Senter on, 546.

THoMAS (J. W.) on alternating air-
currents in public buildings, 775.

THOMPSON (Prof. S. P.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 31.

on radiation from a source of light

in a magnetic field, 39.

on the teaching of science in elemen-
tary schools, 458.

THOMSON (Prof. J. Arthur) on the be-
haviour of young gulls artificially
hatched, 398.

on the theory of germinal selection
in relation to the facts of inheritance,
685.

—— (Prof. J. J.) on practical electrical
standards, 31.

* (W.) on the detection and estima-
tion of arsenic in beer and articles of
food, 613.

THORNYCROFT (J. I.) on the resistance of
road vehicles to traction, 402.

THRIFT (Prof. W. E.) on radiation from
a source of light in a magnetic field, 39.

TIDDEMAN (R. H.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 283.

TILDEN (Prof. W. A.) on the investiga-
tion of isomeric naphthalene deriva-
tives, 162.

Tin, hydration of, including the action
of light, Dr. J. H. Gladstone and
G. Gladstone on, 603.

TocHER (J. F.) and J. Gray on the
frequency and pigmentation value of
surnames of school children in HE. Aber-
deenshire, 799.

Topp (David P.) on the Singkep commu-
tator, 541.

*

INDEX.

Yodea, the anatomy of, A.C. Seward and
8. O. Ford on, 847. |
Torres Straits, the functions of the

the brother-in-law in, Dr. W. H. R.

maternal uncle, the son-in-law, and |
|

Rivers on, 800.

Traction, Report on the resistance of road
vehicles to, 402.

Trade, British, geographical conditions
affecting, @. G. Chisholm on, 715.

— and the marriage-rate, the cor-
relation of, R. H. Hooker on, 750.

Training of the practical man, Dr. John
G. Kerr on the, 865.

Tramways Act, 1870, the economic effect
of the, E. F. Vesey Knox on, 753.

*TRAQUAIR (Dr. R. H.) on the distribu-
tion of fishes in the Carboniferous
rocks of Scotland, 640.

*—___ on the distribution of fishes in the |

Old Red Sandstone of Scotland, 640.

TRAVERS (Morris W.) and G. SENTER on
a comparison of the constant volume
and constant pressure
hydrogen between 0° and —190°C.,
546.

Trees, the diameter increment of, A. W.
Borthwick on, 831.

scales for |

893

Onit of pressure, Dr. C. E. Guillaume on,
71.

Universities, the influence of the, on school
education, Rt. Rev. J. Percival on, 448.

Uphill, Weston-super-Mare, Report on
the excavation of caves at, 352.

UssHER (R. J.) on the exploration of
caves in Ireland, 282.

Vapour, the laws of electrolysis of alkali
salt, H. A. Wilson on, 547.

Variation, the relation of binary fission
and conjugation to, J. Y. Simpson on,
688.

| —— in the strata in the eastern High-

Trias of Elgin, the occurrence of barium |

. Sulphate and calcium fluoride as
cementing substances in the,
Mackie on, 649.

—— the Pebble-band of the, and its |

W. |

lands, G. Barrow on, 633.

*VARILLA (P. Bunau) on the Panama
Canal, 769.

Vegetation, the effects of, in the valley
and plains of the Clyde, G. F. Scott
Elliot on, 718.

Velocity of water, variation of the
critical, with temperature, H. T.
Barnes and E. G. Coker on the, 579.

Ventilation of public buildings, J. W.
Thomas on, 775.

Vertebral processes, transverse, the mor-
phology of, Prof. A. Macalister on,
789.

Vertebrata, the origin of the paired limbs
of, J. Graham Kerr on, 693.

| VINES (Prof. 8. H.) on investigations

wind-worn pebbies, W. Mackie on, 650, |

TUCKER (R. D.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 283.

Turbid solutions, the clearing of, by the
influence of liaht, Prof. Dr. G. Quincke
on, 60.

TURNER (Prof. H. H.) on seismological
investigation, 40.

——, Address to the Department of
Astronomy by, 535.

on an exceptional case in the deter- |
mination of the constants of a photo-
graphic plate from known stars, 543.

TYLOR (Prof. E. B.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 409.

*Type specimens of fossils, Report on the
registration of, 647. |

*Typhoid disinfectant, sulphuric acid as |
a, Dr. 8. Rideal on, 603.

Ulva latissima, the absorption of am- |
monia from polluted sea-water by,
Prof. Letts and J. Hawthorne on, 831.

Uncle, maternal, the functions of the, in |
Torres Straits, Dr. Rivers on, 800.

Underground temperature, Tnenty-second |
report on, 64.

— water movements, N.W. Yorkshire, |
Report on, 337.

made at the Marine Biological Asso~
ciation Laboratory at Plymouth, 376.

Virchow, Prof. Rudolf, Address from the
Section of Anthropology to, 807.

*Viscosities of solids, the relation be-
tween temperature and, Prof. A. Gray
on, 529.

*Viscosity of magnetisable liquids, the
influence of a magnetic field on the,
Prof. A. Gray on, 582.

*_________ solids, the influence of a
magnetic field on the, Prof. A. Gray on,
582.

*Visual illusion, the measurement of,
Dr. W. H. R. Rivers on, 818.

*Voleanic history of the Inner Hebrides,
time intervals in the, Sir A. Geikie on,
636.

Voltameters containing different solvents,
a comparison of silver deposited in, S.
Skinner on, 32.

*Voluntary movement, the restoration of,
after the operation for nerve-crossing,
Dr. R. Kennedy on, 817.

WAGER (Harold) on the cytology of the
Cyanophycez, 830.

—— on the teaching of botany in schools,
843.

Wages at Glasgow in the nineteenth cen-
tury, A. L. Bowley on, 754.

894

clature of the ions, 613.

WALLACE (Prof. Robert) on British agri- |
culture, 747.

WANKLYN (Prof. J. A.) on arsenical
pigmentation, 816.

Warp (Prof. Marshall) on the morpho-
logy, &c., of the Podostemacee, 447.

— on the Bromes and their brown
rusts, 836.

Water, specific heat of, the variation of |
the, Prof. H. L. Callendar on, 34.

——,, variation of the critical velocity of,
with temperature, H. T. Barnes and
E. G. Coker on, 579.

WATERSTON (David) and D. HEPBURN |
on the pelvis of the porpoise as a guide
to the determination of a sacral region
in Cetacea, 680.

WATKIN (Col.) on the B.A. screm gauge,
407.

WATSON (W.) on determining magnetic
force at sea, 29.

Watts (Dr. Marshall) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 79.

(Prof. W. W.) on the movements of

underground waters of N. W. York-

shire, 337.

on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 339.

— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 465.

Wave-length tables of the spectra of the |
elements and compounds, Report on, 79. |

Waves, terrestrial surface, Report on, |
398.

——, the size of, as observed at sea,
Vaughan Cornish on, 773. |

Weather maps, W. N. Shaw on, 725.

WEBBER (Maj.-Gen.) on the B.A. screw
gauge, 407.

*WHISS (Prof. F. EH.) on abnormal cat-
kins of the hazel, 857.

WELCH (R.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 339.

WELDON (Prof. W. F. B.) on the occu-
pation of a table at the Zoological
Station at Naples, 354.

—— on investigations made at the Marine |
Biological Association Laboratory at
Plymouth, 376.

Westleton Beds, Further note by H. B.
Woodward on the, 635. |

WETHERED (E.) on underground tempera- |
ture, 64. |

WHEELER (W. H.) on terrestrial surface |
waves, 398. |

— on the source of warp in the
Humber, 652. |

WHITAKER (W.) on the work of the |
Corresponding Societies Committee, 465. |

*WALKER (Prof. James) on the nomen- |
|
|

REPORT—1901.

*Wi1GHAM (John R.) on long continuous
burning petroleum lamps for buoys and
beacons, 768.

*___ on a new scintillating lighthouse
light, 768.

| Wild tribes of the Malay Peninsula, W.

W. Skeat on the, 803.

WILSON (Prof. Ernest) on the commer-
cial importance of aluminium, 771.

(Harold A.) on the laws of electro-
lysis of alkali salt vapour, 547.

WITHERS (Prof. H. L.) on the scope of
the science of education, 866.

Woman as a worker, the present petiaon
of, Miss M. H. Irwin on, 756.

Women’s labour, Report on the economic
effect of legislation regulating, 399.

*Woop (A.), Prof. A. GRAY, and J. 8S.
DUNLOP on elastic fatigue as shown
by metals and woods, 529.

—— (Sir H. T.) on the B.A.
gauge, 407.

Woopatt (H. J.) and _Lieut.-Col.
CUNNINGHAM on the determination of
successive high primes, 553.

WooDWARD (A. Smith) on the bone-beds
of Pikermi, Attica, and in N. Eubcea,
656.

—— (Dr. H.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 288

on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 362.

— (H. B.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest in the
Onited Kingdom, 339.

on a phosphatic layer at the base of
the Inferior Oolite in Skye, 635.

—— on the Westleton Beds, 635.

screw

| WooLNouGH (F.) on the collection of

photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 339.

' WoRSDELL (W. C.) on the morphology

of the flowers of Cephalotaxus, 834.
——- on the morphology of the ovule,
834,
WYNNE (A. B.) on underground tempera-
ture, 64.
(Dr. W. P.) on the isomorphous
derivatives of benzene, 78.

*Yangtse, the Upper, the crux of the,
Archibald Little on, 727.

*Yapp (R. H.) on some botanical photo-
graphs from the Malay Peninsula, 831.

— on two Malayan ‘ myrmecophilous’
ferns, 851.

*Yeasts, spore-formation in, T. Barker
on, 857.

Yew, apparently cut by man, from the
Forest bed on the E. coast of England,
F. D. Longe on, 798.

i in Great

Britain and Ireland, Prof. H. Conwentz

on, 839.

INDEX.

Yorkshire, N.W., Report on the move-
ments of underground waters of, 337.
Youne (Dr. George) on the existence of
certain semicarbazides in more than

one modification, 609.

*Zebras and zebra hybrids, Prof. J. Cossar
Ewart on, 691.

Zones, life-, in the British Carboniferous
rocks, Report on, 288.

Zoological Station at Naples, Report on
- occupation of a table at the,
354.

895

Appendix:

I. Reports on the occupation of the
table, 355.

Il. List of naturalists who have worked
at the Station from July 1, 1900, to
June 30, 1901, 358.

III. List of papers published in 1900
by naturalists who have occwpied
tables at the Station, 360.

IV. List of Publications of the Station
for the year ending June 30,1901, 361.

Zoology, Address by Prof. J. Cossar

Ewart to the Section of, 666.

—— of the Sandwich Islands, Eleventh

report on the, 362,

a ee i" Par ie
agers

ut, is

fal

oA
AER Gs
ay

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

Life Members (since 1845), and all Annual Members who have not
intermitted their Subscription, receive gratis all Reports published after
the date of their Membership. Any other volume they require may be
obtained on application at the Office of the Association, Burlington
House, Piccadilly, London, W., at the following prices, viz.—Reports for
1831 to 1874 (of which more than 15 copies remain), at 2s. 6d. per volume;
after that date, at two-thirds of the Publication Price. A few sets, from
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Associates for the Meeting in 1901 may obtain the Volume for the Year at two-thirds
of the Publication Price.

REPORT or tHe SEVENTIETH MEETING, at Bradford,
September, 1900, Published at £1 4s.

CONTENTS.

Rules of the Association, Lists of Officers, Report of the Council, List of Com-
mittees, Grants of Money, ke, c : . oe
Address by the President, Sir William Turner | 5
Report on the Establishment of a Meteorological Observatory at Montreal a 38
Report on the present State of our Knowledge in Electrolysis and Electro-

PAGE

chemistry . 34
Report on the best methods of recording the Direct Intensity of Solar
Radiation . 36
Report on the Desirability of securing ‘Uniformity of. Size of | Pages of
Transactions . 45
Report on the most suitable Method of determining the Components of the
Magnetic Force on Board Ship . . ~ 46
Report on the Calculation of certain Mathematical Fun ctions ‘ : “ . 46
Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis . ‘ : : sri AO
Report on Radiation in a Magnetic Field . 3 ‘ ; ; - = . 52
Report on Electrical Standards . : : E . : ; 7 #53
Tenth Report on Photographic Meteorology , ; : : : : =. 4eue
Fifth Report on Seismological Investigations. . : = ae Gd)

Report on the present State of the serene of Point- “groups. Part I. By
FRANCES HARDCASTLE : ‘ ° - 121

898

Report on the Chemical Compounds contained in Alloys. By F. H. NEVILLE .

Interim Repcert on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy .

Report on the relation between the Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitu-
tion of Organic Substances . : A ’ K : z

Report on Isomorphous Derivatives of Benzene 2 P

Sixth Report on the Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis . i

Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools .

Report on Wave-iength Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds

Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives . i ‘ i

On the Constitution of Camphor. By A. LAPWoRTH.

Report on the Canadian Pleistocene Flora and Fauna. :

Interim Report on the Exploration of Irish Caves

Report on the Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks

Report on the Registration of Type Specimens of British Fossils

Report on the Ossiferous Caves at Uphill : P = 5

Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles

First Report on the Movements of Underground Waters of Craven ;

Fourth Report on the Conditions under which Remains of the Irish Elk are
found in the Isle of Man ‘

Report on Photographs of Geological Interest i in ‘the United Kingdom

On the Geological Age of the Earth. By Professor J. Joty .

Second Report on the Plankton and Physical Conditions of the English Channel
during 1899 . 6 , ‘

Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at N aples :

Report on the Compilation of an Index Animalium

Report on the Natural History and Ethnography of the Malay Peninsula ,

Tenth Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands

Report on Investigations made at the Marine Biological Laboratory,
Plymouth : ; , =

Interim Report on the Coral Reefs of the Indian Regions :

Third Interim Report on the Working out of the Details of the Observations of
the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Lightships, 1880-87 . .

Ninth Report on the Climatology of Africa .

Report on the Revision of the Physical and Chemical Constants of Sea- water é

Report on Future Dealings in Raw Produce ;

Interim Report on the State Monopolies in other Countries

Report of the Committee for considering whether the British Association form
of Thread for Small Screws should be modified, and, if so, in what
direction : : : 4

Report on the Micro- chemistry of Cells

Report on the Comparative Histology of Suprarenal Capsules

Report on the Comparative Histology of Cerebral Cortex . : 7

Report on Electrical Changes in Mammalian Nerve

Report on the Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors when intro-
duced into the Circulation

Report on the Vascular Supply of Secreting Glands

Report on the Age of Stone Circles

Report on the Mental and Physical Deviations from the Normal among
Children in Public Elementary and other Schools

Report on the Silchester Excavation j

Report on an Ethnological Survey of Canada

Interim Report on the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Reg istration of
Photographs of Anthropological Interest . 5

Report on Fertilisation in the Pheeophycez

Report on Assimilation in Plants.

Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee

Report of the Proceedings of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding

Societies held at Bradford
The Transactions of the Sections
Index 5
List of Publications ‘ ‘ z } 4 5 Fy :
(Appendix, List of Members, pp. 1-111.)

PAGE
131
160

151
167
171
187
193
297
299
328
340
340
342

899

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Lithographed Signatures of the Members who met at Cambridge in 1833, with the
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Index to the Reports, 1861-1890, 15s. (carriage, 44d.).

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Rules of Zoological Nomenclature, 1s.

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Report on the best means for promoting Scientific Education in Schools, 1867, 6d.

Second Report on the present Methods of teaching Chemistry, 1889, 6d.

Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use
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Second Report on the Development of Graphic Methods in Mechanical Science,
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Report of the Ethnographical Survey Committee, 1893, 6d.

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Table of Electro-chemical Properties of Aqueous Solutions, compiled by Rev. T. C.
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Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Thermodynamics, Part II., by
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Report on Planimeters, by Prof. O. Henrici, F.R.S., 1894, 1s.

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12 JUN. 1902

rd \?

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR

THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

LSE

OF

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS,

1901.

{ Se wy 7%
3 Ps os >

\ @ my abd ds
face .&
nak FA (eae

Office of the Association :
BURLINGTON HOUSE LONDON, W.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1901-1902.

PRESIDENT.
Principat, ARTHUR W. RUOKER, M.A., LL.D., D.8c., See.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Right Hon. the Fart. or GLascow, G.O.M.G. |

The Bent Hon, the LorD Biytuswoop, LL.D., |

The Right Hon. the Lorp Ketvin, G.C.V.O,, |
D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.S. }

SAMUEL CHISHOLM, Esq., the Hou. the Lord
Provost of Glasgow,

Very Rev. R. HERBERT Srory, D.D., LL.D., the
Principal of the University ot Glasgow. |

Sir JOHN MAXWELL STIRLING-MAXWELL, Bart
M.P.. D.L.

Sir ANDREW NODPLE, K.O.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, D.C.L.. LL.D., ¥.R.S.

Sir W. T. THISELTON-DYER, K.C.M.G., C.1.E., F.R.S,

JAMES PARKER SMITH, Esq., M.P., D.L.

Joun INGLIS, Esq., LL.D.

Professor JOHN CLELAND, M.D., LL.D., D.Sc

F.R.S.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
Professor JAMES Dewar, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

His Grace the DuKE or ABERCORN, K.G., H.M.
Lieutenant of the County of Donegal.

The MARQUESS OF DUFFERIN AND AVA, K.P.,
F.R.S., H.M. Lieutenant of the County of
Down.

The MARQUEsS oF LonDONDERRY, K.G., H.M.
Lieutenant of the City of Belfast.

Sir Francis MACNAGHTEN, Bart., H.M. Lieu-
tenant of the County of Antrim,

The Right Hon, the EArt or SHAFTESBURY, D.L,
The Right Hon, the EARL or Rossk. K.P., F.R.S,
The Right Hon. THoMas Si1ncrair, D.Lit.

Sir WILLIAM Quartus Ewart, Bart., M.A.

The LoRD MAyor oF BELFast.

The PRESIDENT of Queen's College, Belfast.

| Professor E. RAY LankKEsTER, M.A,, F.R.S.

Professor PETER REDFERN, M.D,

GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Professor Sir WILLIAM C. RoBERTS-AUSTEN, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Dr. D. H. Scort, M.A.,, F.R.S,
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Harrow, Middlesex.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor G. Carngy Foster, B.A., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BELFAST,

JouN Browy, Esq. |

Professor MAURICE FitzGERALD, B.A. |

GODFREY W. FErGuson, Esq

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BELFAST.
R. Kyte Knox, LL.D.

ORDINARY MEMBERS
ARMSTRONG, Professor H. E., F.R.S. |
Bonar, J., Esq., LL.D. |
Bowen, Protessor F. O., F.R.S.
OALLENDAR, Professor H. L., F.R.S.
CREAK, Captain E. W., R.N.. O.B., F.R.S.
DARWIN, Major L., Sec.R.G.S. |
FREMANTLE, Hon. Sir 0. W., K.C.B. |
Gorcn, Professor F., F.R.S. |
HALLIBURTON, Professor W. D., F.R.S.
KeEwte, J. Scorr, Esq., LL.D.
LANKESTER, Professor E, Ray, F.R.S.
LockyYERr, Sir J. NoRMAN, K.C.B., F.R.S,
LopGE, Principal O. J., F.R.S.

OF THE COUNCIL.

R
MARR, J. B., Esq., F B.S.
PrERKIN, Professor W. H.. F B.S.
Perry, Professor JOHN, F.R.S
PREECE, Sir W. H., K.C.B., F.R.S.
Prick, L. L., Esq., M.A.
SEWARD, A. C., Esq., F.R.S.
SOLLAS, Professor W. J., F.R.S.

JILDEN, Professor W. A., F.R.S,

TYLOR, Professor E. B., F.R.S.
WOLFE-Barky, Sir JOHN, K.C.B., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Lord AvEpoury, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS.
The Right Hon. Lord RAyLErGH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Professor A. W. RUcKER, M.A., D.Sc., Sec. R.S.

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.

Sir Joseph D. Hooker,G.C.S.I. | Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S. The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G.,
Sir George Gabriel Stokes, Bart.,| Sir F.J. Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S. F.R.S.

ERS. Sir F. A. Abel, Bart., K.0.B., F.R.S. Lord Lister, D.O.L., F.R.S.
Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., F.R.S. Sir Wm.Hnuggins,K.C.B.,Pres.R.S, Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S,
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S, Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D., Sir Wilttam Crookes, F.R.S.
Lord Avebury, D.C.L, F.R.S. F.R.8. Sir Michael Foster, K.O.B.,
Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.S. Prof. Sir J.S. Burdon Sanderson, M.P., F.R.S.

Bart., F.R.S. ‘Sir W. Turner, K.0.B., F.R.S.

GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.

F. Galton, Esq., D.O.L., F.R.8. P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S, | Prof. A. W. Riicker, D.Sc.. Seo.R.S.
Prof. Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., | Prof. T.G. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.S. | Prof. E. A. Schiifer, F.R.S
M.P., Sec. R.S, Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.
G. Griffith, Esq., M.A. A. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., F.R.S.
AUDITORS.
E. W. Brabrook, Esq., C.B. |

A2

L. L. Price, Esq., M.A.

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- F FRATICIVA

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

190%,

* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report for 1901.
§§ indicates Annual Subscribers who will be entitled to the Annual
Report if their Subscriptions are paid by December 31, 1902.
t indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members, elected
before 1845, not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in italics.

Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Assistant
General Secretary, G. Griffith, Esq., Burlington House, W.

Year of
Election. .

1887. *AnBE, Professor CLEVELAND. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, U.S.A.

1897. tAbbott, A. H. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

1898. §Abbott, George, M.R.C.S. 33 Upper Grosvenor-road, Tunbridge
Wells.

1881. *Abbott, R. T. G. Whitley House, Malton.

1887, tAbbott,T. ©. Eastleigh, Queen’s-road, Bowdon, Cheshire,

1863. *ApeEL, Sir Frepertck Aveustus, Bart., G.C.V.O., K.C.B., D.C.L.,
D.Sc., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Presipent, 1890 ; Council 1875-82 ;
Pres. B. 1877), President of the Government. Committee on
Explosives. 2 Whitehall-court, S.W.

1902. §§ABERCORN, the Duke of, K.G. (VicE-PREsIDENT, 1902). Barons
Court, Ireland.

1885. *ABERDEEN, The Right Hon. the Earl of, G.C.M.G., LL.D. Haddo
House, Aberdeen.

1885. tAberdeen, The Countess of. Haddo House, Aberdeen.

1885. tAbernethy, James W. 2 Rubislaw-place, Aberdeen.

1873, *Asney, Captain Sir W. pz W., K.C.B., D.C.L., F.RS., F.R.A.S.
(Pres. A, 1889; Council, 1884-89). Rathmore Lodge, Bolton-
gardens South, Harl’s Court, S.W.

6

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1886,
1884,
1873.
1900.
1882.
1869.
1877.

1873.
1894,
1877.
1898.
1901.
1887.

1892.
1884.
1901.
1871.
1879.

1869,

1901.
1879.

1896.
1898.
1890.
1890.

1899.
1883.
1884.
1864,
1871.
1871.
1895.
1891.
1871.
1901.
1898.
1884,
1886.
1900.
1896.

1894.
1891.
1883.
1868.
1896.
1891.
1883.

fAbraham, Harry. 147 High-street, Southampton.

tAcheson, George. Collegiate Institute, Toronto, Canada,

fAckroyd, Samuel. Greaves-street, Little Horton, Bradford, Yorkshire.

§Ackroyd, William, Borough Laboratory, Crossley Street, Halifax.

*Acland, Alfred Dyke. 38 Pont-street, Chelsea, S.W.

tAcland, Sir C. T. Dyke, Bart., M.A. Killerton, Exeter.

*Acland, Captain Francis E. Dyke, R.A. Woodmansterne Rectory,
Banstead, Surrey.

*Acland, Rey. H. D., M.A. Luccombe Rectory, Taunton.

*Acland, Henry Dyke, F.G.S. The Old Bank, Great Malvern.

*Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.D. 19 Bryanston Square, W.

f{Acworth, W.M. 47 St. George’s-square, S.W.

§Adam, J. M. 15 Walmer Crescent, Glasgow.

tApamt, J. G., M.A., M.D., Professor of Pathology in the University,
Montreal, Canada.

fAdams, David. Rockville, North Queensferry.

tAdams, Frank Donovan. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

§Adams, John. 12 Holyrood Crescent, Glasgow.

fAdams, John R. 2 Nutley-terrace, Hampstead, N.W.

*ApAMs, Rey. THomas, M.A., D.C.L. (Local Sec. 1881), 4 Avenue
Terrace, Paignton, South Devon.

*ApaMs, WILLIAM Grytts, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S.
(Pres. A, 1880; Council 1878-85), Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy and Astronomy in King’s College, London, 43 Campden
Hill-square, W.

§Adamson, P. 11 Fairlie Park Drive, Glasgow.

tApamson, Ropert, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Logic in the Uni-
versity of Glasgow.

tAdamson, W. Sunnyside House, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

§Addison, William L. T. Byng Inlet, Ontario, Canada.

{Addyman, James Wilson, B.A. Belmont, Starbeck, Harrogate.

tApeney, W. E., B.Sc., F.C.S.. Royal University of Ireland, Earls-
fort-terrace, Dublin.

§Adie, R. H., M.A., B.Sc. 8 Richmond-road, Cambridge.

tAdshead, Samuel. School of Science, Macclesfield.

tAgnew, Cornelius R. 266 Maddison-avenue, New York, U.S.A.

*Ainsworth, David. Tho Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

*Ainsworth, John Stirling. Harecroft, Gosforth, Cumberland.

tAinsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

*Airy, Hubert, M.D. Stoke House, Woodbridge, Suffolk.

*Aisbitt, M. W. Mountstuart-square, Cardiff,

§AITKEN, JoHN, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Ardenlea, Falkirk, N.B.

§Aitken, Thomas. County Buildings, Cupar, Fife.

tAxers-Dovetas, Right Hon. A., M.P. 106 Mount-street, W.

*Alabaster, H. Milton, Grange Road, Sutton, Surrey.

*Albright, G. 8. The Elms. Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Aldren, Francis J.. M.A. The Lizans, Malvern Link.

§Aldridge, J. G. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.b. 9 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W.

tAlexander, A. W. Blackwall Lodge, Halifax.

tAlexander, D.'T. Dynas Powis, Cardiff.

tAiexander, George. Kildare-street Club, Dublin.

*Alexander, Patrick Y. Experimental Works, Bath.

tAlexander, William. 45 Highfield South, Rockferry, Cheshire.

*Alford, Charles J.. F.G.S. 15 Great St. Helens, E.C.

fAlger, Miss Ethel. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.

LIST OF MEMBERS, ?

Year of
Election.

1883

1867,
1885.
1871.
1901.
1871.
1879.
1898.
1888.

1884.
1891.

1887.

1878.
1889.
1889.
1886.
1896,
1882.

1887.
1873.
1891.

1883.
1883,
1884.
1883,
1885.
1901.
1874.
1892.
1899.
1888.
1887.

1889,
1880.

1901.
1901.
1883.
1895.
1891.
1880.
1886.
1883.
1877.

1886,
1900.
1896.
1886.

1883.

tAlger, W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.

tAlger, Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon,

{Alison, George L. C. Dundee.

tAllan, David. West Cults, near Aberdeen,

tAllan, G., M.Inst.C.E. 10 Austin Friars, E.C,

*Allan, James A. Westerton, Milngavie.

tAncen, Atrrep H.,F.C.8S. 67 Surrey-street, Sheffield.

*Allen, Rey. A. J.C. The Librarian, Peterhouse, Cambridge.

§Arten, E. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

tAutey, F. J., M.A., M.D., Professor of Physiology, The University,
Birmingham.

tAllen, Rev. George. Shaw Vicarage, Oldham,

fAllen, Henry A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
S.W.

tAllen, John. 15 North Crescent, St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea, via
Preston.

tAllen, John Romilly. 28 Great Ormond-street, W.C.

tAllhusen, Alfred. Low Fell, Gateshead.

tAllbusen, Frank E.

tAllport, Samuel, F.G.S. The University, Birmingham,

tAlsop, J. W. 16 Bidston-road, Oxton.

*Alverstone, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.M.G., LL.D. Hornton
Lodge, Hornton Street, Kensington, S.W.

tAlward, G. 1. 11 Hamilton-street, Grimsby, Yorkshire,

tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tAmbrose, D. R. Care of Messrs. J. Evans & Co., Bute Docks,
Cardiff,

§Amery, John Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.

§Amery, Peter Fabyan Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.

tAmi, Henry, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

tAnderson, Miss Constance. 17 Stonegate, York.

*AnpERSON, HucH Kerr. Caius College, Cambridge.

*Anderson, James. 1 Marlborough Terrace, Glasgow.

t{Anderson, John, J.P., F.G.8. Holywood, Belfast.

{Anderson, Joseph, LL.D. 8 Great King-street, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, Miss Mary K. 13 Napier-road, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, R. Bruce. 35A Great George-street, S.W.

tAnderson, Professor R. J., M.D., F.L.S. Queen’s College, and
Atlantic Lodge, Salthill, Galway.

tAnderson, R. Simpson. Elswick Collieries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Anperson, Tempest, M.D., B.Sc., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1881).
17 Stonegate, York.

* Anderson, Dr, W. Carrick. 2 Florentine Gardens, Glasgow.

§Anderson, W. F.G. 47 Union Street, Glasgow.

tAndrew, Thomas, F.G.S. 18 Southernhay, Exeter.

tAndrews, Charles W. British Museum (Natural History), £.W,

tAndrews, Thomas. 163 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.E. Cefn Eithen, Swansea.

§Andrews, William, F.G.S. Steeple Croft, Coventry.

tAnelay, Miss M. Mabel. Girton College, Cambridge.

§ANGELL, JoHN, F.0.S., F.1.C. 6 Beacons-field, Derby-road,
Withington, Manchester.

tAnnan, John, J.P. Whitmore Reans, Wolverhampton.

tAnnandale, Nelson. 34 Charlotte Square, Edinburgh.

tAnnett, R. C. F. 11 Greenhey-road, Liverpool.

tAnsell, Joseph. 38 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

8

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1878.
1890.
1901.

1900.
1898.
1894.
1884,

1883.
1883.
1873.

1876,
1889.

1893.
1901.
1870.
1874.
1889,
1887.

1888.
1890.
1887.

1887.
1875.
1861.
1896,
1861.
1896.
1887.
1884.

1898.
1894,
1894,
1881.
1881.

1894.
i865.

1884,
1853.

1901.
1877.

{Anson, Frederick H. 15 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, 8. W.

§Antrobus, J. Coutts. Eaton Hall, Congleton.

§Arakawa, Minozi. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate Street
Within, E.C.

§Arber, KH. A. N., B.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

tArcher,G. W. 11 All Saints’-road, Clifton, Bristol.

§Archibald, A. The Bank House, Ventnor.

*Archibald, E. Douglas, Constitutional Club, Northumberland
Avenue, W.C.

§Armistead, Richard. Chambres House, Southport.

*Armistead, William. Hillcrest, Oaken, Wolverhampton.

*ArmstRonG, Henry E., Ph.D., Lu.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1885;
Council 1899- ), Professor of Chemistry in the City and
Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-
road, S.W. 55 Granville Park, Lewisham, S.E.

tArmstrong, James. Bay Ridge, Long Island, New York, U.S.A.

JArmstrong, Thomas John. 14 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

{Aaald TRetee ci H., M.A., F.G.S, 56 Friar-gate, Derby.

§Arthur, Matthew. 78 Queen Street, Glasgow.

*Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Penroses, Holsworthy, North Devon.

tAshe, Isaac, M.B. Dundrum, Co. Dublin.

tAshley, Howard M. Airedale, Ferrybridge, Yorkshire.

tAshton, Thomas Gair, M.A. 36 Charlotte-street, Manchester.

*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors.

Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.

*Ashworth, J. Jackson. Haslen House, Handforth, Cheshire.

tAshworth, J. Reginald, B.Sc. 105 Freehold-street, Rochdale.

tAshworth, John Wallwork, F.G.S. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor,
Stockport.

tAshworth, Mrs. J. W. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, Stockport.

*Aspland, W. Gaskell. Tuplins, Newton Abbot.

tAsquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds.

*Assheton, Richard. Grantchester, Cambridge.

tAston, Theodore. 11 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

§Atkin, George, J.P. Egerton Park, Birkenhead.

§Atkinson, Rey. C. Chetwynd, D.D. Ingestre, Ashton-on-Mersey.

tAtkinson, Edward, Ph.D., LL.D. Brookline, Massachusetts,
U.S.A

“Atkinson, EK, Cuthbert. St. John’s College, Oxford.

tAtkinson, George M. 28 St. Oswald’s-road, 8. W.

*Atkinson, Harold W. Rossall School, Fleetwood, Lancashire.

tAtkinson, J.T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.

fArkinson, Rosert Witriam, F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1891).
44 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.

§Atkinson, William. Erwood, Beckenham, Kent.

era soy J., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 111 Temple-chambers,
E

tAuchincloss, W.S. 209 Church-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

*AvesurRY, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L., F.R.S. (PResrpent,
1881; Trustee, 1872— ; Pres. D, 1872; Council 1865-71).
High Elms, Farnborough, Kent.

§Aveling, T. C. 32 Bristol Street, Birmingham.

*Ayrton, W. E., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1898; Council 1889-96),
Professor of Electrical Engineering in the City and Guilds of
London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-road, S.W.
41 Kensington Park-gardens, W.

Year of
Election

1884,
1900.

1885.

1863.
1883.
1387.
2887.
1885.
1892.
18838.

1895.

1870.
1887.
1865.

1899.
1855.
1894,
1878.
1885.
1897.
1885.
1882.

1886.
1898.
1898.
1891.
1881.
1875.
1881.
1884.
1871.

1894,
1875.

1883.
1878.

1866.

1883.
1886,
1869.

1890.
1899.
1882,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 9

t{Baby, The Hon. G. Montreal, Canada. :

§BaccHus, RamspeN (Local Sec. 1900), 15 Welbury Drive,
Bradford.

*Bach, Madame Henri. 12 Rue Fénélon, Lyons.

Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.

{Backhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.

*Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s, Wolsingham, R.S.O., Durham.

*Bacon, Thomas Walter. Ramsden Hall, Billericay, Essex.

{Baddeley, John. 1 Charlotte-street, Manchester,

{Baildon, Dr. 65 Manchester-road, Southport.

TBaildon, H. Bellyse. Duncliffe, Murrayfield, Edinburgh.

*Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Atherstone House, North Drive, St.
Annes on the Sea, Lancashire.

§Barxey, Colonel F., Sec. R.Scot.G.S., F.R.G.S. 7 Drummond-place,
Edinburgh.

{Bailey, Dr. Francis J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool. :

*Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Marple Cottage, Marple, Cheshire. _

{Bailey, Samuel. Ashley House, Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

{Bailey, T. Lewis. 385 Hawarden-avenue, Liverpool.

{Bailey, W. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolverhampton.

*Baily, Francis Gibson, M.A. 11 Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.

{Baity, Water. 4 Roslyn-hill, Hampstead, N.W.

{Bary, AvexanpeER, M.A., LL.D. Ferryhill Lodge, Aberdeen.

§Bain, James, jun. Toronto.

tBain, William N. Collingwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

*Baker, Sir Bensamin, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., M.Inst.0.E.
(Pres. G, 1885; Council, 1889-96). 2 Queen Square-place,
‘Westminster, S.W.

§Baker, Harry, F.1.C. Epworth House, Moughland Lane, Runcorn.

{Baker, Herbert M. Wallcroft, Durdham Park, Clifton, Bristol,

{Baker, Hiatt C. Mary-le-Port-street, Bristol.

{Baker, J. W. 50 Stacey-road, Cardiff.

{Baker, Robert, M.D. The Retreat, York.

{Baxer, W. Proctor. Bristol.

{Baldwin, Rey. G. W. de Courcy, M.A. Warshill Vicarage, York.

{Balete, Professor E. Polytechnic School, Montreal, Canada.

{Balfour, The Right Hon. G. W., M.P. 24 Addison-road, Ken-
sington, W.

§Balfour, Henry, M.A. 11 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

{Batrovr, Isaac Baytey, M.A.,D.Sc.,M.D., F.R.S.,F.R.S.E., F.L.S.,
(Pres. D, 1894; K, 1901), Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.

{Balfour, Mrs. I. Bayley. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.

*Ball, Charles Bent, M.D., Regius Professor of Surgery in the
University of Dublin. 24 Merrion-square, Dublin.

*Batt, Sir Roperr Stawett, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A,
1887 ; Council 1%84-90, 1892-94; Local Sec. 1878), Lown-
dean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry in the University
of Cambridge. The Observatory, Uambridge.

*Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A, Trinity College, Cambridge.

tBallantyne, J. W., M.B. 24 Melville-street, Edinburgh.

{Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S.. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, Westminster, S.W.

{Bamford, Professor Harry, B.Sc. 3 Albany Street, Glasgow.

§Bampton, Mrs. 42 Marine-parade,, Dover.

}Bance, Colonel Edward, J.P. Oak Mount, Highfield, Southampton.

10

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1898. {Bannerman, W. Bruce, F.R.G.8., F.G.S. The Lindens, Sydenham-

1884,
1866.
1884.
1890.
1861.
1894,
1871.
1860.
1887.
1886.
1881.
1882.
1886.
1890.

1899.
1882.
1879.

1898.
1886.
1875.

road, Croydon.

{Barbeau, E. J. Montreal, Canada.

tBarber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.

tBarber, Rev. 8S. F. West Raynham Rectory, Swaffham, Norfolk.

*Barber-Starkey, W.J.S. Aldenham Park, Bridgnorth, Salop.

*Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.

tBarclay, Arthur. 29 Gloucester-road, South Kensington, S.W.

tBarclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts. .

*Barclay, Robert. Sedgley New Hall, Prestwich, Manchester.

{Barclay, Thomas. 17 Bull-street, Birmingham.

{Barfoot, William, J.P. Whelford-place, Leicester,

{Barford, J. D. Above Bar, Southampton.

TBarham, F. F. Bank of England, Birmingham.

{Barker, Alfred, M.A., B.Sc. Aske’s Hatcham School, New
Cross, S.E.

§Barker, John H. 68 Jesmond Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Barker, Miss J. M. Hexham House, Hexham.

*Barker, Rey. Philip C., M.A., LL.B. Priddy Vicarage, Wells,
Somerset.

§Barker, W. R. 106 Redland-road, Bristol.

{Barling, Gilbert. 85 Edmund-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tBarlow, Crawford, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. Deene, Tooting Bec-road,
Streatham, S.W.

. §Barlow, H. W. L., M.A., M.B., F.C.S. Holly Bank, Croftsbank-

road, Urmston, near Manchester.

. {Barlow, J. J. 37 Park-street, Southport.
. {Barlow, John, M.D., Professor of Physiology in St. Mungo’s Col-

lege, Glasgow.

. {Barlow, John R. Greenthorne, near Bolton.
. *Bartow, WILLIAM, F.G.S. The Red House, Great Stanmore.
. (Bartow, WitriaAm Henry, F.R.S., M.inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1878;

Council 1886-89). High Combe, Old Charlton, Kent.
. *Barnard, Major Rh. Cary, F.L. S. Bartlow , Leckhampton, Cheltenham.
: tBarnard, William, LL.B. 3 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
. {Barnes, J. W. Bank, Durham.

. §Barnes, Richard H. Heatherlands, Parkstone, Dorset.
. {Barnes, Robert. 9 Kildare Gardens, Bayswater, W.
. {Barnett, J. D. Port Hope, Ontario, Canada.

. §Barnett, P. A. Board of Education, Whitehall, 8.W.

. Barnett, W. D. 41 Threadneedle-street, E.C.

. Barr, ARCHIBALD, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. The Univer sity, Ghisnie
. {Barr, Frederick H, 4 South-parade, Leeds.

{Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, East Grinstead, Sussex.

. TBarrell, Frank R., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University

College, Bristol.

3. {Barrett, John Chalk. Lrrismore, Birkdale, Southport.

. {Barrett, Mrs. J.C. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.
2, *BARRETT, W. F., E.RS., F.R.S.E., M. RI. A., Professor of Physics
in the Roy: al College of Science, Dublin.

. tBarrett, William Scott. Abbotsgate, Huyton, near Liverpool.
. [Barrerr-Hamintron, Capt. G. E. H. Jilmarnock, Arthurstown,

Waterford, Ireland.

. {Barrington, Miss Amy. Fassaroe, Bray, Co. Wicklow.

. *“Barrineton, R, M., M.A., LL.B., ELS. Fassaroe, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 11

Year of
Election.

1874. *Barrington-Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. Thorneloe Lodge, Worcester.

1885, *Barron, Frederick Cadogan, M.Inst.C.E. Nervion, Beckenham-
grove, Shortlands, Kent.

1866, {Barron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.

1893. *Barrow, Grorer, I.G.8. Geological Survey Office, 28 Jermyn-
street, S.W.

1886. {Barrow, George William. Baldraud, Lancaster.

1886, {Barrow, Richard Bradbury. Lawn House, 13 Ampton-road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham,

1896. §Barrowman, James. Staneacre, Hamilton, N.B.

1886. {Barrows, Joseph. The Popiars, Yardley, near Birmingham.

1886. {Barrows, Joseph, jun. Ferndale, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

1858. {Barry, Right Rev. Atrrep, D.D., D.C.L. The Cloisters, Windsor.

1883. {Barry, Charles E. 1 Victoria-street, S.W.

1881. {Barry, J. W. Duncombe-place, York.

1884, *Barstow, Miss Frances A. Garrow Hill, near York.

1890. *Barstow, J. J. Jackson, The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

1890. *Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

1892. {Bartholomew, John George, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 12 Blacket-place,
Edinburgh.

1858. *Bartholomew, William Hamond, M.Inst.0.E. Ridgeway House,
Cumberland-road, Hyde Park, Leeds.

1884. {Bartlett, James Herbert. 148 Mansfield-street, Montreal, Canada.

1873. {Bartley,G.C.T.,M.P. St. Margaret’s House, Victoria-street, S.W.

1892. {Barton, Miss. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.

1893, {Barton, Edwin H., B.Sc. University College, Nottingham.

1884, {Barton, H. M. Foster-place, Dublin.

1852. {Barton, James. Farndreg, Dundalk.

1899. *Barton, Miss Ethel S. 7 Brechin Place, South Kensington, S.W.

1892. {Barton, William. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.

1887. {Bartrum, John S. 13 Gay-street, Bath.

*Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.

1898. {Bason, Vernon Millward. 7 Princess-buildings, Clifton, Bristol.

1876. {Bassano, Alexander. 12 Montagu-place, W.

1888. *Basser, A. B., M.A., F.R.S. Fledborough Hall, [lolyport, Berkshire.

1891. {Bassett, A. B. Cheverell, Llandaff.

1866. *Bassrrr, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, N.

1889, {BastabLE, Professor C. F., M.A., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1894). 6 Tre-
velyan-terrace, Rathgar, Co. Dublin.

1869. {Bastard, S.S, Summerland-place, Exeter.

1871. {Basrran, H. Cuartton, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Pro-
fessor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University
College, London. 8a Manchester-square, W.

1889. {Batalha-Reis, J. Portuguese Consulate, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1883. {Bareman, Sir A. E., K.C.M.G., Controller General, Statistical

Department. Board of Trade, 7 Whitehall Gardens, S8.W.

1868. {Bateman, Sir F., M.D., LL.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

1889. {Bates, C. J. Heddon, Wylam, Northumberland.

1884, {Batsson, WitttaM, M.A., F.R.S, St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1881. *Baruer, Francis Artuur, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S8. British Museum
(Natural History), S.W.

1863. §BavERMAN, H., F.G.S. 14 Cavendish-road, Balham, S.W.

1867. {Baxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.

1892. {Bayly, F. W. 8 Royal Mint, E.

- 1875. *Bayly, Robert. Torr Grove, near Plymouth.

12 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1876. *BayneEs, Ropert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

1887. *Baynes, "Mrs. R. E, 2 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

1883. *Bazley, Gardner S. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire.

Bazley, Sir Tnomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Winterdyne, Chine

Crescent-road, Bournemouth.

1886. {Beale, C. Calle Progress No. 83, Rosario de Santa Fé, Argentine
Republic.

1886. {Beale, Charles G. Maple Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1860, *Bratz, Lionet S., M.B., F.R.S. 61 Grosvenor-street, W.

1882. §Beamish, Lieut.-Colonel A. W., R.E. 27 Philbeach-gardens, S.W.

1884. {Beamish,G. H. M. Prison, Liverpool.

1872, {Beanes, Edward, F.C.S. Moatlands, Paddock Wood, Brenchley, Kent,

1883. {Beard, Mrs. Oxford.

1889. §BrarE, Prof. T. Hupson, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. The Uni-
versity, Edinburgh.

1842. *Beatson, William. 2 Ash Mount, Rotherham.

1889. {Beattie, John. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1855. *Beaufort, W. A i E.R.A.S, FB. R.G. S., F.R.M.S., F.S.8. 18 Picca-
dilly

1886. HBcchorard M. H. Montreal.

1900. {Beaumont, Prof. Roberts, M.I.Mech.E. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

1861, *Beaumont, Rey. Thomas George. Oakley Lodge, Leamington.

1887. *Beaumont, W. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

1885. *Braumont, W. W., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. Outer Temple, 222 Strand,

W.C.

1896. {Beazer, C. Hindley, near Wigan.

1887. *Brcxprt, Joan Hamppen. Corbar Hall, Buxton, Derbyshire. .

1885, {BeppARpD, Franx E., M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.8., Prosector to the Zoo-
logical Society of London, Regent’s Park, N.W.

1870. §Brppon, Joun, M.D., F.R.S. (Council, 1870-75). The Chantry,
Bradford-on-A von.

1858. §Bedford, James. Woodhouse Cliff, near Leeds.

1890, {Bedford, James E., F.G.S. Shireoak-road, Leeds.

1891. §Bedlington, Richard. Gadlys House, Aberdare.

1878. {Bepson, P. Puitties, D.Sc., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1889), Professor of
Chemistry in the College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

1884. {Beers, W. G., M.D. 34 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.

1873. {Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York-
shire.

1901. *Beilby, George T. St. Kitts, Slateford, Midlothian.

1874. {Belcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.

1891. *Belinfante, L. L., M.Sc., Assist.-Sec. G.S. Burlington House, W.

1892. {Bell, A. Beatson. 17 Lansdowne Crescent, Edinburgh.

1871. {Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull.

1884. {Bell, Charles Napier. Winnipeg, Canada.

1894. ain: e Jerrrey, M.A., F.Z.S. 35 Cambridge-street, Hyde

ark, WY.
Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex.

1860. {BELL, Rev. Georcn Cuarwes, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts.

1900. *Bell, H. Wilkinson. Holmehurst, Rawdon, near Leeds. ;

1862. *BEtL, Sir Isaac Lowrnran, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.Inst.C.E.
(Pres. B, 1889). Rounton Grange, Northallerton.

1875. {Brtt, Jamns, C.B., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. 52 Cromwell-road,
Hove, Brighton.

1896. {Bell, James. Care of the Liverpool Steam Tug Co., Limited,

Chapel-chambers, 28 Chapel-street, Liverpool.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 18

Year of
Election.

1891.
1871.

1883.
1864.
1888.
1895.
1884.
1886.
1885.

1891.
1896.
1881.
1883.
1901.
1896.
1881.

1889.
1901.
1887.

1863.
1898.
1884.
1897.
1896.

1901.
1894.

1865.
1886.
1898.
1894.
1862.

1882.
1890.
1880.

1885.
1884,
1870.
1888.
1885.

1882.
1898.
1901,
1886.
1887.
1884.

1881.

{Bell, James. Bangor Villa, Clive-road, Cardiff.

*Bur, J. Carter, F.C.S. Bankfield, The Cliff, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.

*Bell, John Henry. 100 Leyland-road, Southport.

{Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.

*Bell, Walter George, M.A. Trinity Hall, Cambridge.

{Bertper, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.M. Kingston, Nottinghamshire.

{Bemrose, Joseph. 15 Plateau-street, Montreal, Canada.

§Benger, Frederick Baden, F.I.C., F.C.S8. The Grange, Knutsford.

{Bennam, Witt1amM Braxtand, D.Sce., Professor of Biology in the
University of Otago, New Zealand.

{Bennett, Alfred Rosling. 44 Manor Park-road, Harlesden, N.W.

{Bennett, George W. West Ridge, Oxton, Cheshire.

{Bennett, John Ryan. 3% Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.

*Bennett, Laurence Henry. The Elms, Paignton, South Devon.

§Bennett, Peter. 6 Kelvinhaugh Street, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

{Bennett, Richard. 19 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.

tBennett, Rev. S. H., M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Bishopshill Junior,
York.

{Benson, John G. 12 Grey-street, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

*Benson, Miss Margaret, D.Sc. Royal Holloway College, Egham.

*Benson, Mrs. W. J. Care of Standard Bank of South Africa, Stel-
lenbosch, South Africa.

{Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Bent, Mrs. Theodore. 13 Great Cumberland-place, W.

{Bentham, William. 724 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Bently, R. R. 97 Dowling-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

*Bergin, William, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s
College, Cork.

§Bergins, Walter L. 8 Marlborough Terrace, Glasgow.

§Berkeley, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Foxcombe, Boarshill, near
Abingdon.

tBerkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.

tBernard, W. Leigh. Calgary, Canada.

§Berridge, Miss C. E. Wellscot, Hayward’s Lane, Cheltenham.

§Berridge, Douglas, M.A., F.C.S. The College, Malvern.

{Busant, Wittiam Henry, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S, St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

*Bessemer, Henry. Moorlands, Bitterne, Southampton.

{Best, William Woodham. 31 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.

*BEVAN, ats James Ortver, M.A., F.8.A., F.G.S. 55 Gunterstone-
road, W.

tReveridge, R. Beath Villa; Ferryhill, Aberdeen.

*Beverley, Michael, M.D. 54 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.

{Bickerton, A.W. Newland Terrace, Queen’s Road, Battersea, S.W.

*Bidder, George Parker. Savile Club, Piccadilly, W.

*BIpwELL, SHELFORD, Se.D., LL.B., F.R.S. Riverstone Lodge,
Southfields, Wandsworth, Surrey, S. W.

§Biggs, C. H. W., F.C.S. Glebe Lodge, Champion Hill, 8.E.

‘ Billington, Charles. Studleigh, Longport, Staffordshire.

*Bilsland, William, J.P. 28 Park Circus, Glasgow.

{Bindloss, G.F. Carnforth, Brondesbury Park, N.W.

*Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Eccles, Manchester.

*Bingham, Lieut.-Colonel John E., J.P. West Lea, Ranmoor,
Sheffield.

{Brnnte, Sir ALEXANDER R., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S, (Pres. G, 1900).
77 Ladbroke Grove, W.

14

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1873.

1900.
1880.

1888.
1887.
1871.
1894.
1885.
1886.

1901.
1889.
1881.

1901.
1876.
1884,
1900.
1877.
1855.

1896,
1884,
1896.
1886.

1895.
1883.
1892.
1892.
1883.
1891.

1894.
1900.
1881.
1895.
1884.
1869,

1887.

1887.
1887.
1884,
1888.

1870.
1885.
1867.
- 1887.

1901.
1870.

{Binns, J. Arthur. 31 Manor Row, Manningham, Bradford, York-
shire.

{Bird, F. J. Norton House, Midsomer Norton, Bath.

{Bird, Henry, F.C.S. South Down House, Millbrook, near

Devonport.

*Birley, Miss Caroline. 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensington, W.

*Birley, H. K. Hospital, Chorley, Lancashire.

*BiscHor, Gustav. 19 Ladbroke-gardens, W.

{Bisset, James. 5 East India-avenue, E.C.

{Bissett, J. P. Wyndem, Banchory, N.B.

*Bixby, Major W. H. Engineer's Office, Jones Building, Detroit,

Michigan, U.S.A.

§Black, John Albert. Lagarie Row, Helensburgh, N.B.

tBlack, W. 1 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tBlack, Surgeon-Major William Galt, F.R.C.S.E. Caledonian United
Service Club, Edinburgh.

§Black, W. P.M. 15 Montgomerie Street, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

tBlackburn, Hugh, M.A. Roshven, Fort William, N.B.

{Blackburn, Robert. New Edinburgh, Ontario, Canada.

§Blackburn, W. Owen. 35 Mount Royd, Bradford.

tBlackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.

*Brackig, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. (Local Sec. 1876). 1 Belhaven-
terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

§Blackie, Walter W., B.Sc. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.

{Blacklock, Frederick W. 25 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Blackwood, J. M. 16 Oil-street, Liverpool.

{Blaikie, John, F.L.S. The Bridge House, Newcastle, Stafford-
shire.

{Blaikie, W. B. 6 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Blair, Mrs. Oakshaw, Paisley.

{Blair, Alexander. 85 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

{Blair, John. 9 Ettrick-road, Edinburgh.

*BLakE, Rev. J. F., M.A., F.G.8. 69 Comeragh-road, W.

{Braxestey, Tuomas H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E. Royal Naval College,
Greenwich, 8.E.

tBlakiston, Rev. C. D. Exwick Vicarage, Exeter.

*Blamires, Joseph. Bradley Lodge, Huddersfield.

{Blamires, Thomas H. Close Hill, Lockwood, near Huddersfield.

{Blamires, William. Oak House, Taylor Hill, Huddersfield.

*Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading.

{Branrorp, W. T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. C,
1884; Council 1885-91). 72 Bedford-gardens, Campden
Hill, W.

*Bles, A. J. S. Palm House, Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Man-
chester. :

*Bles, Edward J., B.Sc. Newnham Lea, Grange-road, Cambridge.

{Bles, Marcus 8. The Beeches, Broughton Park, Manchester.

*Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.

§Bloxsom, Martin, B.A., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Hazelwood, Crumpsall
Green, Manchester.

{Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby.

Blyth, B. Hall. 185 George-street, Edinburgh.

{Bryrta, James, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Anderson’s College, Glasgow.

*Blyth-Martin, W. Y. Blyth House, Newport, Fife.

{Blythe, William S. 65 Mosley-street, Manchester.

§BLyruswoop, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D. Blythswood, Renfrew.

{Boardman, Edward. Oak House, Eaton, Norwich.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 15

Year of
Election.

1887.
1900.
1889.
1884,
1900.

1887.
1898.
1894.
1898.
1898.

1883.

1871,

1888.

1895.

1890.

1883.
1883.

1876.

1883.
1901.

1900,
1876.
1882,

1901.

1876,

1896.

1881,

1887.
1872.
1868.
1887.

1871.
1884,
1892.
1876.
1890.

1885.
1885,

1893.
1866.

1890,
1898.

*Boddington, Henry. Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester.

{Boprneton, Principal N., M.A. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

{Bodmer, G. R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E, 30 Walbrook, H.C.

{Body, Rev. C. W. E.,M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.

§Boileau, Major A.C. F., R.A. Royal Artillery Institution, Wool-
wich.

*Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Tesselschade-straat, Amsterdam.

§Botton, H. The Museum, Queen’s-road, Bristol.

§Bolton, John. 15 Clifton-road, Crouch End, N.

{Bolton, J. W. Baldwin-street, Bristol.

§Bonar, J., M.A., LL.D. (Pres. F, 1898; Council 1899- ).
1 Redington-road, Hampstead, N.W.

tBonney, Frederic, F.R.G.S. Colton House, Rugeley, Staffordshire.

*Bonney, Rev. Tuomas Guorer, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.,
F.G.S. (Secretary, 1881-85; Pres. C, 1886). 23 Denning-
road, Hampstead, N.W.

t{Boon, William. Coventry.

{Boot, Jesse. Carlyle House, 18 Burns-street, Nottingham.

*Bootn, CuHartes, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.S.S. 24 Great Cumberland
Place, W.

{Booth, James. Hazelhurst, Turton.

{Booth, Richard. 4 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

tBooth, Rev. William H. Mount Nod-road, Streatham, S.W.

tBoothroyd, Benjamin. Solihull, Birmingham.

*Boothroyd, Herbert E. Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge,

§Borchgrevink, C, E. Douglas Lodge, Bromley, Kent. :

*Borland, William. 260 West George-street, Glascow.

eae Henry, Ph.D., F.C.S. 19 Alexandra-road, Wimbledon,

urrey.

§Borradaile, L. A. Selwyn College, Cambridge.

*Bosanauer, R. H. M., M.A., F.RS., F.R.A.S. Castillo Zamora,
Realejo-Alto, Tenerife.

{Bose, Dr. J.C. Calcutta, India.

*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.

§BorHamiry, Cuartes H., F.LC., F.C.S., Director of Technical
Instruction, Somerset County Education Committee. Hurst
Knoll, Weston-super-Mare.

{Bott, Dr. Owens College, Manchester.

tBottle, Alexander. 4 Godwyne-road, Dover.

{Bottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.

{Bottomley, James, D.Sc., B.A. 220 Lower Broughton-road, Man-
chester.

*Borromiey, JAMES THomson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S,
13 University-gardens, Glasgow.

*Bottomley, Mrs, 15 University-gardens, Glasgow.

{Bottomley, W. B., B.A., Professor of Botany, King’s College, W.C.

{Bottomley, William, jun. 15 University-gardens, Glasgow.

{Boulnois, Henry Percy, M.Inst.C.E. 44 Campden House Oourt,
Kensington, W.

{Bourdas, Isaiah. Dunoon House, Clapham Common, 8.W.

{Bourng, A.G., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the
Presidency College, Madras.

*Bournr, G. C., M.A., F.L.S. (Local Sec. 1894), Savile House,
Mansfield-road, Oxford.

{Bovrne, Sternzn. 65 Lansdown-road, Lee, S.E.

tBousfield, C. E. 55 Clarendon-road, Leeds.

{Bovey, Edward P., jun, Clifton Grove, Torquay.

16 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1884. {Bovey, Henry T., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civii Engineer-
ing and Applied Mechanics in McGill University, Montreal.
Ontario-avenue, Montreal, Canada.

1888. {Bowden, Rev. G. New Kingswood School, Lansdown, Bath.

1881. *Bowsr, F. O., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1898;
Council 1900- ), Regius Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Glasgow.

1898. *Bowker, Arthur Frank, F.R.G.S., F.G.S. Royal Societies Club,
St. James’s-street, S.W.

1856. *Bowlby, Miss F. E. 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham.

.898. §Bowney, A. L., M.A. Waldeck House, Southern Hill, Reading.

1880. {Bowly, Christopher. Cirencester.

1887. {Bowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester.

1865. {Bowman, F. H., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Mayfield, Knutsford, Cheshire.

1899. *Bowman, Herbert Lister, M.A. 18 Sheffield-gardens, Kensington, W.

1899. *Bowman, John Herbert. 18 Sheffield Gardens, Kensington, W.

1887. §Box, Alfred Marshall. Care of Cooper, Box & Co., 69 Alderman-
bury, E.C.

1895. *Boycr, Rupert, M.B., Professor of Pathology, University College,
Liverpool.

1901. §Boyd, David T. Rhinsdale, Ballieston, Lanark.

1871. tBoyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

1884. *Boyle, R. Vicars, C.S.I. Care of Messrs, Grindlay & Co., 55
Parliament-street, S. W.

1892. §Boys, Cartes VERNON, F.R.S. (Council, 1893-99), 27 The Grove,
Boltons, 8.W.

1872. *Brasroox, E. W., C.B., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1898). 178 Bedford-
hill, Balham, 8. W.

1869. *Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Bushey Lodge, Teddington,
Middlesex.

1894. *Braby, Ivon, Bushey Lodge, Teddington, Middlesex.

1893. §Bradley, F. L. Bel Air, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

1899. *Bradley, J. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Town Hall, Wolverhampton.

1892. §Bradshaw, W. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.

1863. {Brapy, Grorce 8., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
History in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2 Mowbray-villas, Sunderland.

1880. *Brady, Rev. Nicholas, M.A. Rainham Hall, Rainham, 8.0., Essex.

1864. {Braham, Philip. 3 Cobden-mansions, Stockwell-road, S.E.

1888. §Braikenridge, W. J., J.P. 16 Royal-crescent, Bath.

1898. {Bramble, James R. Seafield, Weston-super-Mare,

1865. §BRaMWELL, Sir Freperick J., Bart., D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS.,
M. Inst.C.E. (PRESIDENT, ]888; Pres. G, 1872, 1884; Council
1873-79, 1883-87). 5 Great George-street, S.W.

1867. {Brand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.

1861. *Brandreth, Rev. Henry. 72 Hills Road, Cambridge.

1885. *Bratby, William, J.P. Alton Lodge, Hale, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1890. *Bray, George. Belmont, Headingley, Leeds.

1868. {Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, W.C.

1877. tBrent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth.

1898. §Brereton, Cuthbert A., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, S.W.

1882. *Bretherton, C. E. 26 Old Broad Street, F.C.

1866. {Brettell, Thomas. Dudley.

1891. tBrice, Arthur Montefiore, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 28 Addison Mansions,
Kensington, W.

1886. {Brrven, T. W., M.A., D.Se., Professor of Zoology in the Univer-
sity, Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 17

Year of

Election.

1870. *Bridson, Joseph R. Holybourne, Alton, Hants,

1887. {Brierley, John, J.P. The Clough, Whitefield, Manchester.
1870. {Brierley, Joseph. New Market-street, Blackburn.

1886. {Brierley, Leonard. Somerset-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1879

. {Brierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth.

1870. *Brice, Joun, M.P. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire.

1890.
1895

. {Brigg, W. A. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire.
. Bright, Joseph. Western-terrace, The Park, Nottingham.

1868. {Brine, Admiral Lindesay, F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall

Mall, 5.W.

1893. {Briscoe, Albert E., B.Se., A.R.C.Se. Municipal Technical Institute,

1884.
1898.

1879.
1878.

1884.

1899.
1899.
1897.
1896.
18835.
1901.
1884.

1901.
1883.
1881.

1864.
1887.

1863.
1887.

Romford-road, West Ham, E.
{Brisette, M. H. 424 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Bristo1, the Right Rev. G. F. Brownz, Lord Bishop of, D.D. 17
The Avenue, Clifton, Bristol.
*Brirrarn, W. H.,J.P., F.R.G.S. Storth Oaks, Sheffield.
{Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum,
S

*Brittle, John R., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 9 Vanbrugh-hill, Black
heath, S.E. ,

tBroadwood, Miss Bertha M. Pleystowe, Capel, Surrey.

{Broadwood, James H. E. Pleystowe, Capel, Surrey.

t{Brock, W. R. Toronto.

*Brocklehurst, 8. Olinda, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Brodie, David, M.D. 68 Hamilton Road, Highbury, N.

§Brodie, T. G. Examination Hall, Victoria Embankment, W.C,

{Brodie, William, M.D. 64 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan,
U.S.A.

§Brodie, W. Brodie. 28 Hamilton Park Terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

*Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. 5 Devonshire-place, Hastbourne.

tBrook, Robert G. Wolverhampton House, St. Helens, Lanca-
shire. ‘

*Brooke, Ven. Archdeacon J. Ingham. The Vicarage, Halifax.

§Brooks, James Howard. Elm Hirst, Wilmslow, near Man-
chester.

{Brooks, John Crosse. 14 Lovaine-place, Neweastle-on-Tyne.

Brooks, S. H. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.

1883. *Brotherton, E. A. Arthington Hall, Wharfedale, vid Leeds.

1901. §Brough, Bennett H., P.1C., F.G.S, 28 Victoria Street, S.W., and
Cranleigh House, near Addlestone, Surrey.

1883. *Brough, Mrs. Charles 8. Rosendale Hall, West Dulwich, S.E.

1886. {Brough, Professor Joseph, LL.M., Professor of Logic and Philosophy

1885.
1868.

1892.

in University College, Aberystwith.

*Browett, Alfred. 29 Wheeley’s-road, Birmingham.

*Brown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., V.P.C.S.
(Pres. B, 1874; Local Sec. 1871), Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Edinburgh. 8 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburgh.

tBrown, Andrew, M.Inst.C.E, Messrs. Wm. Simons & Co., Renfrew

near Glasgow.

1896. {Brown, A. T. The Nunnery, St. Michael’s Hamlet, Liverpool.

1867.
1855.
1871.
1863.

1883.
. [Brown, Frederick D. 26 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.

1881
1883

1901

{Brown, Sir Charles Gage, M.D., K.C.M.G. 88 Sloane-street, 8. W.
{Brown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow.

tBrown, David. Willowbrae House, Midlothian,

*Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.

+Brown, Mrs. Ellen F. Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

. {Brown, George Dransfield. Henley Villa, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
B

18

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1883.
1883.
1870.
1883.
1895.
1870.
1876,

1881.
1882.

1895.

1894.
1882.
1898.
1897.
1886.
1865.
1897.
1901.
1896.
1891.

1885,
1884,
1865.

1900.
1892.
1895.
1879.

1891.
1862.
1872.
1865.
1883.
1892.
1901.
1893.
1900.
1865.
1863.
1875.
1896.
1868.

1897.
1878.
1886.

1894,
1884.

*Brown, Mrs. H. Bienz. Fochabers, Morayshire.

tBrown, Mrs. Helen. Canaan-grove, Newhattle-terrace, Edinburgh.

§Brown, Horace T., LL.D, F.R.S., F.G.8. (Pres. B, 1899).

52 Nevern-square, S.W.

Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire.

{Brown, Miss Isabella Spring. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace,
Edinburgh.

{Brown, J. Arten, J.P., FRGS, F.GS. 7 Kent-gardens,
Ealing, W.

*Brown, Professor J. CAMPBELL, D.Sc., F.C.S. University Coliege,
Liverpool.

§Brown, Joun (Locat, Secretary, 1992). Longhurst, Dunmurry,

_ Belfast.

*Brown, John,-M.D. Stockbridge House, Padisham, Lancashire.

*Brown, John. 7 Second-avenue, Nottingham,

*Brown, John Charles. 2 Baker-street, Nottingham.

tBrown, J. H. 6 Cambridge-road, Brighton.

*Brown, Mrs. Mary. Stockbridge House, Padisham, Lancashire.

§Brown, Nicol, F.G.S. 4 The Grove, Highgate, N

tBrown, Price, M.B. 87 Carlton-street, Toronto, Canada.

§Brown, R., R.N. Laurel Bank, Barnhill, Perth.

tBrown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tBrown, Richard. Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

§Brown, R. N. R., B.Sc. University College, Dundee.

{Brown, Stewart H. Quarry Bank, Allerton, Liverpool.

§Brown, T. Forster, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. (Pres. G, 1891). Guild
Hall Chambers, Cardiff.

tBrown, W. A. The Court House, Aberdeen,

{Brown, William George. Ivy, Albemarle Co,, Virginia, U.S.A.

tBrowne, Sir Benjamin Chapman, M.Inst.C.H. Westacres, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

§Browne, Frank Balfour. Goldielea, Dumfries, Scotland.

t Browne, Harold Crichton. Crindon, Dumfries.

*Browne, H. T. Doughty. 10 Hyde Park-terrace, W.

t{Browng, Sir J. Cricuton, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 61 Carlisie-
place-mansions, Victoria-street, S W.

{Browne, Montacu, F.G.S. Town Museum, Leicester.

*Browne, Robert Clayton, M.A. Browne’s Hill, Carlow, Ireland.

tBrowne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Redecot, Bradbourne, Sevenoaks, Kent.

tBrowning, John, F.R.A.S. 65 Strand, W.C.

tBrowning, Oscar, M.A, King’s College, Cambridge.

{Bruce, James. 10 Hill-street, Edinburgh.

§Bruce, John. Inverallan, Helensburgh.

tBruce, William S. 11 Mount Pleasant, Joppa, Edinburgh.

*Brumm, Charles. Lismara, Grosvenor Road, Birkdale, Southport. —

*Brunel, H. M., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.

{Brunel, I. 15 Devonshire-terrace, W.

tBrunlees, John, M.Inst.C.E, 12 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

*Brunner, Sir J.T., Bart., M.P. Druid’s Cross, Wavertree, Liverpool.

{Brunton, Sir T. Lavper, M.D., D.S¢., F.R.S, 10 Stratford-place,
Oxford-street, W.

*Brush, Charles F. Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.

tBrutton, Joseph. Yeovil.

*Bryan, G. H., D.Sc., F-R.S., Professor of Mathematics in
University College, Bangor.

{Bryan, Mrs. R. P. Plas Gwyn, Bangor.

{Bryrck, Rev. Professor Grorce. Winnipeg,Canada, - -

LIST OF MEMBERS. 19

Year of
Election.

1897.
1901.
1894,
1890,
1871.

1867.
1901.
1881.
1871.

1884,
1883.
1886.
1886.
1884.

1851,
1887.

1901.
1876.
1883.
1893.
1871.
1885.
1895.
1886,
1842.
1869.
1881.

1891.
1894.
1884,

1899.
1888.
1888.

1876.
1885.
1877.
1884.

1899.
1887.
1860,
1894.
1891.
1888.
1888.
1894,
1866.

1889.

{Bryce, RightHon. Jamus, D.C.L.,M.P.,F.R.S. 54Portland-place, W.

§Bryce, Thomas H. 2 Granby-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

tBrydone, R. M. Petworth, Sussex.

§Bubb, Henry. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.

§Bucwan, ALEXANDER, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Sec. Scottish
Meteorological Society. 42 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

tBuchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.

§ Buchanan, James, M.D, 12 Hamilton Drive, Maxwell Park, Glasgow.

*Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk.

t{Bucnanan, Jonn Younes, M.A., F.RS., F.R.S.E., F.R.GS., F.CS,

Christ’s College, Cambridge.

{Buchanan, W. Frederick. Winnipeg, Canada.

+Buckland, Miss A. W. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington, W.

*Buckle, Edmund W. 23 Bedford-row, W.C.

tBuckley, Samuel. Merlewood, Beaver Park, Didsbury.

*Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S. 16 Heathfield-road,
Mill Hill Park, W.

*Bucxton, Gzorez Bownter, F.R.S., F.LS., F.C.S. Weycombe,
Haslemere, Surrey.

{Budenberg, C. F., B.Sc. Buckau Villa, Demesne-road, Whalley
Range, Manchester.

§Budgett, J.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Budgett, Samuel. Penryn, Beckenham, Kent.

tBuick, Rev. George R., M.A. Cullybackey, Co. Antrim, Ireland,

§BuLiem, ARTHUR, F.S.A. Glastonbury.

{Bulloch, Matthew. 48 Prince’s-gate, S.W.

{Bulpit, Rev. F. W. Crossens Rectory, Southport.

{Bunte, Dr. Hans. Karlsruhe, Baden.

§Bursury, 8S. H., M.A., F.R.S. 1 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

*Burd, John. Glen Lodge, Knocknerea, Sligo.

tBurdett-Coutts, Baroness. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, W.

{Burdett-Coutts, William Lehmann, M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Picca-
dilly, W.

{Burge, Very Rev. T. A. Ampleforth Cottage, near York.

{Burxs, Joun B. B. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Burland, Lieut.-Col. Jeffrey H. 824 Sherbrook-street, Montreal,
Canada.

§Burls, Herbert T. Care of H. 8. King & Co., Cornhill, E.C.

t{Burne, H. Holland. 28 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.

*Burne, Major-General Sir Owen Tudor, G.C.LE., K.C.8.1,, F.R.G.S.
132 Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, W.

t{Burnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

*Burnett, W. Kendall, M.A. Migvie House, Aberdeen,

tBurns, David. Alston, Carlisle.

{Burns, Professor James Austin. Southern Medical College, Atlanta,
Georgia, U.S.A.

¢Burr, Malcolm. Dorman’s Park, East Grinstead.

{Burroughs, Eggleston, M.D. Snow Hill-buildings, F.C,

{Burrows, Montague, M.A. Oxford.

tBurstall, H. F. W. 76 King’s-road, Camden-road, N. W.

{Burt, J. J. 103 Roath-road, Cardiff. ;

tBurt, John Mowlem. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, W.

{Burt, Mrs. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, W.

tBurton, Charles V. 24 Wimpole-street, W.

*Burton, Frepericc M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough,
Lincolnshire.

tBurton, Rev. R. Lingen. Little Aston, Sutton Coldiield.

B2

20

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1897.
1892.

1897.

1887.
1899.
1895.
1878.
1884.

1884.
1884.
1872.
1887.
1881.
1868.
1872.

1854.
1899.
1885,
1852.
1883.

1889,

1892.
1894.
1863.
1861.
1901.
1886.
1868.
1887.

1897.

1892,
1901.
1884.
1857.

1896.
1884.
1870.
1901.
1884,
1876.

1897.
1901.
1898.
1897,

{Burton, 8. H., M.B. 50 St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

{Burton-Brown, Colonel Alexander, R.A., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Abt
Union Crescent, Margate.

t{Burwash, Rev. N., LL.D., Principal of Victoria University,
Toronto, Canada.

*Bury, Henry. Mayfield House, Farnham, Surrey.

§Bush, Anthony. 43 Portland-road, Nottingham,

§Bushe, Colonel C. K., F.G.S. 19 Cromwell-road, S.W.

{Burcuer, J.G., M.A. 22 Collingham-place, 8.W.

*Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Holyrood, 5 Cleveland-
road, Ealing, W.

{Butler, Matthew I. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.

*Butterworth, W. Park Avenue, Temperley, near Manchester.

tBuxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk.

*Buxton, J. H. Clumber Cottage, Montague-road, Felixstowe.

{Buxton, Sydney. 15 Eaton-place, S.W.

{Buxton, S. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.

{Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., G.C.M.G., F.R.G.S8. “Warlies,
Waltham Abbey, Essex.

{Byer ey, Isaac, F.L.S. 22 Dingle-lane, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.

§Byles, Arthur R. ‘Bradford Observer,’ Bradford, Yorkshire.

tByres, David. 63 North Bradford, Aberdeen.

tByrne, Very Rev. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh.

tByrom, John R. Mere Bank, Fairfield, near Manchester.

{Cackett, James Thoburn. 60 Larkspur-terrace, Newcastle-upon-

‘yue.
tCadell, Henry M., B.Se., F.R.S.E. Grange, Bo'ness, N.B.
{Caillard, Miss E. M. Wingfield House, near Trowbridge, Wilts.
{Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.
*Caird, James Key. 8 Roseangle, Dundee.
§Caldwell, Hugh. Blackwood, Newport, Mon. -
*Caldwell, Wiliam Hay. Cambridge.
t{Oaley, A. J. Norwich.
t{Cantaway, Cuarugs, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S. 35 Huskisson-street,
Liverpool.
§CattenDaR, Prof. Hucu L., M.A., F.R.S. (Council, 1900- ).
2 Chester Place, Regent’s Park, N.W.
tCalvert, A. F., F.R.G.S. Royston, Eton-avenue, N.W.
§Calvert, H. T. Roscoe Terrace, Armley, Leeds.
tCameron, Aineas. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.
{Cammron, Sir Cuartzes A., O.B., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road,
Dublin.
§Cameron, Irving H. 507 Sherbourne-street, Toronto, Canada.
{Cameron, James C., M.D. 41 Belmont-park, Montreal, Canada.
tCameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
§Campbeil, Archibald. Springfield Quay, Glasgow.
{Campbell, Archibald H. Toronto, Canada.
POsmpp eae Hon, James A., LL.D., M.P. Stracathro House,
rechin.
Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place,
Edinburgh.
{Campbell, Major J. C. L. New Club, Edinburgh,
§Campbell, M. Pearce. 9 Lynedoch Crescent, Glasgow.
{Campbell, Mis. Napier. 81 Ashley Gardens, S.W.
{Campion, B. W. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 21

Year of
Election.

1882.
1890.
1897.
1898.

1888.

1894.

1883.
1887.
1878.

1896.
1901.

1877.
1898.
1901.
1867.

1876.

1897.

1884.
1884,

1897.
1889.
1893.

1889.
1867.

1886.

1899.
1883.
1868.
1897.

1866,

1870.

1885.
1900,
1885.
1896.

1878.
1870.

1862.
1894,
1884.

1884,

1901

tCandy, F. H. 71 High-street, Southampton.

{Cannan, Epwin, M.A., F.8.8. 1 Wellington Square, Oxford,

§Cannon, Herbert. Woodbank, Erith, Kent.

{CANTERBURY, Right Hon. and Most Rev. F. Temper, Lord Archbishop
of. Lambeth Palace, 5.E.

{Cappel, Sir Albert J. L., K.C.L.E, 27 Kensington Court-gardens,
London, W.

§Carper, D. S., M.A., Professor of Mechanical Engineering in King’s
College, W.C.

{Capper, Mrs. R. 9 Bridge-street, Westminster, S.W.

tCarsticx, Joun Watton. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Carsurt, Sir Epward Hamer, Bart., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Hyde Park-
gardens, W.

*Carden, H. V. Balinveney, Bookham, Surrey.

§Cargill, David Sime. 9 Park Terrace, Glasgow.

tCarkeet, John. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.

tCarlile, George M. 7 Upper Belgrave-road, Bristol.

§Carlile, W. Warrand. Harlie, Largs, Ayrshire.

tCarmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.

{Carmichael, Niel, M.D. 177 Netherdale Road, Pollokshields,
Glasgow.

{Carmichael, Norman R. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.

{Carnegie, John. Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.
{Carpenter, Louis G. Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado,
U.S.A

tCarpenter, R. C. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

tCarr, Cuthbert Ellison. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

tCarr, J. Wustey, M.A., F,L.S., F.G.8., Professor of Biology in

University College, Nottingham.

{Carr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

TCarrutuers, WitiaM, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S. (Pres. D, 1886).
14 Vermont-road, Norwood, S.E.

{Carstaxn, J. Barwam (Local Sec. 1886). 30 ‘Westfield-road,
Birmingham.

§Carslaw, H.S., D.Sc. The University, Glasgow.

{Carson, John. 51 Royal-avenue, Belfast.

*Carteighe, Michael, I.C.8S., F.1.C. 180 New Bond-street, W.

{Carter, E. Tremlett, ‘The Electrician, Salisbury Court, Fleet
Street, E.C.

{Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.

{Carter, Dr. William. 78 Rodney Street, Liverpool.

tCarter, W. C. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.

*Carter, Rey. W. Lower, F.G.S. Hopton, Mirfield.

{Carter, Mrs. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.

§Cartwright, Miss Edith G. 21 York Street Chambers, Bryanston
Square, W.

*Cartwright, Ernest H., M.A., M.D. 1 Bower Terrace, Maidstone.

§Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., F.8.I., Borough and Water
Engineer. Peel Chambers, Market Place, Bury, Lancashire.

tCarulla, F. J. R. 84 Argyll-terrace, Derby.

tCarus, Paul. La Salle, Tlinois, U.S.A.

*Carver, Rey. Canon Alfred J., D.D.,F.R.G.S. Lynnhurst, Streatham
Common, 8.W.

tCarver, Mrs. Lynnhurst, Streatham Common, S.W.

. §Carver, Thomas A. B., B.Se., Assoc, M.Inst,C.E, 118 Napiershall

Street, Glasgow.

22

‘Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election,

1887.
1897.
1899.
1896.
1871.
1873.
1900,

{Casartelli, Rev. L. C., M.A., Ph.D. St. Bede’s College, Manchester,

*Case, Willard E. Auburn, New York, U.S.A.

*Case, J. Monckton. Hampden Club, Phcenix-street, N.W. .

*Casey, James. 10 Philpot-lane, H.C.

tCash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry.

*Cash, William, F.G.S. 35 Commercial-street, Halifax.

*Cassie, W., M.A. Professor of Physics in the Royal Holloway
College, Brantwood, Englefield Green.

. {Caston, Harry Edmonds Featherston. 340 Brunswick-avenue,

Toronto, Canada.
{Caton, Richard, M.D. Lea Hall, Gateacre, Liverpool.
{Catto, Robert. 44 King-street, Aberdeen.
*Cave-Moyles, Mrs. Isabella. 4 Crescent Terrace, Cheltenham.

Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.

Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire,
{Chadwick, James Percy. 51 Alexandra-road, Southport.
tChalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.
t{Chamberlain, George, J.P. Helensholme, Birkdale Park,

Southport.
{Chamberlain, Montague. St. John, New Brunswick, Canada.

. tChambers, Mrs. Bombay.

§Chamen, W. A. 66 Partickhill Road, Glasgow.

*Champney, John E. 27 Hans Place, 8. W.

tChance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Chandler, S. Whitty, B.A. Sherborne, Dorset.

*Chapman, Edward, M.A., M.P., F.L.S., F.C.S. Hill End, Mottram,
Manchester.

{Chapman, Edward Henry. 17 St. Hilda’s-terrace, Whitby. »

TChapman, L. H. 147 Park-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

}+Chapman, Professor. University College, Toronto, Canada.

. §Chapman, Prof. Sydney John, The Owens College, Manchester.

{Chapman, T. Algernon, M.D. 17 Wesley-avenue, Liscard, Cheshire.

{Charles, J. J.. M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in
Queen’s College, Cork. Newmarket, Co. Cork.

{Charley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland.

{Chate, Robert W. Southfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Cuarrerton, Guoren, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 6 The Sanctuary,
‘Westminster, 8. W.

*Cuarrocok, A. P., M.A., Professor of Experimental Physics in
University College, Bristol.

*Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.G.S8. High Lawn, Broad Oak Park,
Worsley, Manchester.

tCwavveav, The Hon. Dr. Montreal, Canada.

{Chawner, W., M.A. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

{Curaptp, W. B. M.A., M.D, F.R.G.S. 19 Portman-street,
Portman-square, W.

§Cheesman, W. Norwood. The Crescent, Selby.

{Cheetham, F, W. Limefield House, Hyde.

{Cheetham, John. Limefield House, Hyde.

{Chenie, John. Charlotte-street, Edinburgh.

*Chermside, Major-General Sir H. C., R.E., G.C.M.G.,C.B, Care ot
Messrs. Cox & Co., Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, 8. W.

tCherriman, Professor J. B. Ottawa, Canada.

tCherry, R. B. 92 Stephen’s Green, Dublin.

*Chesterman, W. Belmayne, Sheffield.

{Chinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 23

Year of
Election.

1884. {Chipman, W. W. 1. 957 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.

1889. {Chirney, J. W. Morpeth.

1894, {Caisnotm, G. G., M.A., B.Se., F.R.G.S. 59 Drakefield Road,
Upper Tooting, 5S. W.

1900, {CutsHoLm, Saunt, Lord Provost of Glasgow.

1899. §Chitty, Edward. Sonnenberg, Castle Avenue, Dover.

1899. §Chitty, Mrs. Edward. Sonnenberg, Castle Avenue, Dover,

1899. §Chitty,G. W. Mildura, Park-avenue, Dover.

1882. {Chorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.

1887. tChorlton, J. Clayton. New Holme, Withington, Manchester.

1893. *CureEn, CHARtzEs, D.Sc., F.R.S. Kew Observatory, Richmond,Surrey.

1900. *Christie, R. J. Duke Street, Toronto, Canada.

1884, *Christie, William. 29 Queen’s Park, Toronto, Canada.

1875. *Christopher, George, F.C.S. May Villa, Lucien-road, Tooting
Common, 8.W.

1876. *Curystat, GroreE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. (Pres. A, 1885),
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh.
5 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburgh.

1870. §Cuurcn, A. H., M.A.,F.R.S., F.S.A., Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Academy of Arts. Shelsley, Ennerdale-road, Kew,

1898. §CuuRcH, Colonel G. Eart, F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1898). 216 Crom-
well-road, 5. W.

1860. {CHuRcH, Sir Witriam Sexrsy, Bart. M.D. St. Bartholomew’s
Hospital, E.C.

1896, {Clague, Daniel, F.G.S. 5 Sandstone-road, Stoneycroft, Liverpool.

1901. §Clark, Archibald B., M.A. 2 Woodburn Place, Edinburgh.

1890. {Clark, E. K. 13 Wellclose-place, Leeds.

1877. *Clark, F. J., J.P., F.L.S. Netherleigh, Street, Somerset.

Clark, George T. 44 Berkeley-square, W.

1876. {Clark, David R., M.A. 8 Park Drive West, Glasgow.

1892. {Clark, James, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Agriculture in the York-
shire College, Leeds.

1892. {Clark, James. Chapel House, Paisley.

1901. §Clark, James M, M.A., B.Sc. 8 Park Drive West, Glasgow.

1876. {Clark, Dr. John. 138 Bath-street, Glasgow.

1881. {Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Sc. 112 Wool Exchange, H.C.

1901. §Clark, Robert M., B.Sc., F.L.S. 27 Albyn Place, Aberdeen.

1855. tOlark, Rev. William, M.A. Barrhead, near. Glasgow.

1887. §Clarke, C. Goddard, J.P. Fairlawn, 157 Peckham-rye, 8.E.

1875. {Clarke, Charles 8. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

1886. {Clarke, David. Langley-road, Small Heath, Birmingham.

1886. {Clarke, Rev. H. J. Great Barr Vicarage, Birmingham,

1875, tCiarksn, Joun Henry (Local Sec. 1875). 4 Worcester-terrace,
Clifton, Bristol. i

1897. §Clarke, Colonel 8. C., R.E. Parklands, Caversham, near Reading.

1883. {Clarke, W. P., J.P. 15 Hesketh-street, Southport.

1896. {Clarke, W. W. Albert Dock Office, Liverpool.

1884. {Claxton, T. James. 461 St. Urbain-street, Montreal, Canada.

1889, §Ciaypun, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. St. John’s, Polsloe-road, Exeter.

1866. {Clayden, P. W. 13 Tavistock-square, W.C.

1890. *Clayton, William Wikely. Gipton Lodge, Leeds.

1859. {Cleghorn, John. Wick.

1861. §CrzLanp, Jonny, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Glasgow. 2 The University, Glasgow.

1861. *Oxrrron, R. Bertamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 8 Bardwell-
road, Banbury-road, Oxford,

Of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1898.
1893.

1878.
1873.
1892.
1885,

1881.
1885.
1891.
1897.
1901.
1884,
1895.
1889.
1864.
1889.
1892.
1901.

1883.
1861.

1898.
1881.

1896.
1884.
1887.
1901,
1901,
1894,
1895.
1895.
1893.
1879,
1864,

1897.
1893.
1899.
1878.
1854.
1899.
1892.
1892.
1887.

1869.
1893.
1854.
1861.

1876.

tClissold, H. 30 College-road, Clifton, Bristol.
tClofford, William. 386 Manstfield-road, Nottingham.
Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.

§Close, Rev. Maxwell H., F.G.8. 38 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.

tClough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire,

{Clouston, T.8., M.D. Tipperlinn House, Edinburgh.

*CLowxs, Frank, D.Sc., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1895). London County
Council, Spring-gardens, $.W., and 17 Bedford Court-man-
sions, W.C.

*Clutton, William James, The Mount, York.

tClyne, James. Rubislaw Den South, Aberdeen.

*Coates, Henry. Pitcullen House, Perth.

{Coates, J., M.Inst.C.E. 99 Queen-street, Melbourne, Australia,

§Coats, Allan. Hayfield, Paisley.

§Cobb, John. Westfield, Ilkley, Yorkshire.

*CoppoLpd, Furix T., M.A. The Lodge, Felixstowe, Suffolk.

{Cochrane, Cecil A. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

“Cochrane, James Henry. Burston House, Pittville, Cheltenham.

{Cochrane, William. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Cockburn, John. Glencorse House, Milton Bridge, Edinburgh.

§Cockburn, Sir John, K.C.M.G., M.D. 10 Gatestone Road, Upper
Norwood, 8...

{Cockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport.

*Coe, Rev. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Whinsbridge, Grosvenor-road,
Bournemouth.

tCoffey, George. 5 Harcourt-terrace, Dublin.

*Corrin, Water Harris, F.C.S. 94 Cornwall-gardens, South
Kensington, 8. W.

*Coghill, Percy de G. 4 Sunnyside, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

*Cohen, B. L., M.P. 80 Hyde Park-gardens, W.

tCohen, Julius B. Yorkshire College, Leeds,

§Cohen, N. L. 11 Hyde Park Terrace, W.

*Cohen, R. Waley. 11 Hyde Park Terrace, W.

*Colby, Miss E. L., B.A. Carregwen, Aberystwyth.

*Colby, James George Ernest, M.A., F.R.C.8. Malton, Yorkshire.

*Colby William Henry. Carregwen, Aberystwyth.

tCole, Prof. Grenville A. J., F.G.S. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

{Cole, Skelton. 887 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

{Colefax, H. Arthur, Ph.D., F.C.S. 14 Chester-terrace, Chester-
square, 8. W.

§Cotreman, Dr. A. P. 476 Huron-street, Toronto, Canada..

tColeman, J. B., F.C.S., A.R.C.S. University College, Nottingham.

§Coleman, William, The Shrubbery, Buckland, Dover.

tColes, John. 1 Savile-row, W.

*Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.

§Collard, George. The Gables, Canterbury.

{Collet, Miss Clara E. 7 Coleridge-road, N.

{Collie, Alexander. Harlaw House, Inverurie.

{Cotuim, J. Norman, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry to the
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 16 Campden-grove, W.

{Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.

{Collinge, Walter E. The University, Birmingham.

{Cottinewoop, Curusprr, M.A., M.B., F.L.8. 69 Great Russell-
street, W.C.

Wiis cn J. Frederick, F.G.S. 5 Ivene-road, Parson’s Green,

{Cortins, J. H., F.G.S. 162 Barry-road, 8,E,

LIST OF MEMBERS, 25

Year of
Blection.

1865. *Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1882. {Colmer, Joseph G.,C.M.G. Office of the High Commissioner for
Canada, 17 Victoria-street, S.W.

1884. {Colomb, Sir J.C. R., M.P., F.R.G.S. Dromquinna, Kenmare, Kerry,
Ireland; and Junior United Service Club, 8. W.

1897. {Colquhoun, A. H. U., B.A. 39 Borden-street, Toronto, Canada.

1896. *Comber, Thomas, F.L.8. Leighton, Parkgate, Chester.

1888. t{Commans, R. D. Macaulay-buildings, Bath.

1884. {Common, A. A., LL.D.,F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 63 Eaton-rise, Ealing, W,

1891. {Common, J. F. F. 21 Park-place, Cardiff.

1900. {Common, T. A., B.A. 63 Eaton Rise, Ealing, W.

1892. t{Comyns, Frank, M.A.,F¥.C.S. The Grammar School, Durham,

1884. {Conklin, Dr. William A. Central Park, New York, U.S.A.

1896. {Connacher, W.S. Birkenhead Institute, Birkenhead.

1890. {Connon, J. W. Park-row, Leeds.

1871. *Connor, Charles C. 4 Queen’s Elms, Belfast.

1893. {Conway, Professor Sir W. M., M.A., F.R.G.S. The Red House,
Hornton-street, W.

1899. {Coopn, J. CHartes, M.Inst.C.E. Westminster-chambers, 9 Vic-
toria-street, 5.W.

1898. §Cook, Ernest H. 27 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol.

1900. {Cook, Walter. 98 St. Mary’s Street, Cardiff.

1882. {Cooxr, Major-General A. C., R.E., O.B., F.R.G.S. Palace-chambers,
Ryder-street, 8. W.

1876. *Cooxr, Conran W. 28 Victoria-street, S. W.

1881. {Cooke, F. Bishopshill, York.

1868. {Cooke, Rev. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich.

1895. {Cooke, Miss Janette E. Holmwood, Thorpe, Norwich.

1868. {Cooxn, M. C., M.A. 53 Castle Road, Kentish Town, N.W.

1884. {Cooke, R: P. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

1878. { Cooke, Samuel, M.A., F.G.S. Poona, Bombay.

1881. {Cooke, Thomas. Bishopshill, York.

1865. [Cooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.

1896. {Cookson, E. H. Kiln Hey, West Derby.

1899. *Coomara Swamy, A. K., F.G.S. Walden, Worplesdon, Guildford.

1895. oon oe Friend, M.I.E.E. 68 Victoria-street, Westminster,

ig

1901. “Cooper, C. Forster, B.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1893. {Cooper, F. W. 14 Hamilton-road, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

1888. {Cooper, George B. 67 Great Russell-street, W.C.

1868. {Cooper, W. J. New Malden, Surrey.

1889. {Coote, Arthur. The Minories, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1878. {Cope, Rey. S. W. Bramley, Leeds.

1871. {CopELanD, Rarpu, Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland
and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh.

1881. {Copperthwaite, H. Holgate Villa, Holgate-lane, York.

1901. §Corbett, A. Cameron, M.P. Thornliebank House, Glasgow.

1891. {Corbett, HE. W.M. Y Fron, Pwllypant, Cardiff.

1887. *Corcoran, Bryan. Fairlight, 22 Oliver Grove, South Norwood, S.E.

1894. oe Miss Jessie R, The Chestnuts, Mulgrave-road, Sutton,
Surrey.

1885. *Core, Professor Thomas H., M.A. Fallowfield, Manchester.

1870. *CorrreLp, W. H., M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiene
and Public Health in University College, London. 19 Savile-
row, W.

1901, a ee Professor J, D., B.Sc. University College, Gower-street,

26

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1895.
1889.
1884.
1885.
1888.
1900,
1891.
1891,

1891.
1874.

1869,
1876.
1876.
1889,
1896.

1890.
1896.

1868.
1868.
1872.

1900.
1895.

1899.
1867.
1892.
1882.

1888.
1867.
1885,
1890,
1892,
1884,

1876.
1884,
1887,
1887.
1871.

1871,

1846.
1890.
1883.
1870.
1885,

*Corner, Samuel, B.A., B.Sc. 95 Forest-road West, Nottingham,

{CornisH, Vaueuan, M.Sc., F.R.G.S. 72 Prince’s Square, W.

*Cornwallis, F. S. W., M.P., F.L.S. Linton Park, Maidstone.

tCorry, John. Rosenheim, Park Hill-road, Croydon.

{Corser, Rev, Richard K. 57 Park Hill-road, Croydon.

§Cortie, Rey. A. L., F-R.A.S. Stonyhurst College, Blackburn.

tCory, John, J.P. Vaindre Hall, near Cardiff.

{Cory, Alderman Richard, J.P. Oscar House, Newport-road, Car-
diff.

iff,
*Cotsworth, Haldane Gwilt. The Cedars, Cobham Road, Norbiton,
S.W

*Correritt, J. H.,M.A., F.R.S. 15 St. Alban’s-mansions, Kensing-
ton Court-gardens, W.

{Corron, WiitiaM. Pennsylvania, Exeter.

{Couper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

{Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

{Courtney, F. 8. 77 Redcliffe-square, South Kensington, S.W.

{Courtyey, Right Hon. Leonarp (Pres. F,1896). 15 Cheyne Walk,
Chelsea, 5. W.

{Cousins, John James. Allerton Park, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

tCoventry, J. 19 Sweeting-street, Liverpool.

Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.

{tCowan, John A, Blaydon Burn, Durham.

{Cowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.

*Cowan, Thomas William, F.L.8., F.G.8. 17 King William-street,
Strand, W.C.

§Cowburn, Henry. Dingle Head, Westleigh, Leigh, Lancashire.

*CowEtt, Puitie H., M.A. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and 74
Vanbrugh Park, Blackheath, 8.E.

§Cowper-Coles, Sherard. 82 Victoria-street, 8. W.

*Cox, Edward. Cardean, Meicle, N.B.

t{Cox, Robert. 84 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

{tCox, Thomas A., District Engineer of the 8., P., and D. Railway,
Lahore, Punjab. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-
street, S. W.

{Cox, Thomas W. B. The Chestnuts, Lansdowne, Bath.

{Cox, William. Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee.

{Crabtree, William. 126 Manchester-road, Southport.

{Cradock, George. Wakefield.

*Craig, George A. Post-office, Mooroopna, Victoria, Australia.

§Craicin, Major P. G., F.S.8. (Pres. F, 1900). 6 Lyndhurst-road,
Hampstead, N.W.

$Cramb, John. Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B.

{Crathern, James. Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

tOrayen, John. Smedley Lodge, Cheetham, Manchester.

*Craven, Thomas, J.P. Woodheyes Park, Ashton-upon-Mersey.

*CRAWFORD AND Batcarres, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 2 Cavendish Square, W., and Haigh
Hall, Wigan.

*Crawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Colin-
ton Road, Edinburgh.

*Crawshaw, The Right Hon. Lord. Whatton, Loughborough.

§Crawshaw, Charles B. Rufford Lodge, Dewsbury.

*Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S. 25 Tollington-park, N.

*Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Caversham Park, Reading.

§Creak, Captain E. W., R.N., C.B., F.R.S. (Council 1896— ).
9 Hervey-road, Blackheath, 5.E,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 27

Year of
Election.

1901.
1896.
1879.
1876.
1887.
1896,
1880.

1890.
1878.

1857.
1885.

1885.

§Cree, T.S. 15 Montgomerie Quadrant, Glasgow.

{Oregeen, A.C. 21 Prince’s-avenue, Liverpool.

{Oreswick, Nathaniel. Chantry Grange, near Sheffieid.

*Crewdson, Rey. Canon George. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Windermere.

*Crewdson, Theodore. Noreliffe Hall, Handforth, Manchester.

§Crichton, Hugh. 6 Rockfield-road, Anfield, Liverpool.

*Orisp, Frank, B.A., LL.B., F.LS., F.G.8. 5 Lansdowne-road,
Notting Hill, W. ;

*Croft, W. B., M.A. Winchester College, Hampshire.

t{Croke, John O’Byrne, M.A. Clouneagh, Ballingarry-Lacy, co,
Limerick.

{Crolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.

tCromsre, J. W., M.A., M.P. (Local Sec. 1885), Balgownie Lodge,
Aberdeen.

tCrombie, Theodore. 18 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

1901.§§Crompton, Col., R.E., M.Inst.C.E, (Pres. G, 1901), Kensington

1887.
1898.
1865.

1879.
1897.
1870.
1894,
1870.
1890.

1861.

1853.
1887.
1894,

1897.
1894,
1888.
1882.
1890,
1863.

1885.
1888.

1898.
1888.
1883.
1878.
1883,
1897.
1898.
1861.

1861.
1882,

Court, W.

§Croox, Henry T., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Albert-square, Manchester,

§Crooke, William. Langton House, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham,

§Crooxrs, Sir Wiiam, F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Prusipent, 1898;
Pres. B, 1886; Council 1885-91), 7 Kensington Park-
gardens, W.

{Crookes, Lady. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, W.

*CrooxsHank, HE. M., M.B. Ashdown Forest.

{Crosfield, C. J. Gledhill, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Crosfield, Miss Margaret C. Undercroft, Reigate.

*CROSFIELD, WILLIAM. 3 Fulwood Park, Liverpool.

tCross, E. Richard, LL.B. Harwood House, New Parks-crescent,
Scarborough.

Cross, Rev. John Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Halecote, Grange-over-
Sands.

{Crosskill, William. Beverley, Yorkshire.

*Crossley, William J. Glenfield, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Crosweller, William Thomas, F.Z.S., F.I.Inst. Kent Lodge, Sideup,
Kent.

*Crosweller, Mrs. W. T. Kent Lodge, Sidcup, Kent.

{Crow, C. F. Home Lea, Woodstock Road, Oxford.

{Crowder, Robert. Stanwix, Carlisle.

§Crowley, Frederick. Ashdell, Alton, Hampshire.

*Crowley, Ralph Henry, M.D. 116 Manningham Lane, Bradford.

aes George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle -upon-

'yne.
{Cruickshank, Alexander, LL.D. 20 Rose-street, Aberdeen,
Fenmamgaak; William J. London and Brazilian Bank, Rio de Janeiro,
razil.

{TCRUNDALL, Sir Witttam H. Dover.

{Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.

*CULVERWELL, Epwarp P., M.A. 40 Trinity College, Dublin.

{Culverwell, Joseph Pope. St. Lawrence Lodge, Sutton, Dublin,

{Culverwell, T, J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.

tCumberland, Barlow. Toronto, Canada.

§Cundall, J. Tudor. 1 Dean Park-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Man-
chester,

*Ounliffe, Peter Gibson, Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester.

*CUNNINGHAM, Lieut.-Colonel Annan, R.E., A.LC.E. 20 Essex-
villas, Kensington, W.

28 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of

Election.

1877. *CunnrineHAM, D. J., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. H,
1901), Professor of Anatomy in Trinity College. 43 Fitz-
william Place, Dublin.

1891. {Cunningham, J. H. 2 Ravelston Place, Edinburgh.

1862. {Cunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.

1885,
1869,

1883.
1892.

1900.
1892.

1884,
1898.
1878.
1884,
1883.
1881,

1889.

1854,
1883.

1898.

1889,
1863.
1867.
1870,

1862.
1901.
1876.
1896,

1849.
1894,
1897.
1897.

1861.
1896.

1899.
1882.

1881.

{CunnineHam, J. T., B.A. Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.

{CunnineHam, Ropert O., M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural History in Queen’s College, Belfast.

*CUNNINGHAM, Rey. W. (Pres. F, 1891), D.D., D.Sc. Trinity
College, Cambridge.

§Cunningham-Craig, EK. H., B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office,
Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.

*Cunnington, W. Alfred. 13 The Chase, Clapham Common, 8.W.

*Currie, James, jun., M.A., F.R.S.E, Larkfield, Golden Acre,
Edinburgh.

{Currier, John McNab. Newport, Vermont, U.S.A.

{Curtis, John. 1 Christchurch-road, Clifton, Bristol.

{Curtis, William. Caramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin.

{Cushing, Frank Hamilton. Washington, U.S.A.

{Cushing, Mrs. M. Croydon, Surrey.

§Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. India Store Depét, Belvedere-road,
Lambeth, 5.W.

{Dagger, John H., F.J.C. Victoria Villa, Lorne-street, Fairfield,
Liverpool.

}Daglish, Robert. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.

{Dahne, F. W., Consul of the German Empire. 18 Somerset-place,
Swansea.

§Dalby, Prof. W. E., B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. 6 Coleridge-road, Crouch
End, N.

*Dale, Miss Elizabeth. 2 Trumpington Street, Cambridge.

tDale, J. B. South Shields.

{Dalgleish, W. Dundee.

{Dariincrr, Rey. W. H., D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Ingleside,
Newstead-road, Lee, S.E.

Dalton, Edward, LL.D. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth.

{Dansy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. The Crouch, Seaford, Sussex.

§Daniell, G. F., B.Sc. 44 Cavendish Road, Brondesbury, N.W.

*“Dansken, John, F.R.A.S. 2 Hillside Gardens, Partickhill, Glasgow.

§Danson, F. C. Liverpool and London Chambers, Dale-street,
Liverpool.

*Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada.

{Darbishire, b. V., M.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, W.

{Darbishire,C. W. Elm Lodge, Elm-row, Hampstead, N.W.

§Darbishire, F. V., B.A., Ph.D. Hulme Hall, Plymouth Grove,
and Owens College, Manchester.

*DaRBISHIRE, Rosert Duxrivrienp, B.A. (Local Sec. 1861).
Victoria Park, Manchester.

tDarbishire, W. A. Penybryn, Carnarvon, North Wales.

*Darwin, Erasmus. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

{Darwin, Francis, M.A:, M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1891;
Council 1882-84, 1897-1901). Wychfield, Huntingdon-road,
Cambridge.

*DaRwIn, GEorcE Howarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A,
1886 ; Council 1886-92), Plumian Professor of Astronomy
and Experimental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge,
Newnham Grange, Cambridge, :

LIST OF MEMBERS, 29

Y f

Hlection.

1878. *DArwin, Horace, The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.
1894. *Darwin, Major Lronarp, Hon. Sec. R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1896 ; Council

1882.
1888.
1880.

1898,
1884.
1870.
1885.
1891.
1870.
1887.
1896.
1898.

1898.
1873.
1870.
1864,

1882.
1896.

1885.
1886.
1886.
1864.
1857.
1869,
1869,
1860.
1864.

1886.
1891.
1885.
1901.
1884,

1859,
1892.
1870.

1900.
1887.
1861.
1901.
1884.
1866,

1884.
1898.
1878.

1899- ). 12 Egerton-place, South Kensington, S.W.
tDarwin, W. E., M.A., F.G.S. Bassett, Southampton.

tDaubeny, William M. 11 St. James’s-square, Bath.

*Davey, Henry, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. 3 Prince’s-street, West-
minster, 8.W.

§Davey, William John. 6 Water-street, Liverpool.

tDavid, A. J., B.A., LL.B, 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, F.C.

{Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.

tDavidson, Charles B. Roundhay, Fonthill-road, Aberdeen.

tDavies, Andrew, M.D. Cefn Parc, Newport, Monmouthshire,

{Davies, Edward, F.C.S, Royal Institution, Liverpool.

*Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales.

*Davies, Thomas Wilberforce, F.G.S. 41 Park-place, Cardiff.

*Davies, Rev. T. Witton, B.A., Ph.D. Bryn Haul, and Baptist
College, Bangor.

{Davies, Wm. Howell, J.P. Down House, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

*Davis, Alfred. 37 Ladbroke Grove, W.

*Davis, A. 8. St. George’s School, Roundhay, near Leeds.

fDavis, Cuartes E., F'.S.A. (Local Sec. 1864). 55 Pulteney-street,
Bath.

{Davis, Henry C. Berry Pomeroy, Springfield-road, Brighton.

*Davis, John Henry Grant. Valindra, Wood Green, Wednesbury,
Staffordshire.

*Davis, Rey. Rudolf. Hopefield, Evesham.

tDavis, W. H. Hazeldean, Pershore-road, Birmingham.

tDavison, Cuarzzs, D.Sc. 16 Manor-road, Birmingham.

*Davison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire,

TDavy, EK. W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, Dublin.

tDaw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter.

tDaw, R. R. M. Bedtord-circus, Exeter.

*Dawes, John T. The Lilacs, Prestatyn, North Wales.

{Dawxrns, W. Boyp, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1888 ;
Council 1882-88), Professor of Geology and Paleontology in
the Victoria University, Owens College, Manchester. Wood-
hurst, Fallowfield, Manchester.

{Dawson, Bernard. The Laurels, Malvern Link.

{Dawson, Edward. 2 Windsor-place, Cardiff.

*Dawson, Lieut.-Colonel H. P., R.A. Hartlington, Burnsall, Skipton.

§Dawson, P. 11 Campside Crescent, Langside, Glaseow.

eee BL (Local Sec. 1884). 258 University Street, Montreal A

Canada.

*Dawson, Captain William G. The Links, Plumstead Common, Kent.

tDay, I. C., F.C.S. 36 Hillside-crescent, Edinburgh.

“Deacon, G. F., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1897). 19 Warwick:
square, S. W.

§Deacon, M. Whittington House, near Chesterfield.

{tDeakin, H. T. Egremont House, Belmont, near Bolton.

{Dean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.

*Deasy, Capt. H. H. P. Cavalry Club, Piccadilly, W.

*Debenham, Frank, F.S.S. 1 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, N. W.

{Desvs, Huryricy, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1869 ; Council
1870-75). 4 Schlangenweg, Cassel, Hessen.

{Deck, Arthur, F.C.S. 9 King’s-parade, Cambridge.

{Deeley, R. M. 388 Charnwood-street, Derby.

{Delany, Rey. William, St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore,

50

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1896.
1889.
1897.
1896.
1889,

1874.
1896.

1874.
1894.
1899.
1899.
1868.

§Dempster, John. Tynron, Noctorum, Birkenhead.

{Dendy, Frederick Walter. 3 Mardale-parade, Gateshead.

§Denison, F. Napier. Meteorological Office, Victoria, B.C., Canada.

{Denison, Miss Louisa E. 16 Chesham-place, 8.W.

§Drenny, ALFRED, F.L.S., Professor of Biology in University College,
Sheffield.

Dent, William Yerbury. 5 Caithness-road, Brook Green, W.

{De Rancs, Cuartus E., F.G.S. 33 Carshalton Road, Blackpool.

{Dersy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, G.C.B. Knowsley, Prescot,
Lancashire.

*Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S. 76 Lancaster-gate, W.

*Deverell, F. H. 7 Grote’s-place, Blackheath, 8.E.

{DrvonsHiRE, The Duke of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S. 78 Piceadilly, W.

{Dewar, A. Redcote. Redeote, Leven, Fife.

*Drwar, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., V.P.C.8., Fullerian
Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and
Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy
in the University of Cambridge (PREsIDENT Exect; Pres. B,
1879; Council 1883-88). 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.

. {Dewar, Mrs. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.
. {Dewar, James, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. Drylaw House, Davidson’s Mains,

Midlothian, N.B.

. *Dewar, William, M.A. Horton House, Rugby.
. tDewick, Rev. E.S8., M.A., F.G.S. 26 Oxford-square, W.
. {Dz Winton, Major-General Sir F., G.C.M.G., C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,

F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1899). United Service Club, Pall Mall,
S.W

. {De Wolf, 0. C., M.D. Chicago, U.S.A.

. *Drw-Surry, A. G., M.A. Chesterton Hall, Cambridge.

. {D’Hemry, P. 136 Prince’s-road, Liverpool.

. {Dick, D. B. Toronto, Canada.

. §Dick, George H. 31 Hamilton Drive, Hillbead, Glasgow.

. §Dick, Thomas. Lockhead House, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

. {Dickinson, A. H. The Wood, Maybury, Surrey.

. {Dickinson, G. T. Lily-avenue, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
. {Dickinson, Joseph, F.G.8. South Bank, Pendleton.

. TDiekson, Charles R., M.D. Wolfe Island, Ontario, Canada.

. {Dickson, Edmund, M.A., F.G.S. 2 Starkie-street, Preston.

. §Droxson, H. N., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 2 St. Margaret’s-road,

Oxford.

. {Dickson, Patrick. Laurencekirk, Aberdeen,
. {Dickson, T. A. West Cliff, Preston.
. *Drixn, The Right Hon. Sir Coantes WeEntTworta, Bart., M.P.,

F.R.G.8. 76 Sloane-street, 8.W.

. {Dillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 36 Dawson-street, Dublin,

. §Dines, W. H. Crinan, N.B.

. {Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock.

. §Drvers, Dr. Epwarp, F.R.S. 9 Rugby Mansions, Kensington, W.
. *Dix, John William 8. Hampton Lodge, Durdham Park, Clifton,

Bristol.
*Dixon, A. C., D.Se., Professor of Mathematics in Queen’s College,
Galway.

. *Drxon, A. E., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork.

Mentone Villa, Sunday’s Well, Cork.

. §Dixon, A. Francis, D.Sc., Professor of Anatomy in University

College, Cardiff.

3. {Dixon, Miss E. 2 Cliffterrace, Kendal.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 31

Year of
Election.

1888. §Dixon, Edward T. Racketts, Hythe, Hampshive.

1900. *Dixon, George, M.A. St. Bees, Cumberland.

1879. *Dixon, Harorp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1894), Professor
of Chemistry in the Owens College, Manchester.

1885. {Dixon, John Henry. Inveran, Poolewe, Ross-shire, N.B.

1896. §Dixon-Nuttall, F. R. Ingleholme, Ecclestone Park, Prescot.

1887. {Dixon, Thomas. Buttershaw, near Bradford, Yorkshire.

1885. {Doak, Rev. A. 15 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.

1890. {Dobbie, James J., D.Se. Professor of Chemistry, University Col-
lege, Bangor, North Wales.

1885. §Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D. The University, Edinburgh.

1860. eles Archibald Edward, M.A. Hartley Manor, Longfield,
Kent.

1897. {Doberck, William. The Observatory, Hong Kong.

1892. tDobie, W. Fraser. 47 Grange-road, Edinburgh.

1891. {Dobson, G. Alkali and Ammonia Works, Cardiff.

1893. {Dobson, W. E., J.P. Lenton-road, The Park, Nottingham.

1875. *Docwra, George. 19 Clarence Street, Gloucester.

1870. *Dodd, John. Nunthorpe-avenue, York.

1876. {Dodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.

1897. {Dodge, Richard E. Teachers’ College, Columbia University, New
York, U.S.A.

1889. {Dodson, George, B.A. Downing College, Cambridge.

1898. {Dole, James. Redland House, Bristol.

1893. {Donald, Charles W. Kinsgarth, Braid-road, Edinburgh.

1885. {Donaldson, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Senior Principal of
the University of St. Andrews, N.B.

1869. {Donisthorpe,G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter.

1877. *Donxtn, Bryan, M.Inst.C.E. The Mount, Wray Park, Reigate.

1889, {Donkin, R.8., M.P. Campville, North Shields.

1896. {Donnan, F. E. Ardenmore-terrace, Holywood, Ireland.

1901. §Donnan, F. G, University College, Gower Street, W.C.

1861. {Donnelly, Major-General Sir J. F. D., R.E., K.C.B. 59 Onslow:
gardens, S.W.

1881. {Dorrington, John Edward. Lypiatt Park, Stroud.

1867. {Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.

1868. *Doughty, Charles Montagu. Illawara House, Tunbridge Wells.

1884, {Douglass, William Alexander. Freehold Loan and Savings Com-
pany, Church-street, Toronto, Canada.

1890. {Dovaston, John. West Felton, Oswestry.

_ 1883. tDove, Arthur. Crown Cottage, York.

1884. {Dove, Miss Frances. St. Leonard’s, St. Andrews, N.B.

1876. {Dowie, Mrs. Muir. Golland, by Kinross, N.B.

1884. *Dowling, D. J. Bromley, Kent.

1865. *Dowson, E. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk,

1881. *Dowson, J. Emerson, M.Inst.C.K. 91 Cheyne-walk, 8.W.

1887. {Doxey, R. A. Slade House, Levenshulnie, Manchester.

1894. {Doyne, R. W., F.R.O.8. 28 Beaumont-street, Oxford.

1883. {Draper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York.

1892. Mie David, J.P. 188 Nethersdale Drive, Pollokshields,
Glasgow.

1868. {DREssER, “Hunry E., F.Z.S. 110 Cannon-street, E.C,

1890. {Drew, John. 12 Harringay-park, Crouch End, Middlesex, N.

1892. {Dreyer, John L. E., M.A., Ph.D., .R.A.S. The Observatory,
Armagh.

1893. §Druce, G. Craripes, M.A., F.LS, (Local Sec, 1894), 118 Hich-

street, Oxford. y

32

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1889.
1897.
1901.

1892.
1856.

1870.
1900.
1895.
1867.

1877.
1875.
1890.
1884,
1883.
1892.
1866.
1891.
1896.
1881.
1895.

1892.
1896.

1865.
1882.

1883.
1876.
1884,

1859.
1893.
1891.
1885.

1869,
1898.
1895.
1887.
1884,
1885,

1869.
1895,

1868.
1895,
1877,

t{Drummond, Dr. 6 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Drynan, Miss. Northwold, Queen’s Park, Toronto, Canada.

§Drysdale, John W. W. Bon-Accord Engine Works, London-road,
Glasgow.

{Du Bois, Dr. H. Mittelstrasse, 39, Berlin.

*Duciz, The Right. Hon. Hmnry Jonn Reynotps Moreton, Earl
of, F.R.S., F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, W.; and Tortworth
Court, Faltield, Gloucestershire.

{Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S8. Christchurch Vicarage, Chester.

*Duckworth, W. L. H. Jesus College, Cambridge.

*Duddell, William. 47 Hans-place, S.W.

*Durr, The Right Hon. Sir Mounrsrvarr Enputnstone GRanrT-,
G.C.S.L, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. F, 1867, 1881 ; Council 1868,
1892-93). 11 Chelsea-embankment, S.W.

{Duffey, George F., M.D. 380 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.

{Dufin, W. E. L’Estrange. Waterford.

t{Dufton, 8. F. Trinity College, Cambridge.

tDugdale, James H. 9 Hyde Park-gardens, W.

{Duke, Frederic. Conservative Club, Hastings.

{Dulier, Colonel E., C.B. 27 Sloane-gardens, S.W.

*Duncan, James. 9 Mincing-lane, E.C.

*Duncan, John, J.P. ‘South Wales Daily News’ Office, Cardiff.

{Duncanson, Thomas, 16 Deane-road, Liverpool.

{Duncombe, The Hon. Cecil, F.G.8. Nawton Grange, York.

*Dunell, George Robert. 33 Spencer-road, Grove Park, Chiswick,
Middlesex.

tDunham, Miss Helen Bliss. Messrs. Morton, Rose, & Co., Barthelo-
mew House, E.C.

*DuNKERLEY, S., M.Se., Professor of Applied Mechanics in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, 8.H.

t{Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.

{Dunn, J. T., M.Sc, F.C.S. Northern Polytechnic Institute,
Holloway-road, N.

{Dunn, Mrs. J.T. Northern Polytechnic Institute, Holloway-road, N.

tDunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

§Dunnington, Prof. F. P. University of Virginia, Charlottesville,
Virginia, U.S.A.

tDuns, Rev. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh.

*Dunstan, M. J. R. Sutton Bonington, Loughborough.

{Dunstan, Mrs. Sutton Bonington, Loughborough.

*Dunstan, WynDHAM R., M.A., F.R.S., Sec.C.S., Director of the
Scientific Department of the Imperial Institute, S.W.

tD’Urban, W. 8. M., F.L.S. Newport House, near Exeter.

tDurrant, R.G. Marlborough College, Wilts,

*Dwerryhouse, Arthur Rh. 5 Oaltield-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.

{Dyason; John Sanford. Cuthbert Street, W.

{tDyck, Professor Walter. The University, Munich.

*Dyer, Henry, M.A., D.Sc. 8 MHighburgh-terrace, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.

*Dymond, Edward EK. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Bletchley.

§Dymond, Thomas §., F.C.S. County Technical Laboratory, Chelms-
ford, Essex.

tEade, Sir Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
tEarle, Hardman A. 29 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, 8.W.
tHarle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alvington, Devon.

LISI OF MEMBERS. 33

Year of
Election.

1874.
1899,

1871.

1863.
1876.
1883.
1893.
1884.
1861,
1870.
1899.

1887.
1884.

1887,

1870.
1883.
1888,
1884,

1883.
1899.
1884,
1887.
1901.
1896.
1876,
1890.
1885.

1901.
1883.

1891.
1883.

1886.

1875.
1880.

1891.
1884,
1887,
1862.

1899.
1901

{Eason, Charles, 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.

§East, W. H. Municipal School of Ari, Science, and Technology,
Dover.

*Easton, Epwarp (Pres. G, 1878; Council 1879-81). 11 Delahay-
street, Westminster, 8. W.

tEaston, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.

{Easton, John. Durie House, Abercromby-street, Helensburgh, N.B.

tEastwood, Miss. Littleover Grange, Derby.

*Ebbs, Alfred B. Northumberland-alley, Fenchurch-street, E.C.

tEckersley, W. T. Standish Hall, Wigan, Lancashire.

tEcroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.

*Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. The Lodge, Adel, Leeds.

tEddowes, Alfred, M.D. 28 Wimpole-street, W.

*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. The Grange, Carleton, Skipton.

tHde, Francis J., F.G.8. Silchar, Cachar, India.

*Edgell, Rev. R. Arnold, M.A., F.C.S. The College House,
Leamington.

§Epenwortu, F. Y., M.A., D.C.L., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1889; Council
1879-86, 1891-98), Professor of Political Economy in the
University of Oxford. All Souls College, Oxford.

*Edmonds, F. B. 6 Olement’s Inn, W.C.

§Edmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Colyton, Devon.

*Edmunds, Henry. Antron, 71 Upper Tulse-hill, S.W.

*Edmunds, James, M.D. 4 Chichester Terrace, Kemp Town,
Brighton.

{Edmunds, Lewis, D.Sc., LL.B., F.G.S. 1 Garden-court, Temple, E.C.

§Edwards, K. J. 2 Dafforne Road, Upper Tooting, 8. W.

{Edwards, W. F. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.

*Kgerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. Lord. Tatton Park, Knutsford.

§Egear, W. D. Eton College.

fEkkert, Miss Dorothea. 95 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.

{Elder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

§Elford, Perey. St. John’s College, Oxford.

*Eear, Francis, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 113 Cannon-
street, E.C.

*Elles, Miss Gertrude L. Newnham College, Cambridge.

fEllington, Edward Bayzand, M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers, Bridge«
street, Westminster, S.W.

fElliott, A. C.,D.Sc., Professor of Engineering in University College,
Cardiff. 2 Plasturton-avenue, Cardiff,

*Extiorr, Epwin Barrzy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Waynflete
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Oxford.
4 Bardwell-road, Oxford.

Eiliott, John Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham.
fEtrior, THomas Henry, C.B., F.S.S. Board of Agriculture,
4 Whitehall-place, 8. W.

*Ellis, H. D. 12 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W.

*ELLIs, JoHN Henry (Local Sec. 1883). Woodhaye, Ivy Bridge,
Devon, :

§Ellis, Miss M. A. 11 Canterbury-road, Oxford.

Ellis, Professor W. Hodgson, M.A., M.B. 74 St. Alban’s-street,

Toronto, Canada.
Ellman, Rey. E. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.

tElmy, Ben. Congleton, Cheshire.

fElphinstone, Sir H. W., Bart., M.A., F.L.S. 2 Stone-buildings,

Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

*Elvery, Miss Amelia, The Cedars, Maison Dieu-road, Dover,

: c

34

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1897.
18838.
1887.
1870.

1897.
1891.
1884.
1865.
1894.
1866.
1884.
1855.
1883.
1869.
1894,
1862.

1887.
1887.
1869.

1888.
1901.

1883.
1881.
1889.
1887.

1870.

1865.
1896,
1891.
1889.
1888.
1883.
1861.

1897.
1898.
1881.
1885.
1865.
1899.
1875.
1865.
1891.
1886.
1871.
1868.

§Elvery, Mrs. Elizabeth. The Cedars, Maison Dieu-road, Dover.

+Elwes, Captain George Robert. Bossington, Bournemouth.

§EnwortHy, FREDERICK T. TFoxdown, Wellington, Somerset.

*Ezy, The Right Rev. Lord Atwynz Compton, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. The Palace, Ely, Cambridgeshire.

tEly, Robert E. 23 West 44th Street, New York, U.S.A.

{Emerton, Wolseley, D.C.1., Banwell Castle, Somerset,

tEmery, Albert H, Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.

tEmery, The Ven. Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire.

t{Emtage, W. T. A. Director of Public Instruction, Mauritius.

{Enfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.

{England, Luther M. Knowlton, Quebec, Canada,

{English, E. Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate, Hull,

{Entwistle James P. Beachfield, 2 Westclyfle-road, Southport.

*Enys, John Dayis. Enys, Pearyn, Cornwall.

§ Erskine-Murray, James. University College, Nottingham.

*Rsson, WiitraM, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Savilian Professor of
Geometry inthe University of Oxford. 15 Bradmore-road,Oxford.

Tagan Charles. Hayesleigh, Montague-road, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.

*Estcourt, P. A., F.C.8., F.C. Seymour House, Seymour Street
Manchester. :

{Ernerinen, R., F.RS., F-RS.E., F.G.S. (Pres, C, 1882).
14 Carlyle-square, S.W.

{Etheridge, Mrs. 14 Carlyle-square, 8. W.

§Ettersbank, John, Care of Messrs. Dalgety & Co., 52 Lombard
Street, E.C. :

{Eunson, Henry J., F.G.S., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Vizianagram, Madras.

{Eyans, Alfred, M.A., M.B. Pontypridd.

*Evans, A. H., M.A. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

*Evans, Mrs. Alfred W. A. Lyndhurst, Upper Chorlton-road
Whalley Range, Manchester. :

*Evans, ARTHUR Jonny, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A, (Pres. H, 1896).

Youlbury, Abingdon.

*Eyans, Rey. Cuarzrs, M.A. Parkstone, Dorset.

§Evans, Edward, jun. Spital Old Hall, Bromborough, Cheshire,

{Evans, Franklen. Llwynarthen, Castleton, Cardiff.

}Evans, Henry Jones, Greenhill, Whitchurch, Cardiff.

*Evans, James C. 38 Crescent Road, Birkdale, Southport,

*Evans, Mrs. James C. 38 Crescent Road, Birkdale, Southport.

*Evans, Sir Joun, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.S.A.
E.LS, E.G. (Prestpent, 1897; Pres. C,1878; Pres. H,
1890; Council 1868-74, 1875-82, 1889-96). Nash Mills,
Hemel Hempstead. "i

*Evans, Lady. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead,

tEvans, Jonathan L. 4 Litfield-place, Clifton, Bristol.

tEvans, Lewis. Llanfyrnach, R.S.O., Pembrokeshire.

*Evans, Percy Bagnall. The Spring, Kenilworth.

tEvans, Supastian, M.A., LL.D. 15 Waterloo-crescent, Dover.

{Evans, Mrs. 15 Waterloo-crescent, Dover.

fEvans, Sparke. 8 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol.

*Eyvans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth,

{Evan-Thomas, O., J.P. The Gnoll, Neath, Glamorganshire,

tEve, A. 8S. Marlborough College, Wilts.

{Eye, H. Weston, M.A. 37 Gordon Square, W.C.

*Everert, J. D., M.A., D.C.L., F.B.S., F.R.S.E. 11 Leopold Road
Baling, W. :

ity» Sina

LIST OF MEMBERS. 35

Year of
Election.

1895.
1863.
1886.
1883.
1881.

1874.

{Everett, W. H., B.A. University College, Nottingham.

*Byeritt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire.

fEveritt, William EK. Finstall Park, Bromsgrove.

jEves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge.

fEwart, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1901), Professor of
Natural History in the University of Edinburgh.

{Ewart, Sir W. Quarrus, Bart. (Local Sec. 1874; Vice-Presi-
pment 1902), Glenmachan, Belfast.

. *Ewine, James ALFRED, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.

C.E., Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the
University of Cambridge. Langdale Lodge, Cambridge.
tEwing, James L. 52 North Bridge, Edinburgh.
*HKyerman, John, F.Z.S. Oakhurst, Easton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
tEyre, G. E. Briscoe. Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants,
Hyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon.

{Faser, EpmMunp Bucxert. Straylea, Harrogate.
{airbrother, Thomas. 46 Lethbridge-road, Southport.

. §Fairgrieve, M. McCallum. New College, Kastbourne.

*Farritey, Tuomas, '.R.8.E., F.C.8. 8 Newton-grove. Leeds.

{Falk, Herman John, M.A. Thorshill, West Kirby, Liverpool.

{ Fallon, Rev. W. S. 9 St. James’s-square, Cheltenham.

§Faraday, Miss Ethel R., M.A. Ramsay Lodge, Levenshulme, near
Manchester.

§Farapay, I. J., P.LS., F.S.S. (Local Sec, 1887). College-
chambers, 17 Brazennose-street, Manchester.

tFards, G. Penarth.

*Farmer, J. Brorzanp, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany,
Royal College of Science, Exhibition-road, S.W.

{Farncombe, Joseph, J.P. Saltwood, Spencer-road, Eastbourne.

*Farnworth, Eruest. Broadlands, Goldthorn Hill, Wolverhampton.

*Farnworth, Mrs. Ernest. Broadlands, Goldthorn Hill, Wolver-
hampton.

{Farnworth, Walter. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

tFarnworth, William. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

{Farquhar, Admiral, Cuarlogie, Aberdeen.

tFarqunarson, Colonel Sir J., K.C.B., R.E. Corrachee, Tarland,
Aberdeen.

{Farquharson, Robert F.O. Netherton Meigle, N.B.

*Farquharson, Mrs. R. F.O. Netherton Meigle, N.B.

*Farrar, The Very Rev. Freprric Wit1iam, D.D., F.R.S. The
Deanery, Canterbury.

tFarrell, John Arthur. Moynalty, Kells, North Ireland.

{Farthing, Rev. J. C., M.A. The Rectory, Woodstock, Ontario,
Canada. -

*Faulding, Joseph. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.

tFaulding, Mrs. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.

§Faulkner, John. 15 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Manchester,

*Fawcett, F. B. University College, Bristol.

§Fawcerr, J. E., J.P. (Local Sec. 1900). Low Royd, Apperley
Bridge, Bradford.

*Fearnsides, W. G, Addingford Hill, Horbury, Yorkshire,

tFelkin, Robert W., M.D., 1’.R.G.S. 6 Crouch Hall-road, N.

Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverstone, Lancashire.

. *Fennell, W. John. Kilcoroon, Stockman’s Lane, Belfast.

tFenwick, EK. H. 29 Harley-street, W. *
c2

36

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.

of

Election.

1890.
1901.
1876.
1885.
1902.

1871.
1896.

1867.

1501.

1883.

1883,

1862.
1875.

1892.

1897.
1897.

1882.
1887.

1875.

1868.

1897.

1886.
1882.
1885.
1878.
1884.

1887.

1881.
1895.
1891.
1884.
1869.

1875.
1858.
1887.
1885.
1871.

1871.

1885.
1878.

{Fenwick, T. Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

§Fergus, Freeland, M.D. 22 Blythswood Square, Glasgow.

{Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.

{Ferguson, Mrs. A. A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.

§Fereuson, Goprrey W. (Locan Secretary, 1902), Cluaw

Donegall Park, Belfast. f

*Frreuson, JoHn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A., F.C.S., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.

*Ferguson, John. Colombo, Ceylon.

{Ferguson, Robert M., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Learmouth-terrace
Edinburgh. Z

§Ferguson, R. W. 125 Church Street, Edgware Road, N.W.

{Fernald, H. P. Clarence House, Promenade, Cheltenham.

*Fernie, John. Box No.2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A.

tFrrrers, Rev. Norman Macreop, D.D., F.R.S. (Local See. 1862).
Caius College Lodge, Cambridge.

{Ferrier, Davin, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Neuro-
Pathology in King’s College, London. 34 Cavendish-square, W.

{Ferrier, Robert M., B.Sc. Professor of Engineering, University
College, Bristol.

{Ferrier, W. F. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

{Fessenden, Reginald A., Professor of Electrical Engineering,
University, Alleghany, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

§Fewings, James, B.A., B.Sc. King Edward VI. Grammar School,
Southampton.

tFiddes, Thomas, M.D. Penwood, Urmston, near Manchester,

{Fiddes, Walter, Olapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.

{Field, Edward. Norwich.

{Field, George Wilton, Ph.D, Experimental Station, Kingston,
Rhode Island, U.S.A. 4

tField, H.C. 4 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Filliter, Freeland. St. Martin’s House, Wareham, Dorset.

*Finch, Gerard B., M.A. 15St. Peter’s-terrace, Cambridge.

*Findlater, Sir William. 22 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

{Finlay, Samuel. Montreal, Canada. ;

{Finnemore, Rev. J., M.A., Ph.D., F .G.S. 85 Upper Hanover-street,
Sheffield.

Firth, Colonel Sir Charles. Heckmondwike.

§Fish, Frederick J. Spursholt, Park-road, Ipswich.

{Fisher, Major H.O, The Highlands, Llandough, near Cardiff.

*Fisher, L. C. Galveston, Texas, U.S.A.

{Fisner, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlton Rectory, near
Cambridge.

*Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.

{Fishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale.

*Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. 25 Blenheim-gardens, Willesden Green, N.W.

tFison, E. Herbert. Stoke House, Ipswich.

*Frson, Freperick W., M.A., M.P.,F.C.S. Greenholme, Burley-in-
Wharfedale, near Leeds.

{Frren, Sir J. G., M.A., LL.D. (Council, 1871-75). Atheneum
Club, 8. W.

{Fitch, Rev. J. J. Ivyholme, Southport.

{Fitzgerald, 0. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.

1885. *FirzGeratp, Professor Maurice, B.A. (Locan SECRETARY,

1894.

1902). 382 Eglantine-avenue, Belfast.
. {Fitzmaurice, M., M.Inst.C.E, London County Council, Spring
Gardens, S.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 37

Year of
Election.

1888,
1897.
1881.

1876.
1876.
1867.
1870.
1890.
1892.
1888.

1901.
1889,
1877.
1890.

1891.
1880,

1873.
1883.

1897.
1885.
1890.

1875.
1894.
1887.

1883.

1900.
1884.
1877.
1856.
13875.
1865.
1865,

1883,
1857.
"1896.

1877.
1859.

1901.

*Frtzpatrick, Rey. Tomas C. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

{Flavelle, J. W. 565 Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

tFleming, Rev. Canon J., B.D. St. Michael’s Vicarage, Ebury-
square, S. W.

{Fleming, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

tFleming, Sir Sandford, K.C.M.G., F.G.8. Ottawa, Canada.

{Frercner, ALFRED E., F.C.S8. Delmore, Caterham, Surrey.

tFletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich.

{Fletcher, B. Morley. 7 Victoria-street, 8. W.

tFletcher, George, F.G.S. 60 Connaught-avenue, Plymouth.

*FiercHer, Lazarus, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.C.S. (Pres. C,
1894), Keeper of Minerals, British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, 8.W. 386 Woodyille-road, Ealing, W.

§Flett, J.S. Edinburgh.

tFlower, Lady. 26 Stanhope-gardens, S.W.

*Floyer, Eraest A. Green Hill, Worcester.

*Fiux, A. W., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in the Univer-
sity, Montreal.

{Foldvary, William. Museum Ring, 10, Buda Pesth.

tFoote, R. Bruce, F.G.8S. Care of Messrs. H. 8. King & Co., 65
Cornhill, E.C.

*ForBEs, GroRGE, M.A., I'.R.S., F.R.S.E5 M.Inst.C.E. 34 Great
George-street, S. W.

{Forszs, Henry O., LL.D., F.Z.S., Director of Museums for the Cor-
poration of Liverpool. The Museum, Liverpool.

tForbes, J.. K.C. Hazeldean, Putney-hill, S.W.

tForbes, The Right Hon. Lord. CastleForbes, Aberdeenshire.

tForp, J. Rawxryson (Local Sec. 1890). Quarry Dene, Weetwood-
lane, Leeds.

*ForpHAM, H. Grorer. Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock, Herts.

}Forrest, Frederick. Beechwood, Castle Hill, Hastings.

{Forrest, The Right Hon. Sir Jonn, G.C.M.G., F.R.GS., F.G.S.
Perth, Western Australia.

{Forsytu, A. R., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1897), Sadlerian
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Cambridge.
Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Forsyth, D. Central Higher Grade School, Leeds.

{¥Fort,George H. Lakefield, Ontario, Canada.

{Forrescun, The Right Hon. the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon.

{Forwoop, Sir Witt1am B., J.P. Ramleh, Blundellsands, Liverpool.

tFoster, A. Le Neve. 51 Cadogan-square, S.W.

TFoster, Sir B. Walter, M.D., M.P. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham.

*lostrr, CLemEnt Lr Nevs, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Mining in the Royal College of Science, London.

{Foster, Mrs. C. Le Neve.

*FosterR, Gorge Oargry, B.A., F.RS., V.P.C.S. (GpenERAL
TREASURER, 1898— ; Pres, A, 1877; Council 1871-76, 1877-
82). Ladywalk, Rickmansworth.

foster, Miss Harriet. Cambridge Training College, Wollaston-road,
Cambridge.

§loster, Joseph B. 4 Cambridge-street, Plymouth.

*Fosrer, Sir Micwarn, K.C.B., M.P., M.A., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L.,
Sec.R.S., F.L.S. (Prusrpent, 1899; Gen. Sec. 1872-76;
Pres. I, 1897; Council, 1871-72), Professor of Physiology in the
University of Cambridge. Great Shelford, Cambridge.

§Foster, T. Gregory, Ph.D. University College, W.C., and Clifton,
Northwood, Middlesex.

38

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1896.
1866.
1868.
1892.

1901.
1883.
1883.
1896,
1883.
1847,

1900.
1881.

1889,

1887.
1894.
1895,
1882.
1885.
1865,
1871.
1871.
1884,
1884.

1877.
1884.

1869.

1886.

1901.

1887,
1887.

1892.
1882.
1887.
1899.

1898.

1898.
1875.
1898,
1884.

}{Fowkes, F. Hawkshead, Ambleside.

{Fowler, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Nottingham,

{Fowler,G.G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk. 5

tFowler, Miss Jessie A. 4 & 5 Imperial-buildings, Ludgate-cireus,
E.C.

§Fowlis, William. 45 John Street, Glasgow.

*Fox, Charles. The Chestnuts, Warlingham on the Hill, Surrey.

§Fox, Sir Cuartes Dovetas, M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1896).
28 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

tFox, Henry J. Bank’s Dale, Bromborough, near Liverpool.

t{Fox, Howard, F.G.S. Rosehill, Falmouth.

*Fox, Joseph Hoyland. The Clive, Wellington, Somerset.

*Fox, Thomas. Pyles Thorne House, Wellington, Somerset.

*FoxweEt1, Hersert 8., M.A., F.S.S. (Council 1894-97), Professor of
Political Economy in University College, London. St. John’s
College, Cambridge.

tFrain, Joseph, M.D. Grosyenor-place, Jesmond, Neweastle-upon-
Tyne.

Francis, Witt1aM, Ph.D., F.L.S.,F.G.8., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, E.C. ; and Manor House, Richmond, Surrey.

*FRANKLAND, Prrcy F., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres, BR, 1901). Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the University, Birmingham.

§Franklin, Mrs. E. L. 50 Porchester-terrace, W.

§Fraser, Alexander. 63 Church-street, Inverness.

*Fraser, Alexander, M.B., Professor of Anatomy in the Royal
College of Surgeons, Dublin.

}Fraser, Anevus, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1885), 282
Union-street, Aberdeen.

*Fraser, Joun, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.

{Fraser, Toomas R., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Materia
Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

tFrazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.

*Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Sc. (Univ. de France). Room 1042,
Drexel Building, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

*Fream, W., LL.D., B.Sc, F.L.S., F.G.S8., F.S.8. The Vinery,
Downton, Salisbury.

§Freeman, Francis Ford. Abbotsfield, Tavistock, South Devon,

*FREMANTLE, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. (Pres. F, 1892; Council
1897— ). 4 Lower Sloane-street, S.W.

tFrere, Rey. William Edward. The Rectory, Bitton, near Bristol.

{FRESHFIELD, Dovetas W., F.R.G.S. 1 Airlie-gardens, Campden
Hill, W,

§Frew, William, Ph.D. .11 Hillhead Street, Glasgow.

tFries, Harold H., Ph.D, 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A.

}Froehlich, The Cavaliere. Grosvenor Terrace, Withington, Man-
chester.

*Frost, Edmund, M.B. Chesterfield, Meads, Eastbourne.

§Frost, Edward P.,J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.

*Frost, Robert, B.Sc. 53 Victoria-road, W.

{Fry, Edward W. Cannon-street, Dover.

tFry, The Right Hon, Sir Epwarp, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S,A.
Failand House, Failand, near Bristol.

{Fry, Francis J. Leigh Woods, Clifton, Bristol.

*Fry, Joseph Storrs. 17 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.

tFryer, Alfred C., Ph.D. 18 Eaton-crescent, Clifton, Bristol.

}Fryer, Joseph, J.P. Smelt House, Howden-le-Wear, Co. Durham.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 39

Year of
Election.

1895.

1872.
1859.
1869.

1884.
1891.

1887.
1865.
1896.
1850.

1876.
1885.
1861.
1889.
1875.
1887.

1899.
1860,

1869,

1870.
1889.
1870.
1888.

1877.
1868.

1899.
1898.
1900.
1887.

1882.
1896.

1894

1884
1887

1882.
1878.

1888
1894

1874

1882.

.

{Furtarton, Dr. J. H. Fishery Board for Scotland, George-street,
Edinburgh.

*Fuller, Rev. A. 7 Sydenham-hill, Sydenham, 8.E.

tFurirr, Frepericr, M.A. (Local Sec. 1859). 9 Palace-road, Surbiton.

{Futxer, G., M.Inst.C.E. (Local See. 1874). 71 Lexham-gardens,
Kensington, W.

{Fuller, William, M.B. Oswestry.

tFulton, Andrew. 23 Park-place, Cardiff.

TGaddum, G. H. Adria House, Toy-lane, Withington, Manchester.

*Gainsford, W. D. Skendleby Hall, Spilsby.

tGair, H. W. 21 Water-street, Liverpool.

TGarrpyer, Sir W. T., K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 32 George
Square, Edinburgh.

tGale, James M. 23 Miller-street, Giascow.

*Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B.

tGalloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester,

tGalloway, Walter. Eichton Banks, Gateshead.

~Gattoway, W. Cardiff.

*Galloway, W. J., M.P. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford,
Manchester.

§Galton, Lady Douglas. Himbleton Manor, Droitwich.

*Gatton, Francis, M.A., D.C.L., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
(Gun. Suc. 1863-68; Pres. H, 1862, 1872; Pres. H, 1885;
Council 1860-63). 42 Rutland-gate, Knightsbridge, S.W.

tGatroy, Joun C., M.A., F.L.S. New University Club, St.
James’s-street, S. W.

§Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel Sir D., Bart., C.B. St. Helens, Lancashire,

tGamble,-David. Ratonagh, Colwyn Bay.

tGamble, J.C. St. Helens, Lancashire.

*GamBLE, J. Sykes, C.1.E., F.R.S., MA., F.L.S. Highfield, East
Liss, Hants.

tGamble, William. St. Helens, Lancashire.

tGamerr, Arruvre, M.D.. F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1882 ; Council 1888-90).
5 Avenue du Kursaal, Montreux, Switzerland.

*Garcke, H. Sunnyside, Bedford Park, Chiswick, W.

§Garde, Rey. C. L. Skenfrith Vicarage, near Monmouth.

§Gardiner, J. Stanley, M.A. Dunstall, Newton Road, Cambridge.

$Garpiner, Watrer, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. 45 Hills-road, Cam-
bridge.

*Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G.S. Fairmead, 46 The Goffs, Eastbourne.

{Gardner, James. The Groves, Grassendale, Liverpool.

tGardner, J. Addyman. 5 Bath-place, Oxford.

tGarpnur, JoHN Srarktp. 29 Albert Embankment, S.E.

t¢Garman, Samuel. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

*Garnett, Jeremiah. The Grange, Bromley Cross, near Bolton,

Lancashire.

fGarnett, William, D.C.L. London County Couneil, Spring-
gardens, S.W.

tGarnham, John. Hazelwood, Crescent-road, St. John’s, Brockley,
Kent, S.E.

{Garson, J.G.,M.D. 14 Stratford Place, W.

*Garstane, WALTER, M.A., F.Z.S. Marine Biological Laboratory,
Plymouth.

*Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B., M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellingham, Ireland.

40

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1882,
1892.
1889.

1870.
1870.
1896.

1896.
1862,

1890,
1875.

1892,

1871.

1883.

1885,
1887.
1867.

1871.

1898.
1882.
1875.

1885.
1884,
1884.
1865.
1874.
1892.

1901.
1876,

1896.

1892.
1884,
1889.
1893,
1887,

1898.
1884,
18853.
1857.
1884,
1895,

tGarton, William. Woolston, Southampton.

t{Garvie, James. Bolton’s Park, Potter’s Bar.

t{Garwoop, Professor EH. J., B.A., F.G.S. University College,
Gower Street, W.C.

tGaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.

*Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Bridge House, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*GasKELL, WatterR Horsroox, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I,
1896 ; Council 1898-1901). The Uplands, Great Shelford, near
Cambridge.

§Gatehouse, Charles. Westwood, Noctorum, Birkenhead.

*Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.LS., F.G.S. Fel-
bridge Place, East Grinstead, Sussex.

{Gaunt, Sir Edwin. Carlton Lodge, Leeds.

tGavey, J. Hollydale, Hampton Wick, Middlesex.

tGeddes, George H. 8 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh.

1Geddes, John, 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

tGeddes, John. 38 Portland-street, Southport.

tGuppzs, Professor Patrick. Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.

tGee, W. W. Haldane. Owens College, Manchester.

{Gxrrxie, Sir ArncurBaLD, LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S.
(PREsIDENT, 1892; Pres. C, 1867, 1871, 1899; Council 1888-91).
10 Chester-terrace, Regent’s-park, N. W.

tGerxtrz, James, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C,
1889 ; E, 1892), Murchison Professor of Geology and Mineralogy
in the University of Edinburgh. Kilmorie, Colinton-road, Edin-
burgh.

§Gemmill, James F., M.A., M.B. 16 Dargavel-avenue, Dumbreck,
Glasgow.

*GernmsE, R. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University Col-
lege, Aberystwyth.

*George, Rey. Hereford Brooke, M.A., F.R.G.S. Holywell Lodge,
Oxford.

tGerard, Robert. Blair-Devenick, Cults, Aberdeen.

*Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. 20 St. John-street, Oxford.

tGibb, Charles. Abbotsford, Quebec, Canada.

{Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham,

{Gibson, The Right Hon. Edward,K.C. 23 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

tGibson, Francis Maitland. Care of Professor Gibson, 20 George-
square, Edinburgh.

§Gibson, Professor George A., M.A. 103 Renfrew Street, Glasgow.

*Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 3 Drumsheugh
Gardens, Edinburgh.

{Grssoy, Harvey, M.A., Professor of Botany, University College,
Liverpool.

tGibson, James, 20 George Square, Edinburgh.

{Gibson, Rey. James J. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

*Gibson, T. G. Lesbury House, Lesbury, R.S.O., Northumberland.

{Gibson, Walcot, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

*Gurren, Sir Ropert, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.S.S. (Pres. F,
1887, 1901). Athenzeum Club, 8.W., and 40 Brunswick Road,
Hoye, Brighton,

*Gifford, J. William. Chard.

{Gilbert E. E. 245 St. Antoine-street, Montreal, Canada.

§Gilbert, Lady. Harpenden, near St. Albans.

Gilbert, J. T., M.R.I.A. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin.

*Gilbert, Philip H. 63 Tupper-street, Montreal, Canada.

tGilchrist, J. D. F. Caryenon Anstruther, Scotland.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 41

Year of

Electior.

1896. *Giicurist, Percy C., F.R.S.,M.Inst.C.E. Frognal Bank, Finchley-
road, Hampstead, N.W.

1878. {Giles, Oliver. Brynteg, The Crescent, Bromsgrove.

1871. *Gitt, Sir Davin, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal Ob-

1884,
1896.
1892,

1867.
1893.
1900.

1867.

1884.
1886.

1850.
1849.

1883.
1861.

1871.
1901.

1897.
1885.
1881.

1881.
1859.
1874.

1870.
1872.
1899.
1886,
1887.
1878.
1880.

1883.
1852.
1879.

1876.
1898.
1881.
1886,

1899.
1890.

servatory, Cape Town.

{tGillman, Henry. 150 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan, U.8.A.

tGilmour, H. B. Underlea, Aigburth, Liverpool.

*Gilmour, Matthew A. B., F.Z.8. Saffronhall House, Windmill-road,
Hamilton, N.B.

{Gilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.

*Gimingham, Edward. Cranbourne Mansions, Cranbourne Street, W.C.

§Ginsburg, Benedict W., M.A., LL.D. Royal Statistical Society,
9 Adelphi Terrace, W.C.

{Ginssure, Rey. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Holmlea, Virginia Water
Station, Chertsey.

tGirdwood, Dr.G. P. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.

*Gisborne, Hartley, M.Can.8.C.E. Caragana Lodge, Ladysmith,
Vancouver Island, Canada.

*Gladstone, George, F.R.G.S. 354 Denmark-villas, Hove, Brighton.
*QLaDstonzE, JoHN Hatz, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Pres. B,
1872, 1883; Council 1860-65). 17 Pembridge-square, W.

*Gladstone, Miss. 17 Pembridge-square, W.

*GLAISHER, JAMES, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Shola, Heathfield-road,
South Croydon,

*GuaisHer, J. W.L., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A, 1890 ;
Council 1878-86). Trinity College, Cambridge.

§Glaister, Professor John, M.D., F.R.S.E. 18 Woodside Place,
Glasgow.

tGlashan, J.C., LL.D. Ottawa, Canada.

tGlasson, L. T. 2 Roper-street, Penrith.

*GuazEBRoor, R. T., M.A., F.R.S., Director of the National Physical
Laboratory (Pres, A, 1893; Council 1890-94), Bushy
House, Teddington, Middlesex.

*Gleadow, Frederic. 38 Ladbroke-grove, W.

{Glennie, J. S. Stuart,M.A. Verandah Cottage, Haslemere, Surrey.

fGlover, George I’. Corby, Hoylake.

Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport.

tGlynn, Thomas R., M.D. 62 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

{GopparD, Ricwarp. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.

§Godfrey, Ingram F. Brook House, Ash, Dover.

tGodlee, Arthur. ‘The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.

{Godlee, Francis. 8 Minshall-street, Manchester.

*Godlee, J. Lister, 5 Clarence-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

tGopman, F. Du Canz, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 10 Chandos-
street, Cavendish-square, W.

tGodson, Dr. Alfred. Cheadle, Cheshire.

tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.

{Gopwiy-Avsren, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G:S.
F.Z.S. (Pres. E, 1883). Shalford House, Guildford.

tGoff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.

tGoldney, F. B. Goodnestone Park, Dover.

tGoxtpscumipt, Epwarp, J.P. Nottingham.

{Goxpsmip, Major-General Sir F. J., KOSI, CB, F.R.G.S.
(Pres. E, 1886), Godfrey House, Hollingbourne.

tGomume, G. L., F.S.A. 24 Dorset-square, N.W.

*Gonnpr, HE. C. K., M.A. (Pres. I’, 1897), Professor of Political
Economy in University College, Liverpool.

42

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1884,

1852,
1878.
1884..
1885,
1884.
1884,

1885.
1871.

1893.
1884.

1899,
1885,
1865,
1901,

1875.

1873.

1849.
1881.
1894,
1888,
1901.
1867.
1901.
1876,
1883.
1873.

1886.
1901.
1875.
1892.
1898.

1896.
1892.
1864.

1881.
1899.
1890,

1899.
1864,
1876,
1881.
1898,

tGood, Charles E. 102 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, |
Canada.

t{Goodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland.

TGoodbody, Jonathan, jun. 50 Dame-street, Dublin.

tGoodbody, Robert. J*airy Hill, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

tGoopman, J. D., J.P. Peachfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Goodridge, Richard E. W. Lupton, Michigan, U.S.A.

t{Goodwin, Professor W.L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.

tGordon, Rev. Cosmo, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Chetwynd Rectory,
Newport, Salop.

*Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne’s Mansions, West-
minster, 8. W.

tGordon, Mrs. M. M., D.Sc. 1 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

*Gordon, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. Fairview, Dartmouth,
Devon.

§Gordon, T. Kirkman. 15 Hampden Street, Nottingham.

tGordon, Rey. William. Braemar, N.B.

tGors, Groner, LL.D., F.R.S. 20 Easy-row, Birmingham.

§Gorst, Right Hon. Sir Jonn E., M.A., K.C., M.P., F.R.S. (Pres. L,
1901). Queen Anne’s Mansions, 8. W.

*Gorcu, Francis, M.A., B.Se., F.R.S. (Council, 1901- ). Pro-
fessor of Physiology in the University of Oxford. The Lawn,
Banbury-road, Oxford.

tGott, Charles, M.Inst.C.E. Parkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

tGough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.

tGough, Rev. Thomas, B.Sc. King Edward’s School, Retford.

tGould, G. M., M.D. 119 South 17th-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

tGouraud, Colonel. Gwydyr Mansions, Hove, Sussex.

§GourtAy, Rosurt. Glasgow.

tGourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee.

§Gow, Leonard. Hayston, Kelvinside, Glascow.

{Gow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill Gardens, Glasgow.

§Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill Gardens, Glasgow.

§Goyder, Dr: D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

tGrabham, Michael C., M.D. Madeira.

§Graham, Robert. 155 Nithsdale Road, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

tGraHAmME, JAMES (Local Sec. 1876). 12 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

tGrange, C. Emest. 57 Berners-street, Ipswich.

tGranger, Professor F. 8., M.A., D.Litt. 2 Cranmer-street,
Nottingham.

{Grant, Sir James, K.C.M.G. Ottawa, Canada.

tGrant, W. B. 10 Ann-street, Edinburgh.

{Grantham, Richard F., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S, Northumberland-cham-
bers, Northumberland-ayenue, W.C.

tGray, Alan, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

tGray, Albert Alexander. 16 Berkeley-terrace, Glasgow.

tGray, Anprew, M.A., LL.D., F.B.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow.

tGray, Charles. 11 Portland-place, W.

*Gray, Rev. Canon Charles. West Retford Rectory, Retford.

tGray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glasgow.

tGray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

tGray, J. C., General Secretary of the Co-operative Union, Limited,
Long Millgate, Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 43

Year of
Election.

1892.

1870.
1892.
1887.
1887.
1886.
1901,
1881.

1878.

1885.
1883.
1886.
1866.
1893.
1869.
1872.
1872.
1901.
1888.

1887.
1882.

1881.
1884,
1898.
1884.
1884.
1887.
1865.
1890.
1875.

1877.

1887.

1887.
1861.

1894,

1896.
1885,
1881,
18659.
1878.
1836,
1894,

1859.
1884,

1884.
1891.

*Gray, James Hunter, M.A., B.Sc. 141 Hopton Road, Streatham,
S.W.

tGray, J. Macfarlane. 4 Ladbrole-crescent, W.

§Gray, John, B.Sc. 351 Coldharbour-lane, Brixton, 8.W.

tGray, Joseph W., F.G.S. St. Elmo, Leckhampton-road, Cheltenham.

tGray, M. H., F.G.8. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

*Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

§Gray, R. W. 7 Orme Court, Bayswater, W.

t{Gray, Thomas, Professor of Engineering in the Rane Technical
Institute, Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.

{Gray, William, M.R.I.A. Glenburn Park, Belfast.

*Gray, Colonel Wizt1AM. Farley Hall, near Reading.

{Gray, William Lewis. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

tGray, Mrs. W. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

{Greaney, Rey. William. Bishop’s House, Bath-street, Birmingham,

§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby.

*Greaves, Mrs. Elizabeth. Station-street, Nottingham.

{Greaves, William. Station-street, Nottingham.

tGreaves, William. 33 Marlborough-place, N.W.

*Grece, Clair J.. LL.D. 146 Station Road, Redhill, Surrey.

§Green, Dr. Edridge. Hendon, N.W.

§Grepn, J. Reynotps, M.A., D.Sec., FR.S., F.L.8., Professor of
Botany to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.
Gla St. Andrews Street, Cambridge.

tGreene, Friese. 162 Sloane-street, S.W.

tGrnpnaiit, A. G., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
Royal Artillery College, Woolwich. 10 New Inn, W.C.

tGreenhough, Edward. Matlock Bath, Derbyshire.

{Greenish, Thomas, F.C.S. 20 New-street, Dorset-square, N. W.

*GrrEnty, Hpwarp. Achnashean, near Bangor, North Wales.

{Greenshields, E. B. Montreal, Canada.

tGreenshields, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.

tGreenwell, G. C., jun. Beechfield, Poynton, Cheshire.

{Greenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire.

{Greenwood, Arthur. Cavendish-road, Leeds.

tGreenwood, F., M.B, Brampton, Chesterfield.

tGreenwood, Holmes. 75 King Street, Accrington.

{tGreenwood, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Adderley Park Rolling Mills,
Birmingham.

*Greg, Arthur. Lagley, near Bolton, Lancashire.

*Gree, Ropert Purrirs, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-
ford, Herts.

*Grucory, Professor J. WALTER, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. Melbourne,
Australia.

*Gregory, R. A. 19 Westover Road, Wandsworth Common, 8.W

tGregson, G. HE. Ribble View, Preston.

tGregson, William, F.G.8. Baldersby, S.O., Yorkshire.

{Grisrson, THomas Bortz, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.

tGriffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin.

Gritin, 8. F. Albion Tin Works, York-road, N.

*Grifith, C. L. T., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Portland Cement Co.,
Demopolis, Alabama, U.S.A.

*GRIFFITH, G. (Asststant GENERAL SECRETARY, 1862-78, 1890- ;
Sec. 1881; Local Sec. 1860). College-road, Harrow, Middlesex.

{Grrrrirus, EH. H., M.A., F.R.S. University College, Cardiff.

tGriffiiths, Mrs. University College, Cardiff.

{Griffiths, P, Rhys, B.Se., M.B. 71 Newport-road, Cardiff.

44

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1847.

1870.
1888.

1884.

1894,

1894.
1896.
1892.
1891.
1863,
1869.

1897.
1897.
1886.
1891.
1887.

1842.
1891.
1877.

1866.

1894,
1880.
1885.
1896.
1876,

1884,
1884,
1881.

1842,
1888.

1892.
1870.
1879.
1899.
1879.
1881.
1854,

1898.
1899.
1885.
1900.
1896.
1884,

1896,

{Griffiths, Thomas. The Elms, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

{Grimsdale, T. F., M.D. Hoylake, Liverpool.

*Grimshaw, James Walter, M.Inst.C.E, Australian Club, Sydney,
New South Wales.

tGrinnell, Frederick. Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A.

tGroom, Professor P., M.A., F.L.S. Hollywood, Egham, Surrey.

§Groom, T. T., D.Sc. The Poplars, Hereford.

{Grossmann, Dr. Karl. 70 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

tGrove, Mrs, Lilly, F.R.G.S. Mason College, Birmingham.

tGrover, Henry Llewellin. Clydach Court, Pontypridd.

*Groves, THomas B. Broadley, Westerhall-road, Weymouth.

{Gruss, Sir Howarp, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 51 Kenilworth-square,
Rathgar, Dublin.

{Griinbaum, A. 8., M.A., M.D. 45 Ladbroke Grove, W.

tGrinbaum, O. F. F., B.A., D.Se. 45 Ladbroke Grove, W.

tGrundy, John. 17 Private-road, Mapperley, Nottingham.

tGrylls, W. London and Provincial Bank, Cardiff.

{GuirtemArD, F. H. H. Eltham, Kent.

Guinness, Henry. 17 College-creen, Dublin.

Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.

¢Gunn, Sir John. Llandaff House, Llandaff.

{Gunn, William, F'.G.S. Office of the Geological Survey of Scot-
land, Sherifi’s Court House, Edinburgh.

{Gtnruer, Arpert C. L. G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Pres.L.S.,
F.Z.8. (Pres. D, 1880). 22 Lichfield-road, Kew, Surrey.

{Giinther, R. T. Magdalen College, Oxford.

§Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea.

{Guthrie, Malcolm. Prince’s-road, Liverpool.

tGuthrie, Tom, B.Sc. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

+Gwyrner, R. F., M.A. Owens College and 33 Heaton Road,
Withington, Manchester.

tHaanel, E., Ph.D. Cobourg, Ontario, Canada.

Hadden, Captain C. F., R.A. Woolwich.

*Happon, Atrrep Corr, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.8. Inisfail, Hills-road,
Oambridge.

Hadfield, George. Victoria Park, Manchester.

*Hadfield, R. A., M.Inst.C.E. The Grove, Endcliffe Vale-road,
Sheffield.

tHaigh, E., M.A. Longton, Staffordshire.

tHaigh, George. 27 Highfield South, Rockferry, Cheshire. ;

{Haxz, H. Witson, Ph.D., F.C.S. Queenwood College, Hants,

§Hall, A. D. South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

*Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Shettield.

{Hall, Frederick Thomas, F.R.A.S. 15 Gray’s Inn-square, W.C.

*Hatt, Huen Ferrer, F.G.S. Cowley House, Headington Hill,
Oxford.

§Hall, J.P. The ‘Tribune, New York, U.S.A.

§Hall, John, M.D. National Bank of Scotland, 37 Nicholas-lane, E.C.

§Hall, Samuel, F.1.C., F.C.S. 19 Aberdeen-park, Highbury, N.

{Hall, T. Farmer, F.R.G.S. 89 Gloucester Square, Hyde Park, W.

tHall, Thomas B. Larch Wood, Rockferry, Cheshire.

{Hall, Thomas Proctor. School of Practical Science, Toronto,
Canada.

{Hall-Dare, Mrs, Caroline. 13 Great Cumberland-place, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 45

Year of
Election.

1891.
1891.
1878.
1888.

1858,
1885.
1885.
1902.
1881.
1899.
1892.
1878.
1875.

1897.

1861.
1890.
1884.
1894,
1886,
1859,

1890.
1900.
1886.
1892.
1877.

1869,
_ 1894,

1894,
1894.
1898.

1858,
1883.
1883.

1890.
1881.
1890.
1896,

1887.
1878.

1871.
1875.

1877.
1883.
1883.
1862.

*Hallett, George. Cranford, Victoria-road, Penarth, Glamorganshire,

§Hallett, J. H., M.Inst.C.E. Maindy Lodge, Cardiff.

*Hatrerr, T.G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.

§Hatireurton, W. D., M.D., F.R.S. (Council 1897- -), Professor
of Physiology in King’s College, London, Church Cottage, 17
Marylebone-road, W.

Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.

*Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S, Fairley, Weston, Bath.

*Hamel, Egbert D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.

tHamilton, David James. 41 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.

§§Hamitton, Rey. T., D.D. (Vice-PresrpEnt, 1902). Belfast.

*Hammond, Robert. 64 Victoria-street, Westminster, S. W.

*Hanbury, Daniel. La Mortola, Ventimiglia, Italy.

tHanbury, Thomas, F.L.S. La Mortola, Ventimiglia, Italy.

tHance, Edward M., LL.B. Municipal Offices, Liverpool.

tHancock, C. F., M.A. 125 Queen’s-gate, S.W.

{tHanccon, Harris. University of Chicago, U.S.A.

tHancock, Walter. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, E.C.

tHankin, Ernest Hanbury. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Hannaford, HK. P.,M.Inst.C.E. 2578 St. Catherine-street, Montreal.

§Hannah, Robert, F.G.8. 82 Addison-road, W.

§Hansford, Charles, J.P. Englefield House, Dorchester.

*Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S,
(Gen. Sec. 1883-97; Pres. B, 1875; Council 1881-83).
Cowley Grange, Oxford.

“Harcourt, L. F. Vernon, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1895;
Council 1895-1901). 6 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.

§Harcourt, Hon. R., K.C., Minister of Education for the Province of
Ontario, Toronto, Canada.

*Hardcastle, Basil W., F.S.S, 12 Gainsborough-gardens, Hampstead,
N.W.

*Harpen, Artuur, Ph.D., M.Sc. Jenner Institute of Preventive

Medicine, Chelsea Gardens, Grosvenor Road, S.W.

{Harding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.

THarding, William D. Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk.

tHardman, 8. C. 225 Lord-street, Southport.

tHare, A. T., M.A. Neston Lodge, East Twickenham, Middlesex,

tHare, Mrs. Neston Lodge, Hast Twickenham, Middlesex.

{Harford, W. H. Oldown House, Almondsbury,.

tHarerave, James. Burley, near Leeds.

{Hargreaves, Miss H. M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

tHargreaves, Thomas. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

tHargrove, Rev. Charles. 10 De Grey-terrace, Leeds.

tHargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York.

*Harker, ALFRED, M.A., #.G.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Harker, Dr. John Allen. Springfield House, Stockport.

tHarker, T. H. Brook House, Fallowfield, Manchester.

*Harkness, H. W., M.D. California Academy of Sciences, San
Francisco, California, U.S.A.

{Harkness, William, F.C.S. 1 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, N.

*Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.A. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.

*Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton.

*Harley, Miss Clara. Rosslyn, Westhourne-road, Forest Hill, S.E.

*Harley, Harold. 14 Chapel-street, Bedford-row, W.C. ;

“Harter, Rey. Roper, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.AS. Rosslyn, West-
bourne-road, Forest Hill, S.E.

46

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1899.
1868.
1881.

1872.
1884.

1888.
1842.
1889.

1898.

1888.
1860.
1889.
1858.
1892.

1870.

1853.
1892.
1895.
1901.
1886.

1885.
1876.
1875.
1895.
1897.
1871.

1896.
1886.
1887.
1897.
1898.
1885.
1862.
1884.
1895.
1875.
1889.
1893.
1887.
1872.
1864.

1897.
1884.
1889,
1887.

tHarman, Dr. N. Bishop. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*Harmer, F. W., F.G.8. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.

*Harmer, Sipney F., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. King’s College, Cam-
bridge.

tHarpley, Rev. William, M.A. Clayhanger Rectory, Tiverton.

{Harrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Mineralogy in McGill University, Montreal. University-street,
Montreal, Canada.

tHarris,C.T. 4 Kilburn Priory, N.W.

*Harris, G@. W., M.Inst.C.E. Millicent, South Australia.

§Harris, H. Grawam, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, West-
minster, S.W.

tHarrison, A. J.. M.D. Failand Lodge, Guthrie-road, Clifton,
Bristol.

tHarrison, Charles. 20 Lennox-gardens, 8.W.

tHarrison, Rey. Francis, M.A. North Wraxall, Chippenham,

tHarrison, J. C. Oxford House, Castle-road, Scarborough.

*Harrison, J. Park, M.A. 22 Connaught-street, Hyde Park, W.

tHarrison, Joun (Local Sec. 1892). Rockville, Napier-road,
Edinburgh.

tHarrison, Ruarnatp, F.R.C.S. (Local See. 1870). 6 Lower
Berkeley-street, Portman-square, W.

tHarrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull.

tHarrison, Rev.S. N. Ramsey, Isle of Man.

tHarrison, Thomas. 48 High-street, Ipswich.

*Harrison, W. E. 45 Mostyn Road, Handsworth, Staffordshire.

tHarrison, W. Jerome, F.G.S. Board School, Icknield-street, Bir-
mingham.

tHart, Col. C. J. Highfield Gate, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

*Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn.

tHart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.

*Harrnanp, H. Srpney, F.S.A. Highgarth, Gloucester.

{Hartley, E.G.S. Wheaton Astley Hall, Stafford.

*Harriey, Watter Nost, F.R.S., F.R.S.H., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. 36 Water-
loo-road, Dublin.

tHartley, W. P., J.P. Aintree, Liverpool.

*Hartoae, Professor M. M., D.Sc. Queen’s College, Cork.

t{Hartoe, P. J., B.Sc. Owens College, Manchester.

tHarvey, Arthur. Rosedale, Toronto, Canada.

tHarvey, Eddie. 10 The Paragon, Clifton, Bristol.

§Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B.

*Harwood, John. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-Moors.

tHaslam, Rev. George, M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.

§Haslam, Lewis. 44 Evelyn-cardens, 8.W.

*Hastines, G. W. Elm Lodge, Dartford Heath, Bexley, Kent.

{Hatch, F. H., Ph.D., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

tHatton, John L. 8S. People’s Palace, Mile End-road, E.

*Hawkins, William. WHarlston House, Broughton Park, Manchester.

*Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St. James’s, 8.W.

*HawksHaw, JoHN Crarkn, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. (Council
1881-87). 22 Down-street, W., and 83 Great George-
street, S.W.

§Hawksley, Charles. 60 Porchester-terrace, W.

*Haworth, Abraham. MHilston House, Altrincham.

{Haworth, George C. Ordsal, Salford.

*Haworth, Jesse, Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.

a

LIST OF MEMBERS, 47

Year of
Election.

1887.
1886.
1890.
1861.

1885.

1891.
1900,
1894,
1896.
1896.
1873.
1898.
1858.
1896,
1879.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1882.
1877.
1877.
1883.
1898.
1898.
1884,
1883.
1892.

1889.
1884.

1888.
1888.

1855.
1887.
1881,

1901.
1887.
1897.
1899.
1867.
1873.
1883.
1901,
1891,

tHaworth, 8. E. Warsley-road, Swinton, Manchester.

ft Haworth, Rev. T. J. Albert Cottage, Saltley, Birmingham.

tHawtin, J. N. Sturdie House, Roundhay-road, Leeds.

“Hay, Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Jonny C. D. Bart., K.O.B.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, S.W.

*Hayorarr, Joun Berry, M.D., B.Se., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physi-
ology, University College, Cardiff.

tHayde, Rev. J. St. Peter's, Cardiff.

§Hayden, H. H. Geological Survey, Calcutta, India.

tHayes, Edward Harold. 5 Rawlinson-road, Oxford.

{Hayes, Rev. F.C. The Rectory, Raheny, Dublin.

tHayes, William. Fernyhurst, Rathgar, Dublin.

*Hayes, Rev. William A., M.A. Dromore, Co. Down, Ireland.

tHayman, C. A. Kingston Villa, Richmond Hill, Clifton, Bristol.

*Haywarp, R. B., M.A., F.R.S. Ashcombe, Shanklin, Isle of Wight.

*Haywood, A. G. Rearsby, Merrilocks-road, Blundellsands.

*Hazelhurst, George 8. The Grange, Rockferry.

tHeadley, Frederick Haleombe. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.

tHeadley, Mrs. Marian. Manor House, Petersham, 8.W.

tHeadley, Rev. Tanfield George. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.

tHeape, Charles. Tovrak, Oxton, Cheshire.

{tHeape, Joseph R. Glebe House, Rochdale,

“Heape, Walter, M.A. Heyroun, Chaucer-road, Cambridge.

tHearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth.

{Hearder, William Keep. 195 Union-street, Plymouth,

tHeath, Dr. 46 Hoghton-street, Southport.

*Heath, Arthur J. 10 Grove Road, Redland, Bristol.

tHuatu, R.S., M.A., D.Sc. The University, Birmingham.

{Heath, Thomas, B.A. Royal Observatory, Edinburgh.

tHeaton, Charles. Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport.

“Heaton, Wiitiam H., M.A. (Local Sec. 1893), Professor of
Physics in University College, Nottingham.

*Heaviside, Arthur West. 7 Grafton-road, Whitley, Newcastle-upon-

ne.

gHeavixide, Rev. George, B.A., F.R.G.8., F.R.Hist.S. 7 Grosvenor-
street, Coventry.

*Heawood, Edward, M.A. 3 Underhill-road, Lordship-lane, S.E.

*Heawood, Percy J., Lecturer in Mathematics at Durham University.
41 Old Elvet, Durham.

tHecror, Sir Jamus, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the

Geological Survey of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand.

*Hupees, Kinrineworru, M.Inst.C.£. Wootton Lodge, 39 Streat-
ham-hill, 8. W.

*Hetz-Suaw, H. 8., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engi-
neering in University College, Liverpool. 27 Ullet-road,
Liverpool.

§Heller, W. M., B.Sc. 18 Belgrave Square, Monkstown, Co, Dublin,

§Hembry, Frederick William, F.R.M.S. Langford, Sideup, Kent.

§Hemming, G. W., K.C, 2 Harl’s Court-square, 8. W.

§Hemsalech,G. A. 42 Museum Street, W.C.

tHenderson, Alexander. Dundee.

*Henderson, A. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

{Henderson, Mrs. A. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex,

§Henderson, Rey. Andrew, LL.D. Castle Head, Paisley.

*Henverson, G.G., D.Sc., M.A.,F.C.S., F.L.C., Professor of Chemistry
in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. 204
George-street, Glasgow.

48 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1892. Henderson, John. 38 St. Catherine-place, Grange, Edinburgh.

1885. {Henderson, Sir William. Devanha House, Aberdeen.

1880, *Henderson, Rear-Admiral W. H., R.N. United Service Club, Pall

Mall, S.W.

1896. tHenderson, W. Saville, B.Sc. Beech Hill, Fairfield, Liverpool.

1856. {Hennessy, Henry G., F.RS., M.R.LA. Palazzo Ferruzzi,
Zattere, Venice.

1873, *HeEwricr, Oraus M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1883; Council,
1883-89), Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the City
and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-
road, 8.W. 34 Clarendon-road, Notting Hill, W.

Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester.
Henry, Mitchell. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, W.

1892. t{Hepsurn, Davin, M.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Edinburgh.

1855. *Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Oakfield Cottage, Dartford
Heath, Kent.

1855. tHepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, W.

1890. {Hepper, J. 45 Cardigan-road, Headingley, Leeds.

1890. tHepworth, Joseph. 25 Wellington-street, Leeds.

1892. *HeRBERTSON, ANDREW J., Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 25 Norham
Road, Oxford.

1887. *Herpman, Wittiam A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S8. (Pres. D,
1895; Council, 1894-1900; Local Sec. 1896), Professor of
Natural History in University College, Liverpool. Croxteth

' Lodge, Sefton Parl, Liverpool.

1893. *Herdman, Mrs. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

1891. {Hern, 8. South Cliff, Marine Parade, Penarth.

1871. *HerscHeL, ALEXANDER §., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Honorary
Professor of Physics and Experimental Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Durham. Observatory House, Slough, Bucks.

1874, §HerscHEL, Colonel Jonny, R.E., F.RS., F.R.A.S. Observatory
House, Slough, Bucks.

1900. *Herschel, J.C. W. Littlemore, Oxford.

1900. tHerschel, Sir W. J., Bart. Littlemore, Oxford.

1895. §Hesketh, James. Scarisbrick Avenue-buildings, 107 Lord-street,
Southport.

1894, {Hewerson, G. H. (Local Sec. 1896). 89 Henley-road, Ipswich.

1894. {Hewins, W. A.S., M.A., F.S.8. Professor of Political Economy in
Kino’s College, Strand, W.C. .

1896. §Hewitt, David Basil. Oakleigh, Northwich, Cheshire.

1898. tHewitt, Thomas P. Eccleston Park, Prescot, Lancashire.

1883. {Hewson, Thomas. Junior Constitutional Club, Piccadilly, W.

1882. {Hnycocx, Cuartes T., M.A., F.R.S. King’s College, Cambridge.

1883. §Heyes, Rev. John Frederick, M.A., F.R.G.S. 90 Arkwright Street,
Bolton.

1866. *Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.

1897. t{Heys, Thomas. 180 King-street West, Toronto, Canada.

1901. *Heys, Z. John. Stonehouse, Barrhead, N.B.

1879. {Heywood, Sir A. Percival, Bart. Duffield Bank, Derby.

1886. {Hrywoop, Henry, J.P., F.C.S. Witla Court, near Cardiff.

1887. {Heywood, Robert. Mayfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.

1888. {Hichens, James Harvey, M.A., F.G.S. The School House, Wolver-
hampton.

1898. §Hicks, Henry B. 44 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1877. §Hicks, Professor W. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., (Pres. A, 1895y,

Principal of University College, Dunheved, Endcliffe Crescent,
Sheffield,

Yeur of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 49

Election.

1886.
1834,
1887.

1864,

1891.

1894,
1885.

1898.

1881.
1887.
1884.
1886.
1885,

1898.

1888.
1876.
1885.

1886.
1863.
1887.
1870.

1883.
1888.
1898,
1886.

1881.
1884.

1900.
1884.
1899.
1879.

1887.
1883.
1883.
1885,
1877.
1876.
1865.
1887.

1896.
1880,

t{Hicks, Mrs. W. M. Dunheved, Hndcliffe-crescent, Sheffield.

tHickson, Joseph. 272 Mountain-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Hickson, Sypney J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in
Owens College, Manchester. :

*Hrern, W.P., M.A. The Castle, Barnstaple.

tHices, Henry, LL.B., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1899). HL.M. Treasury,
Whitehall, 8. W. ‘

THill, Rev. A. Du Boulay. East Bridgford Rectory, Nottingham.

*Hixi, Arexanper, M.A., M.D. Downing College, Cambridge.

THill, Charles. Clevedon.

*Hill, Rev. Canon Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory,

Harlow.

*Hitt, Rev. Epwin, M.A. The Rectory, Cockfield, Bury St.
Edmunds.

{Hill, G. H., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Albert-chambers, Albert-square,
Manchester.

{Hill, Rev. James Edgar, M.A., B.D. 2488 St. Catherine-street,
Montreal, Canada.

tHirt, M. J. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics
in University College, W.C.

*Hill, Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.

*Hill, Thomas Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.

{Hill, William. Hitchin, Herts.

THill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B.

*HiniHovse, WILLIAM, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Mason
Science College. 16 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

§Hillier, Rev. E. J. Cardington Vicarage, near Bedford.

tHills, F.C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, S.E.

tHilton, Edwin. Oak Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.

jHinpg, G. J., Ph.D., F.RS., F.G.S. Ivythorn, Avondale-road,
South Croydon, Surrey.

*Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington.

*Hindmarsh, William Thomas, F.L.S. Alnbank, Alnwick.

§Hinds, Henry. 57 Queen-street, Ramsgate.

tHingley, Sir Benjamin, Bart. Hatherton Lodge, Cradley, Wor-
cestershire.

tHingston, J.T. Clifton, York.

{tHineston, Sir WittiAM Hatzs, M.D., D.C.L. 387 Union-ayenue,
Montreal, Canada. j

§Hinks, Arthur R., M.A. 10 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge.

tHirschfilder, C. A. Toronto, Canada.

§Hobday, Henry. Hazelwood, Crabble Hill, Dover.

tHobkirk, Charles P., F.L.S. The Headlands, Scotland-lane, Hors-
forth, near Leeds.

*Hobson, Bernard, B.Sc., F.G.S. Thornton, Parkfield Road, Didsbury.

tHobson, Mrs. Carey. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington, W.

tHobson, Rev. E. W. 55 Albert-road, Southport.

{ Hocking, Rev. Silas K. 21 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.

tHodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth,

tHodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast.

*Hopexin,THomas, B.A.,D.C.L. Benwell Dene, N ewcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer on Laryngology at
Owens College, Manchester. 18 St. John-street, Manchester,

tHodgkinson, Arnold. 16 Albert-road, Southport.

Ansa ee W. R. Eaton, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of

hemistry and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Woolwich.

18 Glencoe-road, Blackheath, 8.E.

1901, D

50

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1884.
1863.
1898.
1896.

1894,
1894.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1884.

1887.

1896.
1900,

1887.
1891.

1879.
1896.
1898.
1889.
1836.

1883.

1885.
1866.
1892.
1882.
1896.
1897.
1891.
1875.
1847.

1892.

1865.
1877.

1856.

1901.
1884.

1882.

1871.

1858.
1891.
1898,

1885.

1875.

1884.
1887.

1898.
1884.

t{Hodgson, Jonathan. Montreal, Canada.

tHodgson, R. W. 7 Sandhill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Hodgson, T, V. Municipal Museum and Art Gallery, Plymouth.

tHodgson, Dr. Wm., J.P. Helensville, Crewe.

tHogs, A. F., M.A. 18 Victoria-road, Darlington.

fHolah, Ernest. 5 Crown-court, Cheapside, EC.

{ Holden, Edward. Laurel Mount, Shipley, Yorkshire.

{Holden, James. 12 Park-avenue, Southport.

tHolden, John J. 23 Duke-street, Southport.

{Holden, Mrs. Mary K. Dunham Ladies’ College, Quebec, Canada.

*Holder, Henry William, M.A. Sheet, near Peterstield.

tHolder, Thomas. 2 Tithebarn-street, Liverpool.

§Hoxpicg, Col. Sir Toomas H., R.E., K.C.1.E. Army and Navy Club,

36 Pall Mall, S.W.

*Holdsworth, C.J. Sunnyside, Wilmslow, Cheshire,

tHolgate, Benj., F.G.S. The Briars, North Park Avenue, Roundhay,
Leeds.

tHolland, Calvert Bernard. Hazel Villa, Thicket-road, Anerley, S.E.

§Holland, Mrs. Lowfields House, Hooton.

tHolland, Thomas H., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Calcutta.

{Hollinder, Bernard, M.D. [King’s College, Strand, W.C.

tHolliday, J. R. 101 Harborne-road, Birmingham.

tHollingsworth, Dr. T. 8. Elford Lodge, Spring Grove, Isleworth.

*Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 5 Freeland-road, Ealing, Middlesex, W.

*Holmes, Charles. 24 Aberdare-g gardens, West Hampstead, N. W.

tHolmes, Matthew. Netherby, Lenzie, Scotland.

*Hormnas, THomAs VINCENT, F'.G.S. 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich, 8.E, -

{Holt, William Henry. 11 Ashville-road, Birkenhead.

tHolterman, R. F. Brantford, Ontario, Canada.

*Hood, Archibald, M.Inst.C.E. Sherwood, Cardiff.

*Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester.

{Hooxer, Sir Josrpu Daron, G.O.S.L, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. (Presment, 1868; Pres. E,
1881 ; Council 1866-67). The Camp, Sunningdale, Berkshire.

tHooxer, Reeinatp H., M.A. 38 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C.

*Hooper, John P. Deepdene, Rutford-road, Streatham, 8. W.

*Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. lLydlinch Rectory, Sturminster
Newton, Dorset.

tHooton, Jonathan. 116 Great Ducie-street, Manchester.

*Hopkinson, Bertram, M.A. Holmwood, Wimbledon.

*HoPKINSON, CHARLES (Local Sec. 1887). The Limes, Didsbury,
near Manchester.

*Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. Oakleigh, Timperley, Cheshire.

*Horxinson, Jonny, F.L. g., F, Gs S., F.R.Met.Soc. 84 New Bond
Street, W.; ; and Westwood, St. ’ Albans.

Hopkinson, Joseph, jun, Britannia Works, Huddersfield.

tHorder, T. Garrett. 10 Windsor-place, Cardiff,

*Hornby, R., M.A. King William’s College, Isle of Man.

{Hornn, Joun, F.R.S., F.RS.E,, F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1901). Geological
Survey Olfice, Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.

*Horniman, F. J., M.P., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Falmouth House, 20
Hyde Park-terrace, W.

*Horsfall, Richard. Stoodley House, Halifax.

tHorsfall, T. ©. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield. ;

*Horstpy, Professor VicToR te H., BSe.,. FRSy FRGSg
(Council 1893-98.) 25 Cavendish-square, W.

*Hotblack, G.S. Brundall, Norwich.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 51

Year of
Election.

1899. {Hotblack, J.T. 45 Newmarket-road, Norwich.

1859
1896
1886

1887
1896

1901.
1884.
1884.
1865.

1863.

1883.
1883.
1887.
1888.
1898.

1888.
1867,

18658.

1887.
1883.
1871.

1887.
1896.
1891.
1868.

1884,
1888.

1893.
1883,
1887.
1899.

1901.
1886.
1876.
1899.
1889,

1857.
1898.
1891.

1886,

tHough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton,

*Hough, 8.8. Royal Observatory, Cape Town.

tHoughton, F.T.8., M.A., F.G.S. 188 Hagley-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

{Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart., M.P. Norbury Booths, Knutsford.

tHoult, J. South Castle-street, Liverpool.

tHouston, William. Legislative Library, Toronto, Canada.

*Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.8., F.G.S. Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road,
West Dulwich, Surrey, S.E.

t{Howard, F. T., M.A., F.G.S. University Collere, Cardiff.

tHoward, James Fielden, M.D., M.R.C.S. Sandycroft, Shaw.

*Howard, S. 8. 58 Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent.

§Howard-Hayward, H. Harbledown, 120 Queen’s-road, Richmond,

Surrey.

§Howarth, E. Public Museum, Weston Park, Sheffield.

{tHowatt, David. 3 Birmingham-road, Dudley.

THowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.

tHowden, Ian D.C. 6 Cambridge-terrace, Dover.

{Howden, Robert, M.B., Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Durham College of Medicine, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{tHowell, Henry H., F.G.8. 18 Cobden Crescent, Edinburgh.

tHowell, J. H. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

tHowell, Rev. William Charles, M.A. Holy Trinity Parsonage, High
Cross, Tottenham, Middlesex.

§Howss, G. B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Professor of Zoology in the
Royal College of Science, South Kensington, 8. W.

§Howie, Robert Y. 41 Mill Road, Paisley.

tHowland, Edward P.,M.D. 211 414-street, Washington, U.S.A.

{Howland, Oliver Aiken. Toronto, Canada.

*Howtert, Rey. Freprericr, F.R.A.S. 7 Prince’s Buildings, Clifton,
Bristol.

tHowortg, Sir H. H., K.C.LE., M.P., D.C.L, F.RS., F.S.A.
30 Collingham-place, Cromwell-road, 8.W.

{Howorth, John, J.P. Springbank, Burnley, Lancashire.

tHoyle, James. Blackburn.

§Horzrz, WittrAm E., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.

tHudd, Alfred E., F.S.A. 94 Pembroke-road, Olifton, Bristol.

§Hupreston, W. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1898).
8 Stanhope-gardens, 5. W.

{Hupson, C. T., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Hillside, Clarence Road,

Shanklin, Isle of Wight.

*Hupson, Wiitr1aAm H. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in King’s
College, London. 15 Altenberg-gardens, Clapham Common,
S.W.

*Huecrns, Sir Wittram, K.C.B., D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb.,
Pres.R.S., F.R.A.S. (PResrpent, 1891; Council, 1868-74,
1876-84). 90 Upper Tulse-hill, 8. W.

{tHughes, E.G. 4 Roman-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester,

tHughes, Miss EK. P. Cambridge Teachers’ College, Cambridge.

*Hughes, George Pringle, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
berland.

tHughes, John Taylor. Thorleymoor, Ashley-road, Altrincham.

{tHughes, John W. New Heys, Allerton, Liverpool.

tHughes, Thomas, F.0.8S. 31 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.

§Hueuns, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of
Geology inthe University of Cambridge. 18 Hills-road, Cambridge.

D2

52

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1891.
1867,

1897.
1901.
1887.
1890

1878.
1880.

1877.
1891.
1886.
1891.

1875.
1881.
1889.
1901.
1881
1884.
1901.
1879.

1885.

1863.
1898.
1869.
1882.
1861.

1887.
1882.
1894,

1864.
1887.
1901.
1883.
1871.

1900.

1883.

1884.
1885.
1888.

tHughes, Rev. W. Hawker. Jesus College, Oxford.

§Hutt, Evwarp, M.A., LL.D. F.RS., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1874).
20 Arundel-gardens, Notting Hill, W.

{Hume, J. G., M.A., Ph.D. 650 Church-street, Toronto, Canada.

§Hume, John. 63 Bridgegate, Irvine.

*HummeEt, Protessor J. J. 152 Woodsley-road, Leeds.

{Humphrey, Frank W. 638 Prince’s-gate, 8. W.

t{Humphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon.

{Humphreys, Noel A., F.S.S. Ravenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on-
Thames.

*Hount, Artuur Roops, M.A., F.G.S. Southwood, Torquay.

*Hunt, Cecil Arthur. Southwood, Torquay.

tHent, Charles. The Gas Works, Windsor-street, Birmingham.

SILT re de Vere, M.D. Westbourne-crescent, Sophia-gardens,

ardiff.

*Hunt, William. North Cote, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.

tHunter, F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

{Hunter, Mrs. F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

§Hunter, G. M., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E, Honda, Colombia, S, America,

tHunter, Rev. John, University-gardens, Glasgow.

*Hunter, Michael. Greystones, Sheffield.

*Hunter, William. Evirallan, Stirling.

{Huntiveton, A.K.,F.C.S., Professor of Metallurgy in King’s College
Ww C toh]

{Huntly, The Most Hon. the Marquess of. Aboyne Castle, Aber-
deenshire.

{Huntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.

tHurle, J. Cooke. Southfield House, Brislington, Bristol,

tHurst, George. Bedford.

*Hurst, Walter, B.Sc. Kirkgate, Tadcaster, Yorkshire.

*Hurst, William John. Drumaness, Ballynahinch, Co. Down,
Treland.

t{Husband, W. E. 56 Bury New-road, Manchester.

{ Hussey, Major E. R., RE, 24 Waterloo-place, Southampton.

*Hutchinson, A. Pembroke College, Cambridge.

Hutton, Crompton. Harescombe Grange, Stroud, Gloucestershire,
*Autton, Darnton. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.
*Hutton, J. Arthur. The Woodlands, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
*Hutton, R.S., M.Se. The Owens College, Manchester,
tHyde, George H. 238 Arbour-street, Southport.

“yett; pong A. Painswick House, Painswick, Stroud, Glouces-
ershire.
*Hyndman, H. H. Francis. Physical Laboratory, Leiden, Netherlands,

§Idris, T. H. W. Pratt-street, Camden Town, N.W.
Ihne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.
*Iles, George. 5 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada.
tim-Thurn, Everard F., C.B., C.M.G., M.A. British Guiana.
*Ince, Surgeon-Lieut.-Col. John, M.D. Montague House, Swanley,
Kent. 1

. tIngham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds,

. {Ingle, Herbert. Pool, Leeds.

. §Ineris, Joun, LL.D. 4 Prince’s Terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
. {Ingram, Lieut.-Colonel C. W. Bradford-place, Penarth.

fIneram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Senior Lecturer in the Univer-
sity of Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 63

Year of
Election.

1885.
1886.
1898.
1901.
1892.
1892.
1892.
1882.

1888.
1883.

1859.
1884,
1876.

1901.
1883.

1874,

1883.
18835.
1899.
1885.
1868,
1897.
1898.
1869.
1887.

1874.
1891].
1891.
1891.
1860.
1886.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1896.
1858.
1896,
1884,
1881.

1885.
1859.
1889,

1896.
1870.
1891,
1855.

tIngram, William, M.A. Gamrie, Banff.

tInnes, John. The Limes, Alcester Road, Moseley, Birmingham.

{Inskip, James. Clifton Park, Clifton, Bristol.

*Tonides, Stephen. 23 Second Avenue, Hove, Brighton.

{reland, D. W. 10 South Gray Street, Edinburgh.

thvine, James. Devonshire-road, Birkenhead.

fIrvine, Robert, F.R.S.E. Royston, Granton, Edinburgh.

§Irvine, Rey. A., B.A., D.Sc. Hockerill Vicarage, Bishop’s Stort-
ford, Herts.

*Tsaac, J. I’. V., B.A. Royal York Hotel, Brighton.

fIsherwood, James, 18 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

tJack, John, M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.

tJack, Peter. People’s Bank, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

*Jack, WittiAM, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Glasgow. 10 The College, Glascow.

§Jacks, William, LL.D. Crosslet, Dumbartonshire.

*Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Sc. 358 Collins-street, Melbourne,
Australia.

*Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Penalya Ranche, Millarville, Alberta,
Calgary, N.W.T., Canada.

*Jackson, F. J. 42 Whitworth-street, Manchester.

{Jackson, Mrs. I. J. 42 Whitworth-street, Manchester.

§Jackson, Geoflrey A. 31 Harrington-gardens, Kensington, S.W.

tJackson, Henry. 19 Golden-square, Aberdeen,

tJackson, H. W., F.R.A.S. 67 Upgate, Louth, Lincolnshire.

§Jackson, James, F.R.Met.Soc. The Avenue, Girvan, N.B.

*Jackson, Sir John. 3 Victoria-street, S.W.

§Jackson, Moses, J.P. The Orchards, Whitchurch, Hants.

§Jacobson, Nathaniel. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Man-
chester.

*Jaffe, John. Villa Jaffe, 38 Prom. des Anglais, Nice, France.

{James, Arthur P. Grove House, Park-grove, Cardiff.

*James, Charles Henry. 64 Park-place, Cardiff.

*James, Charles Russell. 6 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

tJames, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth.

{James, Frank. Portland House, Aldridge, near Walsall.

tJames, Ivor. University College, Cardiff.

{James, John Herbert. Howard House, Arundel-street, Strand, W.C.

tJames, J. R., L.R.C.P. 158 Cowbridge-road, Canton, Cardiff.

{James,O.S. 192 Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada,

tJames, William C. Woodside, Plymouth.

*Jameson, H. Lyster. Killencoole, Castlebellingham, Ireland.

tJameson, W. C. 48 Baker-street, Portman-square, W.

fJamieson, Andrew, Principal of the College of Science and Arts,
Glasgow.

{Jamieson, Thomas. 173 Union-street, Aberdeen.

*Jamieson, Thomas F., LL.D., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire.

“Japp, F. R., M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1898), Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the University of Aberdeen.

*Jarmay, Gustav. Hartford Lodge, Hartford, Cheshire.

{Jarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.

{Jefferies, Henry. Plas Newydd, Park-road, Penarth.

*Jeffray, John. 9 Winton-drive, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

1897. {Jeffrey, E. C., B.A. The University, Toronto, Canada.

1867,

{Jeffreys, Howel, M.A. 61 Bedford-gardens, Kensington, W.

54

Year of
Election
1894.
1891.

1875.
1880.
1899.
1852.
1898,
1897,

1899,
1887.

1889.
1900.
1884.

1891,
1884.
i884,

1885.
1885.
1865.
1888,
1870.
1863.
1881,
1890.

1898.
1887,
1883.
1883.
1861.

1899.
1883.

1859,
1864,
1884.
1883

1884.
1884.
1885.

1886.
1871.
1888,
1896.
1888.

1898.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

fJelly, Dr. W. Aveleanas, 11, Valencia, Spain.

SJenkins, Henry C., Assoc.M.Inst.0.E., F.C.8. Royal College of
Science, South Kensington, 8. W.

§Jenkins, Major-General J. J. 16 St. James’s-square, 8. W.

*Jenqins, Sir Jonnw Jones. The Grange, Swansea,

§Jenkins, Colonel T. M. Glan Tivy, Westwood-road, Southampton.

{Jennings, Francis M., M.R.LA. Brown-street, Cork.

§Jennings, G. EZ. Glen Helen, Narborough Road, Leicester.

jJennings, W. T., M.Iust.CE. Molson’s Bank Buildings, Toronto,
Canada.

{Jepson, Thomas. Hvington, Northumberland-street, Higher Brough-
ton, Manchester.

{Jervis-Smira, Rev. F J., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Oxford,

Jessop, William. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield.

tJevons, F. B., M.A. The Castle, Durham.

*Jevons, H. Stanley. 95 Victoria Road, Cambridge.

tJewell, Lieutenant Theo. F. Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.

{John, EL. Cowbridge, Cardiff.

tJohns, Thomas W. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.

{Jonnson, ALEXANDER, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics ir
McGill University, Montreal, 65 Prince of Wales-terrace, Mont-
real, Canada.

tJohnson, Miss Alice. Llandaff House, Cambridge.

tJohnson, Edmund Litler, 73 Albert Road, Southport.

*Johnson, G. J. 36 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

tJohnson, J. G. Southwood Court, Highgate, N.:

{Johnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. 46 Jermyn-street, Liverpool.

{Johnson, R. 8. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.

{Johnson, Sir Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham.

*Jounson, Tuomas, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.

*Johnson, W. Claude, M.Inst.C.E. The Dignaries, Blackheath, 8.E.

{Johnson, W. H. Woodleigh, Altrincham, Cheshire.

{Johnson, W. H. F. Llandaff House, Cambridge.

{Johnson, William, Harewood, Roe-lane, Southport.

{Johnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham,
Cheshire.

§ Johnston, Colonel Duncan A., R.E. Ordnance Survey, Southampton.

{Jounston, Sir H. H., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.G.S. Queen Anne’s
Mansions, 8. W.

tJohnston, James, Newmill, Elgin, N.B.

{Johnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, N.W.

{Johnston, John L, 27 St. Peter-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Johnston, Thomas. Broomsleigh, Seal, Sevenoaks.

{Johnston, Walter R. Fort Qu’Appelle, N.W. Territory, Canada,

*Johnston, W. H. County Offices, Preston, Lancashire.

ae ale pa Hi. J., M.D., F.G.8. Beaulieu, Alpes Maritimes,

rance,

{Johnstone, G. H. Northampton-street, Birmingham.

{Jorty, WituiaM, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Blantyre Lodge, Blantyre, N.B.

tJolly, W.C. Home Lea, Lansdowne, Bath.

“Jory, C. J., M.A. The Observatory, Dunsink, Co, Dublin.

{Joty, Joun, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology and
Mineralogy in the University of Dublin.

{Jones, Sir Alfred L., K.C.M.G. Care of Messrs, Elder, Dempster,
& Co., Liverpool.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 55

Year of
Election.

1887.

1901.
1890,
1891.
1896.
1887.

1891.
1883.

1895.
1877.

1873.
1880.
1860.

1896,
1883.
1875.
1884.
1891.
1891.
1879.
1890.
1872.
1883.
1886.
1891.

1848.
1870.

1883.

1888.

1884.
1875.
1886.
1894.
1894,

‘1878.
1884.
1864.
1885.

1847,

1877.
1887.

tJones, D. E., B.Se., H.M. Inspector of Schools. Science and Art
Department, South Kensington, S.W.

§Jones, R. E., J.P. Radnor House, Shrewsbury.

§Jonzs, Rev. Epwarp, F.G.S. Primrose Cottage, Embsay, Skipton.

{Jones, Dr. Evan. Aberdare.

tJones, EH. Taylor, D.Sc. University College, Bangor.

tJones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.8. Beaufort House, Alexandra Park,
Manchester.

*Jonzs, Rev. G. Hartwext, M.A. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill, Surrey.

*Jones, George Oliver, M.A. Inchyra House, 21 Camlidge Road,
Waterloo, Liverpool.

tJones, Harry. Engineer’s Office, Great Eastern Railway, Ipswich.

tJones, Henry C., F.C.8. Royal College of Science, South Kensing-
ton, S.W.

fJones, Theodore B. 1 Finsbury-cireus, E.C.

{Jones, Thomas. 15 Gower-street, Swansea.

fJonzs, Tuomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1891). 17 Par-
son’s Green, Fulham, 8S. W.

§Jones, W. Hope Bank, Lancaster-road, Pendleton, Manchester.

tJones, William. Elsinore, Birkdale, Southport.

*Jose, J. E. 49 Whitechapel, Liverpool.

tJoseph, J. H. 738 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.

tJotham, F, H. Penarth.

{Jotham, T. W. Penylan, Cardiff.

tJowitt, A. Scotia Works, Sheffield.

tJowitt, Benson R. Elmhurst, Newton-road, Leeds.

tJoy, Algernon. Junior United Service Club, St. James’s, 8. W.

tJoyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft. Winchester.

tJoyce, The Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.

fJoynes, John J. Great Western Colliery, near Coleford, Gloucester-
shire.

*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax.

tJupp, Joun Westey,C.B., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1885; Council,
1886-92), Professor of Geology in the Royal College of Science,
London. 22 Cumberland-road, Kew.

tJustice, Philip Middleton. 14 Southampton-buildings, Chancery-
lane, W.C

{Kapp, Gisbert, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.E. 8 Lindenallee, Westend,
Berlin.

tKeefer, Samuel. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

tKeeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney.

tKeen, Arthur, J.P. Sandyford, Augustus-road, Birmingham.

{Keene, Captain C. T, P., F.Z.8. 11 Queen’s-gate, S.W.

tKeightley, Rev. G. W. Great Stambridge Rectory, Rochford,
Essex.

*Kelland, W.H. North Street, Exeter,

{Kelloge, J. H., M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.

*Kelly, W. M., M.D. Ferring, near Worthing.

§Keitiz, J. Scorr, LL.D., Sec. R.G.S., F.S.S. (Pres. E, 1897;
Council, 1898— ). 1 Savile-row, W.

*Kntvin, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.V.0., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.B.S., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. (Prestpent, 1871; Pres. A, 1852,
1867, 1876, 1881, 1884). Netherhall, Largs, Ayrshire.

*Kelvin, Lady. Netherhall, Largs, Ayrshire.

tKemp, Harry. 55 Wilbraham-road, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Man-
chester.

56

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1898.
1884,

1890.
1891.

1875,

1897,
1884,

1876,
1884,
1884.
1886,

18953.

1901.
1886,
1857.
1876,
1881.
1884.
1885,

1901.
1892.
1889.
1887.
1869,

1869.

1885.
1876.
1886.
1897,
1901.
1885.
1896.

1890.
1878,

1860.
1875.

1888.
1888.
1875.
1899.

1871,

*Kemp, John T., M.A. 4 Cotham Grove, Bristol.
phone Andrew C., A.M., M.D. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati,
U.S.A

§Kempson, Augustus. Kildare, 17 Arundel-road, Eastbourne.

§ KENDALL, Prrcy F., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in Yorkshire
College, Leeds.

{Kennepy, ALEXANDER B. W., F.RS., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G,
1894). 17 Victoria-sireet, S. Wie and 1 Queen Anne-street,
Cavendish-square, W.

§Kennedy, George, M.A., LL.D. Crown Lands Department, Toronto,
Canada

{Kennedy, George T., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Geology in King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, Canada.

{Kennedy, Hugh. 20 Mirkland-street, Glasgow.

tKennedy, John. 113 University-street, Montreal, Canada.

{tKennedy, William. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.

tKenrick, George Hamilton. Whetstone, Somerset-road, Edgbaston,
Bumingham.

§Kunt, A. F. Stanzny, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S., Professor of Plysio-

logy in University College, Bristol.

§Kent,G. 19 Forest Road West, Nottingham.

§KENWARD, JAMES, F.S.A. 48 Streatham High-road, 8. W.

*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland,

{Ker, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.

{Kermopr, Purrre M. C. Hillside, Ramsey, Isle of Man.

}Kerr, James, M.D. Winnipeg, Canada,

tKurr, Rey. Jonny, LL.D., F.R.S. Free Church Training College ;
113 Hill-street, Glascow.

§Kerr, John G., LL.D. 15 India Street, Glasgow.

{Kerr, J. Graham, M.A. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

tKerry, W. H. R. The Sycamores, Windermere.

{Kershaw, James, Holly House, Bury New-road, Manchester.

*Kesselmeyer, Charles Augustus. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Elysée Villa, Manchester Road,
Altrincham, Cheshire.

*Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.8. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

{Kidston, J. B. 50 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

§Kipston, Rozpert, F.R.S.E., F.G.8, 12 Clarendon-place, Stirling.

tKiekelly, Dr. John, LL.D. 46 Upper Mount-street, Dublin.

§ep, J. W. 4 Hughenden Drive, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

*Kilgour, Alexander. lJoirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.

*Killey, George Deane. Bentuther, 11 Victoria-road, Waterloo,
Liverpool.

§Kmorns, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Bermondsey Settlement Lodge,
Farncombe Street, S.E.

{Kinahan, Sir Edward Hudson, Bart. 11 Merrion-square North,
Dublin.

{Kinanan, G. Henry, M.R.D.A. Dublin.

*Kincu, Epwarp, F.C.8. Royal Agricultural College, Ciren-
cester.

{King, Austin J. Winsley Hill, Limpley Stoke, Bath.

*King, E, Powell. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants,

*King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol. ,

{Kine, Sir Georexn, K.C.1LE., F.R.S. (Pres. K, 1899). Care of
Messrs, Grindlay & Co., 5B Parliament-street, "SW.

*King, Rey. Herbert Poole.” The Rectory, Stourton, Bath.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS, 57

Election.

1855.
1883.
1870.
1883.
1860.
1875.
1901,
1870.
1889.
1897.
1875.
1867.
1892.
1900.

1899,
1899,
1870.
1890.
1901.
1886.

1886.
1898.

1888.

1887.
1887.
1887.
1874.
1897.
1876.
1902.

1875.
1883,
1892.

1898.
1890.
1901.
1888,

1870.

1858.
1884.
1885.
1897.
1877.
1859.
1889.
1887.

{King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.

*King, John Godwin. Stonelands, West Hoathley.

jKing, John Thomson. 4 Ciayton-square, Liverpool.

*King, Joseph. Lower Birtley, Witley, Godalming.

*King, Mervyn Kersteman. Merchants’ Hall, Bristol.

*King, Percy L. 2 Worcester-avenue, Clifton, Bristol.

§King, Robert. Levernholme, Nitshill, Glasgow.

{King, William. 5 Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.

{King, Sir William. Stratford Lodge, Southsea.

{ingsmill, Nichol. Toronto, Canada.

{Kinezerr, Cuarzzs T., F.C.S. Elmstead Knoll, Chislehurst.

TKinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.

{Kinnear, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E. 2 Moray Place, Edinburgh.

§Kippine, Professor F. Srantey, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. University
College, Nottingham.

*Kirby, Miss C. F. 74 Kensington Park-road, W.

“Kirby, Miss M. A. Field House, Richmond Road, Montpelier, Bristol.

}Kitchener, Frank E. Newcastle, Staffordshire.

“Kitson, Sir James, Bart., M.P. Gledhow Hall, Leeds.

§Kitto, Edward. The Observatory, Falmouth.

{Klein, Rev. L. M. de Beaumont, D.Sc., F.L.S. 6 Devonshire-road
Liverpool.

{Knight, J. McK., F.G.S. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex.

{Knockrr, Sir E. Wortaston, K.C.B. (Local Sec. 1899). Castle
Hill House, Dover.

{Kwnorr, Professor Careitn G., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 42 Upper Gray
Street, Edinburgh.

*Knott, Herbert. Aingarth, Stalybridge, Cheshire.

*Knott, John F. Glan-y-Coed, Conway.

tKnott, Mrs. Glan-y-Coed, Conway.

TKnowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co. Antrim.

TKnowlton, W.H. 36 King-street Kast, Toronto, Canada.

tKnox, David N., M.A., M.B. 24 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.

§Knox, R. Kyre, LL.D. (Locan Treasurer, 1902). 1 College
Gardens, Beltast.

*Knubley, Rey. E. P., M.A. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.

{Knubley, Mrs. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.

{Koun, Cuartes A., Ph.D. Sir John Cass Technical Institute,
Aldgate, E.

{Kyrauss, A. Hawthornden, Priory-road, Clifton, Bristol.

*Krauss, John Samuel, B.A. Hodnet, Salop.

§Kuenen, Professor J. P., Ph. D. University College, Dundee.

*Kunz,G. F. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., 11 Union-square, New
York City, U.S.A.

{Kynaston, Josiah W.,F.0.8, 3 Oak-terrace, Beech-street, Liverpool.

tLace, Francis John, Stone Gapp, Cross Hill, Leeds.

tLaflamme, Rey. Professor J.C. K. Laval University, Quebec.

“Laing, J. Gerard. Coppens Wick, Clapton-on-Sea, Essex.

{Laird, Professor G. J. Wesley College, Winnipeg, Canada.

flake, W.0.,M.D. Teignmouth.

tLalor, John Joseph, M.R.I.A. City Hall, Cork Hill, Dublin.

*Lamb, Edmund, M.A. Borden Wood, Liphook, Hants.

tLams, Horace, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the
Owens College, Manchester. 6 Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester,

58 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election,

1887. tLamb, James. Kenwood, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1885. tLamb, W. J. 11 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.
1896. §Lambert, Frederick Samuel. Balgowan, Newland, Lincoln.

1895
1884
1893

1890,
21884,
1871.
1886.
1877.

1885,
1859.
1898.
1886.

1870.
1865.

1880.
1884,

1878.
1885.

1887.
1881.

1883.
1896.
1870.

1900,
1870.

1891.
1892.

1888.
1883.
1870.
1878.
1884.

1870,
1881.
1900.
1889,
1885,
1888.
1856,
1883,

. JLambert, J. W., J.P. Lenton Firs, Nottingham.

. [Lamborn, Robert H. Montreal, Canada.

. {Lampiucn, G. W., F.G.S8. Geological Survey Office, 14 Hume

. Street, Dublin.

tLamport, Edward Parke. Greenfield Well, Lancaster.

{Lancaster, Alfred. Fern Bank, Burnley, Lancashire.

{Lancaster, Edward. (Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.

tLancaster, W. J., F.G.8. Colmore-row, Birmmgham.

{Landon, Frederic George, M.A., F.R.A.S. 59 Tresillian-road, St.
John’s, 8.E.

tLang, Rey. Gavin. Mayfield, Inverness.

tLang, Rev. John Marshall, D.D. The University, Aberdeen.

“Lang, William H. 10 Jedburgh-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

*Laneiey, J. N., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1899). Trinity
College, Cambridge.

{Langton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.

tLanxester, EK. Ray, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1883;
Council 1889-90, 1894-95, 1900— ; Vicz-Presipent, 1902),
Director of the Natural History Museum, Cromwell-road, S.W.

*LANSDELL, Rey. Henry, D.D., F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.8. Morden College,
Blackheath, London, 8.E.

§Lanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston,
U.S.A.

tLapper, E., M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin.

{Lapwortu, Cuartes, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1892),
Professor of Geology and Physiography in the University,
Birmingham. 28 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{tLarmor, Alexander. COraglands, St. Helen’s, Co. Down.

tLarmor, JosEpH, M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S. (Pres, A, 1900). St. John’s
College, Cambridge.

§Lascelles, B. P., M.A. Longridge, Harrow.

*Last, William J. South Kensington Museum, London, 8.W.
*LatHam, Batpwin, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 7 Westminster-chambers,
Westminster, S. W.

§Lauder, Alexander. University College, Bangor.

{Laughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.G.S. 5 Pepys-road, Wimbledon,
Surrey.

tLaurie, A. P. Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh. ;

§Lauri, Matcorm, B.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in St.
Mungo’s College, Glascow.

tLaurie, Colonel R. P., C.B. 79 Farringdon-street, E.C.

{Laurie, Major-General. Oakfield, Nova Scotia, Canada.

*Law, Channell. Ilsham Dene, Torquay.

tLaw, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-chambers, S.W.

§Law, Robert, F.G.S. Fennyroyd Hall, Hipperholme, near Halifax,
Yorkshire.

tLawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.

tLawrence, Rev. F., B.A. The Vicarage, Westow, York.

§Lawrence, W. Trevor, Ph.D. 57 Prince’s Gate, S.W.

§Laws, W. G.,M.Inst.C.E. 65 Osborne-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Lawson, James. 8 Church-street, Huntly, N.B.

{Layard, Miss Nina F, 2 Park-place, Fonnereau-road, Ipswich.

thea, Henry. 38 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

*Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 59

Year of
Election.

1875.
1894.

1884.
1901.
1884,
1884,

1872.

1884,
1895.
1898.

1896.
1891.
1894.
1884.
1896.

1892.

1886.
1859.
1896.

1889,
1881,

1872.

1869.
1892.
1868.
1856.
1891.
1859.
18282,
1867.
1878.
1887.
1871,

1901.
1884.
1890.
1883.
1880.
1900.
1894.
1896.
1887.
1890.
1895.

1879,

1870.
1891,

{Leach, Colonel Sir G., K.C.B., R.E. 6 Wetherby-gardens, 8.W.

*Lrany, A. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, 92 Ashdell-road, Sheffield.

*Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Ireland.

*Lean, George, B.Sc. 15 Park Terrace, Glasgow.

tLearmont, Joseph B. 120 Mackay-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Leavitt, Krasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.

tLesour, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Col-
lege of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

tLeckie, R.G. Springhill, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia, Canada.

*Ledger, Rev. Edmund. Proted, Woods-road, Reigate.

§Lrz, Antuur, J.P. (Local Sec. 1898). 10 Berkeley-square, Clifton,
Bristol.

§Lee, Rev. H, J. Barton. 35 Cross Park Terrace, Heavitree, Exeter.

TLee, Mark. The Cedars, Llandafi-road, Cardiff.

*Lee, Mrs. W. Ashdown House, Forest Row, Sussex.

*Leech, Sir Bosdin T, Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.

*Leech, Lady, Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.

*Lrgs, Cuartes H., D:Se. Osborne, Belgrave-road, Oldham.

*Lees, Lawrence W. Old Ivy House, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton

tLees, William, M.A. 12 Morningside-place, Edinburgh.

tLees, William. 10 Norfolk-street, Manchester.

*Leese, Joseph. 8 Lord-street West, Southport.

*Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., O.M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Clifden House,
Twickenham, Middlesex.

{Le Frvvrr, J, EK. Southampton.

{LerrvrE, The Right Hon. G. SHaw, F.R.S. (Pres. F, 1879;
Council 1878-80). 18 Bryanston-square, W.

tLe Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.

{Lenretpt, Roperr A. 28 South Molton-street, W.

tLercester, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G@. Holkham, Norfolk.

tLeien, The Right Hon. Lord. Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth,

tLeigh, W. W. Treharris, R.S.O., Glamorganshire.

tLeith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.

§ Lemon, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Lansdowne House, Southampton.

tLeng, Sir John, M.P. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.

{Lennon, Rey. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland.

*Leon, John T. Elmwood, Grove Road, Southsea.

tLeonarp, Huen, M.R.1.A, 24 Mount Merrion-avenue, Blackrock,
Co. Dublin. ,

§Leonard, J. HI. Paradise House, Stoke Newington, N.

tLesage, Louis. City Hall, Montreal, Canada.

*Lester, Joseph Henry, Royal Exchange, Manchester.

tLester, Thomas. Fir Bank, Penrith.

tLercuer, R. J. Lansdowne-terrace, Walters-road, Swansea.

§Letts, Professor E. A. Queen’s College, Belfast.

tLeudesdorf, Charles. Pembroke College, Oxford.

tLever, W. H. Port Sunlight, Cheshire.

*Levinstein, Ivan. Hawkesmoor, Fallowfield, Manchester,

tLevy, J.H. 11 Abbeville-road, Clapham Park, 8.W.

*Lewes, Vivian B., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E.

{Lewin, Colonel, F.R.G.S, Garden Corner House, Chelsea Embank-
ment, 8.W.

tLewis, Atrrep Lionrn. 54 Highbury-hill, N.

tLewis, D., J.P. 44 Park-place, Cardiff.

60

LIST OF MEMBERS.

lection.

1891. §Lewis, Professor D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Aberystwyth.
1899. {Lewis, Professor E. P. University of California, Berkeley, U.S.A.
1897. §Lewis, Rev. J. Pitt, M.A. Rossin House, Toronto, Canada.

1899. tLewis, Thomas. 9 Hubert-terrace, Dover.

1891. tLewis, W. 22 Duke-street, Cardiff.

1891.
1884.
1878.
1901.
1871.
1898.
1883.
1898.

1888,
1861.

1876.

1880,
1865,
1886.

1891.
1886,
1865.

1897.
1854,
1892.
1867.
1892.
1863.

1906.
1886.

1875.

1894.
1889,
1896,
1899.

tLewis, W. Henry. Bryn Rhos, Llanishen, Cardiff.

*Lewis, Sir W. T., Bart. The Mardy, Aberdare.

{Lincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire.

§ Lindsay, Charles C., M.Inst.C.E. 217 West George Street, Glasgow.

tLindsay, Rev. T. M., M.A., D.D. Free Church College, Glasgow.

§Lippincott, R. C. Cann, Over Court, Almondsbury, near Bristol.

tLisle, H. Claud. Nantwich.

*ListeR, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.C.S., D.C.L., F.R.S. (PRest-
DENT, 1896). 12 Park-crescent, Portland-place, W.

tLisrer, J. J., M.A., F.R.S. Leytonstone, Essex, N.E.

*Liverne, G. D., M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1882; Council 1888-95 :
Local Sec. 1862), Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge.

*LIVERSIDGE, ARCHIBALD, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.GS.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, N.S.W.

tLiEweLyn, Sir Joun T. D., Bart., M.P. Penllegare, Swansea.

tLloyd, G. B., J.P. Edgbaston-grove, Birmingham.

fLloyd, J. Henry. Ferndale, Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham,

*Luoyp, R. J., M.A., D.Litt., FR.S.E 49a Grove-street, Liverpool.

{Lloyd, Samuel. Farm, Sparkbrook, Birmingham.

*Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Park Lane House, Woodgreen, Wed-
nesbury.

§Lloyd-Verney, J. Il. 14 Hinde-street, Manchester-square, W.

*Lostey, J. Logan, F.G.S. City of London College, Moorfields, E.C.

§Locu, C.5., B.A. 15a Buckingham-street, W.C.

*Locke, John. 144 St. Olaf’s-road, Fulham, 8.W.

{Lockhart, Robert Arthur. 10 Polwarth-terrace, Edinburgh.

tLockyrr, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., F.R.S. (Council 1871-76,
1901— ). 16 Penywern Road, 8.W.

§Lockyer, W. J. S. 16 Penywern Road, South Kensington, S.W.

*LopcE, ALFRED, M.A., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the Royal
Indian Civil Engineerimg College, Cooper’s Hill, Staines.

*Lopen, Orrver J., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1891; Council
1891-97, 1899— ), Principal of the University of Birmingham.

*Lodge, Oliver W. F. 225 Hagley Road, Birmingham.

tLogan, William. Langley Park, Durham.

§Lomas, J., F.G.S. 13 Moss Grove, Birkenbead.

§Loneq, Emile. 6 Rue de la Plaine, Laon, Aisne, France.

1902.§§LonponpERRY, the Marquess of, K.G., H.M. Lieutenant of the City

1876,
1883.
1883.
1883.
1866,
1901.
1898,
1901.
1875.

1872,

of Belfast (Vicu-PRESIDENT, 1902),
tLong, H. A. Brisbane, Queensland.
*Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
tLong, Mrs. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
{Long, Miss. Thelwall Heys,near Warrington.
{Longden, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby.
§Longe, Francis D. The Alders, Marina, Lowestoft.
*Longfield, Miss Gertrude. High Halston Rectory, Rochester.
*Longstaff, Frederick V., F.R.G.S. Clare College, Cambridge.
*Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.S.8. Highlands,
Putney Heath, S.W.
*Longstaff, Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S, Ridgelands, Wimbledon.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 61

Year of
Election.

1881, *Longstaff, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey.
1899. enestat, Tom G., B.A., F.R.Met.Soc, Ridgelands, Wimbledon,
wrey,

1883. *Longton, KH. J., M.D. Brown House, Blawith, vd Ulverston.

1894, tLord, Edwin C. E., Ph.D. 247 Washington-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.

1889. {Lord, Riley. 75 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1897. ete, be AMES, LL.D., President of the University of Toronto,

anada.

1883. *Lovis, D. A., F.C.S. 77 Shirland-gardens, W.

1896. §Louis, Henry, Professor of Mining, Durham College of Science,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1887. *Love, Professor A. E. H., M.A., F.R.S. 34 St. Margaret’s Road,
Oxford,

1886, *Love, HE. F. J., M.A. The University, Melbourne, Australia.

1876, *Love, James, F.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. 33 Clanricarde-gardens, W.

1883. {Love, James Allen. 8 Hasthourne-road West, Southport.

1892. §Lovibond, J. W. Salisbury, Wiltshire.

1889, {Low, Charles W. 84 Westbourne Terrace, W.

1867. *Low, James F. Seaview, Monifieth, by Dundee.

1885, §Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex.

1891. {Lowdon, John. St. Hilda’s, Barry, Glamorgan.

1885. *Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex.

1892. tLowe, D. T. Heriot’s Hospital, Edinburgh.

1886. *Lowe, John Landor, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. Strathavon, Kedleston Road,
Derby.

1894, tLowenthal, Miss Nellie. 60 New North-road, Huddersfield,

1881. {Lubbock, Arthur Rolfe, High Elms, Farnborough, R.S.O., Kent.

1881. {Lubbock, John B. 14 Berkeley-street, W.

1870. {Lubbock, Montague, M.D. 19 Grosvenor-street, W.

1901. *Lucas, Keith. Greenhall, Forest Row, Sussex.

1889. tLucas, John. 1 Carlton-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead.

1878. {Lucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, S.W.

1889. tLuckley, George. The Grove, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1891. *Lucovich, Count A. The Rise, Llandaff.

1881. {Luden, C. M. 4 Bootham-terrace, York.

1897. {Lumsden, George E., F.R.A.S. 57 Eim-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

1866, *Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

1878. {Lund, Joseph. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

1850, *Lundie, Cornelius. 82 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1892. {Lunn, Robert. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court House
Edinburgh. ‘

1853, {Lunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull.

1883. *Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8., Professor of Coal Mining in
Yorkshire College, Leeds. 6 De Grey-road, Leeds.

1874, *Lupron, Sypney, M.A. (Local Sec. 1890). 102 Park Street
Grosvenor Square, W. d

1900. {Lupton, Witt1aAm C. Bradford.

1864. *Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester,

1898. §Luxmoore, Dr. C. M. Reading College, Reading.

1871. {Lyell, Sir Leonard, Bart., F.G.8. 48 Eaton-place, S.W.

1899. {Lyle, Professor Thomas R. The University, Melbourne.

1884, {Lyman, A. Clarence. 84 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884. {Lyman, H. H. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada.

1874. {Lynam, James. Ballinasloe, Ireland.

1885. tLyon, Alexander, jun. 52 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

1896, {luyster, A. G. Dockyard Coburg Dock, Liverpool.

1862. *Lyrz, F’. Maxwett, M.A., F.C.S. 60 Finborough-road, 8, W.

62

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1876, *Macapam, Witttam Ivison, F.R.S.E., F.LC., F.C.S. Surgeons’

1868,

1878.

1896,
1897.
1896.

1879.
1885.
1883.
1866.
1896.
1884.
1896.
1834,
1896.

1884.

1886.
1887.
1884.
1884.
1891.

1876.
1868,

1878.
1901.
1901.
1892.

1892.
1901.
1899.
1900.
1890.
1886.
1884.
1884.
1884.

1884.
1897.
1881.

1885.
1897.

1879.
1901.

Hall, Edinburgh.
t{MacanisterR, ALEXANDER, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1892;

Council, 1901- ), Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Cambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge. ;
een Donatp, M.A.,M.D., B.Sc. St. John’s College, Cam-
ridge.
{Macalister, R. A. 8S. 2 Gordon-street, W.C.
{McAllister, Samuel. 99 Wilcox-street, Toronto, Canada.
§Macattum, Professor A. B., Ph.D. (Local See. 1897). 59 St.
George-street, Toronto, Canada.
§MacAndrew, James J.,F.L.S. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon,
t{MacAndrew, Mrs. J. J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.
§MacAndrew, William. Westwood House, near Colchester,
*M‘Arthur, Alexander. 79 Holland-park, W.
{McArthur, Charles. Villa Marina, New Brighton, Cheshire,
{Macarthur, D, Winnipeg, Canada.
*Macaulay, F.S., M.A. 19 Dewhurst-road, W.
Macavray, James, A.M., M.D. 4 Wynnstay-gardens, W.
+MacBripe, Professor E, W., M.A. McGill University, Montreal,

Canada.
{McCabe, T., Chief Examiner of Patents. Patent Office, Ottawa,

Canada.

+MacCarthy, Rev. E. F. M., M.A. 93 Hagley-road, Birmingham,

*McCarthy, James. Bangkok, Siam.

*McCarthy, J. J., M.D. 83 Wellington-road, Dublin.

t{McCausland, Orr. Belfast.

*McCriean, Frank, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Rusthall

House, Tunbridge Wells.

*M‘Crettann, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

{M‘Crintocx, Admiral Sir Francis L., R.N., K.C.B. F.BS,

F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, 8.W. ‘

*M‘Comas, Henry. Pembroke House, Pembroke Road, Dublin.

*MacConkey, Alfred. University College, Liverpool.

§MacCormac, J.M., M.D. 31 Victoria Place, Belfast.

Carey John, M.A., D.Sc. Henderson Street, Bridge of Allan,
N.B.

t{McCrae, George. 3 Dick-place, Edinburgh.

§McOrae. John, Ph.D. 7 Kirklee Gardens, Glasgow.

{McDiarmid, Jabez. The Elms, Stanmore, Middlesex.

§Macdonald, J. R. 3 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W.C.

*MacDonald, Mrs. J. R. 3 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W.C.

{McDonald, John Allen. Hillsboro’ House, Derby.

{MacDonald, Kenneth. Town Hall, Inverness.

*McDonald, Sir W. C. 891 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

t{MacDonnell, Mrs. F. H. 1433 St. Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada,

MacDonnell, Hercules H. G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.

t{McDougall, John. 35 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada,

tMcEwen, William C 9 South Charlotte-street, Edinburgh.

{Macfarlane, Alexander, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physics in the
University of Texas. Austin, Texas, U.S.A.

{Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Biology in the
University of Pennsylvania, Lansdowne, Delaware Oo., Penn-
sylvania, U.S.A.

{McFarlane, Murray, M.D. 32 Carlton-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Macfarlane, Walter, jun. 12 Lynedoch-crescent, Glasgow.

§Macfee, John. Marguerite, Blackhall, Paisley.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 63

Year of
Election.

1867.
1897.
1888
1884,
1884,

1884,
1885.
1867.

1884.
1883.
1884.

1885,

1897.
1896.
1875.

1883.
1897.
1884.
1884.
1901.
1883.
1872.
1867.
1901,
1884.
1887.

1891.
1850.
1872.

1896.
1892.
1892.
1885.

1860,

1901.
1897.
1873.
1897.

1901.
1901.
1901.
1892.

1884,

*M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.

{McGaw, Thomas. Queen’s Hotel, Toronto, Canada,

{MacGeorge, James. 67 Marloes-road, Kensington, W.

tMacGillivray, James. 42 Cathcart-street, Montreal, Canada.

}MacGoun, Archibald, jun., B.A., B.C.L. Dunavon, Westmount,
Montreal, Canada.

*MacGrecor, JAMES Gorpon, M.A.,D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor
of Natural Philosophy, The University, Edinburgh.

tM‘Gregor-Robertson, J., M.A., M.B. 26 Buchanan-street, Hillhead,
Glasgow. ‘

*McInrosn, W.C., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S8.E., F.L.S. (Pres. D,
1885), Professor of Natural History in the University of
St. Andrews. 2 Abbotsford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.

t{MclIntyre, John, M.D. Odiham, Hants.

{Mack, Isaac A. Trinity-road, Bootle.

§MacKay, A. H., B.Sc., LL.D., Superintendent of Education.
Education Office, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

§Macxay, Jonn Yuue, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in University
College, Dundee.

{McKay, T. W G., M.D. Oshawa, Ontario, Canada,

*McKechnie, Duncan. Eccleston Grange, Preston.

{McKenpricx, Joun G., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres, I,
1901), Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow.
2 Buckingham Terrace, Glasgow.

tMcKendrick, Mrs. 2 Florentine-gardens, Glasgow.

{McKenzie, John J. 61 Madison-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

{MacKenzie, Stephen, M.D. 18 Cavendish Square, W.

1tMcKenzie, Thomas, B.A. School of Science, Toronto, Canada.

§Mackenzie, Thomas Brown. 3542 Duke Street, Glasgow.

tMackeson, Henry. Hythe, Kent.

*Mackey, J. A. 175 Grange-road, S.E.

tMackre, SamurL JosrpH. 17 Howley-place, W.

§Mackie, William, M.D. 18 North Street, Elgin.

tMcKilligan, John B. 887 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada,

{Macxkinper, H. J., M.A., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1895). Christ

Church, Oxford.

{Mackintosh, A. C. 88 Plymouth Road, Penarth.

tMacknight, Alexander. 20 Albany-street, Edinburgh.

*McLacutan, Roser, F.R.S., F.L.8. West View, Clarendon-road,
Lewisham, 8.E,

tMaclagan, Miss Christian. Ravenscroft, Stirling.

{tMaclagan, Philip R. D. St. Catherine's, Liberton, Midlothian.

tMaclagan, R. Craig, M.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh,

*M‘Laren, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E., FR.A.S. 46 Moray-place,
Edinburgh.

tMaclaren, Archibald. Summertown, Oxfordshire.

§Maclaren, J. Malcolm. 62 Sydney Street, South Kensington, S.W.

tMacLaren, J. F. 880 Victoria-street, Toronto, Canada.

tMacLaren, Walter S. B. Newington House, Edinburgh,

tMacLaren, Rev. Wm., D.D. 57 St. George-street, Toronto,
Canada.

§Maclay, James, 3 Woodlands Terrace, Glasgow.

§Maclay, William. Thornwood, Langside, Glaszow.

§McLean, Angus, B.Sc. Ascog, Meikleriggs, Paisley.

*Mactuan, Maenus, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E. (Local Sec. 1901),
Professor of Electrical Engineering, Technical College, Glasgow.

t{McLennan, Frank... 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

64

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1884.
1884.
1868.

1892,

1883.
1883.

1878.
1884,

1867.
1878.
1887.
1885,
1901,

1887.
1883.
1883.
1868.
1875.
1896.
1878.
1887.
1883.
1899.
1881.
1874.
1857.

1896.
1897.
1887.

1870.
1901.
1888.
1894.
1864.
1888.

1891.
1887.

1870.
1898.
1900.
i887.
1883.
1887.
1864,

1894.

tMcLennan, Hugh. 3817 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

{McLennan, John. Lancaster, Ontario, Canada.

§McLerop, Herzrrt, F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1892; Council, 1885-90).
9 Coverdale Road, Richmond, Surrey.

tMacleod, W. Bowman. 16 George-square, Edinburgh.

*McManon, Lieut.-General C. A., F.R.S., F.G.S. 20 N evern-square,

South ‘Kensington, S.W.

tMacManon, Major Percy A., R.A., D.Se., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1901 ;

Council, 1898—_). Queen Anne’s Mansions, Westminster, S.W.

*M‘Master, George, M.A., J.P. Rathmines, Ireland.

tMcMurrick, J. Playfair. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,

Michigan, U.S.A.

{M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.

{Macnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.

tMaconochie, A. W. Care of Messrs. Maconochie Bros., Lowestoft.

{Macpherson, J. 44 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.

§MacRitchie, David. 4 Archibald Place, Edinburgh.

*Macrory, Epmunp, M.A., K.C. 19 Pembridge-square, W.

tMacy, Jesse. Grinnell, Towa, WisyAs

{Madden, W. H. Marlborough College, Wilts.

{Maggs, Thomas Charles, F. GS. 56 Clarendon-villas, West Brighton.

{Magnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich.

*Maenus, Sir Purnip, B.Sc. 16 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W.

{Macuire, Thomas Philip. Eastfield, Lodge-lane, Liverpool.

{Mahony, W. A. 384 College-creen, Dublin,

{Mainprice, W. S. Longeroft, Altrincham, Cheshire.

{Maitland, P.C. 186 Great Portland-street, W.

{Makarius, Saleem. ‘Al Mokattam,’ Cairo.

{Malcolm, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. 72 Nunthorpe-road, York.

{Malcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast.

tMatter, Jonn Witir1Am, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of.

Chemistry in the University of Virginia, Albemarle Co.,

U.S.A.

Manbré, Alexandre. — a Alexandra-drive, Liverpool.

Manes, Sir H.C. 32 Earl’s Court-square, 8.W.

Mancunsrer, The Right Rey. the Lord Bishop of, D.D, Bishop's

Court, Manchester.

Manifold, W. H., M.D. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

Mann, J ohn, j jun, M.A., 187 West George Street, Glasgow.

Mann, W. J. Rodney House, Trowbridge.

Manning, Percy, M.A., F.S.A. Watford, Herts.

Mansel-Pleydell, J.C., EGS. Whatcombe, Blandford, Dorset.

{MANsERGH, JAMES, M. Inst.C.E., F.R.S., F. G. Si 8 Victoria-street,
Westminster, S.W.

{Manuel, James. 175 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*March, Henry Colley, M.D., F.S.A. Portesham, Dorchester, Dorset-

shire.

{Marcoartu, His Excellency Don Arturo de. Madrid.

*Mardon, Heber. 2 Litfield-place, Olifton, Bristol.

§Margerison, Samuel. Calverley Lodge, near Leeds.

{Margetson, J. Charles. The Rocks, Limpley, Stoke.

{

{

6

feuiehieuncs en ++++ *

Marginson, James Fleetwood. The Mount, Fleetwood, Lancashire,
Markham, Christopher A., F.R.Met.Soc. Spratton, Northampton.
{Marxnan, Sir Crments R., K.C.B., F.R.S., Pres.R.G.S., F.S.A.

(Pres. KE, 1879; Council 1893- 96). 21 Eccleston-square, S.W.
{ Markoff, Dr. Anatolius. 44 Museum-str eet, W.C,

1863. {Marley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS. 65

of

Election.

1888.
1888.
1881.

1887.
1884.

1892.
1883.
1887.
1864.
1889,

1892.

1890.
1901.
1886.

1849.

1865.
1899.
1891,
1887.
1884.

tMarling, W. J. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

{Marling, Lady. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

“Marr, J. E.,M.A., PRS, F.G.S. (Pres, OC, 1896; Council 1896-_ ),
St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Marsden, Benjamin. Westleigh, Heaton Mersey, Manchester,

*Marsden, Samuel. 1015 North Leffingwell-avenue, St. Louis,
Missouri, U.S.A.

*Marsden-Smedley, J. B. Lea Green, Cromford, Derbyshire,

*Marsh, Henry. 72 Wellington Street, Leeds.

tMarsh, J. E., M.A. The Museum, Oxford.

{Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 37 Grosyenor-place, Bath.

*MaRsHALL, AtrreD, M.A., LL.D. (Pres. F, 1890), Professor of

Political Economy in the University of Cambridge. Balliol

Croft, Madingley-road, Cambridge.

§Marshall, Hugh, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 131 Warrender Park-road,

Edinburgh.

{Marshall, John. Derwent Island, Keswick.

§Marshall, Robert. 97 Wellington Street, Glasgow.

*MARSHALL, WILLIAM Baytey, M.Inst.0.E. Richmond Hill, Edgbas-
ton, Birmingham.

*Marswatt, Wit114M P., M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

§MarrEen, Epwarp Brypon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge,

§Martin, Miss A. M. Park View, 32 Bayham-road, Sevenoaks,

*Martin, Edward P., J.P. Dowlais, Glamorgan.

*Martin, Rev. H. A. Grosvenor Club, London, 8.W.

§Martin, N. H., J.P., F.L.S. Ravenswood, Low Fell, Gateshead-on-

ne.

Mu
1889. *Martin, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Northdene, New

1890.

1865.
1883.

1891.
1873.
1847.

1886.

Barnet, Herts.

{Martindale, William, F.L.S. 19 Devonshire-street, Portland-
place, W.

{Martineau, R. F. 18 Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Marwick, Sir J. D., LL.D., P.R.S.E. (Local See. 1871, 1876, 1901),
Glasgow. F

tMarychurch, J.G. 46 Park-street, Cardiff.

*Masuam, Lord. Swinton Park, Swinton.

{Masxetyne, Nevin Srory, M.A.,F.RB.S., F.G.S. (Council 1874-80),
Basset Down House, Swindon.

{Mason, Hon. J. E. . Fiji.

1879. tMason, James, M.D. Montgomery House, Sheffield.

1896.

{Mason, Philip B., F.L.S., F.Z.S. Burton-on-Trent.

1893. *Mason, Thomas. Endersleigh, Alexandra Park, Nottingham.

1891

. *Massey, William H,, M.Inst.C.E. Twyford, R.S.O., Berkshire.

1885, tMasson, Orme, D.Sc. University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia,

1898. fMasterman, A. T. University of St. Andrews, N.B.
1901. *Mather,G. R. Boxlea, Wellingborough.

1883.

{Mather, Robert V. Birkdale Lodge, Birkdale, Southport.

1887. *Mather, William, M.P.,M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works, Manchester,

1890.
1865.

1898

{Mathers, J. S. 1 Hanover-square, Leeds.
{Mathews, C. E. _ Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
{Matkews, E. R. Norris. Cotham-road, Cotham, Bristol.

1894, {Marnews, G. B., M.A., F.R.S. 10 Menai View, Bangor.

1865.

“Mathews, G. §._32 Augustus-road, Edghaston;’Birmincham.

1889. {Mathews, John Hitcheock. 1 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, Wy’,
1881. tMathwin, Henry; Be’ Bickerton House, Southport.~ :

1883

1901

- tMathwin, Mrs.” 40 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
f E

66

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1858.
1885.
1885.
1899,
1893.
1865,
1894.

1883.
1901.
1885.
1884,
1878.
1871.
1879.
1887.

1881.

1885.
1879.
1866.
1883.
1896.
1881.
1887.
1865.
1896.

1901.
1862.

1879.
1899.
1880.

1899.
1889.
1863.
1896.

1869,

1886.
1865.
1881.

1893.
188i.
1894.

1889.
186.

{Matthews, F.C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire.

{Marromws, James. Springhill, Aberdeen.

{Matthews, J. Duncan. Springhill, Aberdeen.

t}Marruews, Witram, C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, S.W.

{Mavor, Professor James,M.A.,LL.D. University of Toronto, Canada.

*Maw, Guores, F.L.S., F.G.8., F.S.A. Benthall, Kenley, Surrey.

§Maxim, Sir Hiram 8. 18 Queen’s Gate-place, Kensington, 8. W.

*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Finnebrogue, Downpatrick.

§May, William, F.G.S. Northfield, St. Mary Cray, Kent.

§May, W. Page, M.D., B.Sc. 9 Manchester Square, W.

tMayall, George. Clairville, Birkdale, Southport.

*Maybury, A. C., D.Sc. 19 Bloomsbury-square, W.C.

Mayne, Thomas. 33 Castle-street, Dublin.

{Meikle, James, F.S.8. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.

§Meiklejohn, John W.S., M.D. 105 Holland-road, W.

[Meischke-Smith, W. Rivala Lumpore, Salengore, Straits Settle-
ments.

*Metpota, RapwarL, F.RS., F.R.AS., F.CS., F.LC. (Pres. B,
1895 ; Council 1892-99), Professor of Chemistry in the Finsbury
Technical College, City and Guilds of London Institute, 6 Bruns-
wick-square, W.C.

{Mellis, Rev. James. 23 Park-street, Southport.

*Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.

{Mzttxo, Rev. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. Cliff Hill, Warwick.

tMello, Mrs. J. M. Cliff Hill, Warwick.

§Mellor, G. H. Weston, Blundellsands, Liverpool.

§ Melrose, James. Clifton Croft, York.

{Melvill, J. Cosmo, M.A. Kersal Cottage, Prestwich, Manchester.

{Melvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.

t{Menneer, R. R. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-street,
S.W.

§Mennell, F. P. 8 Addison Road, W.

{MennetL, Heyry T. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,
EC.

{Merivate, Joon Herman, M.A. (Local Sec. 1889). Togston Hall,
Acklington.

*Merrett, William H, Hetherley, Grosvenor Road, Wallington,
Surrey.

tMerry, Alfred S. Bryn Heulog, Sketty, near Swansea.

§Merryweather, J.C. 4 Whitehall-court, S.W.

*Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tMessent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.

§Metzler, W. H., Professor of Mathematics in Syracuse University,
Syracuse, New York, U.S.A.

Mra, Louis C., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S. (Pres. D, 1897; Local

Sec. 1890), Professor of Biology in the Yorkshire Oollege,
Leeds.

tMiddlemore, Thomas. Holloway Head, Birmingham.

{Middlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Middlesbrough, The Right Rey. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of.
Middlesbrough.

§Middleton, A. 25 Lister-gate, Nottingham.

tMiddleton, R. Morton, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 46 Windsor-road, Ealing, W.

*Minrs, H. A., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy in the
University of Oxford. Magdalen College, Oxford. $

{Milburn, John D. Queen-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. ... |

tMiles, Charles Albert. Buenos Ayres. - rapes Bo

*

LIST OF MEMBERS. 67

Year of
Election.

1881.
1885.

1889,

1875.
1895.
1888.
1885,
1886,
1861.
1895.
1884.
1876.
1897.

1868.
1880,

1886.
1882.
1885.
1898.
1882.

1880.

1855,
1859.
1901.
1883.

1883.

1901.
1885,
1895.
1885,

1885.
1885.
1877.
1884.

1900.
1887.

1891.

1882.
1892.

1872.
1872.
1896.
1894.
1890.
‘1901.

{Mrxrs, Morrrs (Local Sec. 1882). Warbourne, Hill-lane, South-
ampton,

§ Mitt, Hues Ee ali D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E,
1901). 2 Gloucester-place, Portman-squ: are, W.

*Millar, Robert “Goekbur n. 80 York-place, Edinburgh.

Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E, Perth.

{Miller, George. Brentr "Ys near Bristol,

{Miller, Henry, M.Inst.C.. Bosmere House, Norwich-road, Ipswich.

tMiller, J. Bruce. Rubislaw Den North, Aberdeen.

{Miller, John. 9 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

{Miller, Rev. John, B.D. The College, Weymouth.

*Miller, Robert. Totteridge House, Hertfordshire, ING

§Miller, Thomas, M.Inst. CE. 9 Thoroughfare, Ipswich.

{Miller, T. F., B.Ap. Sc. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.

{Miller, Thomas Paterson. Cairns, Cambuslang, N.B.

{Miller, Willet G., Professor of Geology in "Queen's University,

Kingston, Ontario, Canada.

"Mitts Epwunp da D.Se. . F.RS., F.C.S. 11 Greenhill Road,

Harrow.

{Mills, Mansfeldt. H., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Sherwood Hall, Mans-
field.

{Miine, Alexander D. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

*Mitnz, Joun, F.R.S.,F.G.S. Shide Hill House, Shide, Isle of Wight,

{Milne, William. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

*Milner, 8. Roslington, B.Sc. University College, Sheffield.

{Milnes, Alfred, M.A., F.S.S. 22a Goldhurst-terrace, South Hamp-
stead, N.W. ‘

{Mincuin, G. M., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
Royal Indian Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Surrey,

{Mirrlees, James Buchanan. 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow.

{Mitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen.

*Mitchell, Andrew Acworth. 7 Huntly Gardens, Glasgow.

{Mitchell, Charles T., M.A. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
W.

{Mitchell, Mrs. Charles T. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
Ww

*Mitchell,G. A. 5 West Regent Street, Glasgow.

tMitchell, P. Chalmers. Christ Church, Oxford.

*Moat, William, M.A. Johnson, Eccleshall, Staffordshire.

{Moffat, William. 7 Queen’s-gardens, Aberdeen.

{Moir, James. 25 Carden-place, Aberdeen,

tMollison, W. L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.

*Molloy, Right Rey. Ger ald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

{Monaghan, Patrick. Halifax (Box 317), Nova Scotia, Canada.

§Moncxton, H. W., V.P.G.S._ 3 Harcourt Buildings, Temple, E.C.

*Monp, Lupwic, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1896). 20
Avenue-road, Regent’s Park, N.W,

*Mond, Robert Ludwig, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 20 Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

*Montaeu, Sir Samuel, Bart., M.P. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens, W.
{Montgomery, be Rev. J. F. 17 Athole-crescent, Edinbur gh.
{Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 3 Porchester-place, Hagwiie-tdnd, W.
tMoon, W., LL. D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton.
tMoore, A. W., M.A. Woodbourne House, Douglas, Isle of Man.

§ Moore, Harold E, 41 Bedford-row, W.O.
tMoore, Major, R.E. School of Military Engineering, Chatham.
*Moore, Robert J. 156 ie ed Glasgows

68

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1896.
1891.
1901.
1881.

1895.
1875.

1891.
1896,
1887.
1882.
1901.
1892.
1889,

1898.
1891.
1885.

1889.

1896.
1881.
1883.
1892.

1899.

1885.
1880.
1896.
1888.

1874.
1871.
1899.

1865.
1869.
1858.
1887.
1886.
1896.

1885.
1878.
1876,
1864,
1892.
1873.
1892.

1866.

*Mordey, W. M. Prince’s-mansions, Victoria-street, S.W.

tMorel, P. Lavernock House, near Cardiff.

§Moreno, Francisco P. Argentine Legation, W.

ele a Atrrep. 50 West Bay-street, Jacksonville, Florida,
S.A

{Morean, C. Luoyp, F.R.S., F.G.S., Principal of University College,
Bristol. 16 Canynge-road, Clifton, Bristol.

{Morgan, Edward Delmar, F.R.G.S. 15 Roland-gardens, South
Kensington, 8. W.

t{Morgan, F. Forest Lodge, Ruspidge, Gloucestershire.

§Morgan, George. 21 Upper Parliament Street, Liverpool.

tMorgan, John Gray. 388 Lloyd-street, Manchester.

{Morgan, Thomas, J.P. Cross House, Southampton.

*Morison, James. Perth.

tMorison, John, M.D., F.G.S. Victoria-street, St. Albans.

§Morison, J. Rutherford, M.D. 14 Savyille-row, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

tel John, J.P. Glastonbury.

{Morley, H. The Gas Works, Cardiff.

*Mortpy, Henry Forster, M.A.,D.Sc., F.C.8. 47 Broadhurst-gar-
dens, South Hampstead, N.W.

tMortey, The Right Hon. Jonny, M.A., LL.D., MP., F.RS.
95 Elm Park-gardens, 8.W.

tMorrell, R.S. Caius College, Cambridge.

tMorrell, W. W. York City and County Bank, York.

tMorris, C.S. Millbrook Iron Works, Landore, South Wales,

tMorris, Dantet, C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. Barbados, West
Indies.

§Morris, G. Harris, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.1.C. Helenslea, South Hill
Park, Bromley, Kent.

tMorris, George Lockwood. Millbrook Iron Works, Swansea.

§Morris, James. 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea.

*Morris, J. T. 12 Somers-place, W.

{Morris, J. W., F.L.S. 27 Green Park, Bath.

Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.

tMorrison, G. J., M.Inst.C.E. Shanghai, China.

*Morrison, J. D. Fordel Castle, Glenfarg, Perthshire.

§Morrow, Captain John, M.Sc. 7 Rockleaze-avenue, Sneyd Park,
Bristol.

{Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Driffield.

tMortimer, William. LGedford-circus, Exeter.

*Morron, Henry Josep. 2 Westbourne-villas, Scarborough.

tMorton, Percy, M.A. Illtyd House, Brecon, South Wales.

*Morton, P. F. 15 Ashley Place, Westminster, 5.W.

*Morron, Witttam B., M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Queen’s College, Belfast.

{Moseley, Mrs. Firwood, Clevedon, Somerset. a

*Moss, JoHN Francis, F.R.G.S. (Local Sec. 1879). Beechwood, ~
Brincliffe, Sheffield.

§Moss, Ricuarp Jackson, F.L.C., M.R.I.A. Royal Dublin Society,
and St. Aubyn’s, Ballybrack, Co, Dublin.

*Mosse, J. R. 5 Chiswick-place, Eastbourne.

{Mossman, R. O., F.R.S.E. 10 Blacket-place, Edinburgh.

{Mossman, William. St. Hilda’s, Frizinghall, Bradford.

*Mostyn, S. G., M.A. Fairycroft Terrace, Saffron Walden,
Essex. ;

tMorr, Freperics T., F.R.G.S. Crescent House, Leicester.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 69

Year of

Election.

1856. {Mould, Rev. J.G.,B.D. Roseland, Meadfoot, Torquay.

1878. *Movutron, J. Frercupr, M.A,, K,C., M.P., F.R.S. 57 Onslowe
square, S.W.

1863. {Mounsey, Edward. Sunderland.

186]. *Mountcastle, William Robert. The Wigwam, Ellenbrook, near

1877.

1899.

1887.
1888,
1884,

1884.
1899.
1894,
1876.
1874,

1872.
1876.

1883.
1884,

1880.
1897.
1898.

1901.
1876.
1901.
1898.

1883,

1855.
1890.
1889.
1884.
1887.
1891.

1859.
1884,

1884.

1872.
1892.
1863.
1874.
1897.
1870.

Manchester.

tMovnt-Epecumsr, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount-
Edgcumbe, Devonport.

§Mowll, Martyn. Chaldercot, Leyburne-road, Dover.

tMoxon, Thomas B. County Bank, Manchester.

tMoyle, R. E., M.A., F.C.S. Heightley, Chudleigh, Devon.

tMoyse, C. E., B.A., Professor of English Language and Literature
in McGill College, Montreal. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal,
Canada.

tMoyse, Charles E. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Muitf, Herbert B. Aston Mount, Heaton, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tMugliston, Rev. J., M.A. Newick House, Cheltenham.

*Muir, Sir John, Bart. Demster House, Perthshire.

{Murr, M. M. Parrison, M.A. Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge.

*Mourrueapd, ALExANDHR, D,Sce., F.C.S. 2 Prince’s-street, Storey’s-
gate, Westminster, 8. W.

*Muirhead, Robert Franklin, M.A., B.Sc. 24 Kersland-street,
Hillhead, Glasgow.

{Mulhall, Mrs. Marion. Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co. Dublin.

*Mutttrr, Hueo, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S. 18 Park-square East,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

tMuiler, Hugo M. 1 Griinanger-gasse, Vienna.

{Mullins, W. E. Preshute House, Marlborough, Wilts.

{Mumford, C. E. Bury St. Edmunds.

Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, E.C.

*Munby, Alan E. Felstead, Essex.

{Munro, Donald, M.D., F.C.S. The University, Glaszow.

§Munro, Donald, M.D., J.P. Wheatholm, Pollokshaws, Glasgow.

{Munro, John, Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the Merchant
Venturers’ Technical College, Bristol.

*Munro, Roperr, M.A., M.D. (Pres. H, 1893). 48 Manor-place,
Edinburgh,

tMurdoch, James Barclay. Capelrig, Mearns, Renfrewshire.

Murphy, A. J. Preston House, Leeds.

{Murphy, James, M.A., M.D. Holly House, Sunderland.

§Murphy, Patrick. Marcus-square, Newry, Ireland.

tMurray, A. Hazeldean, Kersal, Manchester.

tMurray, G. R. M., F.RS., F.RS.E., F.L.S. British Museum
(Natural History), South Kensington, S.W.

tMurray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.

{Mourray, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. E,
1899). Challenger Lodge, Wardie, Edinburgh.

{Murray, J. Clark, LL.D., Professor of Logic and Mental and Moral
Philosophy in McGill University, Montreal. 111 McKay-street,
Montreal, Canada,

t{Murray, J. Jardine, F.R.C.S.E. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.

tMurray, T. 8. 1 Nelson-street, Dundee.

tMurray, William, M.D. 9 Ellison-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Musgrave, Sir James, Bart., D.L. Drumglass House, Belfast.

{tMusgrave, James, M.D. 511 Bloor-street West, Toronto, Canada,

*Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liyerpcoi,

70

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1891.
1890.

1886.
1892.
1890.
1876.
1872.

1887.
1896,
1887.
1885.
1887.
1855.
1897.
1868.
1898.

1866.

1889.
1869.
1889.
1901.
1886.
1901.
1889.
1860.

1892.

1867.

1866,

1887.
1884,

1883.
1887.
1895.
1887.
1901.
1885.
1895.
1878.

1877.
1874.
1863.

{Muybridge, Eadweard. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
U.S.A.
*Myres, Joun L., M.A., F.S.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

{Nacet, D. H., M.A. (Local Sec. 1894), Trinity College, Oxford.

*Nairn, Michael B. Kirkcaldy, N.B.

§Nalder, Francis Henry. 34 Queen-street, H.C.

{Napier, James 8. 9 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

tNares, Admiral Sir G. S., K.C.B, RN., F.BS., F.R.G.S,
11 Claremont-road, Surbiton.

{Nason, Professor Henry B., Ph.D. Troy, New York, U.S.A.

{Neal, James E., U.S. Consul. 26 Chapel-street, Liverpool,

§Neild, Charles. 19 Chapel Walks, Manchester.

*Neild, Theodore, B.A. ‘The Vista, Leominster.

tNeill, Robert, jun. Beech Mount, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

tNeilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow.

tNesbitt, Beattie S. A., M.D. 71 Grosvenor-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Nevill, Rev. H. R. The Close, Norwich.

§Nevill, Rey. J. H.N., M.A. The Vicarage, Stoke Gabriel, South

Devon.

*Nevill, The Right Rey. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S8., Bishop of
Dunedin, New Zealand.

{Nevitts, F. H., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney College, Cambridge.

{Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 38 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

*Newall, H. Frank. Madingley Rise, Cambridge.

§Newhigin, Miss Marion J. Greenhill House, Alnwick.

tNewbolt, F. G. Oakley Lodge, Weybridge, Surrey.

§Newman, F. H. Tullie House, Carlisle.

§ Newstead, A. H. L., BA. 38 Green Street, Bethnal Green, N.E.

*Newton, ALFRED, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1887; Council
1875-82). Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in
the University of Cambridge. Magdalene College, Cambridge.

t{Nrwron, E. T., F.R.S., F.G.8. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
S.W

{Nicholl, Thomas. Dundee,

{NicHotson, Sir CuHArtus, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.GS.,
F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1866). The Grange, Totteridge, Herts.

*Nicholson, John Carr. Moorfield House, Headingley, Leeds.

{Nicuorson, Joseru 8., M.A., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1893), Professor of
Political Economy in the University of Edinburgh. Eden Lodge,
Newhbattle-terrace, Edinburgh,

tNicholson, Richard, J.P. Whinfield, Hesketh Park, Southport.

{Nicholson, Robert H. Bourchier. 21 Albion-street, Hull.

{tNickolls, John B., F.C.S. The Laboratory, Guernsey.

{Nickson, William. Shelton, Sibson-road, Sale, Manchester.

§Nicon, James, City Chamberlain. Glasgow.

{Nicol, W. W. J., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 15 Blacket-place, Edinburgh.

{Nisbet, J. Tawse. 175 Lodge-lane, Liverpool.

{Niven, Cuartes, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Aberdeen, 6 Chanonry, Old
Aberdeen.

{Niven, Professor James, M.A. King’s College, Aberdeen.

{Nixon, Randal C.J., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.

*Nosin, Sir Awnprew, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. (Pres. G,
1890; Local Sec. 1863). Elswick Works, and Jesmond
Dene House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 71

Year of
Election.

1879. {Noble, T.S. Lendal, York.
1887. tNodal, John H. The Grange, Heaton Moor, near Stockport.
1870. {Nolan, Joseph, M.R.I.A. 14 Hume-street. Dublin.
1863. §Norman, Rey. Canon Arrrep MERLE, M.A., HOE EL.D., F.R.S.,
F.L.S. The Red House, Berkhamsted.
1888. {Norman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath.
1865. t{Norris, Ricnarp, M.D, 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham.
1872. Norris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales.
1883. *Norris, William G. Dale House, Coalbrookdale, R.S.0., Shropshire.
Norton, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. 35 Eaton-place, S.W. ;
and Hamshall, Birmingham.
1886, tNorton, Lady. 35 Eaton-place, 8. W.; and Hamshall, Birmingham.
1894, §Norcv7t, S. A., LL.M., B.A., B.Sc. (Local See. 1895). 98 Anglesea
Road, and Constitution Hill, Ipswich.
Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.
1896. tNugent, the Right Rev. Monsignor. 18 Adelaide-terrace, Waterloo,
Liverpool.
1887. tNursey, Perry Fairfax. 2 Trafalgar-buildings, Northumberland-
avenue, London, W.C,

1898. *O’Brien, Neville Forth. Queen Anne’s-mansions, 5.W.

1878. {O’Conor Don, The. Clonalis, Castlerea, Treland.

1883, tOdgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D. 4 Elm-court, Temple, E.C.

1858. *Optinc, Writ1am, M.B., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1864; Coun-
cil 1865-70), Waynflete Professor of Chemistry in the Univer-
sity of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

1884, tOdlum, Edward, M.A. Pembroke, Ontario, Canada.

1857. {O’Donnavan, William John. 454 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar,
Dublin.

1894, §Ogden, James. Kilner Deyne, Rochdale.

1896. {Oeden, Thomas. 4 Prince’s-avenue, Liverpool.

1885. {Ogilvie, Alexander, LL.D. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.

1876, {Ogilvyie,Campbell P. Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffolk.

1885. tOciivrn, F. Grant, M.A., BSc., F.RS.E. (Local See. 1892).
Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh.

1859. {Ogilvy, Rev. C. W. Norman. Baldan House, Dundee,

-*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby.

1884, {O’Halloran, J. S.,C.M.G. Royal Colonial Institute, Northumber-
land-avenue, W.C.

1881. {Oldfield, Joseph. Lendal, York.

1887, tOldham, Charles. Romiley, Cheshire.

1896. {Oldham, G. S. Town Hall, Birkenhead.

1892. {Oxpuam, H. Yuu, M.A., F.R.G.S., Lecturer in Geography in the
University of Cambridge. King’s College, Cambridge.

1853. tOrpuaM, James, M.Inst.C.E. Cottingham, near Hull.

1885. {Oldham, John. River Plate Telegraph Company, Monte Video.

1893. *OxpHam, R. D., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India, Care of Messrs.
H. S, King & Co., Cornhill, F.C.

1892. Oliphant, James. 50 Palmerston-place, Edinburgh.

1862, {Onrver, Dantet, LL.D.,F.RS., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of Botany
in TAS College, London. 10 Kew Gardens-road, Kew,

urrey.

1887, {Ourver, F. W., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in University
College, London. 2 The Vale, Chelsea, S.W.

1883. §Oliver, Samuel A. Bellingham House, Wigan, Lancashire.

1889, §Oliver, Professor T., M.D. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

72
Year of
Election
1882,
1860.

1880.

1872.
1885.
1899.
1858.
1885,
1884.

1884,
1838.
1901.

* 1899,

1897,
1901,
1887.

1897.
1865.

1884.
1884,

1882,
1881.
1896,
1882.
1889.
1896,

1889.
1883.
1883.
1894.
1898.

1884.
1875.
1870.

1896,
1889.

1878.
1866,
1872.
1883.
1886,

1883,

LIST OF MEMBERS.

§Olsen, O. T., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s-terrace, Grimsby.

*Ommanney, Admiral Sir Erasmus, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.AAS.,
F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1877; Council 1873-80, 1884-90),
29 Connaught-square, Hyde Park, W.

*Ommanney, Rey. E, A. St. Michael’s and All Angels, Portsea,
Hants.

tOnslow, D. Robert. New University Club, St. James’s, S.W.

tOppert, Gustav, Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Berlin.

tOrling, Axel. Moorgate Station-chambers, E.C.

tOrmerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.

tOrpen, Miss. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

*Orpen, Lieut.-Colonel R. T., N.E. Monksgrange, Enniscorthy, Co.
Wexford.

*Orpen, Rey. T. H., M.A. Binnbrooke, Cambridge.

Orr, Alexander Smith. 57 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.

§Orr, Alexander Stewart. Care of Maitland, Price & Co.,
Mazagon, Bombay, India.

tOsborn, Dr. F. A. The Chalet, Dover.

tOsborne, James K. 40 St. Joseph-street, Toronto, Canada.

§Osborne, W. A., D.Sc. University College, W.C.

§O’Shea, L. T., B.Sc. University College, Sheffield.

*Oster, A. Fortert, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tOsler, Ii. B., M.P. Rosedale, Toronto, Canada,

*Osler, Henry F. Coppy Hill, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove,
Birmingham.

tOstur, Professor Wint14M, M.D., F.R.S.. Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, U.S.A.

ped eh James, F.C.S. 71 Spring Terrace-road, Burton-on-

rent,

*Oswald, T. R. Castle Hall, Milford Haven.

*Ottewell, Alfred D. 14 Mill Hill-road, Derby.

fOulton, W. Hillside, Gateacre, Liverpool.

tOwen, Rey. C. M., M.A. St. George’s, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Owen, Alderman H. C. Compton, Wolverhampton.

§Owen, Peter. The Elms, Capenhurst, Chester, and 2 Dale Street,

Liverpool.

tPage, Dr. F. i Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Page, George W. Fakenham, Norfolk.

tPage, Joseph Edward. 12 Saunders-street, Southport.

tPaget, Octavius. 158 Fenchurch-street, E.C.

eg nee Right Hon. Sir R. H., Bart. Cranmore Hall, Shepton

allet.

{Paine, Cyrus F. Rochester, New York, U.S.A.

tPaine, William Henry, M.D. Stroud, Gloucestershire.

*PaLeRAVE, Rosert Harry Ineuts, F.R.S., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1883).
Belton, Great Yarmouth.

{Pallis, Alexander. Tatoi, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.

}Patmer, Sir Cuartes Marx, Bart., M.P. Grinkle Park, York-
shire,

*Palmer, Joseph Edward. Rose Lawn, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.

§Palmer, William. Waverley House, Waverley-street, Nottingham.

*Palmer, W. R. 49 Tierney-road, Streatham Hill, S.W.

{Pant, F. J. Van der. Clifton Lodge, Kingston-on-Thames.

{Panton, George A., F.R.S.E, 73 Westfield-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

{Park, Henry. Wigan,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 73

Year of

Election.

1883. {Park, Mrs. Wigan.

1880. *Parke, George Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. St. John’s, Wakefield,
Yorkshire.

1898. {Parker, G., M.D. 14 Pembrole-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1863. {Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1886.

1899,

1891.

1899.

1879.
1887.
1859.
1883.

1878.

1898.
1898.
1881.
1887.

1897.
1896.
1897.

1883.

1884.
1871.
1876.
1874.
1863.
1879.
1863.
1885,
1892.
1863.
1887.

1887.

1881.
1877.
1881.
1866,
1888.
1886.
1876.
1879.
1885.

1875.
1886,

1884.
1886,
1883.
1891.
_ 1895.
1898.
1885.

{Parker, Lawley. Chad Lodge, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tParker, Mark. 50 Upper Fant-road, Maidstone.

{Parxker, Witt1AmM Newton, Ph.D., F.Z.S., Professor of Biolocy in
University College, Cardiff.

*Parkin, John. Blaithwaite, Carlisle.

*Parkin, William. The Mount, Sheffield.

{Parkinson, James. Greystones, Langho, Blackburn.

{Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. Yewbarrow House, Grange-over-Sands.

tParson, T. Cooke, M.R.C.S. Atherston House, Clifton, Bristol.

tParsons, Hon. C. A., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Holeyn Hall, Wylam-
on-Tyne.

*Partridge, Miss Josephine M. Girton College, Cambridge.

tPass, Alfred C. Clifton Down, Bristol.

{Patchitt, Edward Cheshire, 128 Derby-road, Nottingham,

{Parerson, A. M., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in University College,
Liverpool.

{Paterson, John A. 23 Walmer-road, Toronto, Canada.

{Paton, A. A. Greenbank-drive, Wavertree, Liverpool.

{Paton, D. No#l, M.D. 33 George-square, Edinburgh.

*Paton, Rev. Henry, M.A. 120 Polwarth Terrace, Edinburgh.

*Paton, Hugh. Box 2400, Montreal, Canada.

*Patterson, A. Henry. 16 Ashburn-place, S.W.

{Patterson, T. L. Maybank, Greenock.

{Patterson, W. H., M.R.LA. 26 High-street, Belfast.

{Parrinson, Joun, F.C.S. 75 The Side, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Patzer, F, R. Clayton Lodge, Newcastle, Staffordshire.

{ Paul, Benjamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

tPaul, George. 10 St. Mary’s Avenue, Harrogate.

{Paul, J. Balfour. 30 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

{Pavy, Freperick WittrAm, M.D., F.R.S. 35 Grosvenor-street, W.

*Paxman, James. Stisted Hall, near Braintree, Essex.

*Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward’s Heath.

tPayne, J. Buxton. 15 Mosley-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Payne, J. C. Charles. 1 Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.

tPayne, Mrs. 1 Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.

{Payne, Joseph F., M.D. 78 Wimpole-street, W.

*Paynter, J. B. Hendford Manor House, Yeovil.

{Payton, Henry. Wellington-road, Birmingham.

tPeace, G. H. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester.

tPeace, William K. Moor Lodge, Sheffield.

tPxracn, B.N., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.8. Geological Survey Office,
Edinburgh.

{Peacock,Thomas Francis. 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, W.C.

*Pearce, Mrs. Horace. Orsett House, Birmingham Road, Kidder-
minster.

tPearce, William, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Pearsall, Howard D. 19 Willow-road, Hampstead, N.W.

tPearson, Arthur A. Colonial Office, S. W.

{Pearson, B. Dowlais Hotel, Cardiff.

*Pearson, Charles E. Hillcrest, Lowdham, Nottinghamshire,

§Pearson, George, Bank Chambers, Baldwin-street, Bristol.

{Pearson, Miss Helen E. Oakhurst, Birkdale, Southport,

‘74

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1881,
1885.
1872.
1892.
1881.
1889,
1863.

1855.
1888.

1885.
1884,
1878.
1901.
1881.
1878.
1887.

1894,
1894,
1897.

1896.
1898.
1875,
1889,

1898.
1895.

1894,
1868.

1884,

1864.
1898.
1885.
1886.
1886,
1874.

1883.
1885.
1900.
1897.
1898.
1901.
1883.

{Pearson, John. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.

{Pearson, Mrs. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.

*Pearson, Joseph. Grove Farm, Merlin, Raleigh, Ontario, Canada.

{Pearson, J. M. John Dickie-street, Kilmarnock.

{Pearson, Richard. 57 Bootham, York.

{Pease, Howard. Enfield Lodge, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Pease, Sir Joseph W., Bart., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Guisborough.

Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.

*Peckover, Alexander, LL.D., F.S.A., F.LS., F.R.G.S. Bank
House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.

{Peckover, Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridge-
shire.

{Peddie, William, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 2 Cameron-park, Edinburgh.

{Peebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin.

*Peek, William. The Manor House, Kemp Town, Brighton.

*Peel, Hon. William, M.P. 18 King’s Bench Walk, Temple, F.C.

{Peges, J. Wallace. 21 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.

{Pemberton, Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.

§PenpLEBuRY, WituiAm H., M.A., F.C.S. (Local See. 1899).
6 Gladstone-terrace, Priory Hill, Dover.

§Pengelly, Miss. Lamorna, Torquay.

§Pengelly, Miss Hester. Lamorna, Torquay.

{PEnHALLOW, Professor D. P., M.A. McGill University, Montreal,
Canada.

{Pennant, P. P. Nantlys, St. Asaph.

tPentecost, Harold, B.A. Clifton College, Bristol.

{Perceval, Rey. Canon John, M.A., LL.D. Rugby.

{Percival, Archibald Stanley, M.A., M.B. 16 Ellison-place, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

{Percival, Francis W., M.A., F.R.G.S. 2 Southwiclk-place, W.

{Percival, John, M.A., Professor of Botany in the South-Kastern
Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

*Perigal, Frederick. Lower Kingswood, Reigate.

t{Perkin, A. G., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.LC. 8 Montpelier-terrace,
Hyde Park, Leeds.

*PrrKInN, Wiit1am Henry, Ph.D., LL.D. F.RS., V.P.O.8.
(Pres. B, 1876; Council 1880-86). The Chestnuts, Sudbury,
Harrow, Middlesex.

t{Perxin, WitttaAM Henry, jun., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.8,E.
(Pres. B, 1900; Council 1901- ). Professor of Organic Chemistry
in the Owens College, Manchester. Fairview, Wilbraham-road,
Fallowfield, Manchester.

*Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.

*Perman, E. P. University College, Cardiff.

{Perrin, Miss Emily. 381 St John’s Wood Park, N,W.

{Perrin, Henry 8. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, N.W.

tPerrin, Mrs. 381 St. John’s Wood Park, N.W.

*Prrry, JouN, M.E., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Council 1901— ), Professor
of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Royal College of
Science, S. W. 7

{Perry, Ottley L., F.R.G.S. Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.

tPerry, Russell R. 84 Duke-street, Brighton,

§Petavel, J. E. The Owens College, Manchester.

tPeters, Dr. George A. 171 Oollege-street, Toronto, Canada,

{Pethick, William. Woodside, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

§Pethybridge, G. H. Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.

{Petrie, Miss Isabella. Stone Hill, Rochdale.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 75

Year of
Election,

1895. {Purrim, W. M. Frinpers, D.C.L. (Pres. H, 1895), Professor of
Egyptology in University College, W.C.

1871. *Peyton, John E, H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 18 Fourth-avenue, Hove,
Brighton.

1886. {Phelps, Major-General A. 23 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

1863, *Puent, Jonn Samvet, LL.D.,F.S.A., F.G.8., F.R.G.8. 5 Carlton-
terrace, Oakley-street, S.W.

1896. {Philip, George, jun. Weldon, Bidston, Cheshire.

1892. {Philip, R. W., M.D. 4 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

1870. {Philip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.

1853. *Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.

1858. *Philips, Herbert. The Oak House, Macclesfield.

1877. §Philips, T. Wishart. Elizabeth Lodge, George-lane, Woodford,
Hssex.

1863. {Philipson, Sir G. H. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1883. {Phillips, Arthur G. 20 Canning-street, Liverpool.

1899, {Phillips, Charles E.S. Castle House, Shooter's Hill, Kent.

1894. §Phillips, Staff-Commander E. C. D., R.N., F.R.G.S. 14 Hargreaves-
buildings, Chapel-street, Liverpool.

1887. {Phillips, H. Harcourt, F.C.S. 183 Moss-lane Hast, Manchester.

1890. §Phillips, R. W., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Biology in University
College, Bangor.

1883. {Phillips, S. Rees. Wonford House, Exeter.

1881. {Phillips, William. 9 Bootham-terrace, York.

1898. {Philps, Captain Lambe. 7 Royal-terrace, Weston-super-Mare,

1884. *Pickard, Rey. H. Adair, M.A. Airedale, Oxford.

1883, *Pickard, Joseph William. Oatlands, Lancaster.

1901. §Pickard, Robert H., D.Sc. Isca, Merlin Road, Blackburn.

1894. {PickarD-Camprines, Rey. O., M.A., F.R.S. Bloxworth Rectory,
Wareham.

1885. *Prckertne, Spencer P. U.,M.A., F.R.S. Harpenden, Herts.

1884, *Pickett, Thomas E., M.D. Maysville, Mason Co., Kentucky, U.S.A.

1888, *Pidgeon, W. R. 42 Porchester-square, W.

1871. {Pigot, Thomas F.,M.R.IL.A. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

1884. {Pike, L. G., M.A., F.Z.S. 12 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, F.C.

1865. {Prxr, L.OwEn. 44 Marlborough-gate, Hyde Park, W.

1873. {Pike, W. H., M.A., Ph.D. Toronto, Canada.

1896. *Pilkington, A.C. The Hazels, Prescot, Lancashire.

1896. *Pilling, William. Rosario, Heene-road, West Worthing.

1877. {Pim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

1868. {Pinder, T. R. St. Andrew’s, Norwich.

1876, {Pirte, Rev. G., M.A. (Local Sec. 1885), Professor of Mathematics
in the University of Aberdeen. 83 College Bounds, Old Aberdeen,

1887. {Pitkin, James. 56 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, E.C.

1875. {Pitman, John. Redcliff Hill, Bristol.

1883. {Pitt, George Newton, M.A., M.D. 24 St. Thomas-street, Borough,
8.

1864. {Pitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.

1883. {Pitt, Sydney. 16 St. Andrew’s-street, Hoiborn-circus, F.C.

1893. *Prvr, Waxrer, M.Inst.0.E. South Stoke House, near Bath.

1900, *Platts, Walter. Fairmount, Bingley.

1884, *Playfair, W. S., M.D., LL.D., Professor of Midwifery in King’s
College, London. 38 Grosvenor-street, W.

1898. {Playne, H.C. 28 College-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1893. {Plowright, Henry J. Brampton Foundries, Chesterfield,

1897, {Plummer, J. H. Bank of Commerce, Toronto, Canada,

76

Year of
Election

1898,

1899.
1857.

1900.
1881.
1888.
1896,
1898.

1896.
1862,

1891.
1900.
1892.

1868.
1901.

1883.
1883.

1887.
1883.
1886,
1898.
1875.
1887.

1883.
1894,

1875.
1887.

1867.
1883.

1884,
1869,
1888.

1892.
1889.

1894.
1898,

LIST OF MEMBERS.

§Plummer, W. E., M.A., F.R.A.S. The Observatory, Bidston, -
Birkenhead.

{Plumptre, Fitzwalter. Goodnestone, Dover.

{Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Queen’s
Co., Ireland.

*Pocklington, H. Cabourn. 41 Virginia Road, Leeds.

§Pocklington, Henry. 20 Park-row, Leeds.

{Pocock, Rev. Francis. 4 Brunswick-place, Bath.

{Pollard, James. High Down, Hitchin, Herts.

tPotten, Rev. G. C. H., F.G.S. Ancienne Abbaye, Tronchiennes,
Ghent, Belgium.

*Pollex, Albert. Tenby House, Egerton Park, Rock Ferry.

*Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro,
Cornwall. :

{Pomeroy, Captain Ralph. 201 Newport-road, Cardiff.

§Popr, W. J. 48 Cawdor Road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

{Popplewell, W. C., M.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. The Yew, Marple,
near Stockport.

{PorraL, Sir WynpHaw S., Bart. Malshanger, Basingstoke.

§Porter, Alfred W. 81 Parliament Hill Mansions, Lissenden
Gardens, N.W.

*Porter, Rev. C. T., LL.D., D.D. All Saints’ Vicarage, Southport.

{Postgate, Professor J. P., M.A. University College, Gower Street,
W.C.

{Potter, Edmund P. Hollinhurst, Bolton.

fPotter, M. C., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the College of
Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 14 Highbury, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

Pamuen Epwarp B,, M.A., F.RB.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.Z.S. (Pres. D,
1896 ; Council 1895-1901), Professor of Zoology in the Univer-
sity of Oxford. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford.

*Poulton, Edward Palmer. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford.

*Powell, Sir Francis 8., Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. Horton Old Hall,
Yorkshire ; and 1 Cambridge-square, W.

*Powell, Horatio Gibbs. Wood Villa, Tettenhall Wood, Wolver-
hampton.

tPowell, John. Brynmill-crescent, Swansea.

*Powell, Sir Richard Douglas, Bart., M.D. 62 Wimpole Street,
Cavendish Square, W.

tPowell, William Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton,
Bristol.

§Pownall, George H. Manchester and Salford Bank, St. Ann-street,
Manchester,

{Powrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.

tPoyntine, J. H., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1899). Professor of
Physics in the University, Birmingham.

*Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. 66 Banbury-road, Oxford.

*PREECE, Sir WiLL1AM Henry, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G,
1888; Council 1888-95, 1896- - ). Gothic Lodge, Wimbledon
Common, Surrey; and 13 Queen Anne’s Gate, S.W.

*Preece, W. Llewellyn. Bryn Helen, Woodborough Road, Putney,

S.W

§Prentice, Thomas. Willow Park, Greenock.

§Preston, Alfred Eley, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 14 The Exchange, Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.

{Preston, Arthur EH. Piccadilly, Abingdon, Berkshire.

*Preston, Martin Inett. 48 Ropewalk, Nottingham,

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. w7

Election.

1884,

1888.

1875.
1891.

1897.
1897.

1892.
1864,

1889.

1876.

1888.

1881.

1863.

1884.
1879.
1872.
1871.
1878.
1867.
1883.
1891.
1842,

1887.

1885,

1852.
1881.

1874.
1866.
1878.
1884.
1860.
1898.
1885.
1883.
1868.

1879.

1893.

1894.

1870,
1870.
1896.
1855.
1887.

1864.

*Prevost, Major L. de T., 2nd Battalion Argyll and Sutherland

Highlanders.
Price, J.T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.

tPricz, L. L. F. R., M.A., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1895; Council, 189S— ).
Oriel College, Oxford,

*Price, Rees. 163 Bath-street, Glasgow.

{Price, William. 40 Park-place, Cardiff.

*Price, W. A., M.A. The Mill House, Broomfield, Chelmsford.

{Primrose, Dr, Alexander. 196 Simcoe-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Prince, Professor Edward E., B.A. Ottawa, Canada.

*Prior, R. C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent's Park, N.W.

*Pritchard, Eric Law, M.D., M.R.C.S. 70 Fairhazel Gardens, South
Hampstead, N.W.

*PRITCHARD, URBAN, M.D., F.R.C.S. 26 Wimpole-street, W.

tProbyn, Leslie C. Onslow-square, 8. W.
§Procter, Jonn William. Ashcroft, York.
tProctor, R. 8. Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.
*Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. 100 State Street, Chicago, U.S.A.
*Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S. Alvington, Ilfracombe.

*Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Park, Stevenage, Herts.

*Puckle, Rev. T. J. Chestnut House, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

{Pullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.

*Pullar, Sir Robert, F.R.S.E. Tayside, Perth.

*Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Brahan, Perth.

{Pullen, W. W. F. University Colleze, Cardiff.

*Pumphrey, Charles. Castlewood, Park-road, Moseley, Birmingham.

§PumpeuReEy, WiniiaAm (Local Sec. 1888). 2 Oakland-road, Red-
land, Bristol.

tPourpin, THomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of St. Andrews. 14 South-street, St. Andrews, N.B.

tPurdon, Thomas Henry, M.1). Belfast.

tPurey-Cust, Very Rey. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York. The
Deanery, York.

{Pursrr, Frepericon, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin.

{tPursgr, Professor Jomn, M.A., M.R.I.A. Queen’s College, Belfast,

tPurser, John Mallet. 8 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.

*Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stratford-place, Oxford-street, W.

*Pusey, S. EH. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon,

*Pye, Miss HE. St. Mary’s Hall, Rochester.

§Pye-Smith, Arnold. Willesley, Park Hill Rise, Croydon.

§Pye-Smith, Mrs. Willesley, Park Hill Rise, Croydon.

{Pyz-Suiru, P. H., M.D.,I'.R.S. 48 Brook-sireet, W.; and Guy's
Hospital, S.1.

tPye-Smith, Rt. J. 350 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

{Quick, James. University College, Bristol.
TQuick, Professor W. J. University of Missouri, Columbia, U.S.A,

tRabbits, W. T. 6 Cadogan-gardens, 8. W.

TRadcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool.
§Radcliffe, Herbert. Balderstone Hall, Rochdale.

*Radstock, The Right Hon. Lord. Mayfield, Woolston, Southampton,
*Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Strand, near Manchester.
tRaivey, James T, 3 Kent-gardens, Ealing, W.

78

LIST OF MEMBERS

Year of
Election.

1898.

1896.
1894.

1863,
1884,

1884,
1861.
1885,
1889.
1876,

1885.
1869.

1901,
1868.
18953.
1863.
1861.

1889.

1864.
1892.
1895.
i874,

1889,
1870.
1866,

1887.
1886.

1868,

1896.

1885,
1897.
1896.
1870.
1884.
1899.
1852.

189:,

1889,
1889.

*Raisin, Miss Catherine A., D.Sc. Bedford College, York-place,
Baker-street, W.

*RaMAGE, Hucu. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*Rampavt, ArrHur A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.LA.
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.

Ramsay, ALEXANDER. 2 Cowper-road, Acton, Middlesex, W.

tRamsay, George G., LL.D., Professor of Humanity in the University
of Glasgow. 6 The College, Glasgow.

{Ramsay, Mrs. G.G. 6 The College, Glasgow.

{Ramsay, John. ildalton, Argyllshire. °

Ramsay, Major. Straloch, N.B.

t{Ramsay, Major R.G. W. Bonnyrigg, Edinburgh.

*RamsaAy, Wiutt1aM, Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1897; Council
1891-98), Professor of Chemistry in University College,
London. 12 Arundel-gardens, W.

tRamsay, Mrs. 12 Arundel-gardens, W.

*Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletawn-road, West Ken-
sington, W.

§Rankin, James, M.A., B.Sc. The University, Glasgow.

*Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. 24 Ashburnham-road, Bedford.

{Ransom, W. B., M.D. The Pavement, Nottingham.

{Ransom, WriiL14M Henry, M.D.,F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham.

{Ransoms, Artuur, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Local Sec. 1861).
Sunnyhurst, Deane Park, Bournemouth.

Ransome, Thomas. Hest Bank, near Lancaster.

§Rapkin, J. B. Sidcup, Kent.

Rashleigh, Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.
tRate, Rev. John, M.A. Fairfield, Hast Twickenham.

*Rathbone, Miss May. Backwood, Neston, Cheshire.

tRatuponn, W., LL.D. Green Bank, Liverpool.

tRavenstern, E. G., F.R.G.S., F.S.8, (Pres. E, 1891). 2 York-
mansions, Battersea Park, 8. W.

TRawlings, Edward. Richmond House, Wimbledon Common, Surrey.

{Rawlins, G. W. The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool.

*Rawtinson, Rey. Canon GrorcE, M.A. The Oaks, Precincts,
Canterbury.

{Rawson, Harry. Earlswood, Ellesmere Park, Eccles, Manchester.

{Rawson, W. Stepney, M.A. 68 Cornwall-gardens, Queen’s-gate,
S.W.

*Rayielen, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S.,
I.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. (Prusipmnt, 1884 ; Trusrex,1883-— ; Pres.
A, 1882; Council, 1878-85), Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the Royal Institution, Terling Place, Witham, Essex.

{Raynbird, Hugh, jun. Garrison Gateway Cottage, Old Basing,
Basingstoke. ;

*Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.C.S. St. Mary’s Gate, Lancaster.

*Rayner, Edwin Hartree. Teviot Dale, Stockport.

*Ruapd, CHARLES H., F.S.A, (Pres. H, 1899). British Museum, W.C,

{Reapz, Tomas Mettarp, F.G.S. Blundellsands, Liverpool.

§Readman, J. B., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 4 Lindsay-place, Edinburgh.

tReaster, James William. 68 Linden-grove; Nunhead, 8.E.

*REDFERN, Professor Prerer, M.D. (Pres. D, 1874; Vicu-PRESI-
DENT, 1902), 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.

tRedgrave, Gilbert R., Assoc.Inst.C.H. The Elms, Westgate-road,
Beckenham, Kent.

{tRedmayne, J M. Harewood, Gateshead.

fRedmayne, Norman. 26 Grey-street, Newcastle-wpon-Tyne.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 79

Year of
Election.

1890.
1861.

1889.
1891.
1894,
1891,

1888..

1875.
1897.
1901.
1881,
18835.
1892.

1889.

1901.

1876,

1901.
1897.

1892.
1887.
1895.
1875.

1863.
1894.
1891.

1885.
1889.
1867.
1885.
1871.

1900.

1870.

1896.
1896.
1877.
1888.

1890.
1884,
1899.
1877.

1891.
. 1891.
1889.

1888.
1869,

*Redwood, LGoverton, F.R.S.E., F.C.8. Glen Wathen, Church
End, Finchley, N.

{Rexp, Sir Kpwarp James, K.C.B., F.R.S. Broadway-chambers,
Westminster, 8. W.

tReed, Rey. George. Bellingham Vicarage, Bardon Mill, Carlisle.

*Reed, Thomas A. Bute Docks, Cardiff.

*Rees, Edmund 8. G. Dunscar, Oaken, near Wolverhampton.

*Rees, I. Treharne, M.Inst.C.E. Highfield, Penarth.

tRees, W. L. 11 North-crescent, Bedford-square, W.C.

tRees-Moge, W. Weoldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol.

tReeve, Richard A. 22 Shuter-street, Toronto, Canada.

*Reid, Andrew T. 10 Woodside Terrace, Glasgow.

§Reid, Arthur 8., M.A., F.G.8S. Trinity College, Glenalmonid, N.B.

*REID, CLEMENT, F'.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, 8.W.

t{Rem, KE. Waymourn, B.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
University College, Dundee.

}Reid, G., Belgian Consul. Leazes House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Reid, Hugh. Belmont, Springburn, Glasgow.

{Reid, james. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

§Reid, John. 7 Park Terrace, Glasgow.

§Reid, T. Whitehead, M.D. St. George’s House, Canterbury,

tReid, Thomas. University College, Dundee.

*Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.

tReinach, Baron Albert von. Frankfort s. M., Prussia.

§Rermotp, A. W., M.A., F.R.S. (Council 1890-95), Professor of
Physics in the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.

{Renats, E, ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham,

{Renpa1, Rev. G. H., M.A. Charterhouse, Godalming.

*Rendell, Rey. James Robson, B.A. Whinside, Whalley-road,
Accrington.

{Rennett, Dr. 12 Golden-square, Aberdeen,

*Rennie, George B. 20 Lowndes-street, S.W.

tRenny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

*Reynolds, A. H. Bank House, 135 Lord-street, Southport.

{Reynoxps, JAmus Emerson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Pres.C.S., M.R.LA.
(Pres. B, 1893; Council 1893-99), Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Dublin. The Laboratory, Trinity College, Dublin,

*Reynolds, Miss K. M. 4 Colinette Road, Putney, S.W.

*REYNOLDS, OsporNE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G,
1887), Professor of Engineering in the Owens College, Man-
chester. 19 Lady Barn-road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

{Reynolds, Richard 8. 73 Smithdown-lane, Liverpool.

§Rhodes, Albert. Fieldhurst, Liversidge, Yorkshire.

*Rhodes, John. 560 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire.

{Rhodes, John George. Warwick House, 46 St. George's-road,
SW.

{Rhodes, J. M., M.D. Ivy Lodge, Didsbury.

{Rhodes, Lieut.-Colonel William. Quebec, Canada.

*Ruys, Professor Joun, M.A. (Pres. H, 1900). Jesus College, Oxford.

*Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Riva
Muro, 14, Modena, Italy.

tRichards, D, 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.

tRichards, H. M. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.

sHiohates, Professor T. W., Ph.D. Cambridge, Massachusetts.

*RicHaRpson, ARTHUR, M.D. ind:

*Richardson, Charles. 6 The Ayenue, Bedford Park, Chiswick.

80

LIST OF MEMBERS. —

Year of
Election.

1882.
1884.
1889.
1884,
1896.

1901,
1870.
1889.
1876.
1891,
1891.
1886,
1868.

1888,
1894,

1861.
1884.
1881.
1885.
1892.

] gat

o/5.

1892.
1867.
1889.
1900.
1898.
1869.

1887.
1859.
1870.

1894.
1881.
1879.
1879.
1896,
1868.

1883.
1884.
1883.
18838.
1897.

1897.
19061.

tRichardson, Rev. George, M.A. Walcote, Winchester.

*Richardson, George Straker. Isthmian Club, Piccadilly, W.

{Richardson, Hugh, M.A. Bootham School, York.

*Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea.

*Richardson, Nelson Moore, B.A., F.E.8. Montevideo, Chickerell,
near Weymouth.

*Richardson, Owen Willan. Victoria Crescent, Dewsbury.

tRichardson, Ralph, F.R.S.E. 10 Magdala-place, Edinburgh.

tRichardson, Thomas, J.P. 7 Windsor-terrace, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

§Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glascow.

tRiches, Carlton H. 21 Dumfries-place, Cardiff.

§Riches, T. Harry. 8 Park-grove, Cardiff.

§Richmond, Robert. Heathwood, Leighton Buzzard.

{Ricxerrs, Cuarves, M.D.,F.G.8. 19 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.

*RIDDELL, Major-General Coartes J. Bucnanan, 0.B., R.A., F.R.S.
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon.

*RIDEAL, SAMUEL, D.Sc., F.C.S. 28 Victoria-street. S.W.

§Riptsy, EH. P. (Local Sec, 1895), Burwood, Westerfield Road,
Ipswich.

tRidley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, N.W.

tRidout, Thomas. Ottawa, Canada.

*Rige, Arthur. 15 Westbourne Park Villas, W.

*Riec, Epwarp, M.A. Royal Mint, E.

tRintoul, D., M.A. Clifton College, Bristol.

{Ripley, Sir Edward, Bart. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.

*Ripon, The Most Hon. the Marquess of, K.G., G.C.S.1., C.LE.,
D.O.L., F.R.S., E.LS., F-R.G.S. 9 Chelsea Embankment, 8.W.

tRirchie, R. Peel, M.D., F.R.S.E. 1 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Ritchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.

{Ritson, U. A. 1 Jesmond-gardens, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Rixon, F. W., B.Sc. 79 Green Lane, Heywood, Lancashire,

§Robb, Alfred A. Lisnabreeny House, Belfast.

*Roppins, Joun, F.C.8. 57 Warrington-crescent, Maida Vale,
London, W.

*Roberts, Evan. 50 St. George’s-square, Regent’s Park, N.W.

tRoberts, George Christopher. Hull.

*Roserts, Isaac, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Starfield, Crow-
borough, Sussex.

*Roberts, Miss Janora. 14 Alexandra Road, Southport.

tRoberts, R. D., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.8, 4 Regent Street, Cambridge.

tRoberts, Samuel. The Towers, Sheffield.

tRoberts, Samuel, jun. The Towers, Sheffield.

§Roberts, Thomas J. 35 Serpentine-road, Egremont, Chesnire.

*RoBERTS-AUSTEN, Sir W. Coanpter, K.C.B.,D.C.L.,F.R.8.,V.P.C.S.,
Chemist to the Royal Mint, and Professor of Metallurgy in the
Royal College of Science, London (GENERAL SECRETARY,
1897— ; Pres. B, 1891; Council 1886-93). Royal Mint, E.

{Robertson, Alexander. Montreal, Canada.

{Robertson, I. Stanley, M.A. 45 Waterloo-road, Dublin.

Robertson, George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.

tRobertson, Mrs. George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.

§Ropertson, Sir Grorer §., K.C.S.1. (Pres, E, 1900). 1 Pumip
Court, Temple, E.C. ;

§Robertson, Professor J. W. Department of Agriculture, Ottawa,
Canada. :

*Robertson, Robert, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. 154 West George’Street, .
Glasgow. Panna

LIST OF MEMBERS, 81

Year of
Election.

1892.
1886.
1898,

1861.
1897.
1887.
1501.
1863.
1878.
1895.

1876.
1899.
1887.
1881.
1875.
1884,
1901.
1863.
1891.

1888.
1870.

1872.
1890.

1896,
1896.
1885,
1885.

1866,
1898.

1867.
1890.

1883.
1882,
1884.
1889,
1897.
1876.

1891.
1894.
1881,
1855.

1883.
1894,
1900.

1885.

{Robertson, W. W. 3 Parliament-square, Ldinburgh,

*Robinson, C. R. 27 Elvetham-road, Birmingham,

§Robinson, Charles E., M-.Inst.C.E. Selborne, Ashburton, South
Devon.

{Robinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.

tRobinson, Haynes. St. Giles’s Plain, Norwich,

§Robinson, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 13 Victoria-street, S.W.

§Robinson, John, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Vicarage-terrace, Kendal.

{Robinson, J. H. 6 Montallo-terrace, Barnard Castle.

{Robinson, John L. 198 Great Brunswick-street, Dublin.

*Robinson, Joseph Johnson. 8 Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, South-
port.

{Robinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.

*Robinson, Mark, M.Inst.C.E. Overslade, Bilton, near Rugby.

tRobinson, Richard. Bellfield Mill, Rochdale,

{Robinson, Richard Atkinson. 195 Brompton-road, S.W,

*Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E. Beechwood, Darlington.

{Robinson, Stillman. Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.

§Robinson, T. Eaton. 33 Cecil Street West, Glasgow.

{Robinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.

{Robinson, William, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in
University College, Nottingham.

tRobottom, Arthur. 3 St. Alban’s-villas, Highgate-road, N.W.

*Robson, E. R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster,
S.W.

*Robson, William. 5 Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edinburgh.

{Rochester, The Right Rev. E. S. Talbot, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Kennington Park, S.E.

fRock, W.H. 73 Park-road East, Birkenhead.

tRodger, Alexander M. The Museum, Tay Street, Perth.

“Rodger, Edward. 1 Clairmont-gardens, Glasgow.

*Rodriguez, Epifanio. New Adelphi Chambers, 6 Robert Street,
Adelphi, W.C.

fRoe, Sir Thomas. Grove-villas, Litchurch.

apg ee M.D. (Local Sec. 1898,) 11 York-place, Clifton,

ristol.

{Rogers, James S. Rosemill, by Dundee.

*Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematies in Yorkshire College,
Leeds. 13 Beech Grove-terrace, Leeds.

{Rogers, Major R. Alma House, Cheltenham.

§ Rogers, Rev. Canon Saltren, M.A. Tresleigh, St. Austell, Cornwall,

“Rogers, Walter. Hill House, St. Leonards,

{Rogerson, John. Croxdale Hall, Durham.

TRogerson, John, Barrie, Ontario, Canada.

{Rorrr, Sir A. K., M.P., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon.
Fellow K.C.L. Thwaite House, Cottingham, East Yorkshire,

{Ronnfeldt, W. 48 Park-place, Cardiff.

*Rooper, T. Godolphin. 12 Cumberland-place, Southampton,

*Roper, W. O. Bank-buildings, Lancaster.

“Roscoz, Sir Henry Enrrerp, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
(PRESIDENT, 1887; Pres. B, 1870, 1884: Council 1874-81 ;
Local Sec. 1861). 10 Bramham-gardens, S.W.

*Rose, J. Holland, M.A. 11 Endlesham-road, Balham, 8S. W.

*Rosg, T. K., D.Sc. 9 Royal Mint, E.

§Rosenhain, Walter, B.A. 185 Monument Road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

tRoss, Alexander. Riverfield, Inverness,

1901, E

82

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1887.
1901.
1859,
1869.

1891.
1893.
1865.
1901.
1899,
1884.
1901.
1861.

1883.
1865.
1877.

1890.
1881.
1881.
1876.
1885.
1899.
1875.

1892.
1869.
1901.
1882,

1896.
1887.
1889.
1875.
1884.

1890.
1883,
1852.
1876.
1886,
1852.

1886.
1897.
1891.
1887.

1889.
1897.
1898.
1865.

tRoss, Edward. Marple, Cheshire.

§Ross, Major Ronan, F.R.S. 36 Bentley Road, Liverpool.

*Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Wadworth Hall, Doncaster.

*RossE, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., B.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.LA. (Vicz-Presrpent, 1902). Birr
Castle, Parsonstown, Ireland.

*Roth, H. Ling. 32 Prescot-street, Halifax, Yorkshire.

tRothera, G. B. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

*Rothera, George Bell. Hazlewood, Forest Grove, Nottingham.

*Rottenburg, Paul, LL.D. Care of Leister, Bock & Co., Glasgow.

*Round, J. C., M.R.C.S. 19 Crescent-road, Sydenham Hill, 8.E.

*Rouse, M. L. Hollybank, Hayne Road, Beckenham.

§Rouse, W. H. D. Cambridge.

{Rourn, Epwarp J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. St.
Peter’s College, Cambridge.

{Rowan, Frederick John. 134 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

tRowe, Rev. John, 13 Hampton Road, Forest Gate, Essex.

tRows, a Brooxine, F.L.S., F.S.A. 16 Lockyer-street, Ply-
mouth.

{Rowley, Walter, F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood, Leeds.

*RownTREE, JoHN 8S. Mount Villas, York.

*Rowntree, Joseph. 388 St. Mary’s, York.

{Roxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow.

tRoy, John. 33 Belvidere-street, Aberdeen.

{Rubie, G. S. Belgrave House, Folkestone-road, Dover.

*Ricxer, A. W., M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S., Principal of the University
of London (PRESIDENT, 1901; TRrusrme, 1898— ; TREASURER,
1891-98 ; Pres. A, 1894; Council 1888-91), 19 Gledhow-
gardens, South Kensington, 8. W.

§Riicker, Mrs. Levetleigh, Dane-road, St. Leonards-on-Sea,

§Rupier, Ff. W., F.G.S. The Museum, Jermyn-street, 8. W.

*Rudorf, L. C. G. 26 Weston Park, Crouch End, N.

{Rumball, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E, 1 Victoria Villas, Brondesbury,

N. W

*Rundell, T. W., F.R.Met.Soc. 25 Castle-street, Liverpool.

{Ruscoe, John. Ferndale, Gee Cross, near Manchester.

tRussell, The Right Hon. Earl. Amberley Cottage, Maidenhead.

*Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Dunrozel, Haslemere.

tRussell, George. 15 Church-road, Upper Norwood, 8.E.

Russell, John. 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.

tRussell, Sir J. A., LL.D. Woodville, Canaan-lane, Edinburgh.

*Russell, J. W. 16 Bardwell-road, Oxford.

*Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Hanoyer-square, W.

{Russell, Robert, F.G.S. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth.

{Russell, Thomas H. 38 Newhall-street, Birmingham.

*Russect, WitiiaAM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1873;
Council 1875-80). 84 Upper Hamilton-terrace, St. John’s
Wood, N.W.

{Rust, Arthur. Eversleigh, Leicester,

{Rutherford, A. Toronto, Canada.

tRutherford, George. Dulwich House, Pencisely-road, Cardiff.

{Rutherford, William. 7 Vine-grove, Chapman-street, Hulme, Man-
chester.

tRyder, W. J. H. 52 Jesmond-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Ryerson, G.5., M.D. ‘Toronto, Canada.

§Ryland, C. J. Southerndon House, Clifton, Bristol.

tRyland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS, &

Year of
Election.

1883.
1871,
1886.
1893.

1881.
1857.

1873.
1887.
1861.
1894,

1878.
1883.

1893,
1872.

1883.

1896.
1896.
1892.
1886.
1896.
1896.

1901.

1886.
1886.
1900.
1868.
1886.
1881.
1883.
1846,

1884.
1891.
1884.
1887.

1871.
1883.
1883.
1901.
1887.

1884.
1883.
1884,
1879.

{Sadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Sadler, Samuel Champernowne. 186 Aldersgate-street, E.C.

{St. Clair, George, F.G.S. 225 Castle Road, Cardiff.

JSaLispury, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S.
(PRESIDENT, 1894). 20 Arlington-street, 8. W.

tSalkeld, William. 4 Paradise-terrace, Darlington.

{Satmon, Rev. Grorex, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A,
1878). Provost of Trinity College, Dublin.

*Salomons, Sir David, Bart., F.G.S. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.

{Samson, C. L. Carmona, Kersal, Manchester.

*Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.

{Samvuetson, The Right Hon. Sir Baernaarp, Bart., F.RS.,
M.Inst.C.E. 56 Prince’s-cate, S.W.

{Sanders, Alfred, F.L.S. 2 Clarence-place, Gravesend, Kent.

{Sanderson, Deputy Surgeon-General Alfred. East India United
Service Club, St. James’s-square, 3. W.

tSanderson, F. W., M.A. The School, Oundle.

§SanpErson, Sir J. 8. Burpon, Bart., M.D., D.Se., LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (PREstpEntT, 1893; Pres. D, 1889; Council
1877-84), Regius Professor of Medicine in the University of
Oxford, 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.

{Sanderson, Lady Burdon. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.

Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.

§Saner, John Arthur, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Highfield, Northwich.

tSaner, Mrs. Hichfield, Northwich.

sare! William D. Tylehurst, Kirkcaldy, Fife.

Sankey, Percy E. 44 Russell Square, W.C.

*Sargant, Miss Ethel. Quarry Hill, Reigate.

{Sargant, W. L. Quarry Hill, Reigate.

§Sarruf, N. Y. ‘Al Mokattam,’ Cairo.

tSauborn, John Wentworth. Albion, New York, U.S.A.

{Saundby, Robert, M.D. 83a Edmund Street, Birmingham.

“Saunder, 8. A. Fir Holt, Crowthorne, Berks.

tSaunders, A., M.Inst.C.E. King’s Lynn.

tSaunders, C. T. Temple-row, Birmingham.

{Saunpers, Howarp, F.L.S., F.Z.8. 7 Radnor-place, W.

{Saunders, Rev. J. C. Cambridge.

{SaunpeErs, TRELAwNEY W.,F.R.G.S. 3 Elmfield on the Knowles,
Newton Abbot, Devon.

{SaunpeErs, Dr. Wrtr1am. Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada.

{Saunders, W. H. R. Llanishen, Carditf.

{Saunderson, C. KE. 26 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Savage, Rev. Canon E. B., M.A., F.S.A. St. Thomas’ Vicarage,
Douglas, Isle of Man.

tSavage, W. D. Ellerslie House, Brighton.

tSavage, W. W. 109 St. James’s-street, Brighton.

{Savery, G. M., M.A. The College, Harrogate.

§Sawers, W. D. 1 Athole Gardens Place, Glasgow.

§Saycr, Rev. A. H., M.A., D.D. (Pres. H, 1887), Professor of
Assyriology in the University of Oxford. Queen's College,
Oxford.

tSayre, Robert H. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

*Scarborough, George. Whinney Field, Halifax, Yorkshire.

{Searth, William Bain. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

*Scudrer, EF. A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.C.S. (Gun. Sue. 1895-1900;
Pres. I, 1894; Council 188793), Professor of Physiology in
the University of Edinburgh.

F2

84

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Yeur of

Election.

1888. *Scuarrr, Ropert F., Ph.D., B.Sc., Keeper of the Natural History
Department, Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.

1880. *Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt
& Sons, Birmingham.)

1892. tSchloss, David F. 1 Knaresborough-place, 8S. W.

1842. Schofield, Joseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.

1887. {Schofield, T. Thornfield, Talbot-road, Old Trafford, Manchester.

1883. tSchotield, William. Alma-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1885. §Scholes, L. 14 Abington Road, Brooklands, Cheshire.

Scuunck, Epwarp, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1887). Oak-

lands, Kersal Moor, Manchester.

1873. *ScuusrER, ArtHur, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres, A, 1892;

1847.

Council 1887-93), Professor of Physics in the Owens College.
Kent House, Victoria-park, Manchester.

*Sciarer, Paiipe Luriry, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.GS8.,
F.R.G.8., Sec.Z.S. (GonrRAL Srecrerary 1876-81; Pres. D,
1875; Council 1864-G7, 1872-75), 3 Hanover-square, W.

. *Scrarer, W. Lurtry, M.A., F.Z.S. South African Museum, Cape

Town.

. tScorr, ArpxanpER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.
. *Scorr, ALexanper, M.A., D.Se., F.RS., Sec.C.8. Royal Institu-

tion, Albemarle-street, W.

. *Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural

Science in St. Dayid’s College, Lampeter.

. {Scott, Miss Charlotte Angas, D.Sc. Bryn Mawr College, Pennsyl-

vania, U.S.A.

. *Scort, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.RS., F.L.S. (Genprat SECRETARY,

1900— _; Pres. K, 1896). The Old Palace, Richmond, Surrey.

. tSeott, George Jamieson. Bayview House, Aberdeen.
. Scott, James. 173 Jameson-avenue, Toronto, Canada.
. *Scorr, Ropert H., M.A., D.Sc., F.RS., F.R.Met.S.. 6 Elm Park-

gardens, 8S. W.

. *Scott, Sydney C. 28 The Avenue, Gipsy Hill, $.E.
. §Scott-Elliot, Professor G. F., M.A., B.Se., F.L.S. Ainslea, Scots-

tounhill, Glasgow.

. *Scrivener, A. P. Haglis House, Wendover.
. {Scrivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover.
. §Scull, Miss E. M. L. The Pines, 10 Langland-gardens, Hamp-

stead, N.W.

. §Searle, G. F. C., M.A. 20 Trumpington Street, Cambridge.
. {Seaton, John Love. ‘The Park, Hull.
. TSepewick, Apam, M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1899), Trinity College,

and 4 Cranmer Road, Cambridge.

. *Seevey, Harry Govirr, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.,

Professor of Geology in King’s College, Londen. 25 Palace
Gardens-terrace, Kensington, W.

. Selby, Arthur L., M.A., Assistant Professor of Physics in University

College, Cardiff.

gtk asia L. A., M.A. Charity Commission, Whitehall,

. {Seligman, H. L. 27 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.

. {Selim, Adolphus. 21 Mincing-lane, E.C.

. Selous, F. C., F.R.G.S. Alpine Lodge, Worplesden, Surrey.

. [Setwyny, A. R. C., C.M.G., F.R.S., F.G.S. Ottawa, Canada.

. Semple. Dr. A. United Service Club, Edinburgh.
. *Senrer, ALFRED, M.D., Ph.D., F.C.S.,. Professor of Chemistry itt

Queen’s College, Galway.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 85

Year of
Election,

1888. *Sennett, Alfred R., A.M.Inst.C.E. 804 King’s Read, Chelsea,
S.W.

1901.
1870.
1892.
1895.
1892,

1891,
1868.
1899.
1891.
1888.
1883.

1902.
1871.
1867.
1881.
1878.

1896.

1886.
1883.
1870.
1896.
1865.
1870.
1891.
1889.
1883.

§Service, Robert. Janefield Park, Maxwelltown, Dumfries.
*Sephton, Rev. J. 90 Huskisgon-street, Liverpool.
tSeton, Miss Jane. 87 Candlemaker-row, Edinburgh.
*Seton-Karr, H. W. 31 Lingtield Road, Wimbledon, Surrey.
§Snwarp, A. C., M.A., F.RS., F.G.S. (Council 1901-- ). Weste
field, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.
{Seward, Edwin. 55 Newport-road, Cardiff.
{Sewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.
§Seymour, Henry, J. 16 Wellington-road, Dublin.
{Shackell, E. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff.
tShackles, Charles F. Hornsea, near Hull,
{Shadwell, John Lancelot. 30 St. Charles-square, Ladbroke Grove-
road, W.
§§SHarrespury, The Earl of (Vice-PresipEnt, 1902). Salisbury.
*Shand, James. Parkholme, Elm Park-gardens, S.W.
tShanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.
tShann, George, M.D. Petergate, York.
{Suarp, Davy, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Museum of Zoology,
Cambridge.
tSharp, Mrs. E. 65 Sankey-street, Warrington.
Sharp, Rey. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield.
{Sharp, T. B. French Walls, Birmingham.
tSharples, Charles H. 7 Fishergate, Preston.
{Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.
{Shaw, Frank. Ellerslie, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.
fShaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham.
{Shaw, John. 21 St. James’s-road, Liverpool.
{Shaw, Joseph. 1 Temple-gardens, E.C.
*Shaw, Mrs. M.8., B.Sc. Sydenham Damard Rectory, Tavistock.
*Smaw, W.N., M.A., F.R.S. (Council 1895-1900). Meteorological
Office, Victoria-street, S.W.

. {Shaw, Mrs. W. N. 10 Moreton Gardens, South Kensington, 8.W.
. {Sheen, Dr. Alfred. 23 Newport-road, Cardiff.

. {Shelford, William, M.Inst.C.E. 35a Great George-street, S.W.
. {Shenstone, Frederick S. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.

. {Smenstonz, W. A., F.R.S. Clifton College, Bristol.

. {Shepherd, Rev. Alexander. Ecclesmechen, Uphall, Edinburgh.

. {Shepherd, J. Care of J. Redmayne, Esq., Grove House, Heading-

ley, Leeds.

. Shepherd, James. Birkdale, Southport.

. §Sheppard, Thomas, F.G.S. 432 Holderness Road, Hull.

. {Sherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dubiin.

. TSherlock, Mrs. David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

. tSherlock, Rev. Edgar. Bentham Rectory, vid Lancaster.

. §SHERRINGTON, C. S., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in Uni-

versity College, Liverpool. 16 Grove-park, Liverpool.

. *Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A. 5 Cavendish Crescent, Bath.

. {Shield, Arthur H. 35a Great George-street, S.W.

. {Shields, John, D.Se., PhD. Dolphingston, Tranent, Scotland.

. §Shields, Thomas, M.A., B.Sc. Englefield Green, Surrey.

. *Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. 2 Frederick-place, Old Jewry, E.C.
. {Shinn, William C. 39 Varden’s-road, Clapham Junction, S.W.

. *Sarprey, Artuur E., M.A. Christ’s Collece, Cambridge.

. Shipley, J. A. D. Saltwell Park, Gateshead.

. {Shirras,G. F. 16 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

50

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1883.
1870.
1888.
1897.
1875.

1882.

1901.
1897.

1889.

1885.
1883,
1883.
1877.

1873.

1878.
1859.
1871.
1898.

1862.
1874.
1876.
1847.

1901.
1871.

1885.
1887.
1859.
1863.
1901.
1857.

1894,
1885.
1896,
1887.
1901.
1874,

1897.
1864,
1892.
1885.

1885,
1898.

tShone, Isaac. Pentrefelin House, Wrexham.

*Smo0o0Lbrep, J. N., M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, S. W.

tShoppee, C. H. 22 John-street, Bedford-row, W.C.

{Suorg, Dr. Lewis E. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Suorr, THomas W., F.G.S. 105 Ritherdon-road, Upper Tooting,
S.W.

{SHore, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. Heathfield, Alleyn Park, Dul-
wich, 8.E.

§Short, Peter M., B.Sc. 19 Manchester Road, Southport.

{Shortt, Professor Adam, M.A. Queen’s University, Kingston,
Ontario, Canada.

{Sibley, Walter K., B.A.,M.B. 8 Duke Street-mansions, Grosvenor-
square, W.

{Sibly, Miss Martha Agnes. Flook House, Taunton.

*Sidebotham, Edward John. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Sidebotham, James Nasmyth. Parkfield, Altrincham, Cheshire.

*Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. Merlewood, Bowdon, Cheshire.

Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Sremens, ALEXANDER, M.Inst.C.E. 7 Airlie-gardens, Campden
Hill, W.

{Srenrson, Professor Goren, M.D., M.R.LA. 3Clare Sreet, Dublin.

TSim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.

tSime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh.

tSimmons, Henry. Kingsland House, Whiteladies-road, Clifton,
Bristol.

{Simms, James. 138 Fleet-street, E.C.

{Simms, William. Upper Queen-street, Belfast.

{Simon, Frederick. 24 Sutherland-gardens, W.

{Simon, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. (Council 1870-72).
40 Kensington-square, W.

§Simpson, Rev. A., B.Sc., F.G.S. 28 Myrtle Park, Crosshill, Glasgow.

*Smupson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.

{Simpson, Byron R. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

tSimpson, F. Estacion Central, Buenos Ayres.

{Simpson, John. Maylirk, Kincardineshire.

tSimpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.

§Simpson, J. Y., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 52 Queen Street, Edinburgh,

{Snrrson, Maxwett, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1878).
7 Darnley Road, Holland Park Avenue, W.

§Simpson, Thomas, F.R.G.S. Fennymere, Castle Bar, Eaiing, W.

{Simpson, Walter M. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport,

*Simpson, W., F.G.S8. The Gables, Halifax.

tSinelair, Dr. 268 Oxford-street, Manchester,

§Sinclair, Alexander. Ajmere Lodge, Langside, Glasgow.

{Srvcrarr, Right Hon. Tuomas (Local Sec. 1874; Vick Prest-
DENT, 1902). Dunedin, Belfast.

HSinnes James. Bank of England-chambers, 12 Broad-street,
Bristol.

*Sircar, The Hon. Mahendra Lal, M.D., C.I.E. 51 Sankaritola, Cal-
cutta.

{Sisley, Richard, M.D. 11 York-street, Portman-square, W.

{Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.

{Skinner, Provost. Inverurie, N.B.

pee Sidney. Cromyyell House, Trumpington, Cambridge-

shire,

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 87

Election.

1888,
1889,
1884
1877.

1891.
1884,
1849,
1887.

1887,
1885.
1889.
1898.
1876.
1877.

1890.
1876.
1867.
1892.

1892.

1897.

1901.

1874.
1887.

1878.
1887.
1889.

1865.
1886.
1886.
1886.
1900.

1886.
1892.

1866.
_ 1897.

1901.
1885.
1897.
1860.

1870,

1889.

1888.
1885.
1876.

1901.
1883,

§Sxrinz, H. D., J.P., D.L. Claverton Manor, Bath,
§Slater, Matthew B., F.L.S. Malton, Yorkshire,
{Slattery, James W. 9 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
{Sleeman, Rey. Philip, L.Th., F.R.A.S. 65 Pembroke-road, Clifton,
Bristol.
§Slocombe, James. Redland House, Fitzalan, Cardiff.
+Slooten, William Venn. Nova Scotia, Canada.
{Sloper, George Elgar. Devizes.
§Small, Evan W., M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. The Mount, Radbourne-street,
Derby.
§Small, William. Lincoln-circus, The Park, Nottingham,
{Smart, James. Valley Works, Brechin, N.B.
*Smart, William, LL.D. Nunholme, Dowanhill, Glasgow,
{Smeeth, W. F., M.A., F.G.S.__ Mysore, India.
{Smellie, Thomas D. 213 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
{Smelt, Rev. Maurice Allen, M.A., FR.AS. Heath Lodge, Chel-
tenham.
+Smethurst, Charles. Palace House, Harpurhey, Manchester.
{Smieton, James. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
{Smieton, Thomas A. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
tSmith, Adam Gillies, F.R.S.E. 35 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.
{Smith, Alexander, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Chicago,
Illinois, U.S.A.
{Smith, Andrew, Principal of the Veterinary College, Toronto,
Canada.
*Smith, Miss Annie Lorraine. 8 Essex Grove, Norwood, 5.E.
*Smith, Benjamin Leigh, F.R.G.S. Oxford and Cambridge Club,
Pall Mall, S.W.
{Smith, Bryce. Rye Bank, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.
{Smith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.
*Smith, Charles. 739 Rochdale-road, Manchester.
*Smith, Professor ©. Michie, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. The Ob-
servatory, Madras.
{Smith, David, F.R.A.S. 40 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.
{Smith, Edwin. 33 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
*Smith, Mrs. Emma. Hencotes House, Hexham.
{Smith, E. Fisher, J.P. The Priory, Dudley.
§Smith, E. J. Grange House, Westgate Hill, Bradford.
{Smith, E. 0. Council House, Birmingham.
{Smith, E. Wythe. 66 College-street, Chelsea, S.W.
*Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham.
{Smith, Sir Frank. 54 King-street East, Toronto, Canada.
§Smith, F. B. South Eastern Agricultural College, Wye.
tSmith, Rev. G. A., M.A. 22 Sardinia-terrace, Glasgow.
{Smith, G. Elliot, M.D. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
*Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 18 Harley-street, Cavendish-square, W.
{Smith, H. L. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire.
*Smith, H. Llewellyn, B.A., B.Sc., F.S.S. 4 Harcourt-buildings,
Inner Temple, H.C.
t{Smith, H. W. Owens College, Manchester.
{Smith, Rev. James, B.D. Manse of Newhills, N.B.
*Smith, J. Guthrie. 5 Kirklee-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, Coalport, Iron Bridge,
Shropshire.
§Smrru, J. Parker, M.P. Jordanhill, Glasgow.
ae Holroyd. Royal Insurance Buildings, Crossley-street,
alifax.

88

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1885.
1870.
1873.
1867,
1867.
1859.

1894.
1884.
1892,
1885.
1896.

1852.
1876.
1883.

1883.
1883.
1882,
1874.
1883,
1857.

1888.
1888.
1878.

1889.
1898.

1879.

1892.

1901.

1900.

1859.

1879.
1901.
1888.
~ 1886,
1865.

1887.
1883.

1890.
1893.
1887.

1884,

1889.
1891.

1864,

1894.

1864.
1864.
1854.

{SmarH, Ropert H., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 53 Victoria-street, SW.

{Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.

{Smith, Sir Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.

{Smith, Thomas, Dundee.

tSmith, Thomas. Poole Park Works, Dundee.

{Smith, Thomas James, F.G.S., F.C.S. Hornsea Burton, East Yorke
shire.

§Smith, T. Walrond. 14 Calverley-park, Tunbridge Wells,

t{Smith, Vernon. 127 Metcalfe-street, Ottawa, Canada.

{Smith, Walter A. 120 Princes-street, Edinburgh.

*Smith, Watson. University College, Gower-street, W.C.

*Smith, Rev. W. Hodson. Newquay, Cornwall.

{Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow.

{Smith, William. 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

{SmirHerts, ARTHUR, B.Sc., F.R.S. (Local Sec. 1890). Professor
of Chemistry in the Yorkshire College, Leeds.

tSmithson, Edward Walter. 13 Lendal, York,

{Smithson, Mrs. 13 Lendal, York.

{Smithson, T. Spencer. Facit, Rochdale.

{Smoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.

{Smyth, Rey. Christopher. Firwood, Chalford, Stroud.

*SuytH, Jonny, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.M.S., M.Inst.C.E.1. Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.

*Snape, H. Lroyp, D.Sc., Ph.D. Balholm, Lathom Road, Southport.

{Snell, Albion T. Brig ghtside, Salusbury Road, Br ondesbury, N.W,

§Snell, H. Saxon. 22 Southampton-buildings, W.0.

tSnell, W. H. Lancaster Lodge, Amersham Road, Putney, S.W.

tSnook, Miss L. B. V. 13 Clare-road, Cotham, Bristol.

*Sottas, W. J., M.A., D.Sc, F.RS., F.RS.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C,
1900; Council 1900- _), Professor of Geology in the University
of Oxford. 169 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

*SoMBRVAIL, ALEXANDER. The Museum, Torquay.

§Somerville, Alexander, F.L.S. 4 Bute Mansions, Hillhead, Glasgow.

*SoMBERVILLE, W. Board of Agriculture, Whitehall, S.W.

*Sorsy, H. Crirron, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1880; Council
1879-86 ; Local See. 1879). Broomfield. Sheffield.

*Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Ranmoor, Sheffield.

§Sorley, Robert. The Firs, Partickill, Glasgow.

{Sortey, Professor W. R. The University, Cambridge.

{Southall, Alfred. Carrick House, Richmond Hill-road, Birmingham.

*Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.

§Sowerbutts, Eli, F.R.G.S. 16 St. Mary’s Parsonage, Manchester.

{Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley,

Staffordshire.

{Spark, F. R. 29 Hyde-terrace, Leeds.

*Speak, John. Kirton Grange, Kirton, near Boston.

{Spencer, F. M. Fernhill, Knutsford.

{Spencer, John, M.Inst.M. E. Globe Tube Works, Wednesbury.

*Spencer, John. Newbiggin House, Kenton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Spencer, Richard Evans. The Old House, Llandaff.

*Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.LS., F.G.8. 14 Aberdeen Park, High-
bury, N.

{Spiers, A. H. Newton College, South Devon.

*SPILLER, JoHN, F.C.S. 2 St. *Mary’ s-road, Canonbury, } N.

*Spottiswoode, W. Hugh, F.C.S. 107 Sloane-street, S.W.

*Spracur, THomas Bonn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 99 Buckingham-
terrace, Edinburgh,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 89

Year of
Election.

1883.
1888,
1897.

1888,
1897.
1884,
1892.

1883.

1881.
1883.
1894,
1900.

1899.
1876.

1899,
1898.

{Spratling, W. J., B.Se., F.G.S. Maythorpe, 74 Wickham-road,
Brockley, 8.E.

{Spreat, John Henry. Care of Messrs. Vines & Froom, 75 Alders-
gate-street, E.C.

§Squire, W. Stevens, Ph.D. Clarendon House, 80 St. John’s Wood
Park, N.W.

*Stacy, J. Sargeant. 143 Lansdown Road, Seven Kings, Essex.

{Stafford, Joseph. Morrisburg, Ontario, Canada.

tStancoffe, Frederick. Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Stanfield, Richard, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Engineering in the Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh, 49
Mayfield-road, Edinburgh.

*Stanford, Edward, jun., F.R.G.S. Thornbury, High Street,
Bromley, Kent.

*Stanley, William Ford, F.G.S. Cumberlow, South Norwood, S.E.

{Stanley, Mrs. Cumberlow, South Norwood, S.E.

*STANSFIELD, ALFRED, D.Se. Royal College of Science, S.W.

*Stansfield, H., B.Sc. Municipal Technical School, Blackburn.

Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.I.A. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin,

{Sraruine, E. H., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
University College, London. 8 Park-square West, N.W.

tStarling, John Henry, F.C.S. 32 Craven-street, Strand, W.C.

§Statham, William. The Redings, Totteridge, Herts.

{Stather, J. W., F.G.S. 16 Louis-street, Hull.

Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.

. {Stavert, Rev. W. J., M.A. Burnsall Rectory, Skipton-in-Craven.

Yorkshire.

. *Stead, Charles, Red Barns, Freshfield, Liverpool.

. *Stead, J. E. Laboratory and Assay Office, Middlesbrough.

. {Stead, W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, I.

. {Stead, Mrs. W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, E.

. {Stearns, Sergeant P. U.S. Consul-General, Montreal, Canada.

2, *Sressine, Rev. THomas R.R., M.A., F.R.S. Ephraim Lodge, The

Common, Tunbridge Wells.

. *Stebbing, W. P. D., F.G.S. 169 Gloucester-terrace, W.

. {Steeds, A. P. 15 St. Helen’s-road, Swansea.

. {Steinthal,G. A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

. {Stephen, George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

. {Stephen, Mrs. George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

. *Stephens, W. Hudson. Low- Ville, Lewis County, New York, U.S.A.
. *SrepHeEnson, Sir Henry, J.P. The Glen, Sheffield.

. §Steven, William. 420 Sauchiehall Street, Glasgow.

. §Steven, Mrs. W. 420 Sauchiehall Street, Glasgow.

. "Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. Le Mayals, Blackpyl, R.S.O.

. [Srrvens, FrepEertck (Local Sec. 1900). Town Clerk’s Office,

Brad ford.

. {Stevenson, D. A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 84 George-street,

Edinburgh.

. *STEVENSON, JAMES C. Westoe, South Shields.
. *Steward, Rev. Charles J., F.R.M.S. The Cedars, Anglesea-rvad,

Ipswich.

. *Stewart, Rev. Alexander, M.D., LL.D. Maurtle, Aberdeen.
. {Srewart, Cuartes, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Hunterian Professor of

Anatomy and Conservator of the Museum, Royal College of
Surgeons, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W.O.

. {Stewart, C. Hunter. 3% Carlton-terrace, Edinburgh,
. [Stewart, David. Banchory House, Aberdeen.

90

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1886.
1875,

1901.

1892.
1901.
1901,
1901.
1867,
1876.

1867.
1901,
1865.
1890.
1885.
1898,
1845,

1898.

1887.
1899.
1888.
1886.
1886.
1874,

1876,
1857.

1895,
1878.

1861.

1876.
1883.
1887.
1884.
1888.
1874,
1871.

1881.

1876,
1868.
1882.
1898.
1881.

*Stewart, Duncan. 14 Windsor-terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
*Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Dunmurry, Sneyd Park, near
Clifton, Gloucestershire.

“Stewart, John Joseph, M.A., B.Sc. 53 Ossar Road, Newport,

Mon.

{Stewart, Samuel. Knocknairn, Bagston, Greenock.

§Stewart, Thomas. St. George’s Chambers, Cape Town.

§Stewart, Walter, M.A., D.Sc. Gartsherrie, Coatbridce.

§Stewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George’s Road, Glasgow.

{Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.

tSrrrtine, Wii11AM, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in the Owens College, Manchester.

*Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. Stamford-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Stobo, Thomas. Somerset House, Garelochhead, Scotland.

*Stock, Joseph 8. St. Mildred’s, Walmer.

{Stockdale, R. The Grammar School, Leeds.

*Stocker, W.N., M.A. Brasenose College, Oxford.

{Stoddart, F, Wallis, F.1.C. Grafton Lodge, Sneyd Park, Bristol.

*Sroxes, Sir GrorGE GABRIEL, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc.,
F.R.S. (PRustpEnt, 1869; Pres. A, 1854, 1862; Council 1852—
58, 1864-67), Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the Univer-
sity of Cambridge. Lensfield Cottage, Cambridge.

*Stokes, Professor George J., M.A. Riversdale, Sunday’s Well,
Cork.

{Stone, E. D., F.C.S. Rose Lea, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

*Stone, F. J. Radley College, Abingdon.

{Sronn, Joun. 16 Royal-crescent, Bath.

{Stone, Sir J. Benjamin, M.P. The Grange, Erdington, Birmingham.

{Stone, J. H. Grosvenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

{Stone, J. Harris, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. 3 Dr. Johnson’s-buildings,
Temple, E.C.

{Stone, Octavius C., F.R.G.S. Rothbury House, Westcliff-gardens,
Bournemouth.

{Sronry, Brypon B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., M.R.LA., Engineer
of the Port of Dublin. 14 Elgin-road, Dublin.

*Stoney, Miss Edith A. 30 Ledbury Road, Bayswater. W.

*Stoney, G. Gerald. Oakley, Heaton Road, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

*SronEY, GrorGE Jonnstone, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., M.R.I.A. (Pres. A,
1879). 380 Ledbury Road, Bayswater, W.

§Stopes, Henry. 25 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.

tStopes, Mrs. 25 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.

*Storey, H. L. Bailrige, Lancaster.

§Storrs, George H. Gorse Hall, Stalybridge.

*Stothert, Percy K. The Grange, Bradford on Avon, Wilts.

{Stott, William. Scar Bottom, Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.

*Srracney, Lieut.-General Str Ricwarp, R.E., G.C.S.L, LL.D.,
F.RS., F.RGS., F.LS., F.G.S8. (Pres. E, 1875; Council,
1871-75). 69 Lancaster-gate, Hyde Park, W.

{Srrawan, Auprey, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-
street, S. W.

{Strain, John. 143 West Regent Street, Glasgow.

{Straker, John. Wellington House, Durham.

{Strange, Rev. Cresswell, M.A. Edgbaston Vicarage, Birmingham.

{Strangeways, C. Fox. Leicester.

ares aie, C. Fox, F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
S.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 91

Year of
Election.

1889.

1879.
1884,

{Streatfeild, H.S., F.G.S. Ryhope, near Sunderland.
{Strickland, Sir Charles W., Bart., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton.
{Stringham, Irving. The University, Berkeley, California, U.S.A.

1888. §Strong, Henry J., M.D. Colonnade House, The Steyne, Worthing.

1898
1887

1887

1878.
1876.
1872.
1892.
1884.
1893.
1896.
1885.

. “Strong, W.M. 3 Champion Park, Denmark Hill, S.E.
. “Stroud, H., M.A., D.Se., Professor of Physics in the College of
Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

. “Stroup, Witriam, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Yorkshire Col-
leve, Leeds.

{Strype, W. G. Wicklow.

*Stuart, Charles Maddock. St. Dunstan’s College, Catford, S.E.

“Stuart, Rev. Edward A.,M.A. 5 Prince’s-square, W.

{Stuart, Hon. Morton Gray, M.A.,F.G.S. 2 Belford Park, Edinburgh.

{Stuart, Dr. W. Theophilus. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada,

{Stubbs, Arthur G. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

{Stubbs, Miss. Torrisholme, Aigburth-drive, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

{Stump, Edward C. 16 Herbert-street, Moss Side, Manchester,

1897. {Stupart, R. F. The Observatory, Toronto, Canada,

1879

. *Styring, Robert. 64 Crescent-road, Sheffield.

1891. *Sudborough, Professor J. J., Ph.D., B.Sc. University College of

1898

1884,
1887.
1888.

Wales, Aberystwyth.
. §Sully, T. N. Avalon House, Priory-road, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton,
Bristol.
{Sumner, George. 107 Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Sumpner, W. E, 37 Pennyfields, Poplar, E
tSunderland, John FE. Bark House, Hatherlow, Stockport.

1883, {Sutcliffe, J. S., J.P. Beech House, Bacup.

1873.
1863,

1886.
1892.

1884

1863.
1889.
1898.
1891.

1881.
1881.
1897.
1879.
1887.
1870.

1887.
1890.
1891,

1878.
1895.
1887.

1896.
1887.
1893.
1870,

tSutclitfe, Robert. Idle, near Leeds.

{Sutherland, Benjamin John. Thurso House, Neweastle-upon-
Tyne.

{Sutherland, Hugh. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

{Sutherland, James B. 10 Windsor-street, Edinburgh.

{Sutherland, J.C. Richmond, Quebec, Canada.

{Surron, Francis, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich.

{Sutton, William. Esbank, Jesmond, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

§Sutton, William, M.D. 6 Camden-crescent, Dover.

{Swainson, George, F.L.S. North Drive, St. Anne’s-on-Sea, Lan-
cashire.

tSwales, William. Ashville, Holgate Hill, York.

§Swan, Josepu Witson, M.A., F.R.S. 58 Holland-park, W.

§Swanston, William, F.G.S. Mount Collyer Factory, Belfast.

tSwanwick, Frederick. Whittington, Chesterfield.

§SwinBuRneE, James, M.Inst.C.E. 82 Victoria-street, S.W.

“Swinburne, Sir John, Bart. Capheaton Hall, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

*Swindelle, Rupert, F.R.G.S. 22 Oxford Road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Swiyuor, Colonel C., F.L.S. Avenue House, Oxford.

{Swinnerton, R. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Bolarum, Dekkan, India,

{Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. St. John’s House, Cleckheaton.

{Sykes, E. R. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C.

“Sykes, George H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Glencoe, 64 Elmbourne-
road, Tooting Common, 8S. W.

“Sykes, Mark L., F.R.M.S. Chatleigh House, Limpley Stoke, Bath.

*Sykes, T. H. Cringle House, Cheadle, Cheshire.

{Symes, Rev. J. E., M.A. 70 Redcliffe-crescent, Nottingham.

tSymus, Rrcwarp Guascort, M.A., F.G.S., Geological Survey of
Scotland. Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.

92

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election. ,

1885.

1886

1896.
1898.
1865.

1894,
1890.

1897.
1892.
1883.
1878.
1861.
1857.
1893.
1858.
1901.
1884,
1887.
1898.
1874.
1887.
1881.
1884,
1882.
1860.
188],
1865.
1876.
1899.
1884,
1881.
1883.
1900.
1870.
1887.
1883.
1901.
18965.

1893.
1894,
1884.
1901.
1858.

1885.
1898,

1879.
1880.

{Srmineton, Jonnson, M.D. Queen’s College, Belfast.

. tSymons, W. H., M.D. (Brax.), M.R.C.P., F.LC. Guildhall,

Bath.

§Tabor, J. M. Holmwood, Haringey Park, Crouch End, N.

tTagart, Francis. 199 Queen’s-gate, S.W,

fTailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, Forfar-
shire.

{Takakusu, Jyun, B.A. 17 Worcester-terrace, Oxford.

tTanner, H. W. Luoyp, D.Sc., F.R.S, (Local See. 1891), Professor
of Mathematics and Astronomy in University College, Cardiff.

tTanner, Professor J. H. Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

*Tansley, Arthur G. University College, W.C.

*Tapscott, R. Lethbridge, F.R.A.S. 62 Croxteth-road, Liverpool.

{Tarrry, Huew. Dublin.

*Tarratt, Henry W. Broadhayes, Dean Park, Bournemouth.

*Tate, Alexander. Rantalard, Whitehouse, Belfast.

{Tate, George, Ph.D. College of Chemistry, Duke-street, Liverpool.

*Tatham, George, J.P. Springfield Mount, Leeds.

§Taylor, Benson. 22 Hayburn Crescent, Partick, Glasgow.

*Taylor, Rev. Charles, D.D. St. John’s Lodge, Cambridge.

§Taylor,G. H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford.

{Taylor, Lieut.-Colonel G. L. Le M. 6 College-lawn, Cheltenham,

{ Taylor, G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast.

{Taylor, George Spratt. 13 Queen’s-terrace, St. John’s Wood, N.W.

*Taylor, H. A. 69 Addison-road, Kensington, W.

*Taytor, H. M., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. Oxford-street, Nottingham.

*Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 6 Queen Street Place, E.C,

*Taylor, John Francis. Holly Bank House, York.

{Taylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham.

{Taylor, Robert. 70 Bath-street, Glascow.

tTaylor, Robert H., M.Inst.C.E. 5 Maison Dieu-road, Dover.

*Taylor, Miss S. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham.

{Taylor, Rev. S. B., M.A. Whirley Hall, York. |

{Taylor, S. Leigh. Birklands, Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport,

§Taylor, T. H. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

tTaylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon,

tTaylor, Tom. Grove House, Sale, Manchester.

{Taylor, William, M.D. 21 Crockherbtown, Cardiff.

§Taylor, William. 57 Sparkenhoe Street, Glasgow.

{Taylor, W. A., M.A., F.R.S.E. Royal Scottish Geographical
Society, Edinburgh.

{Taylor, W. F. Bhootan, Whitehorse-road, Croydon, Surrey.

*Taylor, W. W. 30 Banbury-road, Oxford.

{Taylor-Whitehead, Samuel, J.P. Burton Closes, Bakewell.

*Teacher, John H., M.B. 32 I[untley Gardens, Glaszow.

{Txatz, Tuomas Princin, M.A., F.R.S. 388 Cookridge-street,
Leeds.

{Txat, J.J. H., M.A., F.RS., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1893; Council
1894-1900), Director-General of the Geological Survey of the
United Kingdom, 2 Sussex Gardens, West Dulwich, S.E.

§Tebb, Robert Palmer. Enderfield, Chislehurst, Kent.

{Temple, Lieutenant G. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. The Nash, near Worcester.

{TrempLe, The Right Hon. Sir Ricwarp, Bart., G.C.S.1., O.LE.,
D.C.L.. LL.D.. F.R.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1882; F, 1884;
Council 1884-87), Athenzeum Club, 8. W.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 98

Year of
Election.

1863.
1889.
1894,
1882,
1896.

1892.
1883.
1883.
1882,

1889,

1885.
1871.
1871.

1870.
1891.
1891.

1891.
1891.
1891.
1869.
1875.
1881.
1869.

1880.

1899.
1883.
1898.
1883.
1886,
1886.
1875.
1891.
1883.
1891.
1882,
1888.

1885.

1896.
1883.
1891.
1893.

1870.
1883,

1891.
1891.

{Tennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Tennant, James. Saltwell, Gateshead.

tTerras, J. A., B.Sc. 40 Findhorn-place, Edinburgh.

{Terrill, William. 42 St. George’s-terrace, Swansea.

*Terry, Rey. T. R., M.A., F.R.A.S, The Rectory, East Ilsley, New-
bury, Berkshire.

*Tesla, Nikola, 45 West 27th-street, New York, U.S.A.

tTetley,C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

tTetley, Mrs. C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

*THANE, GrorGE Dancer, Professor of Anatomy in University
College, Gower-street, W.C. Hemmet, St. John’s Road, Harrow.

fThetford, The Right Rev. A. T. Lloyd, Bishop of, D.D. North
Creake Rectory, Fakenham, Norfolk.

{Thin, Dr. George. 22 Queen Anne-street, W.

{Thin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh.

{TuIseLton-DyER, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G., C.LE., M.A., B.Se., Ph.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1888; Pres. IX, 1895; Council
1885-89, 1895-1900). Royal Gardens, Kew.

{Thom, Robert Wilson. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.

{Thomas, Alfred, M.P. Pen-y-lan, Cardiff.

{Thomas, A. Garrod, M.D., J.P. Clytha Park, Newport, Mon-
mouthshire.

*Thomas, Miss Clara. Penurrig, Builth.

{Thomas, Edward. 282 Bute-street, Cardiff.

{Thomas, E, Franklin. Dan-y-Bryn, Radyr, near Cardiff.

{Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.

{Thomas, Herbert. Ivor House, Redland, Bristol

tTuomas, J. Brount. Southampton.

{Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. 86 Breakspear’s-road, Brockley,

Se Joseph William, F.C.S. 2 Hampstead Hill-mansions,
N.W.

*Thomas, Mrs. J. W. 2 Hampstead Hill-mansions, N.W.

tThomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Carditf.

{Thomas, Rev. U. Bristol School Board, Guildhall, Bristol.

{Thomas, William. Lan, Swansea.

{Thomas, William. 109 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhampton.

{Thomason, Yeoville. 9 Observatory-gardens, Kensington, W.

tThompson, Arthur, 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.

*Thompson, Beeby, F.C.8., F.G.S. 67 Victoria-road, Northampton.

}Thompson, Miss C. I. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester,

{Thompson, Charles F. Penhill Close, near Cardiff.

{Thompson, Charles O. Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A,

*Thompson, Claude M., M.A., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Cardiff.

{Tuomrson, D’Arcy W., B,A., C.B., Professor of Zoology in Univer-
sity College, Dundee.

*Thompson, Edward P. Paulsmoss, Whitchurch, Salop.

*Thompson, Francis. Lynton, Haling Park-road, Croydon.

{Thompson, G. Carslake. Park-road, Penarth.

*Thompson, Harry J., M.Inst.C.E., Madras. Care of Messrs. Grindlay
& Co., Parliament-street, 5. W.

{THompson, Sir Heyry, Bart. 35 Wimpole-street, W.

*Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 86 Lower Addiscombe-road, Croy-
don.

{Thompson, Herbert M. Whitley Batch, Llandaff,

{Thompson, fH. Wolcott. 9 Park-place, Cardiff,

94

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS,

of

Election.

1883

1897.
1891.
1861.
1876.
1883.
1876.

1883.
1896.

1896.
1867.
1894.

1889.
1891.
1896.
1890.

1885.

1871.

1901.
1874,

1880.
1897.
1871.
1887.
1867.
1898.

1885.
1881.
1881.
1898.
1898.
1871.

1883.
1899.
1896.
1868.

1889,
1870.

1873.

. *THompson, Isaac Cooxs, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. (Local Sec. 1896).
53 Croxteth-road, Liverpool.

{Thompson, J. Barclay. 37 St. Giles’s, Oxford.

{Thompson, J. Tatham, M.B. 23 Charles-street, Cardiff.

*THompson, JosePH. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Cheshire.

*Thompson, Richard. Dringcote, The Mount, York.

{Thompson, Richard. Bramley Mead, Whalley, Lancashire.

{Tuompson, Sitvanus Puriuies, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S,
(Council 1897-99), Principal and Professor of Physies in the
City and Guilds of London Technical College, Finsbury, E.C.

*Thompson, T.H. Redlynch House, Green Walk, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Tnompson, W. H., M.D., Professor of Physiology in Queen’s
College, Belfast.

{Thompson, W. P. 6 Lord-street, Liverpool.

{Thoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.

{Tuomson, Arrvuur, M.A., M.D., Professor of Human Anatomy in
the University of Oxford. Exeter College, Oxford.

*Thomson, James, M.A. 22 Wentworth-place, Nawcastle-upon-Tyne.

tThomson, John. 70a Grosvenor-street, W.

tThomson, John. 3 Derwent-square, Stonycroft, Liverpool.

§Tuomson, Professor J. ARTHUR, M.A., F.R.S.E, Castleton House,
Old Aberdeen.

{Tuomson, J. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1896; Council
1893-95), Professor of Experimental Physics in the University
of Cambridge. 6 Scrope-terrace, Cambridge.

*THomson, Jown Mritrar, LL.D., F.R.S. (Council 1895-1901),
Professor of Chemistry in King’s College, London. 85 Addison-
road, W.

§Thomson, Dr. J. I. Kilpatrick. 148 Norfolk Street, Glasgow.

§Tuomson, Witt1aM, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Man-
chester.

§Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helens.

{Thorburn, James, M.D. Toronto, Canada.

{Thornburn, Rey. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith.

tThornton, John. 3 Park-street, Bolton.

{Thornton, Sir Thomas. Dundee.

§Thornton, W.M. The Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.

{Thoroweoed , Samuel. Castle-square, Brighton.

tThorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.

*Thorp, Josiah. Undercliffe, Holmfirth.

§Thorp, Thomas. Moss Bank, Whitefield, Manchester.

{Thorpe, Jocelyn Field, Ph.D. Owens College, Manchester.

{Tuorrr, T. E., O.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.RS., F.RS.E, V.P.CS.
(Pres. B, 1890 ; Council 1886-92), Principal of the Government
Laboratories, Clement’s Inn-passage, W.C.

§Threlfall, Henry Singleton, J.P. 1 London-street, Southport,

§THRELFALL, Ricuarp, M.A.,F.R.S, 259 Hagley-road, Birmingham.

§Thrift, Professor William Edward. 80 Grosvenor-square, Rath-
mines, Dublin.

{Tuuriirer, General Sir H. E. L., R.A., CSL, FRS., F.R.GS,
Tudor House, Richmond Green, Surrey.

{Thys, Captain Albert. 9 Rue Briderode, Brussels.

{Tichborne, Charles R. C., LL.D., F.C.S., M.R.I.A. Apothecaries’
Hall of Ireland, Dublin.

*TippeMAN, R. H., M.A., F.G.8S. Geological Survey Office, 28
Jermyn-street, S.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 95

Year of

Election.

1874, {TrnpEN, Wittiam A., D.Se., F.R.S., Treas.C.8. (Pres. B, 1888,
Council 1898- _), Professor of Chemistry in the Royal College
of Science, South Kensington, London, The Oaks, Northwood,
Middlesex.

1883. {Tillyard, A.I., M.A. Fordfield, Cambridge.

1883. {Tillyard, Mrs. Fordfield, Cambridge.

1865. {Timmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S.A. Spring Hill, Arley, Coventry.

1896. §Timmis, Thomas Sutton. Cleyeley, Allerton, Yorkshire.

1899. {Tims, H. W. Marett, M.D., F.L.S. 19 Lyndewode Road, Cam-
bridge.

1900. §Tocher, J. F., F.1.C. 5 Chapel Street, Peterhead, N.B.

1876. {Todd, Rev. Dr. Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, S.E.

1891. {Todd, Richard Rees. Portuguese Consulate, Cardiff.

1897. {Todhunter, James. 85 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.

1889. §Toll, John M. 49 Newsham-drive, Liverpool.

1857. {Tombe, Rev. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow.

1888. {Tomkins, Rev. Henry George. Park Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

1896. {Toms, Frederick. 1 Ambleside-avenue, Streatham, S.W.

1887. {Tonge, James, F.G.S. Woodbine House, West Houghton, Bolton.

1865. {Tonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwick-
shire.

1873. *Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal School of Mines, Jermyn-street,S. W.

1875. {Torr, Charles Hawley. St. Alban’s Tower, Mansfield-road, Sher-
wood, Nottingham.

1884. *Torrance, Rey. Robert, D.D. Guelph, Ontario, Canada,

1873. {Townend, W.H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1875. {Townsend, Charles. St. Mary’s, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

1901. §Townsend, Professor John 8. New College, Oxford,

1861. {Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.

1877. {Tozer, Henry. Ashburton.

1876. *Trait, J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.8., Regius Professor of
Botany in the University of Aberdeen.

1883. {Trattt, A., M.D., LL.D. Ballylough, Bushmills, Ireland.

1870. {TRamt, Wittram A. Giant’s Causeway Electric Tramway,
Portrush, Ireland.

1868. {TRaquarr, Ramsay H., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. D,
1900), Keeper of the Natural History Collections, Museum
of Science and Art, Edinburgh.

1891. {Trayes, Valentine. Maindell Hall, Newport, Monmouthshire,

1884. {Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.8. Hartlepool.

1868. {Trehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.

1891. {Treharne, J. Ll. 92 Newport-road, Cardiff.

Trench, F. A. Newlands House. Clondalkin, Ireland.

1887. *Trench-Gascoigne, Mrs. I’. R. Parlington, Aberford, Leeds.

1883. {Trendell, Edwin James, J.P. Abbey House, Abingdon, Berks,

1884, {Trenham, Norman W. 18 St. Alexis-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884, es Fan C. M. 44 West Oneida-street, Oswego, New York,

1879. {Trickett, F. W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield.

1871. {Trmen, Rotanp, MA, F.RS., F.LS., F.Z.S. 11 Dorset
Square, N.W.

1860. §TRistraM, Rev. Henry Baxer, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Canon of
Durham. The College, Durham.

1884. *Trotter Alexander Pelham. 8 Richmond Terrace, Whitehall, S.W.

1885. §TRorrer, Coutts, F.G.S.,F.R.G.S. 10 Randolph-crescent, Edinburgh .

1891. {Trounce, W. J. 67 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1887. *TRouton, FREDERICK T., M.A.,D.Sc.,F.R.S. UniversityCollege, W.C.

96

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1898.
1896,

1885.
1847,
1888.
1871.
1888.

1892.
1855.
1901.
1901.
1893.
1882.
1883.
1894,

1886.
1865.

1893.

1890

1886,
1898.
1899.
1888.
1865.

1888,

1897.
1861.

1884,
1888,
1886,
1885.
1883.
1876,

1887.
1872.
1876.
1866.
* 1898.
1880.

1885.
1896.
1887,

§Trow, Albert Howard. Glanhafren, 50 Clive Road, Penarth.
{Truell, Henry Pomeroy, M.B., F.R.C.S.I. Clonmannon, Ashford,
Co. Wicklow.

*Tubby, A. H., F.R.C.S. 25 Weymouth-street, Portland-place, W.

*Tuckett, Francis Fox. Trenchay, Bristol.

tTuckett, William Fothergill, M.D. 18 Daniel-street, Bath.

{Tuke, Sir J. Batty, M.D., M.P. Cupar, Fifeshire.

yTuprEr, The Hon. Sir Cuaruus, Bart., G.C.M.G., C.B. Ottawa,

Canada.

tTurnbull, Alexander R. Ormiston House, Hawick.

{Turnbull, John. 87 West George-street, Glasgow.

§Turnbull, Robert. Joppa, Edinburgh.

§Turner, A. Crosbie. 65 Bath Street, Glasgow.

§TurNER, Dawson, M.B. 387 George-square, Edinburgh.

{Turner, G.S. Pitcombe, Winchester-road, Southampton.

{Turner, Mrs. G.S. Pitcombe, Winchester-road, Southampton.

*Turner, H. H., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., FLR.A.S., Professor of Astro-

nomy in the University of Oxford. The Observatory, Oxford.

*TuRNER, THomas, A.R.S.M., F.C.S,, F.1.C. Ravenhurst, Rowley

Park, Stafford.

*TurNER, Sir Wittrm, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
(PRESIDENT, 1900; Pres. H, 1889, 1897), Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Turney, Sir Joun, J.P. Alexandra Park, Nottingham.

*Turpin, G. 8., M.A., D.Sc. High School, Nottingham.

*Twigg, G. H. 56 Claremont-road, Handsworth, Birmingham,

tT wiges, H. W. 65 Victoria-street, Bristol.

§Twisden, John R., M.A. 14 Gray’s Inn-square, W.C.

{Tyack, Llewelyn Newton. University College, Bristol.

§Tytor, Epwarp Burnett, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1884 ;
Council 1896—__), Professor of Anthropology, and Keeper of
the University Museum, Oxford.

{Tyrer, Thomas, F.C.S. Stirling Chemical Works, Abbey-lane,

Stratford, E,
{Tyrrell, J. B., M.A., B.Sc. Ottawa, Canada.
*Tysoe, John. Heald-road, Bowdon, near Manchester.

*Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.

tUnderhill, H. M. 7 High-street, Oxford.

{Underbill, Thomas, M.D. West Bromwich.

§Unwin, Howard. 1 Newton-grove, Bedford Park, Chiswick, W.

§Unwin, John. Lastcliffe Lodge, Southport.

*Unwin, W. C., F.RS., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1892; Council,
1892-99), Professor of Hngineering at the Central Institution
of the City and Guilds of London Institute. 7 Palace-gate
Mansions, Kensington, W.

{Upton, Francis R. Orange, New Jersey, U.S.A.

{Upward, Alfred. 150 Holland-road, W.

{Ure, John F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasrow.

{Urquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee,

tUsher, Thomas. 3 Elmgyrove-road, Cotham, Bristol.

tUssner, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

{Vachell, Charles Tanfield, M.D. 38 Charles-street, Cardiff.
{Vacher, Francis. 7 Shrewsbury-road, Birkenhead.
*Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 97

Year of —
Election.
1888. {Vallentin, Rupert. 18 Kimberley-road, Falmouth.
1884, {Van Horne, Sir W.C., K.C.M.G. Dorchester-street West, Montreal,
Canada.
1883. *Vansittart, The Hon. Mrs, A. A. Haywood House, Oaklands-road,
Bromley, Kent.
1868. {Varley, Frederick H., I.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay-
avenue, Stoke Newington, N
1865. *VariEy, 8S. ALFRED. Arrow Works, Jackson Road, Holloway, N.
1870. {Varley, Mrs. S. A. 5 Gayton-road, Hampstead, N. W.
1869. {Varwell, P. 2 Pennsylvania Park, Exeter.
1884. {Vasey, Charles. 112 Cambridge-gardens, W.
1895. §Vaughan, D. T. Gwynne. Howry Hall, Llandrindod, Radnorshire.
1887. *Vauenan, His Eminence Cardinal. Carlisle-place, Westminster,
S.W.
1875. {Vaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.
1883. {Vaughan, William. 42 Sussex-road, Southport.
1881. §Vetuy, V. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. 20 Bradmore-road, Oxford.
18785. *VeRNeEY, Sir Epuunp H., Bart., F.R.G.S. Claydon House, Winslow,
Bucks.
1883. *Verney, Lady. Claydon House, Winslow, Bucks.
1883. {VERNon, H. H., M.D. (Local Sec. 1833). York-road, Birkdale,
Southport,
1896. *Vernon, Thomas T. Wyborne Gate, Birkdale, Southport.
1896. *Vernon, William. Tean Hurst, Tean, Stoke-upon-Trent.
1864. *Vicary, WintraM, F.G.S. The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter.
1890. *Villamil, Lieut.-Colonel R. de, R.E. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co.,
16 Charing Cross, S.W.
1899. *Vincent, Swate, M.B. Physiological Laboratory, University
College, Cardiff.
1883. *Vines, SypNey Howarp, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K,
1900; Council, 1894-97), Professor of Botany in the University
of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.
1891. { Vivian, Stephen. Llantrisant.
1886. *Waclvill, Samuel Thomas, J.P. 38 Portland Street, Leamington.
1860. {Waddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucestershire,
1900. { Waddington, Dr. C, E. 2 Marlborough Road, Manningham, Brad-
ford.
1890. { Wadsworth, @.H. 3 Southfield-square, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1888. {Wadworth, H. A. Breinton Court, near Heretord,
1890, §WacEr, Harotp W.T. Arnold House, Bass Street, Derby.
1900. { Wagstaff, C. J. L., B.A. 8 Highfield Place, Manningham, Brad-
ford.
1896. {| Waitles, Miss Ellen. Woodmead, Groombridge, Sussex.
1891. {Wailes, T. W. 23 Richmond-road, Cardiff.
1884, { Wait, Charles I.., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Tens
nessee. Inoxville. Tennessee, U.S.A.
1886. { Waite, J. W. The Cedars, Bestcot, Walsall.
1870, | Wake, Cmarves Sraninanp. Welton, near Brough, East Yorkshire,
1892. {| Walcot, John. 50 Nerthumberland-street, Edinburgh.
1884. | Waldstein, Professor C., M.A., Ph.D. King’s College, Cambridge.
1891. { Wales, H. T. Pontypridd.
1891. ¢Walford, Edward, M.D. Thanet House, Cathedral-road, Cardiff.
1894. {Watrorp, Epwin A., F.G.S. West Bar, Banbury.
1882. *Walkden, Samuel, F.R.Met.S. Downside, Whitchurch, Tavistock.
1885. { Walker, Mr. Baillie. 52 Victoria-street, Aberdeen.
18938. § Walker, Alfred O., F.L.S.. Ulcombe Place, Maidstone, Kent.

HEN I G

98

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1890.
1901.
1897.

1883

1883.
1891.
1897.
1894.
1866.
1896.
1890.
1894.
1866.
1886.

1866.
1884.
1888.
1887.
1883.

1895.
1896.
1896.
1883.
1863.

1897.
1892.
1901.

1901.
1887.

1889.
1895.

1883.
1884.
1886.

1894.
1887.
1891,
1895.

1881.
1884.
1887.
1881.
1879.

1890.
1874.

§ Walker, A. ‘Tannett. The Elms, Weetwood, Leeds.
*Walker, Archibald, M.A., F.I.C. 8 Crown Terrace, Glasgow.
*Warxer, B. E., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1897). Canadian Bank of
Commerce, Toronto.
{Walker, Mrs. Emma. 13 Lendal, York,
{Walker, E.R. Pagefield Tronworks, Wigan.
§ Walker, Frederick W. Tannett. Carr Manor, Meanwood, Leeds.
{Walker, George Blake. Tankersley Grange, near Barnsley.
*Watxer, G. T., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Walker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.
{Walker, Horace. Belvidere-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
{ Walker, Dr. James. 19 Springfield, Dundee.
*Watxker, JAMES, M.A. 30 Norham-gardens, Oxford.
eee Y Garona fe j fe ee 45 Bootham, York.
alker, Major ip Billingsley. landaff Street, Waverl
Sydney, New South Wales. ae sie esx
{Walker, S. D. 388 Hampden-street, Nottingham.
+Walker, Samuel. Woodbury, Sydenham Hill, S.E.
{Walker, Sydney F. Bloomfield Crescent, Bath.
{Walker, T. A. 15 Great George-street, 5. W.
{Walker, Thomas A. 66 Leyland-road, Southport.
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
§ WALKER, Wri11aM G., A.M. Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, 8, W.
§ Walker, Colonel William Hall, M.P. Gateacre, Liverpool.
tWalier, W.J. D. Lawrencetown, Co, Down, Ireland.
Wirt wana 14 gta Southport.
attack, AtrrepD Rvssex, D.C.L., F.RS., F.LS., F.R.GS.
Sa D, 1876; Council 1870-72). Corfe View, ’ Parkstone,
orset.
{Wallace, Chancellor. Victoria University, Toronto, Canad
{ Wallace, Robert W. 14 Frederick-street, Edinburgh. ‘
gs James Sim, M.D., D.Sc. 15 Penrhyn Road, Kingston-on-
ames.
ae ee sage See im ewton Place, Glasgow.
attER, Aueustus D., M.D., F.R.S. West
End-road, N.W. : ‘ sein ee ee
*Wallis, Arnold J., M.A. 5 Belvoir-terrace, Cambrid.
4 ¢ ge.
{Watuis, E. Warts, F.S.S. Sanitary Institute, Park
yikes ieee bee 'y Institute, Parkes Museum,
{ Wallis, Rev. Frederick. Caius College, Cambridge.
wee ee Poleleeeed Montreal, Canada.
[TWa Be ae , F.S.A. Chevening, Montague-road, Edgbaston,
*Watmistey, A. T., M.Inst.C.E. Hngineer’s Office, D ;
{Walmsley, J. Monton Lodge, Kccles, Manchester, Mia
fo eeee A My Dee. ’ “f armani Institute, Clerkenwell, E.C
SINGHAM, The 4 ,
Fleme ig on. Lord, LL.D., F.R.S. Merton Hall,
+ Walton, Thomas, M.A. Oliver’s Mount School, Scarboroug
TWanless, John, M.D. 88 Union-avenue, Montreal, Canali s:
{ Warp, A.W., M.A., Litt.D. Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge.
§ Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley. Leeds,
Warp, H. Marsmart, DSc, F.RS. F.LS. (Pres. K, 1897;
Council 1890-97), Professor of Botany, University of Cam-
Ww bridge. New Museums, Cambridge.
ard, erman John. Moor Allerton House, Leeds.
§Ward, John, J.P., F.S.A. Lenoxvale, Belfast. a

LIST OF MEMBERS. 99

Year of
Election.

1887.
1857.
1880,

1884,
1887,
1882.
1901.
1867.
1858.
1884.
1887.

}Warp, Jonn, F.G.S. 23 Stafford-street, Longton, Staffordshire.

tWard, John 8. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland.

*Ward, J. Wesney. 4 Chepstow Mansions, Chepstow Place, Bays-

water, W.

*Ward, John William. Newstead, Halifax.

tWard, Thomas. Brookfield House, Northwich.

tWard, William. Cleveland Cottage, Hill-lane, Southampton,

§ Wardlaw, Alexander. 21 Hamilton Drive, Glasgow.

t Warden, Alexander J. 23 Panmure-street., Dundee.

tWardle, Sir Thomas, F.G.S. St. Edward-street, Leek, Staffordshire.

{Wardwell, George J. 31 Grove-street, Rutland, Vermont, U.S.A.

*Waring, Richard 8. Standard Underground Cable Co., 16th-street,
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

}Waxneron, Rosert, F.R.S., F.C.S.. High Bank, Harpenden, St.
Albans, Herts.

. [ Warner, F. L., F.L.S. 20 Hyde Street, Winchester.

. *Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.

. 1Warrand, Major-General, R.E. Westhorpe, Southwell, Middlesex.
. {| Warren, Algernon. Downgate, Portishead.

. [Warren, Lieut.-General Sir Cuartzs, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G.,

F.R.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1887). Athenzeum Club, S.W.

. [Warrington, Arthur W. University College, Aberystwith.
. | Warwick, W. D. Balderton House, Newark-on-Trent.

*WATERHOUSE, Major-General J. Oak Lodge, Court-road, Eltham,
Kent.

. { Waters, A. T. H., M.D. 60 Bedford-street, Liverpool.

. §Waterston, David. 16 Merchison Terrace, Edinburgh.

. {Waterston, James H. 387 Lutton-place, Edinburgh.

. {Watherston, Rev. Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. The Grammar

School, Hinckley, Leicestershire.

. [Watson, A. G.,D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sussex.
- §Watson, Arnold Thomas, F.L.S. Southwold, Tapton Crescent

Road, Sheffield.

. *Watson, C. J. Alton Cottage, Botteville Road, Acock’s Green,

Birmingham.
tWatson, C. Knight, M.A. 49 Bedford-square, W.C.

, §Watson, G., Assoc.M.Inst.C.H. 21 Springfield-mount, Leeds.
. | Watson, Deputy Surgeon-General G. A. Hendre, Overton Park,

Cheltenham.

. {Wazson, Rev. Henry W., D.Sc.,F.R.S. The Rectory, Berkeswell,

Coventry.

. {Watson, John. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
. }Watson, John, F.1C. P.O. Box 3817, Johannesburg, South

Africa.

. {Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.
. {Watson, R. Spence, LL.D., F.R.G.S. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.
. {Watson, Thomas Donald. 16 St. Mary’s-road, Bayswater, W.

*Wartson, W., B.Sc., F.R.S. 7 Upper Cheyne-row, 8.W.

2. §Watson, William, M.D. Waverley House, Slateford, Midlothian.
. *Warson, WittiaM Henry,F.C.S., F.G.S. Steelfield Hall, Gosforth,

Cumberland.

. {Watt, D. A. P. 284 Upper Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.

. §Watt, Henry Anderson. Ardenslate House, Kern, Argyllshire.
. }Watt, Robert B. E. Ashley-avenue, Belfast.

. t Warts, B. H. (Local Sec. 1888). 10 Rivers-street, Bath.

*Warts, Jonny, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford.

. *Watts, Rev. Canon Robert R. Stourpaine Vicarage, Blandford,
G2

100

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1870.

1896.
1878.

1888,

1891.
1869.
1885.
1871.
1890.
1886.

1891.
1859.
1884.

1889.
1890.

1886,
1865.

1894,
1876.

1880.
1897.
1881.
1879,
1881.
1894,
1885.
1881.

1864.
1886.

1866,
1853.
1898.
1853.
1900.

1897.
1882,

1882.
1882.

1900.

§Watts, William, F.G.S. Little Don Waterworks, Langsett, near
Penistone.

tWatts, W. H. Elm Hall, Wavertree, Liverpool.

*Watts, W. MarsHatt, D.Sc. Giggleswick Grammar School, and
Carrholme, Stackhouse, nea: Settle.

*Warts, W. W., M.A., Sec. G.S., Assistant Professor of Geology in
the University, Birmingham. Holm Wood, Bracebridge Road
Sutton Coalfield.

{Waugh, James. Higher Grade School, 110 Newport-road, Cardiff.

+Way, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.

{Webb, George. 5 Tenterden-street, Bury, Lancashire.

t{Webb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.

{ Webb, Sidney. 4 Park-village East, N.W.

{WerssEr, Major-General C. E., C.B., M.Inst.C.E. 17 Egerton-
gardens, S.W.

§ Webber, Thomas. The Laurels, 85 Newport Road, Penarth, Cardiff.

{Webster, John. Edgehill, Aberdeen.

*Wedekind, Dr. Ludwig, Professor of Mathematics at Karlsruhe.
Jahnstrasse 5, Karlsruhe.

{Weeks, John G. Bedlington. ‘

*Weiss, F. Ervust, B.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Owens
College, Manchester.

{Weiss, Henry. Westbourne-road, Birmingham.

{Welch, Christopher, M.A. United University Club, Pall Mall
East, S.W.

{Weld, Miss. Conal More, Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*Wetvon, Professor W. F. R., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1898).
The Museum, Oxford.

*Weldon, Mrs. Merton Lea, Oxford.

{Welford, A. B., M.B. Woodstock, Ontario, Canada,

§ Wellcome, Henry 8S, Snow Hill Buildings, E.C,

§Wetts, Cartes A., A.I.E.E. 219 High-street, Lewes.

§ Wells, Rev. Edward, M.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury.

tWells, J. G. Selwood House, Shobnall-street, Burton-on-Trent.

{Welsh, Miss. Girton College, Cambridge.

*Wenlock, The Right Hon. Lord. - Escrick Park, Yorkshire.

Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.

*Were, Anthony Berwick. Roslyn, Walland’s Park, Lewes,

*Wertheimer, Julius, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S., Principal of and Professor
of Chemistry in the Merchant Venturers’ Technical College
Bristol.

{ Wesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington
House, W.

{West, Alfred. THolderness-road, Hull.

{ West, Charles D. Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan.

+ West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.

§ West, William, F.L.S. 26 Woodville Terrace, Horton Lane
Bradford. j

{Western, Alfred E. 56 Lancaster-gate, W.

*Westlake, Ernest, F.G.S. Vale Lodge, Vale of Health, Hamp-
stead, N.W.

Westlake, Richard. Portswood, Southampton.

ae Epwarp B.,F.G.S. 4 St. Margaret’s-terrace, Chelten-

- ham.
§Wethey, E. R., M.A., F.R.G.S. 6 Cunliffe Villas, Manningham,
Bradford. - : os

LIST OF MEMBERS, 101

Year of
Election,

1885,

1853.
1884.

1878.
1888.
1883.
1893.
1888,
1888.
1879.

1898.
1874.
1883,
1859,

1884,

1886.
1897.
1886.
1876.
1886.
1898,
1882.

1885.
1873.

1883..

1865.
1895.

1884.
1898.
1859.
1877.

1886.
1897.

1883.
1893.

1881.
1852.
1900.
1891.
1896,
1897.
1901.
1857.

1887

*Wuarron, Admiral Sir W. J. L., K.C.B., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.AS.,
F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1894; Council 1890-91), Hydrographer
e the Admiralty. Florys, Prince’s-road, Wimbledon Park,

urrey.

{ Wheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.

tWheeler, Claude L., M.D. 251 West 52nd-street, New York City,
US.A.

*Wheeler, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Wyncote, Boston, Lincolnshire.

§Whelen, John Leman. 18 Frognal, Hampstead, N.W.

{ Whelpton, Miss K. Newnham College, Cambridge.

*WuerHam, W.C. D., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay.

*Whidborne, Miss Constance Mary. Charanté, Torquay.

*WuuipporNnE, Rey. Grorce Ferris, M.A., F.G.8. The Priory,
Westbury-on-Trym, near Bristol.

*Whipple, Robert S. Scientific Instrument Company, Cambridge.

{Whitaker, Henry, M.D. Fortwilliam Terrace, Belfast.

*Whitaker, T. Walton House, Burley-in- Wharfedale.

*WHITAKER, WiLtiaM, B.A., F.RS., F.G,S. (Pres. C, 1895;
Council 1890-96.) Freda, Campden-road, Croydon.

{Whitcher, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,

Canada.

j Whitcombe, E. B. Borough Asylum, Winson Green, Birmingham.

tWhitcombe, George. The Wotton Elms, Wotton, Gloucester.

tWhite, Alderman, J.P. Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

tWhite, Angus, Easdale, Argyllshire.

tWhite, A, Silva. 47 Clanricarde-gardens, W.

tWhite, George. Clare-street House, Bristol,

{White, Rev. George Cecil, M.A. Nutshalling Rectory, South-
ampton.

*White, J. Martin. Balruddery, Dundee.

j White, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.

{tWhite, John Reed. Rossall School, near Fleetwood,

{ White, Joseph. 6 Southwell-gardens, S.W.

yWhite, Philip J., M.B., Professor of Zoology in University College,
Bangor, North Wales.

tWhite, R. ‘Gazette’ Office, Montreal, Canada.

tWhite, Samuel. Clare-street House, Bristol.

tWhite, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.

*White, William. 20 Hillersdon Avenue, Church Road, Barnes,
S.W

*White, William. The Ruskin Museum, Sheffield.

*Wuuire, Sir W. H., K.C.B., F.R.S. (Pres. G, 1899; Council 1897-
1900). 30 Roland Gardens, 8.W.

ft Whitehead, P. J. 6 Cross-street, Southport,

§Whiteley, R. Lloyd, I.C.S., F.LC. 80 Beeches-road, West
Bromwich.

t Whitfield, John, F.C.S. 113 Westborough, Scarborough.

t Whitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast.

§Whitley, E. N. Heath Royde, Halifax.

§ Whitmell, Charles T., M.A., B.Sc. Invermay, Headingley, Leeds.

§Whitney, Colonel C, A. The Grange, Fulwood Park, Liverpool.

tWuirraker, E. T., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

§Whitton, James, City Chambers, Glasgow.

*Wuirty, Rev. Joun Irwing, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. Alpha Villa,
Southwood, Ramsgate.

{Whitwell, William. Overdene, Salthurn-by-the-Sea,

102

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election,

1874.
1883.
1870.
1892.
1897.
1888.
1865.
1886.
1896.
1878.
1889,
1887.
1887.
1896.
1887.
1900.
1892.

1886,
1879.
1887.
1872.
1890,
1872.
1894.
1891.
1861.

1887.
1888.
1861.
1875.

1883.
1888.
1891.

1885.
1887.
1888.

1875.
1901.
1891.
1886.
1883.

1888.
1877.
1850.

1857.
1876.

1863.
1895.

*Whitwill, Mark. 1 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol.

tWhitworth, James. 88 Portland-street, Southport.

tWhitworth, Rev. W. Allen, M.A. 7 Margaret-street, W.

§ Whyte, Peter, M.Inst.C.H. 4 Magdala Crescent, Edinburgh

tWickett, M., Ph.D. 539 Berkeley-street, Toronto, Canada.

t{Wickham, Rey. F. D.C. Horsington Rectory, Bath.

{ Wiggin, Sir H., Bart. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birmingham.

tWiggin, Henry A. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.

{ Wigglesworth, J. County Asylum, Rainhill, Liverpool,

~Wigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin.

*WILBERFORCE, Professor L. R., M.A. University College, Liverpool.

tWild, George. Bardsley Colliery, Ashton-under-Lyne.

*Wibz, Henry, D.Sc., F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

{Wildermann, Meyer. 22 Park-crescent, Oxford.

t Wilkinson, C. H. Slaithwaite, near Huddersfield.

§ Wilkinson, J. B. Dudley Hill, Bradford.

{ Wilkinson, Rev. J. Frome., M.A. Barley Rectory, Royston,
Herts.

*Wiikinson, J. H. Elmhurst Hall, Lichfield,

{ Wilkinson, Joseph. York. 7 :

*Wilkinson, Thomas Read. Vale Bank, Knutsford, Cheshire.

} Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.

{Willans, J. W. Kirkstall, Leeds.

{Witterr, Henry (Local Sec. 1872). Arnold House, Brighton.

t Willey, Arthur. New Museums, Cambridge.

{ Williams, Arthur J., M.P. Coedymwstwr, near Bridgend.

*Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 2 Upper Brook-street,
Grosvenor-square, W.

t Williams, Sir E. Leader, M.Inst.C.E, The Oaks, Altrincham.

*Williams, Edward Starbuck. Ty-ar-y-graig, Swansea.

*Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S, 6 Heathfield, Swansea.

*Williams, Rev. Herbert Addams. Llangibby Rectory, near New-
port, Monmouthshire.

t Wilhams, Rey. H. Alban, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

{Williams, James. Bladud Villa, Entry Hill, Bath.

§ Williams, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. Lingfield Grange, Branksome
Park, Bournemouth.

*Williams, Mrs. J. Davies. 3 Lord Street West, Southport.

tWilliams, J. Francis, Ph.D. Salem, New York, U.S.A.

*Williams, Miss Katharine T. Llandaff House, Pembroke Vale,
Clifton, Bristol.

*Williams, M. B. Killay House, Killay, R.S.O.

*Williams, Miss M. F.S. 6 Sloane Gardens, S.W.

{ Williams, Morgan. 5 Park-place, Cardiff.

{ Williams, Richard, J.P. Brunswick House, Wednesbury.

{Williams, R. Price. 28 Compayne-gardens, West Hampstead,
N.W

{ Williams, T. H. 21 Strand-street, Liverpool.

*Wirii1ams, W. Carterton, F.C.S. University College, Sheffield.

*WILLIAMSON, ALEXANDER W., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
(PRESIDENT, 1873; TREASURER, 1874-91 ; Pres. B, 1863, 1881;
Council 1861-72). High Pitfold, Haslemere.

ale re Bensamin, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Trinity College,
Dublin.

{ Williamson, Rey. F.J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B.

{t Williamson, John. South Shields.

tWu1rk, W. (Local Sec. 1896). 14 Castle-street, Liverpool.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 103

Year of
Election.

1895.

1896.
1882.
1859.
1886.
1898.
1899.
1899.
1886.
1901.
1878.

1876.
1894,

1874,

1876,
1900.
1890.
1863.
1847.
1875.

1874,
1863.
1895.
1901.
1883.

1879.
1885.
1890,
1865.

1884,
1896.

1879.
1901.
1901.
1876.
1847,
1883.
1861.
1892.
1887.
1871.

1861.

1877.
1886.

a John C., M.A., Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens,

eylon.

{Wituison, J. S. (Local Sec. 1897). Toronto, Canada.

{ Willmore, Charles. Queenwood College, near Stockbridge, Hants,

*Wills, The Hon. Sir Alfred. Chelsea Lodge, Tite-street, S.W.

{Wills, A. W. Wylde Green, Erdington, Birmingham.

{Wills, H. H. Barley Wood, Wrington, R.S.O., Somerset.

§ Willson, George. The Rosary, Wendover, Tring.

§ Willson, Mrs. George. The Rosary, Wendover, Tring.

{Wilson, Alexander B. Holywood, Belfast.

§ Wilson, A. Belvoir Park, Newtownbreda, Co. Down.

{ Wilson, Professor Alexander S., M.A., B.Sc. Free Church Manse,
North Queensferry.

{ Wilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh.

*Wilson, Charles J., F.LC., F.C.S. 14 Old Queen-street, Westmin-
ster, S.W.

{Witsow, Major-General Sir C. W., R.E., K.O.B., K.C.M.G., D.C.L.,
Pee F.R.G.S, (Pres E, 1874, 1888). The Atheneum Club,
S.W.

{Wilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.

*Wilson, Duncan R. Menethorpe, Malton.

{Wilson, Edmund. Denison Hall, Leeds.

{ Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.

*Wilson, Frederick. 99 Albany-street, N.W.

{Wutson, Grorez Fereusson, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.LS. Heatherbank,
Weybridge Heath, Surrey.

*Wilson, George Orr. 20 Berkeley Street, W.

{ Wilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N.B.

{Wilson, Dr. Gregg. The University, Edinburgh.

§Wilson, Harold A, Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Wilson, Henry, M.A, Farnborough Lodge, Farnborough, R.S.0.,
Kent.

{ Wilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheffield.

{Wilson, J. Dove, LL.D. 17 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

t Wilson, J. Mitchell, M.D. 51 Hall Gate, Doncaster.

{Wuson, Ven. Archdeacon Jamzs M., M.A., F.G.8. The Vicarage,
Rochdale.

{Wilson, James 8. Grant. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court-
buildings, Edinburgh.

{ Wilson, John H., D.Sc., F.RS.E., Professor of Botany, Yorkshire
College, Leeds.

{ Wilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, East Bank-road, Sheffield.

*Wilson, Joseph. Columba Villa, Oban, N.B.

§ Wilson, Mrs. Mary R., M.D. Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

{Wilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, 8. W.

*Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.

{Wilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.

t Wilson, Thos. Bright. 4 Hope View, Fallowfield, Manchester.

§ Wilson, T. Stacey, M.D. Wyddrington, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

§ Wilson, W., jun. Hillocks of Terpersie, by Alford, Aberdeenshire.

*Witson, WitttAm E., D.Sc., F.R.S. Daramona House, Streete,
Rathowen, Ireland.

*Wintsnire, Rev. Tuomas, M.A., D.Sec., F.G.S., F.LS., F.R.A.S,
25 Granville-park, Lewisham, S.E.

t{Windeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes.

{Winvtz, Burrram CO. A., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of
Anatomy, The University, Birmingham,

‘104 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1863, *Winwoop, Rev. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. (local Sec. 1864),
11 Cavendish-crescent. Bath.

1888, {Woprnovse, Right Hon. HK. R., M.P. 56 Chester-square, S.W.

1875. {Woxrr-Barry, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G,
1898 ; Council, 1899- ), 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.

1888. {Wolfenden, Samuel, Cowley Hill, St. Helens, Lancashire.

1898. {Wollaston,G. H Clifton College, Bristol.

1884, {| Womack, Frederick, M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer on Physics and Applied
Mathematics at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. Bedford Collegs,
Baker-street, W.

1883. {Wood, Mrs. A. J. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey,

1863, “Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.

1883. t Wood, Miss Emily F. Egerton Lodge, near Bolton, Lancashire.

1901. *Wood, Miss Ethel M. 3 Shorncliffe Road, Folkestone.

1875, *Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester.

1878. {Woop, Sir H. Trunman, M.A. Society of Arts, John Street,
Adelphi, W.C., and 16 Leinster Square, Bayswater, W.

1883, *Wood, J. H. 21 Westbourne Road, Birkdale.

1893, {Wood, Joseph T. 29 Muster’s-road, West Bridgeford, Nottingham-
shire.

1883, {Wood, Mrs. Mary. Care of E. P. Sherwood, Esq. Holmes Villa,
Rotherham.

1864, { Wood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.

1871. {Wood, Provost T. Baileyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh,

1899, *Wood, W. Hoffman. Ben Rhydding, Yorkshire,

1901. *Wood, William James. 38 Cochrane Street, Glasgow,

1872. {Wood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton.

1845. *Wood, Rev. William Spicer, M.A.,D.D. Waldington, Combe Park,

Bath.
1863. *WoopaLt, Joun Woopatt, M.A., F.G.S. 5 Queen’s-mansions,
Victoria-street, S.W.

1884. tWoodbury, C.J. H. 31 Milk-street, Boston, U.S.A,

18883. {Woodeock, Herbert S. The Elms, Wigan.

1884, {Woodd, Arthur B. Woodlands, Hampstead, N.W.

1896. §WoopHEAD, Professor G. Sims, M.D. Pathological Laboratory,

Cambridge.

1888, *Woodiwiss, Mrs. Alfred. Weston Manor, Birkdale, Lancashire.

1872. *Woops, Epwarp, M.Inst.C.E, (Pres, G, 1877). 8 Victoria-street,
Westminster, S.W.

Woops, Samvet. 1 Drapers’-gardens, Throgmorton-street, E.0,

1887, *Woopwarp, Artuur Suir, LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., Keeper

of the Department of Geology, British Museum (Natural
History), Cromwell-road, S. W.
1869, *Woopwarp, C. J., B.Sc, F.G.S. Municipal Technical School,
Suffolk Street, Birmingham.

1886, { Woodward, Harry Page, F.G.S, 129 Beaufort-street, S.W.

1866, {Woopwarp, Hewry, LL.D., F.RS., F.G.S. (Pres, C, 1887;
Council, 1887-94). 129 Beaufort Street, Chelsea, S.W. —

1870, {Woopwarp, Horace B., F.RS., F.G.S. Geological Museum,
Jermyn-street, S.W.

1894, "Wane John Harold. 12 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster,

1884, *Woolcock, Henry. Rickerby House, St. Bees.

1890, *Woollcombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F.LInst., F.S.S., M.R.L.A.,
F.R.S.A. (Ireland). 14 Waterloo-road, Dublin.

1877. }Woolleombe, Surgeon-Major Robert W. 14 Acre-place, Stoke,

Devonport.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 105

Year of
Dlection.

1883,
1856.
1874.
1878.

1865.

1901.

1855,

1856,

1884,
1896.
1879.
1883.
1883.
1890.
1857.

1886.
1884,
1876,
1865.
1884.

1876,
1871.

1898,
1897,
1901,
1883,

1885,

1871.
1862,

1899,

1875.
1901.

1894,
1883.
1896.
1887.
1884,
1877.
1891.
1884.
1891.
1886.

1884,
1894,
1884,

*Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.

Woolley, Thomas Smith. South Collingham, Newark.

{ Workman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast.

{Wormell, Richard, M.A., D.Sc. Roydon, near Ware, Hertford-
shire.

*Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.

§Worth, J. T. Oakenrod, Rochdale.

*Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A. Old Swinford, Stourbridge.

t Worthy, George S. 2 Arlington Terrace, Mornington Crescent,
Hampstead Road, N.W.

tWragge, Edmund. 109 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.

t Wrench, Edward M., F.R.C.S. Park Lodge, Bastow.

{Wrentmore, Francis. 34 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, 8.W.

*Wright, Rey. Arthur, M.A. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

*Wright, Rev. Benjamin, M.A. Sardon Rectary, Chelmsford.

Wright, Dr. C. J. Virginia-road, Leeds.

tWrieut, I, Percevat, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., M-R.LA., Professor
of Botany and Director of the Museum, Dublin University,
5 Trinity College, Dublin.

{ Wright, Frederick William. 4 Full-street, Derby.

tWright, Harrison. Wilkes’ Barré, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

{ Wright, James, 114 John-street, Glasgow.

tWright, J. S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham,

{Wericut, Professor R, Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. University College,
Toronto, Canada.

{Wright, William. 31 Queen Mary-avenue, Glasgow.

}Waricutson, Sir Tomas, Bart.,M.P., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S, Neasham
Hal), Darlington.

{ Wrong, Professor George M. The University, Toronto, Canada,

{Wyld, Frederick. 127 St. George-street, Toronto, Canada,

§Wylie, Alexander. Birkfield, Johnstone, N.B.

tWyllie, Andrew. Sandown, Southport.

tWyness, James D., M.D. 349 Union-street, Aberdeen.

{ Wynn, Mrs. Williams. Plas-yn-Cefn, St. Asaph.

{Wrwyz, Artuur Beevor, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.

{Wyrnyz, W. P., D.Sc., F.R.S. 10 Selwood Terrace, South Ken-
sington, 8. W.

{Yabbicom, Thomas Henry. 23 Oakfield-road, Clifton, Bristol.

§Yapp, R. H. Caius College, Cambridge.

*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster.

*Yarrow, A. F. Poplar, E.

tYates, James. Public Library, Leeds.

{Yates, Rev.S. A. Thompson. 43 Phillimore-gardens, S.W.

{Yeats, Dr. Chepstow.

tYee, Fung. Care of R. E. C. Fittock, Esq., Shanghai, China,

tYonge, Rev. Duke. Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon.

TYorath, Alderman T. V. Cardiff.

{York, Frederick. 87 Lancaster-road, Notting Hill, W.

§Young, Alfred C., F.C.S._ 64 Tyrwhitt-road, St. John’s, S.E.

*Youne, A. H., M.B., F.R.C.S. (Local Sec. 1887), Professor of
Anatomy in Owens College, Manchester.

{Young, Sir Frederick, K.C.M.G. 5 Queensberry-place, S.W.

*Young, George, Ph.D. University College, Sheffield.

}Young, Professor George Paxton, 121 Bloor-street, Toronto, Canada.

106 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1876. §Youne, Joun, M.D. (Pres. C, 1876; Local Sec. 1901). 38 Cecil-
street, Hillhead, Glasgow.

1876. *Young, John. 2 Montague Terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

1896. {Young, J. Denholm, 88 Oanning-street, Liverpool.

1885. {Young, R. Bruce. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

1886. §Young, R. Fisher. New Barnet, Herts.

1901. §Young, Robert M. Rathvurna, Belfast.

1883, *Youne, Sypnzy, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Bristol. 10 Windsor-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

1887. tYoung, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, E.C.

1890. {Young, T. Graham, F.R.S.E. Westfield, West Calder, Scotland.

1901. §Young, William Andrew. Milburn House, Renfrew.

1868. {Youngs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich.

1886, {Zair, George. Arden Grange, Solihull, Birmingham,
1886, {Zair, John. Merle Lodge, Moseley, Bumingham.

Year of

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS, 107

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Election.

1887.
1892,

1881.
1897.
1894,
1894,
1887.
1892.
1894,

1893.
1880,
1887.

1884.

1890,
1893.

1887.
1884.

1894,

1897.
1887.
1887.
1894.
1861.
1901.
1894.
1887.

1873.
1880.
1870.
1876.
1889.

1901.

Professor Cleveland Abbe. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
Professor Svante Arrhenius. The University, Stockholm. (Bergs-
gatan 18).
Professor G. F. Barker. 3909, Locust-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
Professor Carl Barus. Brown University, Providence, R.I., U.S.A.
Professor F', Beilstein. 8th Line, No. 17, St. Petersburg.
Professor E. van Beneden. 50 quai des Pécheurs, Liége, Belgium.
Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Mannheim, L 11, 4, Germany.
Professor M. Bertrand. 75 rue de Vaugirard, Paris.
Deputy Surgeon-General J. S. Billings. 40 Lafayette Place, New
York, U.S.A.
Professor Christian Bohr. Bredgade 62, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Professor Ludwig Boltzmann. IX/I. Tiirkenstrasse 3, Vienna.
Profesor Lewis Boss. Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York,
SA.
Professor H. P. Bowditch, M.D. Harvard Medical School, Boston,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Professor Dr. L. Brentano. Friedrichstrasse 11, Miinchen.
Professor Dr. W. C. Brégger. Universitets Mineralogske Institute,
Kristiania, Norway.
Professor J. W, Briihl. Heidelberg.
Professor George J. Brush. Yale University, New Haven, Conn.,
U.S.A.
Professor D. H. Campbell. Stanford University, Palo Alto, Cali-
fornia, U.S.A.
M. C. de Candolle. 3 Cour de St. Pierre, Geneva, Switzerland.
Professor G. Capellini. 65 Via Zamboni, Bologna, Italy.
Hofrath Dr. H. Caro. C. 8, No. 9, Mannheim.
Emile Cartailhac. 5 Rue de la Chaine, Toulouse, France.
Professor Dr. J. Victor Carus. Universitiitstrasse 15, Leipzig.
Professor T. C. Chamberlin. Chicago, U.S.A.
Dr. A. Chauveau. Rue Cuvier 7, Paris.
F. BO were United States Geological Survey, Washington,
SA,
Professor Guido Cora. Via Goito 2, Rome.
Professor Cornu. Rue de Grenelle 9, Paris, VI° arr. °
J. M. Crafts, M.D. TL’ Ecole des Mines, Paris.
Professor Luigi Cremona. 5 Piazza S. Pietro in Vincoli, Rome.
We Be ae United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.,
WA.
Dr. Yves Delage. Paris.

108

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of
Election,

1872.
1870.
1890.
1876.
1894,
1892.
1901.
1894.

1892.
1901,
1874.
1886,
1887.
1894.
1872.
1901.
1894,
1887.
1892,
1881.
1866,
1901.
1884,

1884,
1889.

1892.
1870.
1889,
1889.
1884,
1892,

1876.
1881.
1895.

1887.
1893.
1894.
1893.

1893.
1897.
1887.
1881.

1887.
1884.

1867.
1876.

1881.

Professor G. Dewalque. 17 rue de la Paix, Liége, Belgium.

Dr, Anton Dohrn, D.C.L. Naples.

Professor V. Dwelshauvers-Dery. 4 Quai Marcellis, Liége, Beleium.

Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.

Professor Dr. W. Einthoven. Leiden, Netherlands.

Professor F. Elfving. Helsingfors, Finland.

Professor H. Elster, Wolfenbiittel, Germany.

Professor T. W. W. Engelmann, D.C.L. Neue Wilhelmstrasse 15,
Berlin, N. W.

Professor Léo Errera. 388 Rue de la Loi, Brussels,

Professor W. G. Farlow. Harvard, U.S.A.

Dr. W. Feddersen, Oarolinenstrasse 9, Leipzig.

Dr. Otto Finsch. Leiden, Netherlands.

Professor Dr. R. Fittig. Strassburg.

Professor Wilhelm Foerster, D.C.L. Encke Platz 34, Berlin, S. W, 48,

W. de Fonvielle. 50 Rue des Abbesses, Paris,

Professor A. P. N. Franchimont, Leiden.

Professor Léon Fredericq. Rue de Pitteurs 20, Liége, Belgium.

Professor Dr. Anton Fritsch. 66 Wenzelsplatz, Prague, Bohemia.

Professor Dr, Gustav Fritsch. Dorotheen Strasse 35, Berlin.

Professor C. M. Gariel. 6 rue Edouard Détaille, Paris,

Dr. Gaudry. 7 bis rue des Saints Péres, Paris.

Professor Dr. Geitel, Wolfenbiittel, Germany.

Professor J. Willard Gibbs. Yale University, New Haven, Conn,,
U.S.A,

Professor Wolcott Gibbs. Newport, Rhode Island, U.S.A.

G. K. Gilbert. United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.,
U.S.A.

Daniel C. Gilman. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A,

William Gilpin. Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.

Professor Gustave Gilson. ]’Université, Louvain, Belgium.

A. Gobert. 222 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels.

General A, W. Greely, LL.D. War Department, Washington, U.S.A,

Dr. C. E. Guillaume. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures,
Pavillon de Breteuil, Sévres.

Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.

Dr. Edwin H. Hall. 37 Gorham-street, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

Professor Dr. Emil Chr. Hansen. Carlsberg Laboratorium, Copen-
hagen, Denmark.

Fr. von Hefner-Alteneck. Berlin.

Professor Paul Heger. Rue de Drapiers 23, Brussels.

Professor Ludimar Hermann. Universitiit, Kénigsberg, Prussia.

Professor Richard Hertwig. Zoologisches Institut, Alte Akademie,
Munich.

Professor Hildebrand. Stockholm.

Dr. G. W. Hill. West Nyack, N.Y., U.S.A.

Professor W. His. Kénigstrasse 22, Leipzic.

Professor A, A. W. Hubrecht, LL.D., C.M.Z.S, The University,
Utrecht, Netherlands,

Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Cloyne House, Newport, R. I., U.S.A.

Professor C. Loring Jackson. 6 Boylston Hall, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.

Dr. J. Janssen, LL.D. L’Observatoire, Meudon, Seine-et-Oise.

Dr. Mis J. Janssen. Villa Frisia, Aroza, Graubiinden, Switzer-
and,

W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States
Naval Academy. 32 Fast Preston Street, Baltimore, U.S.A.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 109

. Professor C. Julin. 153 rue de Fragnée, Liége.

. Dr. Giuseppe Jung. 9 Via Borgonuovo, Milan.

. Professor Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan.
. Professor Dr. Felix Klein. Wilhelm-Weberstrasse 3, Gottingen.

. Professor Dr. L. Kny. Kaiser-Allee 92, Wilmersdorf, bei Berlin.

. Dr. Koblrausch. Marchstrasse 258, and Physilalisch-technische

Reichsanstalt, Charlottenburg, Berlin.

. Professor A. von KGlliker. Wiirzburg, Bavaria.
. Professor J. Kollmann. St. Johann 88, Basel, Switzerland.
. Professor Dr. Arthur Kénig. Physiological Institute, The Uni-

versity, Berlin, N.W.

. Maxime Kovalevsky. Beaulieu-sur-Mer, Alpes-Maritimes.
. Professor W. Krause. Knesebeckstrasse, 17/I, Charlottenburg, bei

Berlin.

. Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. Universitiit, Bern,

Switzerland.

. Professor A. Ladenburg. Kaiser Wilhelm Str. 108, Breslau.
. Professor J. W. Langley. 77 Cornell Street, Cleveland, Ohio,
U.S.A

Drs. b. Langley, D.C.L., Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

Washington, U.S.A.

. Dr. Leeds, Professor of Chemistry at the Stevens Institute, Hoboken,

New Jersey, U.S.A.

. M. Georges Lemoine. 76 Rue Notre Dame des Changes, Paris.

. Professor Philipp. Lenard, Kiel.

. Professor A. Lieben. IX. Wasagasse 9, Vienna.

. Dr. F. Lindemann. Franz-Josefstrasse 12/I, Munich.

. Dr. M. Lindemann. Sennorrstrasse 62, I1, Dresden.

. Professor Dr. Georg Lunge. Universitit, Zurich.

. Professor Jacob Liiroth. Mozartstrasse 10, and Universitit, Freiburg-

in-Breisgau, Germany.

. Dr. Otto Maas. Wurzerstrasse 1b, Munich.

. Dr. Henry C. McCook. 3,700 Chestnut-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
. Professor Mannheim. 1 Boulevard Beauséjour, Paris.

. Dr. O. A. Martius. Voss Strasse 8, Berlin, W.

. Professor E. Mascart, Membre de l'Institut. 176 rue de l'Université,

Paris.

. Professor D. I. Mendeléeff, D.C.L. Université, St. Petersburg.

. Professor N. Menschutkin. St. Petersburg.

. Professor Albert A. Michelson. The University, Chicago, U.S.A.

. Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

. Professor G. Mittag-Lefiler. Djuvsholm, Stockholm.

. Professor H. Moissan. ‘The Sorbonne, Paris (7 Rue Vauquelin).

7. Professor V. L. Moissenet. 4 Boulevard Gambetta, Chaumont, Hte.

Marne, France.

. Dr. Edmund yon Mojsisovics. Strohgasse 26, Vienna, III/3.

. Professor Oskar Montelius. St. Paulsgatan 11, Stockholm, Sweden.
. Dr. Arnold Moritz. The University, Dorpat, Russia.

. Professor E. W. Morley, LL.D. Adelbert College, Cleveland, Ohio,

U.S.A.

. E.S. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass,, U.S.A.
. Dr. F. Nansen. Lysaker, Norway. a?
. Professor R. Nasini. Istituto Chimico dell’ Universita, Padova,

Ttaly.

De. G. Neumayer. Deutsche Seswarte, Hamburg.
. Professor Simon Newcomb. 1620 P.-street, Washington, D.C,

USA.

110

Year of

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Election.

1887.
1894.
1894.
1890.
1889.

1890.
1895.
1887.
1901.
1890.
1894,
1870.
1884,

1886.
1887.
1868.

1895.
1886,
1897.
1873.
1896.
1892.
1890.

1895.

1901.
1894.
1883.
1874.
1897.
1878.
1892.

1887.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1881.
1894.
1881.
1884.

1887,
1887,

1890.
1889.

Professor Emilio Noelting. Mihlhausen, Elsass, Germany.

Professor H. F. Osborn. Columbia College, New York, U.S.A.

Baron Osten-Sacken. Heidelberg.

Professor W. Ostwald. Linnéstrasse 2, Leipzig.

Professor A. 8. Packard. Brown University, Providence, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.

Maffeo Pantaleoni. 20 Route de Malagnou, Geneva.

Professor F. Paschen. Universitiit, Tubingen.

Dr. Pauli. Feldbergstrasse 49, Frankfurt a. M., Germany.

Professor A. Penck. Vienna.

Professor Otto Pettersson. Stockhoms Hogskola, Stockholm.

Professor W. Pfeffer, D.C.L. lLinnéstrasse 11, Leipzig.

Professor Felix Plateau. 152 Chaussée de Courtrai, Gand, Belgium.

Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological Survey of the
United States. 1335 F. Street, N.W., Washington, D.C.,
USA.

Professor F. W. Putnam, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A.

Professor Georg Quincke. Hauptstrasse 47, Friederichsbau, Heidel-

—

bere.

L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich.
Sonnenstrasse 7.

Professor Ira Remsen. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A.

Rey. A. Renard. 6 Rue du Roger, Gand, Belgium.

Professor Dr. C. Richet. 15 Rue de l'Université, Paris, France.

Professor Baron von Richthofen. LKurfiirstenstrasse 117, Berlin, W.

Dr. van Rijekevorsel. Parklaan 7, Rotterdam, Netherlands.

Professor Rosenthal, M.D. Erlangen, Bavaria.

A. Lawrence Rotch. Blue Hill Observatory, Readville, Massachusetts,
U.S.A.

Professsr Karl Runge. [Kaiser Wilhelmstrasse 5, Kirchrode, bei
Hannover.

Gen.-Major Rykatchew. St. Petersburg.

Professor P. H. Schoute. The University, Groningen, Netherlands.

Dr. Ernst Schréder. Gottesanerstrasse 9, Karlsruhe in Baden.

Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Potsdamerstrasse 75, Berlin.

Professor W. B. Scott. Princeton, N.J., U.S.A.

Dr. A. Shafarik. Vinohrady 422, Prague.

Dr. Maurits Snellen, Chief Director of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands, de Bilt, near Utrecht.

Professor H. Graf Solms. Bot, Garten, Strassburg.

Ernest Solvay. 25 Rue du Prince Albert, Brussels.

Dr. Alfred Springer. 812 East 2nd St., Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.

Professor G. Stefanescu. Strada Verde 8, Bucharest, Roumania.

Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. ‘he University, Athens.

Professor E. Strasburger. The University, Bonn.

Professor Dr. Rudolf Sturm, Friinkelplatz 9, Breslau.

Professor Robert H. Thurston. Cornell University, Ithaca, New
York, U.S.A.

Dr. T. M. Treub. Buitenzorg, Java.

Professor John Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A.

Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.

see Dr. J. H. van’t Hoff Uhlandstrasse 2, Charlottenburg,

erlin.
Wladimir Vernadsky. Mineralogical Museum, Moscow,

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 111

Year of
Election.

1886.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1887.

1887.

1887.
1887.
1876.
1887.
1896.
1887,

Professor Jules Vuylsteke. 21 rue Belliard, Brussels, Belgium.

Professor H. F. Weber. Zurich.

Professor Dr. Leonhard Weber. Moltke Strasse 60, Kiel.

Professor August Weismann. Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Baden,

Dr. H. C. White. Athens, Georgia, U.S.A.

Professor H. M. Whitney. Branford, Conn., U.S.A.

Professor E. Wiedemann. Erlangen, [C/o T. A. Barth, Johannis-

gasse, Leipzig. ]

Professor Dr. R. Wiedersheim. Hansastrasse 3, Freiburg-im-Breisgau,
Baden.

Professor Dr. J. Wislicenus. Liebigstrasse 18, Leipzig.

Dr. Otto N. Witt. 21 Sieemundshof, Berlin, N.W. 23.

Professor Adolph Wiillner. Aureliusstrasse 9, Aachen,

Professor C. A. Young. Princeton College, New Jersey, U.S.A.

Professor E. Zacharias. Botanischer Garten, Hamburg.

Professor F, Zirkel. Thalstrasse 33, Leipzig.

112

LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.

GREAT BRITAIN

Belfast, Queen’s College.

Birmingham, Midland Institute.

Bradford, Philosophical Society.

Brighton Public Library.

Bristol Naturalists’ Society.

, The Museum.

Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Cardiff, Univer sity College.

Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of.

Dublin, Geological Survey of Ireland.

, Royal College of Surgeons in
Ireland.

——, Royal Geological Society of |
Treland.

——-, Royal Irish Academy.

— , Royal Society of.

Dundee, University College.

Edinburgh, Royal Society of.

, Royal Medical Society of.

’ Scottish Society of Arts.

Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum.

Glasgow Philosophical Society.

, Institution of Engineers
Ship builders in Scotland.

ee Institute of Science.

Philosophical and Literary
Society of.

Liverpool, Free Public Library.

, Royal Institution.

London, ‘Admiralty, Library of the.

, Anthropological Institute.

——, Arts, Society of.

—, ’ Chemical Society.

—, ’ Civil Engineers, Institution of.

——, East India Library.

——, Geological Society.

—, ; Geology, Museum of Practical,
28 Jermyn Street.

——.,, Greenwich, Royal Observatory.

—, ’ Guildhall, Library.

——, Kew Observatory.

——, King’s College.

and

AND IRELAND.

London, Linnean Society.

, London Institution.

, Mechanical Engineers, Institu-
tion of.

| —, Physical Society.
/ ——, Meteorological Office.

, Royal Asiatic Society.

——,, Royal Astronomical Society.

—- ° Royal College of Physicians.

—., Royal College of Surgeons.

—.,, Royal Engineers’ Institute,
Chatham.

——, Royal Geographical Society.

| ——-, Royal Institution.

, Royal Meteorological Society.
-——, Royal Society.

——, Royal Statistical Society.
——, Sanitary Institute.

| ——, ’ United Service Institution.

——, University College.

——, War Office, Library.

, Zoological Society.

Manchester ‘Literary and Philosophical
Society.

, Mechanics’ Institute.

Newcastle - -upon-Tyne, Literary and
Philosophical Society.

, Public Library.

Norwich, The Free Library.

Nottingham, The Free Library.

_ Oxford, Ashmolean Society.

, Radcliffe Observatory.
IY lymouth Institution.

——-, Marine Biological Association.
Salford, Royal Museum and Library.
Sheffield, University College.
Southampton, Hartley Institution.
Stonyhurst College Observatory.
ae Royal Institution of South

ales
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.
The Corresponding Societies.

Cape of Good Hope .

1901. H

113
EUROPE.

POTUT eves ss oc Die Kaiserliche Aka- | Milan ............ The Institute.

demie der Wissen- | Modena ......... Royal Academy.

schaften. Moscow’ iG3i%.: Society of Naturalists.
BEE cosa weccnn University Library. ts sbesteees University Library.
Brussels ......... Royal Academy of | Munich ......... University Library.

Sciences. Naplesi.cc:.c:%e Royal Academy of
Charkow ......... University Library. Sciences.
Coimbra ......... Meteorological Ob- | Nicolaieff......... University Library.

servatory. Paris) (500.0... cses Association Francaise
Copenhagen ...Royal Society of | our l’Avancement

Sciences. es Sciences.
Dorpat, Russia... University Library, sa Geographical Society.
Dresden ......... Royal Museum. == tad Geological Society.
Frankfort ...... Natural History So- | — ........... Royal Academy of

ciety. Sciences.
Goeneya............ Natural History So- | — _ ....... School of Mines.

ciety. Pultoviuperecss-s Imperial Observatory.
Gottingen ...... University Library. Romear......0s0es Accademia dei Lincei.
(CE 7a Naturwissenschaft- ——seceeaeee ...Collegio Romano.

licher Verein. nth eset sa eee Italian Geographical
15 ES eee Leopoldinisch-Caro- | Society.

linische Akademie. | —— ............ Italian Society of
Harlem’ ......... Société Hollandaise Sciences.

des Sciences. | St. Petersburg . University Library.
Heidelberg ...... University Library. | —— ............ Imperial Observatory.
Helsingfors...... University Library. Stockholm ...... Royal Academy.
MPCT Races sce se access University Library. arin seceees eves Royal Academy of
Kazan, Russia ... University Library Sciences.
RIG ieee: co<scceces Royal Observatory. | Utrecht ......... University Library.
IOV ic vasicstcense- University Library. | Vienma............ The Imperial Library.
Lausanne......... The University, = | ——_..seeseeceee Central Anstalt fir
Heyden ........ University Library. Meteorologie und
LOVERREN GapAnBeoenore University Library. Erdmagnetismus.
WGI SHOT ac 22 cie< sect Academia Real des | Zurich............ General Swiss Society.

Sciences.

ASIA.

ENTS a acecs ches The College. | Calcutta ......... Medical College.
Bombay ......... Elphinstone Institu- | —— ......... Presidency College.

tion. Ceylon cseses< 2: The Museum,Colombo.
= ee ecoceL Grant Medica] Col- | Madras............ The Observatory.

IBRORC | ae ere University Library.
Calcutta’ ........./ Asiatic Society. TOYO resect. sued Imperial University.
—— apncanne: Hooghly College.

AFRICA.

The Royal Observatory.

114

AMERICA.
Albany © \<-..4-.3- The Institute. New York...... American Society of
Amherst ......... The Observatory. Civil Engineers.
Baltimore ...... Johns Hopkins Uni- | eS seca Lyceum of Natural
versity. History.
Boston............ AmericanAcademy of Ottawa ......... Geological Survey of
Arts and Sciences. | Canada.
California ...... The University. _ Philadelphia.., American Philosophical
Late Lick Observatory. | Society.
Cambridge ...... Harvard University —— ......... Franklin Institute.
Library. Toronto 2.3. The Observatory.
Chicago *ss.:2¢... American Medical) —— ......... The Canadian Insti-
Association. tute.
aot Metisse Saale Field Columbian Mu- | —— _......... The University.
seum. | Washington ...Bureau of Ethnology.
Kingston ......... Queen’s University. $$ reeaeeeee Smithsonian Institu-
Manitoba ......... Historical and Scien- | tion.
tific Society. | —— seveseeee The Naval Observatory.
Moexicdinh cia Sociedad Cientifica | —— ......... United States Geolo-
‘ Antonio Alzate,’ gical Survey of the
Missouri ......... Botanical Garden. Territories.
Montreal ......... Council of Arts and | —— _.......... Library of Congress.
Manufactures. eee Board of Agriculture.
$i receeenee McGill University.
AUSTRALIA.

Adelaide. . . . Tne Colonial Government.
. The Royal Geographical Society.

Brisbane. . . . Queensland Museum.
Sydney . . . . Public Works Department.
oo . . . . Australian Museum,
Tasmania. . . . Royal Society.

Victoria . ... . The Colonial Government.

NEW ZEALAND.

Canterbury Museum.

12 JUN. 1902

PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. LTD., NEW-STREET SQUARE
LONDON

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